Energy 27 (2002) 1724 www.elsevier.

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Energy proles of rural domestic sector in six un-electried villages of Jorhat district of Assam
Reeta Sarmah
a

a,*

, M.C. Bora b, D.J. Bhattacharjee

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jorhat Engineering College, Jorhat 785001, Assam, India b Department of Business Administration, Tezpur University, Tezpur, Assam, India c Mechanical Engineering Department, Assam Engineering College, Guwahati, Assam, India Received 11 May 2000

Abstract A comparative analysis of the household energy consumption patterns and available biomass energy in six un-electried villages of the Jorhat district of Assam is presented. This empirical study examines how the energy consumption patterns in six villages (Gariabhonga, Khongia, 8 No. Spur, Na-Jankhona, UpperDeorigaon and Nam-Deorigaon), each representing different categories, are inuenced by the locally available biomass energy resources. The study reveals that the total energy consumed in GJ/capita/year for domestic activities ranges from 7.503 to 12.692. Major ndings in the domestic sector are: (1) fuel wood is preferred for domestic energy consumption, (2) easy availability encourages excessive consumption, (3) 21.5 to 42% more energy is consumed in winter than in summer for meeting cooking, water heating and space heating needs, (4) rice residues and dung are present in abundance but go to waste owing to the easy availability of fuel wood, and (5) commercial fuel kerosene is the only alternative for domestic lighting. 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Rural households in India depend on locally available biomass resources to meet their domestic energy needs [1,2]. These resources consist of wood fuels, agricultural residues and cattle dung. Modern fuels like kerosene, diesel and electricity are also used at the village level. The quantity of a particular fuel used in a household depends on the availability of that fuel and several other factors that determine the households ability to buy/gather the fuel. The energy consumption pattern varies from region to region and also according to the standard of living [3]. Fuel wood
* Corresponding author. E-mail address: reetasarma@yahoo.com (R. Sarmah).

0360-5442/02/$ - see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 3 6 0 - 5 4 4 2 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 4 0 - 8

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occupies a pre-eminent position, catering to 56% of rural households [4]. Fuel wood satises the energy needs of more than 30% of urban households [5,6]. In Assam, which is situated in the north-eastern part of India, the majority of rural people rely primarily on wood fuels collected from nearby forests or elds for cooking and on kerosene for domestic lighting, since the availability of electricity is very poor in rural areas. Consequently, the large-scale consumption of fuel wood is rapidly depleting the forest resources. Although rice is the main agricultural crop in Assam, a huge amount of rice residue goes to waste as the rural population is unaware how to utilize it properly as a domestic fuel. In order to formulate longterm energy policy, it is important to assess rural domestic energy consumption and the available energy resources [7,8]. As few studies have been conducted on domestic energy consumption in the north-eastern part of India [9,10], this paper attempts to present an analysis of rural household energy consumption patterns and the available energy resources that are lying untapped in six un-electried villages in the Jorhat district of Assam. Of these six villages, Gariabhonga and Khongia represent the upper caste population, 8 No. Spur and Na-Jankhona represent the schedule caste population, and Upper-Deorigaon and Nam-Deorigaon represent the schedule tribe (plain) population. 2. Materials and methods A stratied sampling plan was designed to carry out the study in the Dhekargara Rural Development Block, which was identied to represent different categories of society (census 1995). Six villages, namely Gariabhonga, Khongia, 8 No. Spur, Na-Jankhona, Upper-Deorigaon and NamDeorigaon, were selected in consultation with the Block Development Ofcer and with ofcials of the Assam State Electricity Board. In total 508 sample units (households) were selected. The stratication was done primarily on the basis of existing infrastructural facilities, such as availability of electricity, condition of roads, population density, educational facilities, health centres, occupational structure and social hierarchy, etc. Information on domestic energy consumption and available energy sources was collected through a questionnaire with 252 variables. Hence, about 128,000 data points were obtained. Table 1 presents proles of the six villages in the Jorhat district. The information had to be collected in local units of measures. Later, it was converted into standard units. Although a variety of energy sources is available, only fuel wood is used for domestic energy consumption in cooking, water heating and space heating. The amount of fuel consumed in one day was multiplied by its caloric value to nd the daily energy consumption. Caloric values of different types of fuel were taken from Ref. [6]. The energy consumed per day was converted into annual energy consumption. Fuel wood consumption rates increase during winter. An additional 42% more energy is consumed during winter than in summer. To burn fuel wood for space heating, extra provisions must be kept in rural areas. Kerosene is the second type of energy used for lighting in rural households. As sampled, the six villages are totally un-electried and 100% of the rural households depend on kerosene for space lighting. Daily consumption of kerosene was obtained in volumetric measurements, which were later converted into annual consumption. The available energy sources that are lying untapped in these villages have been estimated.

R. Sarmah et al. / Energy 27 (2002) 1724 Table 1 Features of the six un-electried villages in Jorhat district Serial no. 1 2 3 4 5 Description G K 8No. NJ UP Nam

19

Village

Gariabhonga

Khongia 704 54:46 8

8 No. Spur 904 57:43 8

Na-Jankhona 195 56:44 13

Population 450 Sex ratio 58:42 Average family 9 size Operational land holdings Total cases (% 47 of households) Large farmers, 17 20 acresa Medium 32 farmers, 720 acres Small farmers, 43 7 acres Landless 10 Land utilization pattern (acres) Total land 176 owned Net cultivated area Rice (kharif) 166 Rabi Type of crops Paddy

UpperDeorigaon 1200 52:48 16

NamDeorigaon 2505 52:48 15

84 20 30

108 26 30

14 21 29

72 21 35

160 19 35

45 4

37 7

43 7

39 6

36 10

452

678

67

532

1237

435 Paddy

669 Paddy

54 Paddy

520 2 Paddy Mustard Pea Gram

1211 3 Paddy Mustard Pea Gram

1 acre=0.405 hectares.

Since rice is the main agricultural crop in rural areas, total residue production has been estimated by using a standard residue to grain ratio [6]. Rice straw production is estimated separately as post harvest and left-over.1 Later, available energy from rice residues was obtained by deducting non-fuel uses. Available energy from cow dung was estimated after deducting its non-fuel uses such as manure. Hence, all of the physical units were converted into energy units for domestic consumption and availability.

Straw that is left in the eld after harvesting.

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3. Results and discussion 3.1. Domestic energy consumption The energy consumption pattern in rural domestic sector is mainly for three end uses: cooking and water heating, space heating and space lighting. 3.1.1. Cooking and water heating (combined), space heating Table 2 presents the yearly per capita energy consumption for combined cooking and water heating in summer and winter months in the six villages. It is clear from Table 2 that the consumption of energy is not uniform throughout the year. The yearly per capita energy consumption for cooking and water heating (combined) and space heating in Upper-Deorigaon is found to be 42% more in winter than in summer. In Nam-Deorigaon, it is estimated at 40.6% more; in Na-Jankhona it is found to be 27.9% more; in 8 No. Spur it is estimated as 24.8% more; in Khongia it is estimated as 22.6% more; and in Gariabhonga, 21.5% more energy is found to be consumed in winter than in summer. The reasons for consuming more energy in winter are the need for space heating, a change in food intake, more time needed to boil water due to low pressure and temperature, and the need for more hot water in bathing, etc. Firewood is the most common domestic energy source in the six villages. Table 2 shows that the yearly per capita energy consumption in cooking, water heating and space heating is greatest in Upper-Deorigaon, then Nam-Deorigaon, Gariabhonga, Khongia and Na-Jankhona, with the minimum consumption in 8 No. Spur. The variation of energy consumption for cooking, water
Table 2 Consumption of domestic energy in GJ/year for cooking and water heating (combined), space heating and space lighting Villagea Cooking and water heating (fuel wood) Summer G K 8No. NJ UP Nam
a b

Space heating in Space lighting winter (fuel (kerosene) wood)

Gross consumption

Winter 2201.35 (4.89) 3005.73 (4.27) 3026.71 (3.35) 789.09 (4.05) 6621.80 (5.52) 13,223.10 (5.28) 466.92 (1.04) 892.03 (1.27) 706.68 (0.782) 150.72 (0.773) 2273.94 (1.89) 5075.67 (2.03) 67.584 (0.15) 91.84 (0.131) 60.65 (0.067) 54.28 (0.28) 70.54 (0.059) 91.64 (0.0366) 431.054 (10.95) 7171.44 (10.19) 6728.96 (7.50) 1728.97 (8.87) 15,230.13 (12.69) 31,422.92 (12.54)

2195.20 (4.88)b 3181.84 (4.52) 2988.92 (3.31) 734.88 (3.77) 6263.84 (5.22) 13,032.51 (5.20)

See Table 1 for abbreviations used. Figures in parentheses represent energy consumption in GJ/capita/year.

R. Sarmah et al. / Energy 27 (2002) 1724

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heating and space heating may be due to (1) family size, (2) availability of fuel wood and (3) differences in food habits. Table 1 shows that average family size in Upper-Deorigaon is the highest, with Nam-Deorigaon, Na-Jankhona, Gariabhonga, Khongia and 8 No. Spur following. The domestic energy consumption in cooking, water heating and space heating in Upper-Deorigaon and Nam-Deorigaon is directly related to the average family size. Although Na-Jankhona is third in average family size, it was ranked fth in domestic energy consumption because Na-Jankhona is an economically and agriculturally backward village. From Table 1 it is clear that Na-Jankhona is endowed with the lowest amount of cultivated land. It was observed that the northern side of all of the six villages is free from forest as they border the river Brahmaputra on that side. The southern and western sides of Upper-Deorigaon and Nam-

Fig. 1. Present and probable future-use scenario of energy valid for rural north-east India.

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Deorigaon, however, are surrounded by a dense forest cover which provides easy availability of fuel wood and this encourages more domestic energy consumption. The variation of energy consumption in cooking, water heating and space heating is inuenced by differences in food habits as well. Rice is the chief food in Assam. The people of UpperDeorigaon and Nam-Deorigaon have a habit of taking three meals a day while the people of the other four villages have a habit of taking two meals a day. Tea is the common beverage in all six villages. Moreover, the people of Upper-Deorigaon and Nam-Deorigaon are regular drinkers of a liquor called apong that is made from cooked rice. 3.1.2. Space lighting The requirement for domestic lighting in the six villages is met by kerosene. Table 2 shows yearly per capita kerosene consumption in the six villages. The seasonal variation in consumption of kerosene is insignicant in all six villages. Variation in yearly per capita energy consumption of domestic lighting is found to be greatest in Na-Jankhona and then in Gariabhonga, Khongia, 8 No. Spur and Upper-Deorigaon, with the least consumption in Nan-Deorigaon. Yearly per capita variation of kerosene consumption in the six villages may be due to differences in (1) availability of kerosene and (2) the number of school-age children. Kerosene is available in the six villages through a public distribution (rationing) system. The main occupation of householders of Na-Jankhona is sh selling in the town. They procure extra kerosene from the town in addition to that which is rationed. The number of school-age children is greatest in Gariabhonga and lowest in Nam-Deorigaon. Table 2 shows that per capita yearly domestic energy consumption is greatest in Upper-Deorigaon and least in 8 No. Spur. The heavy dependence on fuel wood (of the order of 99%) for meeting domestic energy needs in those villages is clearly indicated. 3.2. Availability of biomass resources Table 3 shows rice and residue production in the six villages. Daily production of dung and its use in the six villages is presented in Table 4. Table 5 summarizes available energy from rice residues and dung lying untapped after deducting non-fuel uses such as fodder, building material, manure, etc. It may be observed from Table 5 that yearly per capita available energy from rice residues and dung is greatest in 8 No. Spur and lowest in Na-Jankhona, because 8 No. Spur is endowed with more cultivating land (0.74 acre/capita). 3.3. Alternative approaches Keeping in mind the heavy pressure on per capita fuel wood use and need to properly utilize available agricultural residues and dung, alternative approaches must be carried out quickly and efciently. The traditional wood stove with thermal efciency ranging from 5 to 10% is not suitable for burning loose biomass directly. Biomass briquettes made through proper technology can be used as cooking fuel in the domestic sector, however. Accordingly, efcient, smokeless, biomass-briquette-burning stoves with 25% thermal efciency can be developed to meet the need and demand of fuel wood. Likewise, installation of biogas plants with 50% thermal efciency will not only help in using available biomass, but also will result in fuel wood savings. However,

R. Sarmah et al. / Energy 27 (2002) 1724 Table 3 Rice and residue production in the six villages Villagea Rice Rice husk b Strawc Strawd Use of rice residues (tonne/year) produced (tonne/year) (post (left-over) (tonne/year) harvest (tonne/year) (tonne/year) Husk as fodder G K 8No. NJ UP Nam
a b c d

23

Straw as fodder 0.5 1.0

Thatching -

Fuel -

219 574 883 71 686 1598

88 230 353 28 274 639

146 382 588 49 457 1064

467 1225 1884 151 1464 3410

See Table 1 for abbreviations used. Husk:grain=0.4:1.00. A head load of paddy bundle (locally called dangori) produces 10 kg of straw. 1 acre of land produces 2816.2 kg of left-over straw.

Table 4 Daily production of dung and its use Villagea G K 8No. NJ UP Nam
a

Total production of wet dung (kg) 667.12 889.22 1318.66 289.66 1775.44 3713.60

Use of dung as manure (kg/day) 390.00 157.50 948.80 141.65 820.68 2015.60

See Table 1 for abbreviations used.

in order to strengthen these programmes, the awareness and participation of the rural population is necessary. The present and probable future-use scenarios of energy valid for rural north-east India are presented in Fig. 1. 4. Conclusions The large-scale consumption of fuel wood in all of the villages and the wastage of biomass indicate a heavy loss of energy in rural areas. There is an urgent need to strengthen briquetting technology, improve stoves and introduce biogas programmes for efcient use of energy sources in rural north-east India.

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Table 5 Available energy from rice residues and dung in the six villages in GJ/year Villagea Rice husk Rice straw Rice straw (post harvest) (left-over) 1956.40 5118.80 7879.20 656.60 6123.80 14,257.60 6257.80 16,415.00 25,245.60 2023.40 19,617.60 45,694.00 Dung Available energy 10,383.24 27,227.49 39,387.70 3566.62 31,796.08 74,665.46 Available energy (GJ/capita/year) 23.07 38.68 43.57 18.29 26.50 29.81

G K 8No. NJ UP Nam
a

1258.40 3289.00 5047.90 400.40 3918.20 9137.70

910.64 2404.69 1215.00 486.22 2136.48 5576.16

See Table 1 for abbreviations used.

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