Rajalakshmi Engineering College, Thandalam Prepared by Ms. S.Sheena Christabel, Lecturer ECE EC!

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(ntroduction to Communication Engineering Communication Engineering Course Work introduces different methods of

analog communication and their significance. Digital Communication methods for high bit rate transmission are explained. It involves the concepts of source and line coding techniques for enhancing rating of transmission of minimizing the errors in transmission and finally various media for digital communication are illustrated. Communication systems provide for electronic exchange of multimedia data such as oice! data! video! music! email! "eb pages! etc. #he common communication systems are $adio and # broadcasting! %ublic &"itched #elephone 'et"ork (voice!fax!modem)! Cellular %hones! Computer net"orks (*+'s! W+'s! and the Internet)! &atellite systems (pagers! voice,data! movie broadcasts)! -luetooth. Communication is the production and exchange of information and meaning by use of signs and symbols. It involves encoding and sending messages! receiving and decoding them! and synthesizing information and meaning. Communication permeates all levels of human experience and it is central to understanding human behavior and to nearly all public health efforts aimed at fostering health behavior change among individuals! populations! organizations! communities! and societies.

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+nalog Communication is a data transmitting technique in a format that utilizes continuous signals to transmit data including voice! image! video! electrons etc. +n analog signal is a variable signal continuous in both time and amplitude "hich is generally carried by use of modulation. +nalog circuits do not involve quantisation of information unlike the digital circuits and consequently have a primary disadvantage of random variation and signal degradation! particularly resulting in adding noise to the audio or video quality over a distance. Data is represented by physical quantities that are added or removed to alter data. +nalog transmission is inexpensive and enables information to be transmitted from point/ to/point or from one point to many. 0nce the data has arrived at the receiving end! it is converted back into digital form so that it can be processed by the receiving computer. +nalog communication systems convert (modulate) analog signals into modulated (analog) signals). Communication systems convert information into a format appropriate for the transmission medium. #he -lock diagram of a communication system is given belo"1

2ig.. Communication &ystem -lock Diagram #he &ource encoder converts message into message signal or bits. #he #ransmitter converts message signal or bits into format appropriate for channel

transmission (analog,digital signal). #he Channel introduces distortion! noise! and interference. $eceiver decodes received signal back to message signal. &ource decoder decodes message signal back into original message. )mplitude Modulation, +mplitude modulation (+4) is a technique used in electronic communication! most commonly for transmitting information via a radio carrier "ave. +4 "orks by varying the strength of the transmitted signal in relation to the information being sent. 2or example! changes in the signal strength can be used to specify the sounds to be reproduced by a loudspeaker! or the light intensity of television pixels. (Contrast this "ith frequency modulation! also commonly used for sound transmissions! in "hich the frequency is varied5 and phase modulation! often used in remote controls! in "hich the phase is varied). In order that a radio signal can carry audio or other information for broadcasting or for t"o "ay radio communication! it must be modulated or changed in some "ay. +lthough there are a number of "ays in "hich a radio signal may be modulated! one of the easiest! and one of the first methods to be used "as to change its amplitude in line "ith variations of the sound. #he basic concept surrounding "hat is amplitude modulation! +4! is quite straightfor"ard. #he amplitude of the signal is changed in line "ith the instantaneous intensity of the sound. In this "ay the radio frequency signal has a representation of the sound "ave superimposed in it. In vie" of the "ay the basic signal 6carries6 the sound or modulation! the radio frequency signal is often termed the 6carrier6.

Fig.2 Amplitude Modulation, AM

When a carrier is modulated in any "ay! further signals are created that carry the actual modulation information. It is found that "hen a carrier is amplitude modulated! further signals are generated above and belo" the main carrier. #o see ho" this happens! take the example of a carrier on a frequency of . 48z "hich is modulated by a steady tone of . k8z. #he process of modulating a carrier is exactly the same as mixing t"o signals together! and as a result both sum and difference frequencies are produced. #herefore "hen a tone of . k8z is mixed "ith a carrier of . 48z! a 6sum6 frequency is produced at . 48z 9 . k8z! and a difference frequency is produced at . 48z / . k8z! i.e. . k8z above and belo" the carrier.

If the steady state tones are replaced "ith audio like that encountered "ith speech of music! these comprise many different frequencies and an audio spectrum "ith frequencies over a band of frequencies is seen. When modulated onto the carrier! these spectra are seen above and belo" the carrier. It can be seen that if the top frequency that is modulated onto the carrier is ; k8z! then the top spectra "ill extend to ; k8z above and belo" the signal. In other "ords the band"idth occupied by the +4 signal is t"ice the maximum frequency of the signal that is used to modulated the carrier! i.e. it is t"ice the band"idth of the audio signal to be carried. In Amplitude Modulation or AM, the carrier signal is given by

It has an amplitude of A modulated in proportion to the message bearing (lower frequency) signal

to give

he magnitude of m(t) is chosen to be less than or equal to !, from reasons having to do with demodulation, i"e" recovery of the signal from the received signal" he modulation inde# is then defined to be

he frequency of the modulating signal is chosen to be much smaller than that of the carrier signal" ry to thin$ of what would happen if the modulating inde# were bigger than !"

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%ig"&" AM modulation with modulation inde# "' (ote that the AM signal is of the form

his has frequency components at frequencies

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Fig.4: AM modulation with modulation inde# ") #he version of +4 that "e described is called Double &ide -and +4 or D&-+4 since "e send signals at both

! and at

It is more efficient to transmit only one of the side bands (so/called &ingle &ide -and +4 or =&-+4! *&-+4 for upper and lo"er side bands respectively)! or if the filtering requirements for this are too arduous to send a part of one of the side band. #his is "hat is done in commercial analog '#&C television! "hich is kno"n as estigial &ide -and +4. #he # video signal has a band"idth of about :.3< 48z! but only . 48z of the lo"er side band of the signal is transmitted. #he 2CC allocates ; 48z per channel (thus >.?< 48z is left for the sound signal! "hich is an 24 signal (next section)). @ou may have "ondered ho" "e can listen to +4 radio channels on both stereo and mono receivers. #he trick that is used to generate a modulating signal by adding a D&version (carrier at 7A Bhz suppressed) version of the output of the difference bet"een the *eft and $ight channels added to the sum of the *eft and $ight channels unmodulated. #he resulting modulating signal has a band"idth of about ;> B8z. + mono receiver gets the sum signal "hereas a stereo receiver separates out the difference as "ell and reconstitutes the *eft and $ight channel outputs.

Amplitude demodulation
+mplitude modulation! +4! is one of the most straightfor"ard "ays of modulating a radio signal or carrier. #he process of demodulation! "here the audio signal is removed from the radio carrier in the receiver is also quite simple as "ell. #he easiest method of achieving amplitude demodulation is to use a simple diode detector. #his consists of Cust a handful of components1/ a diode! resistor and a capacitor.

Fig. 5 AM Diode Detector

In this circuit! the diode rectifies the signal! allo"ing only half of the alternating "aveform through. #he capacitor is used to store the charge and provide a smoothed output from the detector! and also to remove any un"anted radio frequency components. #he resistor is used to enable the capacitor to discharge. If it "ere not there and no other load "as present! then the charge on the capacitor "ould not leak a"ay! and the circuit "ould reach a peak and remain there.

Advantages of Amplitude Modulation, AM

#here are several advantages of amplitude modulation! and some of these reasons have meant that it is still in "idespread use today1

It is simple to implement it can be demodulated using a circuit consisting of very fe" components +4 receivers are very cheap as no specialised components are needed.

Disadvantages of amplitude modulation +mplitude modulation is a very basic form of modulation! and although its simplicity is one of its maCor advantages! other more sophisticated systems provide a number of advantages. +ccordingly it is "orth looking at some of the disadvantages of amplitude modulation. A

It is not efficient in terms of its po"er usage It is not efficient in terms of its use of band"idth! requiring a band"idth equal to t"ice that of the highest audio frequency It is prone to high levels of noise because most noise is amplitude based and obviously +4 detectors are sensitive to it.

#hus! +4 has advantages of simplicity! but it is not the most efficient mode to use! both in terms of the amount of space or spectrum it takes up! and the "ay in "hich it uses the po"er that is transmitted. #his is the reason "hy it is not "idely used these days both for broadcasting and for t"o "ay radio communication. Even the long! medium and short "ave broadcasts "ill ultimately change because of the fact that amplitude modulation! +4! is subCect to much higher levels of noise than are other modes. 2or the moment! its simplicity! and its "ide usage! mean that it "ill be difficult to change quickly! and it "ill be in use for many years to come. S('*LE S(-E.)'- M%-&L)T(%' &ingle sideband modulation is "idely used in the 82 portion! or short "ave portion of the radio spectrum for t"o "ay radio communication. #here are many users of single sideband modulation. 4any users requiring t"o "ay radio communication "ill use single sideband and they range from marine applications! generally 82 point to point transmissions! military as "ell as radio amateurs or radio hams. &ingle sideband modulation or &&- is derived from amplitude modulation (+4) and &&modulation overcomes a number of the disadvantages of +4. &ingle sideband modulation is normally used for voice transmission! but technically it can be used for many other applications "here t"o "ay radio communication using analogue signals is required. +s a result of its "idespread use there are many items of radio communication equipment designed to use single sideband radio including1 &&- receiver! &&transmitter and &&- transceiver equipments.

&ingle sideband! &&- modulation is basically a derivative of amplitude modulation! +4. -y removing some of the components of the ordinary +4 signal it is possible to significantly improve its efficiency. It is possible to see ho" an +4 signal can be improved by looking at the spectrum of the signal. When a steady state carrier is modulated "ith an audio signal! for example a tone of . k8z! then t"o smaller signals are seen at frequencies . k8z above and belo" the main carrier. If the steady state tones are replaced "ith audio like that encountered "ith speech of music! these comprise many different frequencies and an audio spectrum "ith frequencies over a band of frequencies is seen. When modulated onto the carrier! these spectra are seen above and belo" the carrier. It can be seen that if the top frequency that is modulated onto the carrier is ; k8z! then the top spectra "ill extend to ; k8z above and belo" the signal. In other "ords the band"idth occupied by the +4 signal is t"ice the maximum frequency of the signal that is used to modulated the carrier! i.e. it is t"ice the band"idth of the audio signal to be carried. +mplitude modulation is very inefficient from t"o points. #he first is that it occupies t"ice the band"idth of the maximum audio frequency! and the second is that it is inefficient in terms of the po"er used. #he carrier is a steady state signal and in itself carries no information! only providing a reference for the demodulation process. &ingle sideband modulation improves the efficiency of the transmission by removing some unnecessary elements. In the first instance! the carrier is removed / it can be re/introduced in the receiver! and secondly one sideband is removed / both sidebands are mirror images of one another and the carry the same information. #his leaves only one sideband / hence the name &ingle &ide-and , &&-. SSB receiver While signals that use single sideband modulation are more efficient for t"o "ay radio communication and more effective than ordinary +4! they do require an increased level of complexity in the receiver. +s &&- modulation has the carrier removed! this needs to be re/introduced in the receiver to be able to reconstitute the original audio. #his is achieved using an internal oscillator called a -eat 2requency 0scillator (-20) or Carrier

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Insertion 0scillator (CI0). #his generates a carrier signal that can be mixed "ith the incoming &&- signal! thereby enabling the required audio to be recovered in the detector. #ypically the &&- detector itself uses a mixer circuit to combine the &&- modulation and the -20 signals. #his circuit is often called a product detector because (like any $2 mixer) the output is the product of the t"o inputs. It is necessary to introduce the carrier using the -20 , CI0 on the same frequency relative to the &&- signal as the original carrier. +ny deviation from this "ill cause the pitch of the recovered audio to change. Whilst errors of up to about .>> 8z are acceptable for communications applications including amateur radio! if music is to be transmitted the carrier must be reintroduced on exactly the correct frequency. #his can be accomplished by transmitting a small amount of carrier! and using circuitry in the receiver to lock onto this. #here are several types of t"o "ay radio communication that it is possible to listen to legally. $adio amateurs form a large group that short "ave listeners can listen to quite legally! and the transmissions are easy to find as they are all contained "ithin the amateur radio band allocations / see the section of this "ebsite on ham radio. In vie" of its popularity it is necessary to kno" ho" to tune an &&- signal and receive the &&signal in the best "ay to ensure that the best copy is obtained. +lthough it is slightly more difficult to tune than an +4 or 24 signal! "ith a little practice! it is easy to become used to tuning them in. When receiving &&- it is necessary to have a basic understanding of ho" a receiver "orks. 4ost radio receivers that "ill be used to receive &&- modulation "ill be of the superheterodyne type. 8ere the incoming signals are converted do"n to a fixed intermediate frequency. It is at this stage "here the -20 signal is mixed "ith the incoming &&- signals. It is necessary to set the -20 to the correct frequency to receive the form of &&-! either *&- or =&-! that is expected. 4any radio receivers "ill have a s"itch to select this! other receivers "ill have a -20 pitch control "hich effectively controls the frequency. #he -20 needs to be positioned to be in the correct position for "hen the signal is in the centre of the receiver passband. #his typically means that it "ill be on the side of the passband of the receiver. #o position the -20! tune the &&- signal in for the optimum strength! i.e. ensure it is in the centre of the passband! and then adCust ..

the -20 frequency for the correct pitch of the signal. 0nce this has been done! then the main tuning control of the receiver can be used! and once a signal is audible "ith the correct pitch! then it is also in the centre of the receiver passband. #uning an &&- signal "ith the -20 set is quite easy. 2irst set the receiver to the &&position or the -20 to 0'! and then if there is a separate s"itch set the *&- , =&s"itch to the format that is expected and then gradually tune the receiver. +dCust the main tuning control so that the pitch is correct! and the signal should be comprehensible. If it is not possible to distinguish the sounds! then set the *&- , =&- s"itch to the other position and re/adCust the main tuning control if necessary to return the signal to the correct pitch! at "hich point the signal should be understandable.

SSB advantages
&ingle sideband modulation is often compared to +4! of "hich it is a derivative. It has several advantages for t"o "ay radio communication that more than out"eigh the additional complexity required in the &&- receiver and &&- transmitter required for its reception and transmission. .. +s the carrier is not transmitted! this enables a <>E reduction in transmitter po"er level for the same level of information carrying signal. F'- for an +4 transmission using .>>E modulation! half of the po"er is used in the carrier and a total of half the po"er in the t"o sideband / each sideband has a quarter of the po"er.G 3. +s only one sideband is transmitted there is a further reduction in transmitter po"er. 7. +s only one sideband is transmitted the receiver band"idth can be reduced by half. #his improves the signal to noise ratio by a factor of t"o! i.e. 7 d-! because the narro"er band"idth used "ill allo" through less noise and interference. &ingle sideband modulation! &&- is the main modulation format used for analogue voice transmission for t"o "ay radio communication on the 82 portion of the radio spectrum.

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Its efficiency in terms of spectrum and po"er "hen compared to other modes means that for many years it has been the most effective option to use. 'o" some forms of digital voice transmission are being used! but it is unlikely that single sideband "ill be ousted for many years as the main format used on these bands.

/re0uency Modulation
While changing the amplitude of a radio signal is the most obvious method to modulate it! it is by no means the only "ay. It is also possible to change the frequency of a signal to give frequency modulation or 24. 2requency modulation is "idely used on frequencies above 7> 48z! and it is particularly "ell kno"n for its use for 82 24 broadcasting. +lthough it may not be quite as straightfor"ard as amplitude modulation! nevertheless frequency modulation! 24! offers some distinct advantages. It is able to provide near interference free reception! and it "as for this reason that it "as adopted for the 82 sound broadcasts. #hese transmissions could offer high fidelity audio! and for this reason! frequency modulation is far more popular than the older transmissions on the long! medium and short "ave bands. In addition to its "idespread use for high quality audio broadcasts! 24 is also sued for a variety of t"o "ay radio communication systems. Whether for fixed or mobile radio communication systems! or for use in portable applications! 24 is "idely used at 82 and above. #o generate a frequency modulated signal! the frequency of the radio carrier is changed in line "ith the amplitude of the incoming audio signal.

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Fig.5 Frequency Modulation, FM

When the audio signal is modulated onto the radio frequency carrier! the ne" radio frequency signal moves up and do"n in frequency. #he amount by "hich the signal moves up and do"n is important. It is kno"n as the deviation and is normally quoted as the number of kilohertz deviation. +s an example the signal may have a deviation of H7 k8z. In this case the carrier is made to move up and do"n by 7 k8z. -roadcast stations in the 82 portion of the frequency spectrum bet"een AA.< and .>A

48z use large values of deviation! typically H?< k8z. #his is kno"n as "ide/band 24 (W-24). #hese signals are capable of supporting high quality transmissions! but occupy a large amount of band"idth. =sually 3>> k8z is allo"ed for each "ide/band 24 transmission. 2or communications purposes less band"idth is used. 'arro" band 24 ('-24) often uses deviation figures of around H7 k8z. It is narro" band 24 that is typically used for t"o/"ay radio communication applications. 8aving a narro"er band it .:

is not able to provide the high quality of the "ideband transmissions! but this is not needed for applications such as mobile radio communication.

2ig. 2requency 4odulation Advantages of frequency modulation, FM 24 is used for a number of reasons and there are several advantages of frequency modulation. In vie" of this it is "idely used in a number of areas to "hich it is ideally suited. &ome of the advantages of frequency modulation are noted belo"1

Resilience to noise:

0ne particular advantage of frequency modulation is its

resilience to signal level variations. #he modulation is carried only as variations in frequency. #his means that any signal level variations "ill not affect the audio output! provided that the signal does not fall to a level "here the receiver cannot cope. +s a result this makes 24 ideal for mobile radio communication applications including more general t"o/"ay radio communication or portable applications "here signal levels are likely to vary considerably. #he other advantage of 24 is its resilience to noise and interference. It is for this reason that 24 is used for high quality broadcast transmissions.

Easy to apply modulation at a low power stage of t e transmitter:

+nother

advantage of frequency modulation is associated "ith the transmitters. It is possible to apply the modulation to a lo" po"er stage of the transmitter! and it is not necessary to use a linear form of amplification to increase the po"er level of the signal to its final value.

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!t is possi"le to use efficient RF amplifiers wit frequency modulated signals: It is possible to use non/linear $2 amplifiers to amplify 24 signals in a transmitter and these are more efficient than the linear ones required for signals "ith any amplitude variations (e.g. +4 and &&-). #his means that for a given po"er output! less battery po"er is required and this makes the use of 24 more viable for portable t"o/"ay radio applications.

Applications Magnetic tape storage 24 is also used at intermediate frequencies by all analog C$ systems! including

8&! to record both the luminance (black and "hite)portions of the video signal. Commonly! the chrome component is recorded as a conventional +4 signal! using the higher/frequency 24 signal as bias. 24 is the only feasible method of recording the luminance (6black and "hite6) component of video to and retrieving video from 4agnetic tape "ithout extreme distortion! as video signals have a very large range of frequency components I from a fe" hertz to several megahertz! too "ide for equalizers to "ork "ith due to electronic noise belo" J;> d-. 24 also keeps the tape at saturation level! and therefore acts as a form of noise reduction! and a simple limiter can mask variations in the playback output! and the 24 capture effect removes print/through and pre/echo. + continuous pilot/tone! if added to the signal I as "as done on correction. #hese 24 systems are unusual in that they have a ratio of carrier to maximum modulation frequency of less than t"o5 contrast this "ith 24 audio broadcasting "here the ratio is around .>!>>>. Consider for example a ; 48z carrier modulated at a 7.< 48z rate5 by -essel analysis the first sidebands are on D.< and 3.< 48z! "hile the second sidebands are on .7 48z and J. 48z. #he result is a sideband of reversed phase on 9. 48z5 on demodulation! this results in an un"anted output at ;J. K < 48z. #he system must be designed so that this is at an acceptable level. 3>>> and many 8i/band formats I can keep mechanical Citter under control and assist timebase

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Sound 24 is also used at audio frequencies to synthesize sound. #his technique! kno"n as 24 synthesis! "as popularized by early digital synthesizers and became a standard feature for several generations of personal computer sound cards. Radio 4ain article1 24 broadcasting Ed"in 8o"ard +rmstrong (.AD>L.D<:) "as an +merican electrical engineer "ho invented "ideband frequency modulation (24) radio. 8e patented the regenerative circuit in .D.:! the superheterodyne receiver in .D.A and the super/regenerative circuit in .D33. 8e presented his paper1 6+ 4ethod of $educing Disturbances in $adio &ignaling by a &ystem of 2requency 4odulation6! "hich first described 24 radio! before the 'e" @ork section of the Institute of $adio Engineers on 'ovember ;! .D7<. #he paper "as published in .D7;. +s the name implies! "ideband 24 (W24) requires a "ider signal band"idth than amplitude modulation by an equivalent modulating signal! but this also makes the signal more robust against noise and interference. 2requency modulation is also more robust against simple signal amplitude fading phenomena. +s a result! 24 "as chosen as the modulation standard for high frequency! high fidelity radio transmission1 hence the term 624 radio6 (although for many years the --C called it 6 82 radio6! because commercial 24 broadcasting uses a "ell/kno"n part of the broadcast band). 24 receivers employ a special detector for 24 signals and exhibit a phenomenon called capture e11ect! "here the tuner is able to clearly receive the stronger of t"o stations being broadcast on the same frequency. %roblematically ho"ever! frequency drift or lack of selectivity may cause one station or signal to be suddenly overtaken by another on an adCacent channel. 2requency drift typically constituted a problem on very old or inexpensive receivers! "hile inadequate selectivity may plague any tuner. 82 bandIthe 24

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+n 24 signal can also be used to carry a stereo signal1 see 24 stereo. 8o"ever! this is done by using multiplexing and demultiplexing before and after the 24 process. #he rest of this article ignores the stereo multiplexing and demultiplexing process used in 6stereo 246! and concentrates on the 24 modulation and demodulation process! "hich is identical in stereo and mono processes. + high/efficiency radio/frequency s"itching amplifier can be used to transmit 24 signals (and other constant/amplitude signals). 2or a given signal strength (measured at the receiver antenna)! s"itching amplifiers use less battery po"er and typically cost less than a linear amplifier. #his gives 24 another advantage over other modulation schemes that require linear amplifiers! such as +4 and M+4. 24 is commonly used at 82 radio frequencies for high/fidelity broadcasts of music and speech (see 24 broadcasting). 'ormal (analog) # sound is also broadcast using 24. + narro" band form is used for voice communications in commercial and amateur radio settings. In broadcast services! "here audio fidelity is important! "ideband 24 is generally used. In t"o/"ay radio! narro"band 24 ('-24) is used to conserve band"idth for land mobile radio stations! marine mobile! and many other radio services.

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&nit ! -igital Communication #he transmission of digital data through a digital platform that has the ability to combine text! audio! graphics! video and data. Digital communication enables data to be transmitted in an efficient manner through the use of digitally encoded information sent through data signals. #hese data signals are easily compressed and! as such! can be transmitted "ith accuracy and speed. =nlike in an analog communications "here the continuity of a varying signal can not be broken! in a digital communication a digital transmission can be broken do"n into packets as discrete messages. #ransmitting data in discrete messages not only facilitates the error detection and correction but also enables a greater signal processing capability. Digital communication has! in large part! replaced analog communication as the ideal form of transmitting information through computer and mobile technologies. P2)SE M%-&L)T(%' Phase modulation 3PM4 is a form of modulation that represents information as variations in the instantaneous phase of a carrier "ave. =nlike its more popular counterpart! frequency modulation (24)! %4 is not very "idely used for radio transmissions. #his is because it tends to require more complex receiving hard"are and there can be ambiguity problems in determining "hether! for example! the signal has changed phase by 9.A>N or /.A>N. %hase modulation is also similar to frequency modulation in the number of sidebands that exist "ithin the modulated "ave and the spacing bet"een sidebands. %hase modulation "ill also produce an infinite number of sideband frequencies. #he spacing bet"een these sidebands "ill be equal to the frequency of the modulating signal. -efore looking at phase modulation it is first necessary to look at phase itself. + radio frequency signal consists of an oscillating carrier in the form of a sine "ave is the basis

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of the signal. #he instantaneous amplitude follo"s this curve moving positive and then negative! returning to the start point after one complete cycle / it follo"s the curve of the sine "ave. #his can also be represented by the movement of a point around a circle! the phase at any given point being the angle bet"een the start point and the point on the "aveform as sho"n. %hase modulation "orks by modulating the phase of the signal! i.e. changing the rate at "hich the point moves around the circle. #his changes the phase of the signal from "hat it "ould have been if no modulation "as applied. In other "ords the speed of rotation around the circle is modulated about the mean value. #o achieve this it is necessary to change the frequency of the signal for a short time. In other "ords "hen phase modulation is applied to a signal there are frequency changes and vice versa. %hase and frequency are inseparably linked as phase is the integral of frequency. 2requency modulation can be changed to phase modulation by simply adding a C$ net"ork to the modulating signal that integrates the modulating signal. +s such the information regarding sidebands! band"idth and the like also hold true for phase modulation as they do for frequency modulation! bearing in mind their relationship"

Forms of phase modulation

Although phase modulation is used for some analogue transmissions, it is far more widely used as a digital form of modulation where it switches between different phases" his is $nown as phase shift $eying, *+,, and there are many flavours of this" It is even possible to combine phase shift $eying and amplitude $eying in a form of modulation $nown as quadrature amplitude modulation, -AM" he list below gives some of the forms of phase shift $eying that are used.

%&B / %hase &hift Beying -%&B / -inary %hase &hift Beying 3>

M%&B / Muadrature %hase &hift Beying M+4 / Muadrature +mplitude 4odulation 4&B / 4inimum &hift Beying O4&B / Oaussian filtered 4inimum &hift Beying

Phase Shift Keying, PSK, basics

/i$e any form of shift $eying, there are defined states or points that are used for signalling the data bits" he basic form of binary phase shift $eying is $nown as 0inary *hase +hift ,eying (0*+,) or it is occasionally called *hase 1eversal ,eying (*1,)" A digital signal alternating between 2! and 3! (or ! and 4) will create phase reversals, i"e" !54 degree phase shifts as the data shifts state"

.inary phase shi1t keying, .PS5 #he problem "ith phase shift keying is that the receiver cannot kno" the exact phase of the transmitted signal to determine "hether it is in a mark or space condition. #his "ould not be possible even if the transmitter and receiver clocks "ere accurately linked because the path length "ould determine the exact phase of the received signal. #o overcome this problem %&B systems use a differential method for encoding the data onto the carrier. #his is accomplished! for example! by making a change in phase equal to a one! and no phase change equal to a zero. 2urther improvements can be made upon this basic system and a number of other types of phase shift keying have been developed. 0ne simple 3.

improvement can be made by making a change in phase by D> degrees in one direction for a one! and D> degrees the other "ay for a zero. #his retains the .A> degree phase reversal bet"een one and zero states! but gives a distinct change for a zero. In a basic system not using this process it may be possible to loose synchronisation if a long series of zeros are sent. #his is because the phase "ill not change state for this occurrence. #here are many variations on the basic idea of phase shift keying. Each one has its o"n advantages and disadvantages enabling system designers to choose the one most applicable for any given circumstances. 0ther common forms include M%&B (Muadrature phase shift keying) "here four phase states are used! each at D> degrees to the other! A/ %&B "here there are eight states and so forth.

PSK constellation diagrams

It is often convenient to represent a phase shift keyed signal! and sometimes other types of signal using a phasor or constellation diagram. =sing this scheme! the phase of the signal is represented by the angle around the circle! and the amplitude by the distance from the origin or centre of the circle. In this "ay the can be signal resolved into quadrature components representing the sine or I for In/phase component and the cosine for the quadrature component. 4ost phase shift keyed systems use a constant amplitude and therefore points appear on one circle "ith a constant amplitude and the changes in state being represented by movement around the circle. 2or binary shift keying using phase reversals the t"o points appear at opposite points on the circle. 0ther forms of phase shift keying may use different points on the circle and there "ill be more points on the circle.

Constellation diagram 1or .PS5

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When plotted using test equipment errors may be seen from the ideal positions on the phase diagram. #hese errors may appear as the result of inaccuracies in the modulator and transmission and reception equipment! or as noise that enters the system. It can be imagined that if the position of the real measurement "hen compared to the ideal position becomes too large! then data errors "ill appear as the receiving demodulator is unable to correctly detect the intended position of the point around the circle.

Constellation diagram 1or 6PS5 =sing a constellation vie" of the signal enables quick fault finding in a system. If the problem is related to phase! the constellation "ill spread around the circle. If the problem is related to magnitude! the constellation "ill spread off the circle! either to"ards or a"ay from the origin. #hese graphical techniques assist in isolating problems much faster than "hen using other techniques. M%&B is used for the for"ard link form the base station to the mobile in the I&/D< cellular system and uses the absolute phase position to represent the symbols. #here are four phase decision points! and "hen transitioning from one state to another! it is possible to pass through the circlePs origin! indicating minimum magnitude. 0n the reverse link from mobile to base station! 0/M%&B is used to prevent transitions through the origin. Consider the components that make up any particular vector on the constellation diagram as Q and @ components. 'ormally! both of these components "ould transition simultaneously! causing the vector to move through the origin. In 0/ M%&B! one component is delayed! so the vector "ill move do"n first! and then over! thus avoiding moving through the origin! and simplifying the radioPs design. + constellation diagram "ill sho" the accuracy of the modulation. 37

M('(M&M S2(/T 5E+('*, Minimum shift $eying, M+,, is a form of phase shift $eying, *+,, that is used in a number of applications" A variant of M+, modulation, $nown as 6aussian filtered Minimum +hift ,eying, 6M+,, is used for a number of radio communications applications including being used in the 6+M cellular telecommunications system" In addition to this M+, has advantages over other forms of *+, and as a result it is used in a number of radio communications systems"

Reason for Minimum Shift Keying, MSK

It is found that binary data consisting of sharp transitions bet"een 6one6 and 6zero6 states and vice versa potentially creates signals that have sidebands extending out a long "ay from the carrier! and this creates problems for many radio communications systems! as any sidebands outside the allo"ed band"idth cause interference to adCacent channels and any radio communications links that may be using them.

Minimum Shift Keying, MSK basics

#he problem can be overcome in part by filtering the signal! but is found that the transitions in the data become progressively less sharp as the level of filtering is increased and the band"idth reduced. #o overcome this problem O4&B is often used and this is based on 4inimum &hift Beying! 4&B modulation. #he advantage of "hich is "hat is kno"n as a continuous phase scheme. 8ere there are no phase discontinuities because the frequency changes occur at the carrier zero crossing points.

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When looking at a plot of a signal using 4&B modulation! it can be seen that the modulating data signal changes the frequency of the signal and there are no phase discontinuities. #his arises as a result of the unique factor of 4&B that the frequency difference bet"een the logical one and logical zero states is al"ays equal to half the data rate. #his can be expressed in terms of the modulation index! and it is al"ays equal to >.<.

Signal using MS5 modulation

*MS5 , Oaussian 4inimum &hift Beying! or to give it its full title Oaussian filtered 4inimum &hift Beying! O4&B! is a form of modulation used in a variety of digital radio communications systems. It has advantages of being able to carry digital modulation "hile still using the spectrum efficiently. 0ne of the problems "ith other forms of phase shift keying is that the sidebands extend out"ards from the main carrier and these can cause interference to other radio communications systems using nearby channels. In vie" of the efficient use of the spectrum in this "ay! O4&B modulation has been used in a number of radio communications applications. %ossibly the most "idely used is the O&4 cellular technology "hich is used "orld"ide and has "ell over 7 billion subscribers.

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#MS$ "asics O4&B modulation is based on 4&B! "hich is itself a form of phase shift keying. 0ne of the problems "ith standard forms of %&B is that sidebands extend out from the carrier. #o overcome this! 4&B and its derivative O4&B can be used. 4&B and also O4&B modulation are "hat is kno"n as a continuous phase scheme. 8ere there are no phase discontinuities because the frequency changes occur at the carrier zero crossing points. #his arises as a result of the unique factor of 4&B that the frequency difference bet"een the logical one and logical zero states is al"ays equal to half the data rate. #his can be expressed in terms of the modulation index! and it is al"ays equal to >.<.

Signal using MS5 modulation + plot of the spectrum of an 4&B signal sho"s sidebands extending "ell beyond a band"idth equal to the data rate. #his can be reduced by passing the modulating signal through a lo" pass filter prior to applying it to the carrier. #he requirements for the filter are that it should have a sharp cut/off! narro" band"idth and its impulse response should sho" no overshoot. #he ideal filter is kno"n as a Oaussian filter "hich has a Oaussian shaped response to an impulse and no ringing. In this "ay the basic 4&B signal is converted to O4&B modulation.

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Spectral density o1 MS5 and *MS5 signals

Generating GMSK modulation

here are two main ways in which 6M+, modulation can be generated" he most obvious way is to filter the modulating signal using a 6aussian filter and then apply this to a frequency modulator where the modulation inde# is set to 4"7" his method is very simple and straightforward but it has the drawbac$ that the modulation inde# must e#actly equal 4"7" In practice this analogue method is not suitable because component tolerances drift and cannot be set e#actly"

*enerating *MS5 using a *aussian 1ilter and 7C% + second method is more "idely used. 8ere "hat is kno"n as a quadrature modulator is used. #he term quadrature means that the phase of a signal is in quadrature or D> degrees to another one. #he quadrature modulator uses one signal that is said to be in/phase and another that is in quadrature to this. In vie" of the in/phase and quadrature elements this type of modulator is often said to be an I/M modulator. =sing this type of modulator the modulation index can be maintained at exactly >.< "ithout the need for any settings or adCustments. #his makes it much easier to use! and capable of providing the required level of performance "ithout the need for adCustments. 2or demodulation the technique can be used in reverse.

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.lock diagram o1 ($6 modulator used to create *MS5

Advantages of #MS$ modulation

there are several advantages to the use of O4&B modulation for a radio communications system. 0ne is obviously the improved spectral efficiency "hen compared to other phase shift keyed modes. + further advantage of O4&B is that it can be amplified by a non/linear amplifier and remain undistorted #his is because there are no elements of the signal that are carried as amplitude variations. #his advantage is of particular importance "hen using small portable transmitters! such as those required by cellular technology. 'on/linear amplifiers are more efficient in terms of the DC po"er input from the po"er rails that they convert into a radio frequency signal. #his means that the po"er consumption for a given output is much less! and this results in lo"er levels of battery consumption5 a very important factor for cell phones. + further advantage of O4&B modulation again arises from the fact that none of the information is carried as amplitude variations. #his means that is immune to amplitude variations and therefore more resilient to noise! than some other forms of modulation! because most noise is mainly amplitude based. 6uadrature )mplitude Modulation

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Muadrature +mplitude 4odulation or M+4 is a form of modulation "hich is "idely used for modulating data signals onto a carrier used for radio communications. It is "idely used because it offers advantages over other forms of data modulation such as %&B! although many forms of data modulation operate along side each other. Muadrature +mplitude 4odulation! M+4 is a signal in "hich t"o carriers shifted in phase by D> degrees are modulated and the resultant output consists of both amplitude and phase variations. In vie" of the fact that both amplitude and phase variations are present it may also be considered as a mixture of amplitude and phase modulation.

Analogue and digital %AM Muadrature amplitude modulation! M+4 may exist in "hat may be termed either analogue or digital formats. #he analogue versions of M+4 are typically used to allo" multiple analogue signals to be carried on a single carrier. 2or example it is used in %+* and '#&C television systems! "here the different channels provided by M+4 enable it to carry the components of chroma or colour information. In radio applications a system kno"n as C/M=+4 is used for +4 stereo radio. 8ere the different channels enable the t"o channels required for stereo to be carried on the single carrier. Digital formats of M+4 are often referred to as 6Muantised M+46 and they are being increasingly used for data communications often "ithin radio communications systems. $adio communications systems ranging from cellular technology through "ireless systems including Wi4+Q! and Wi/2i A>3... use a variety of forms of M+4! and the use of M+4 "ill only increase "ithin the field of radio communications.

Digital & %uantised %AM "asics Muadrature amplitude modulation! M+4! "hen used for digital transmission for radio communications applications is able to carry higher data rates than ordinary amplitude

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modulated schemes and phase modulated schemes. +s "ith phase shift keying! etc! the number of points at "hich the signal can rest! i.e. the number of points on the constellation is indicated in the modulation format description! e.g. .;M+4 uses a .; point constellation. When using M+4! the constellation points are normally arranged in a square grid "ith equal vertical and horizontal spacing and as a result the most common forms of M+4 use a constellation "ith the number of points equal to a po"er of 3 i.e. 3! :! A! .; . . . . -y using higher order modulation formats! i.e. more points on the constellation! it is possible to transmit more bits per symbol. 8o"ever the points are closer together and they are therefore more susceptible to noise and data errors. #o provide an example of ho" M+4 operates! the table belo" provides the bit sequences! and the associated amplitude and phase states. 2rom this it can be seen that a continuous bit stream may be grouped into threes and represented as a sequence of eight permissible states.

.it se0uence )mplitude Phase 3degrees4 >>> .,3 > (>N) >>> . > (>N) >.> .,3 R,3 (D>N) >.. . Ri,3 (D>N) .>> .,3 R (.A>N) .>. . R (.A>N) ..> .,3 7Ri,3 (3?>N) ... . 7R,3 (3?>N) .it se0uences, amplitudes and phases 1or 8$6)M %hase modulation can be considered as a special form of M+4 "here the amplitude remains constant and only the phase is changed. -y doing this the number of possible combinations is halved.

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%AM advantages and disadvantages +lthough M+4 appears to increase the efficiency of transmission for radio communications systems by utilising both amplitude and phase variations! it has a number of dra"backs. #he first is that it is more susceptible to noise because the states are closer together so that a lo"er level of noise is needed to move the signal to a different decision point. $eceivers for use "ith phase or frequency modulation are both able to use limiting amplifiers that are able to remove any amplitude noise and thereby improve the noise reliance. #his is not the case "ith M+4. #he second limitation is also associated "ith the amplitude component of the signal. When a phase or frequency modulated signal is amplified in a radio transmitter! there is no need to use linear amplifiers! "hereas "hen using M+4 that contains an amplitude component! linearity must be maintained. =nfortunately linear amplifiers are less efficient and consume more po"er! and this makes them less attractive for mobile applications.

%AM comparison wit ot er modes +s there are advantages and disadvantages of using M+4 it is necessary to compare M+4 "ith other modes before making a decision about the optimum mode. &ome radio communications systems dynamically change the modulation scheme dependent upon the link conditions and requirements / signal level! noise! data rate required! etc. %AM applications M+4 is in many radio communications and data delivery applications. 8o"ever some specific variants of M+4 are used in some specific applications and standards. 2or domestic broadcast applications for example! ;: M+4 and 3<; M+4 are often used in digital cable television and cable modem applications. In the =B! .; M+4 and ;: M+4 are currently used for digital terrestrial television using D - / Digital ideo 7.

-roadcasting. In the =&! ;: M+4 and 3<; M+4 are the mandated modulation schemes for digital cable as standardised by the &C#E in the standard +'&I,&C#E >? 3>>>. In addition to this! variants of M+4 are also used for many "ireless and cellular technology applications. 'onstellation diagrams for %AM #he constellation diagrams sho" the different positions for the states "ithin different forms of M+4! quadrature amplitude modulation. +s the order of the modulation increases! so does the number of points on the M+4 constellation diagram. #he diagrams belo" sho" constellation diagrams for a variety of formats of modulation1

73

77

!"# """ S$ %&' &$D'S, ("!' &$D'S ) '%%$% &$!#%$(

8( 19*:. In information theory! entropy is a measure of the uncertainty associated "ith a random variable. &hannonPs entropy represents an absolute limit on the best possible lossless compression of any communication! under certain constraints1 treating messages to be encoded as a sequence of independent and identically/distributed random variables! &hannonPs source coding theorem sho"s that! in the limit! the average length of the shortest possible representation to encode the messages in a given alphabet is their entropy divided by the logarithm of the number of symbols in the target alphabet.

Entropy is really a notion of self informationSthe information provided by a random process about itself. 4utual information is a measure of the information contained in one process about another process. While entropy is sufficient to study the reproduction of a single process through a noiseless environment! more often one has t"o or more distinct random processes! e.g.! one random process representing an information source and another representing the output of a communication medium "herein the coded source has been corrupted by another random process called noise. In such cases observations are made on one process in order to make decisions on another.

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&hannon introduced the notion of the average mutual information bet"een the t"o processes1 I(Q5 @ ) K 8(Q) 9 8(@ ) / 8(Q5 @ ) #he sum of the t"o self entropies minus the entropy of the pair. #his proved to be the relevant quantity in coding theorems involving more than one distinct random process1 the channel coding theorem describing reliable communication through a noisy channel! and the general source coding theorem describing the coding of a source for a user subCect to a fidelity criterion. #he first theorem focuses on error detection and correction and the second on analog/to/digital conversion and data compression. &pecial cases of both of these coding theorems "ere given in &hannonPs original "ork. +verage mutual information can also be defined in terms of conditional en/ tropy (or equivocation) 8(QC@ ) K 8(Q5 @ ) / 8(@ ) and hence I(Q5 @ ) K 8(Q) / 8(QC@ ) K 8(@ ) / 8(QC@ ) In this form the mutual information can be interpreted as the information contained in one process minus the information contained in the process "hen the other process is kno"n. *et Q be a discrete random variable "ith alphabet Q K S.! 3! . . .mT. +ssume there is a probability mass function p(x) over Q. 8o" many binary questions! on average! does it take to determine the outcomeU
he entropy of a discrete random variable ; is defined as.

"hich can interpreted as the expected value

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S%&RCE C%-('*
+ (binary) source code C for a random variable Q is a mapping fromvQ to a (finite) binary string. *et C(x) be the code"ord corresponding to x and let l(x) denote the length of C(x). We focus on codes that are VinstantaneousW. + code is called a prefix code or an instantaneous code if no code"ord is a prefix of any other code"ord. #he nice property of a prefix code is that one can transmit multiple outcomes x.! x3! . . . xn by Cust concatenating the strings into C(x.)C(x3) . . .C(xn)! "here the latter denotes the concatenation of C(x.)!C(x3) up to C(xn)! and this leads to decoding xi instantly after xi is received. In this sense! prefix codes are Vself punctuatingW. *et the expected length of C be1

#he expected length of any (prefix) code is greater than the entropy! i.e.

2urthermore! there exists a code such that

T2E PR%%/ %/ T2E S%&RCE C%-('* T2E%REM

We first sho" that there exists a code "ithin one bit of the entropy. Choose the lengths as1

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#his choice is integer and satisfies the craft inequality! hence there exists a code. +lso! "e can upper bound the average code length as follo"s1

'o"! let us prove the lo"er bound on *(C). Consider the optimization problem1

#he above finds the shortest possible code length subCect to satisfying the Braft inequality. If "e relax the the codelengths to be non/integer! then "e can obtain a lo"er bound. #o do this! the *agrangian is1

#aking derivatives "ith respect to l(x) and and setting to >! leads to1

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&olving this for l(x) leads to

"hich can be verified by direct substitution. #his proves the lo"er bound.

C%'7%L&T(%' C%-ES

#he probability of error can be reduced by transmitting more bits than needed to represent the information being sent! and convolving each bit "ith neighbouring bits so that if one transmitted bit got corrupted! enough information is carried by the neighbouring bits to estimate "hat the corrupted bit "as. #his approach of transforming a number of information bits into a larger number of transmitted bits is called channel coding! and the particular approach of convolving the bits to distribute the information is referred to as convolution coding. #he ratio of information bits to transmitted bits is the code rate (less than .) and the number of information bits over "hich the convolution takes place is the constraint length. 2or example! suppose you channel encoded a message using a convolution code. &uppose you transmitted 3 bits for every information bit (code rateK>.<) and used a constraint length of 7. #hen the coder "ould send out .; bits for every A bits of input! and each output pair "ould depend on the present and the past 3 input bits (constraint length K7). #he output "ould come out at t"ice the input speed. &ince information about each input bit is spread out over ; transmitted bits! one can usually reconstruct the correct input even "ith several transmission errors. #he need for coding is very important in the use of cellular phones. In this case! the VchannelW is the propagation of radio "aves bet"een your cell phone and the base station. Xust by

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turning your head "hile talking on the phone! you could suddenly block out a large portion of the transmitted signal. If you tried to keep your head still! a passing bus could change the pattern of bouncing radio "aves arriving at your phone so that they add destructively! again giving a poor signal. In both cases! the &'$ suddenly drops deeply and the bit error rate goes up dramatically. &o the cellular environment is extremely unreliable. If you didnYt have lots of redundancy in the transmitted bits to boost reliability! chances are that digital cell phones "ould not be the success they are today. Convolutional codes are commonly specified by three parameters5 (n,k,m). n K number of output bits k K number of input bits m K number of memory registers #he quantity k/n called the code rate! is a measure of the efficiency of the code. Commonly k and n parameters range from . to A! m from 3 to .> and the code rate from .,A to ?,A except for deep space applications "here code rates as lo" as .,.>> or even longer have been employed. 0ften the manufacturers of convolutional code chips specify the code by parameters (n,k,*)! #he quantity * is called the constraint length of the code and is defined by Constraint *ength! * K k (m-.) #he constraint length * represents the number of bits in the encoder memory that affect the generation of the n output bits. #he constraint length * is also referred to by the capital letter B! "hich can be confusing "ith the lo"er case k! "hich represents the number of input bits. In some books B is defined as equal to product the of k and m. 0ften in commercial spec! the codes are specified by (r! B)! "here r K the code rate k/n and B is the constraint length. #he constraint length B ho"ever is equal to * L .! as

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defined in this paper. I "ill be referring to convolutional codes as ( n,k,m) and not as (r,B).

C%-E P)R)METERS )'- T2E STR&CT&RE %/ T2E C%'7%L&T(%')L C%-E

#he convolutional code structure is easy to dra" from its parameters. 2irst dra" m boxes representing the m memory registers. #hen dra" n modulo/3 adders to represent the n output bits. 'o" connect the memory registers to the adders using the generator polynomial as sho"n in the 2ig. ..
(1,1,1)

v1

u1

u1

u0

u -1

(0,1,1)

v2

v3
(1,0,1)

/igure # $ This 3",#,"4 con9olutional code has " memory registers, # input bit and " output bits. #his is a rate .,7 code. Each input bit is coded into 7 output bits. #he constraint length of the code is 3. #he 7 output bits are produced by the 7 modulo/3 adders by adding up certain bits in the memory registers. #he selection of "hich bits are to be added to produce the output bit is called the generator polynomial (g) for that output bit. 2or example! the first output bit has a generator polynomial of (.!.!.). #he output bit 3 has a generator polynomial of (>!.!.) and the third output bit has a polynomial of (.!>!.). #he output bits Cust the sum of these bits.

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v. K mod3 (u. 9 u> 9 u/.) v3 K mod3 ( u> 9 u/.) v7 K mod3 (u. 9 u/.) #he polynomials give the code its unique error protection quality. 0ne (7!.!:) code can have completely different properties from an another one depending on the polynomials chosen.

2o: polynomials are selected

#here are many choices for polynomials for any m order code. #hey do not all result in output sequences that have good error protection properties. %etersen and WeldonYs book contains a complete list of these polynomials. Oood polynomials are found from this list usually by computer simulation. + list of good polynomials for rate Z codes is given belo".

Table #$*enerator Polynomials 1ound by .usgang 1or good rate ; codes

Constraint Length 7 : < ; ? A D .>

*# ..> ..>. ..>.> ..>.>. ..>.>. ..>... ..>... ..>...>>.

*! ... ...> ...>. ...>.. ..>.>. ...>>.. ...>>..>. ...>>..>>.

:.

ST)TES %/ ) C%-E

We have states of mind and so do encoders. We are depressed one day! and perhaps happy the next from the many different states "e can be in. 0ur output depends on our states of mind and tongue/in/cheek "e can say that encoders too act this "ay. What they output depends on "hat is their state of mind. 0ur states are complex but encoder states are Cust a sequence of bits. &ophisticated encoders have long constraint lengths and simple ones have short in dicating the number of states they can be in. #he (3!.!:) code in 2ig. 3 has a constraint length of 7. #he shaded registers belo" hold these bits. #he unshaded register holds the incoming bit. #his means that 7 bits or A different combination of these bits can be present in these memory registers. #hese A different combinations determine "hat output "e "ill get for v . and v3! the coded sequence. #he number of combinations of bits in the shaded registers are called the states of the code and are defined by 'umber of states K 3* "here * K the constraint length of the code and is equal to k (m / .). (1,1,1,1)
v1

u1

u1

u0

u-1

u-2

(1,1,0,1)

v2

:3

/ig < The states o1 a code indicate :hat is in the memory registers

#hink of states as sort of an initial condition. #he output bit depends on this initial condition "hich changes at each time tick. *etYs examine the states of the code (3!.!:) sho"n above. #his code outputs 3 bits for every . input bit. It is a rate Z code. Its constraint length is 7. #he total number of states is equal to A. #he eight states of this (3!.!:) code are1 >>>! >>.! >.>! >..! .>>! .>.! ..>! ....

Punctured Codes 2or the special case of k K .! the codes of rates Z! .,7! [! .,<! .,? are sometimes called mother codes. We can combine these single bit input codes to produce punctured codes "hich give us code rates other than .,n. -y using t"o rate Z codes together as sho"n in the figure! and then Cust not transmitting one of the output bits "e can convert this rate Z implementation into a 3,7 rate code. 3 bits come and 7 go out. #his concept is called puncturing. 0n the receive side! dummy bits that do not affect the decoding metric are inserted in the appropriate places before decoding.

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/ig. $ T:o 3!,#,"4 con9olutional codes produce = output bits. .it number " is >punctured? so the combination is e11ecti9ely a 3",!,"4 code. #his technique allo"s us to produce codes of many different rates using Cust one simple hard"are. +lthough "e can also directly construct a code of rate 3,7 as "e shall see later! the advantage of a punctured code is that the rates can be changed dynamically (through soft"are) depending on the channel condition such as rain! etc. + fixed implementation! although easier! does not allo" this flexibility.

.L%C5 C%-ES In coding theory! block codes are one of the t"o common types of channel codes (the other one being convolutional codes)! "hich enable reliable transmission of digital data over unreliable communication channels subCect to channel noise. + block code transforms a message m consisting of a sequence of information symbols over an alphabet into a fixed/length sequence c of n encoding symbols! called a code word. In a linear block code! each input message has a fixed length of k \ n input symbols. #he redundancy added to a message by transforming it into a larger code "ord enables a receiver to detect and correct errors in a transmitted code "ord! and L using a suitable decoding algorithm L to recover the original message. #he redundancy is

::

described in terms of its information rate! or more simply L for a linear block code L in terms of its code rate! k,n. #he error correction performance of a block code is described by the minimum 8amming distance d bet"een each pair of code "ords! and is called the distance of the code.

&nit = M&LT(PLE )CCESS TEC2'(6&ES + limited amount of band"idth is allocated for "ireless services. + "ireless system is required to accommodate as many users as possible by effectively sharing the limited band"idth. #herefore! in the field of communications! the term multiple access could be defined as a means of allo"ing multiple users to simultaneously share the finite band"idth "ith least possible degradation in the performance of the system. #here are several techniques ho" multiple accessing can be achieved. #he are four basic schemes .. 2requency Division 4ultiple +ccess (2D4+) :<

3. #ime Division 4ultiple +ccess (#D4+) 7. Code Division 4ultiple +ccess (CD4+) :. &pace Division 4ultiple +ccess (&D4+) /re0uency -i9ision Multiple )ccess 3/-M)4 2D4+ is one of the earliest multiple/access techniques for cellular systems "hen continuous transmission is required for analog services. In this technique the band"idth is divided into a number of channels and distributed among users "ith a finite portion of band"idth for permanent use. #he vertical axis that represents the code is sho"n here Cust to make a clear comparison "ith CD4+ (discussed later in this chapter). #he channels are assigned only "hen demanded by the users. #herefore "hen a channel is not in use it becomes a "asted resource. 2D4+ channels have narro" band"idth (7>Bhz). 2or this reason! although xFnG is strictly the nth number in the sequence! "e often refer to it as the nth sample. We also often refer to ]the sequence xFnG6 "hen "e mean the entire sequence. Discrete/time signals are often depicted graphically as follo"s1 are usually implemented in narro"band systems. &ince the user has his portion of the band"idth all the time! 2D4+ does not require synchronization or timing control! "hich makes it algorithmically simple. Even though no t"o users use the same frequency band at the same time! guard bands are introduced bet"een frequency bands to minimize adCacent channel interference. Ouard bands are unused frequency slots that separate neighboring channels. #his leads to a "aste of band"idth. When continuous transmission is not required! band"idth goes "asted since it is not being utilized for a portion of the time. In "ireless communications! 2D4+ achieves simultaneous transmission and reception by using 2requency division duplexing (2DD). In order for both the transmitter and the receiver to operate at the same time! 2DD requires duplexers. Time -i9ision Multiple )ccess 3T-M)4 In digital systems! continuous transmission is not required because users do not use the allotted band"idth all the time. In such systems! #D4+ is a complimentary

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access technique to 2D4+. Olobal &ystems for 4obile communications (O&4) uses the #D4+ technique. In #D4+! the entire band"idth is available to the user but only for a finite period of time. In most cases the available band"idth is divided into fe"er channels compared to 2D4+ and the users are allotted time slots during "hich they have the entire channel band"idth at their disposal. #D4+ requires careful time synchronization since users share the band"idth in the frequency domain. &ince the number of channels are less! inter channel interference is almost negligible! hence the guard time bet"een the channels is considerably smaller. Ouard time is a spacing in time bet"een the #D4+ bursts. In cellular communications! "hen a user moves from one cell to another there is a chance that user could experience a call loss if there are no free time slots available. #D4+ uses different time slots for transmission and reception. #his type of duplexing is referred to as #ime division duplexing (#DD). #DD does not require duplexers.

Code -i9ision Multiple )ccess In CD4+! all the users occupy the same band"idth! ho"ever they are all assigned separate codes! "hich differentiates them from each other. CD4+ systems utilize a spread spectrum technique in "hich a spreading signal! "hich is uncorrelated to the signal and has a large band"idth! is used to spread the narro" band message signal. Direct &equence &pread &pectrum (D&/&&) is most commonly used for CD4+. In D&/ &&! the message signal is multiplied by a %seudo $andom 'oise Code (%' code)! "hich has noise/like properties. Each user has his o"n code"ord "hich is orthogonal to the codes of other users. In order to detect the user! the receiver is required to kno" the code"ord used by the transmitter. =nlike #D4+! CD4+ does not require time synchronization bet"een the users. + CD4+ system experiences a problem called self/ Camming "hich arises "hen the spreading codes used for different users are not exactly orthogonal. While dispreading! this leads to a significant contribution from other users to the receiver decision statistic. If the po"er of the multiple users in a CD4+ system is unequal! then the user "ith the strongest signal po"er "ill be demodulated at the :?

receiver. #he strength of the received signal raises the noise floor for the "eaker signals at the demodulators. #his reduces the probability that "eaker signals "ill be received. #his problem! kno"n as the near/far problem can be taken care of by using po"er control. #his ensures that all the signals "ithin the coverage of the base station arrive "ith same po"er at the receiver. Space -i9ision Multiple )ccess 3S-M)4 &D4+ utilizes the spatial separation of the users in order to optimize the use of the frequency spectrum. + primitive form of &D4+ is "hen the same frequency is re/ used in different cells in a cellular "ireless net"ork. 8o"ever for limited co/channel interference it is required that the cells be sufficiently separated. #his limits the number of cells a region can be divided into and hence limits the frequency re/use factor. + more advanced approach can further increase the capacity of the net"ork. #his technique "ould enable frequency re/use "ithin the cell. It uses a &mart +ntenna technique that employs antenna arrays backed by some intelligent signal processing to steer the antenna pattern in the direction of the desired user and places nulls in the direction of the interfering signals. &ince these arrays can produce narro" spot beams! the frequency can be re/used "ithin the cell as long as the spatial separation bet"een the users is sufficient. In a practical cellular environment it is improbable to have Cust one transmitter fall "ithin the receiver beam "idth. #herefore it becomes imperative to use other multiple access techniques in conCunction "ith &D4+. When different areas are covered by the antenna beam! frequency can be re/used! in "hich case #D4+ or CD4+ is employed! for different frequencies 2D4+ can be used.

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&'(T @ S)TELL(TE, %PT(C)L /(.ER < P%AERL('E, SC)-) + satellite communication system "ill have a number of users operating via a common satellite transponder! and this calls for sharing of the resources of po"er! band"idth and time. 8ere "e describe these techniques and examine their implications! "ith emphasis on principles rather than detailed structure or parameters of particular net"orks! "hich tend to be very system specific. #he term used for such sharing and management of a number of different channels is multiple access. Types o1 Satellite %rbits #here are three basic kinds of orbits! depending on the satellitePs position relative to EarthPs surface1

*eostationary orbits (also called geosynchronous or synchronous) are orbits in "hich the satellite is al"ays positioned over the same spot on Earth. 4any geostationary satellites are above a band along the equator! "ith an altitude of about 33!337 miles! or about a tenth of the distance to the 4oon. #he 6satellite :D

parking strip6 area over the equator is becoming congested "ith several hundred television! "eather and communication satellites^ #his congestion means each satellite must be precisely positioned to prevent its signals from interfering "ith an adCacent satellitePs signals. #elevision! communications and "eather satellites all use geostationary orbits. Oeostationary orbits are "hy a D&& satellite # is typically bolted in a fixed position.

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#he scheduled &pace &huttles use a much lo"er! asynchronous orbit! "hich means they pass overhead at different times of the day. 0ther satellites in asynchronous orbits average about :>> miles (;:: km) in altitude.

In a polar orbit! the satellite generally flies at a lo" altitude and passes over the planetPs poles on each revolution. #he polar orbit remains fixed in space as Earth rotates inside the orbit. +s a result! much of Earth passes under a satellite in a polar orbit. -ecause polar orbits achieve excellent coverage of the planet! they are often used for satellites that do mapping and photography.

Cellular C-M)
4obile telephony! using the concept of cellular architecture! has been very popular "orld "ide. &uch systems are built based on accepted standards! such as O&4 (Olobal &ystem for 4obile communication) and I&/D<(Intermediate &tandard/D<). &everal standards of present and future generations of mobile communication systems include CD4+ as an important component "hich allo"s a satisfactorily large number of users to communicate simultaneously over a common radio frequency band. Cellular CD4+ is a promising access technique for supporting multimedia services in a mobile environment as it helps to reduce the multi/path fading effects and interference. It also supports universal frequency reuse! "hich implies large teletraffic capacity to accommodate ne" calling subscribers. In a practical system! ho"ever! the actual number of users "ho can simultaneously use the $2 band satisfactorily is limited by the amount of interference generated in the air interface. + good feature is that the teletraffic capacity is _softY! i.e. there is no _hardY or fixed value for the maximum capacity. #he quality of received signal degrades gracefully "ith increase in the number of active users at a given point of time. <>

It is interesting to note that the quality of a radio link in a cellular system is often indicated by the &ignal/to/Interference $atio (&I$)! rather than the common metric _&'$Y. *et us remember that in a practical system! the spreading codes used by all the simultaneous users in a cell have some cross/correlation amongst themselves and also due to other propagation features! the signals received in a handset from all transmitters do not appear orthogonal to each other. 8ence! the signals from all users! other than the desired transmitter! manifest as interference. In a practical scenario! the total interference po"er may even momentarily exceed the po"er of the desired signal. #his happens especially "hen the received signals fluctuate randomly (fading) due to mobility of the users. 2ading is a maCor factor degrading the performance of a CD4+ system. While large/scale fading consists of path loss and shado"ing! small/scale fading refers to rapid changes in signal amplitude and phase over a small spatial separation. #he desired signal at a receiver is said to be _in outageY (i.e. momentarily lost) "hen the &I$ goes belo" an acceptable threshold level. +n ongoing conversation may get affected adversely if the outage probability is high or if the duration of outage (often called as _fade durationY) is considerable. 0n the other hand! lo" outage probability and insignificant _average fade durationY in a CD4+ system usually implies that more users could be allo"ed in the system ensuring good quality of signal. %PT(C)L /(.RE, An optical 1iber is a flexible! transparent fiber made of very pure glass (silica) not much bigger than a human hair that acts as a "aveguide! or 6light pipe6! to transmit light bet"een the t"o ends of the fiber. #he field of applied science and engineering concerned "ith the design and application of optical fibers is kno"n as 1iber optics. 0ptical fibers are "idely used in fiber/optic communications! "hich permits transmission over longer distances and at higher band"idths (data rates) than other forms of communication. 2ibers are used instead of metal "ires because signals travel along them "ith less loss and are also immune to electromagnetic interference. 2ibers are also used for illumination! and are "rapped in bundles so they can be used to carry images! thus allo"ing vie"ing in tight spaces. &pecially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications! including sensors and fiber lasers. <.

+n optical fiber Cunction box. #he yello" cables are single mode fibers5 the orange and blue cables are multi/mode fibers1 <>,.3< `m 043 and <>,.3< `m 047 fibers respectively. 0ptical fiber typically consists of a transparent core surrounded by a transparent cladding material "ith a lo"er index of refraction. *ight is kept in the core by total internal reflection. #his causes the fiber to act as a "aveguide. 2ibers that support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi/mode fibers (442)! "hile those that only support a single mode are called single/mode fibers (&42). 4ulti/mode fibers generally have a larger core diameter! and are used for short/distance communication links and for applications "here high po"er must be transmitted. &ingle/ mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than .!><> meters (7!::> ft). %PT(C)L -ETECT%RS #he detection of optical radiation is usually accomplished by converting the optical energy into an electrical signal. 0ptical detectors include photon detectors! in "hich one photon of light energy releases one electron that is detected in the electronic circuitry! and thermal detectors! in "hich the optical energy is converted into heat! "hich then generates an electrical signal. 0ften the detection of optical energy must be performed in the presence of noise sources! "hich interfere "ith the detection process. #he detector circuitry usually employs a bias voltage and a load resistor in series "ith the detector. #he incident light changes the characteristics of the detector and causes the current flo"ing in the circuit to change. #he output signal is the change in voltage drop across the load resistor. 4any detector circuits are designed for specific applications. Avalanche photodetectors (A*<s) are used in long3haul fiber optic systems, since they have superior sensitivity, as much as !4 d0 better than *I( diodes" 0asically, an A*< is a *3( =unction photodiode operated with high reverse bias" he materials is typically In*>In6aAs" ?ith the high applied potential, impact ioni@ation from the lightwave generates electron3hole pairs that subsequently cause an avalanche across the potential barrier" his current gain gives the A*< its greater

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sensitivity" A*<s are commonly used up to '"7 6bps and sometimes to !4 6bps if the e#tra cost can be =ustified" +ilicon photodiodes (A*<s) are used in lower frequency systems (up to !"7 or ' 6A@) where they can meet low cost and modest frequency response requirements" +i devices are used in pairs in wavelength sensors" he ratio of longer and shorter wavelength sensors is proportional to the input wavelength" Aopefully, this short tutorial provides a useful introduction to an important part of optical communication systems"

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