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Who is Lucy?
Lucy
Figure 04.12c
A partial hominid skeleton, discovered at Hadar, Ethiopia, Africa in 1974. An early hominid genus. A female adult, 3.5 feet tall. Characterized by bipedal locomotion Earliest known bipedal prior to humans (~3.2 million years)
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
Lucy
A 40% complete skeleton of Lucy indicates that she was bipedal.
Lucy Why do we think Lucy was bipedal (walking upright)? What requirement is needed for effective and efficient bipedal posture and locomotion? Lets compare between Chimpanzee (quadruped, knuckle walking), and Human (biped, upright walking)
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
Was She?
Lucys entire skeleton was reconstructed from the remains that were discovered.
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
Human bipedal
Center of Mass
Representing a system of particles by an equivalent single particle: Center of Mass
Rigid object like cars, balls and so forth are systems of particles
The distance between any two points on a rigid body remains constant in time.
What is Force?
What does force do?
Already we studied them (previous chapter)
The mass of an object can be distributed uniformly or non-uniformly How can we quantify the mass distribution? The center of mass (CM) of a system is the point at which all the mass of the system may be considered to be concentrated.
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
What is Torque?
What does torque do?
Center of Mass
The system may be either:
a group of objects (particles) or an extended object like our body.
Center of Mass
The system may be an extended object like our body.
The translational motion of the center of mass of the system is the same as if the mass of the system is concentrated at that point.
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
Center of Mass
For an extended object, like our body, different parts move with different speed. So the motion of a body can be described in terms of the position and motion of the center of mass of the body (point particle Model).
Center of Mass
The center of mass of a ball thrown in the air follows a parabolic path We can see this easily because the ball is a simple, pointlike object
Center of Mass
Center of Mass
The center of mass of a hammer (black dot) also follows a parabolic path when the hammer is thrown in the air, but this is harder to observe The other points on the hammer follow a more complex path
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
The center of mass of this wrench is following a straight-line path, as though it were a particle, but the wrench is rotating around its center of mass
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
Center of Mass
May be inside or outside of the object.
Center of Mass
http://hippie.nu/~unicorn/tut/xhtml/
http://hippie.nu/~unicorn/tut/xhtml/
xCM =
m1 x1 + m2 x2 m1 + m2
xCM
m x + m2 x 2 = 1 1 m1 + m2
Center of Mass
m2 xi
y1
y2
m1
xCM =
m x1 + m x2 x + x2 = 1 2 m + m
xCM = m1 x1 + m2 x2 + m3 x3 + ... + mn xn m1 + m2 + m3 + ... + mn
m1 y1 + m1 y 2 + m 3 y 3 + ... + m n y n m1 + m 2 + m 3 + ... + m n
x2
x1 mi yi
So, the position of the center of mass in this case is merely the average position of the system.
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
YCM =
Center of Mass
The center of mass of a rigid body is a position in space described mathematically as:
xCM = m1 x1 + m2 x2 + m3 x3 + ... m1 + m2 + m3 + ... =
m x m
i
i i
i i
m1
m2
( x1 , y1 )
( x2 , y 2 )
CM
xCM =
m1 x1 + m2 x 2 + m3 x3 m1 + m2 + m3
yCM
m y + m2 y2 + m3 y3 + ... = 1 1 m1 + m2 + m3 + ...
m y m
m3
( x3 , y 3 )
A body (an extended object) is divided into many small particles, having specific mass and specific coordinates.
PHYS PHYS 1L03, 1L03, Fall Fall 2013, 2012, McMaster McMaster University, University, R.Nejat R.Nejat PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
Center of Mass
For symmetric objects whose mass is distributed uniformly (i.e. constant density), the center of mass is at the geometric center of the object
Center of Mass
For objects with non-uniform mass distribution , having irregular shape, the center of mass may be evaluated by suspending as shown below:
The center of mass of a body of any shape can be located by suspending it from at least two points.
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
m x m
i
i i
, yCM =
m y m
i i
m x m m y m
i i i
i i
0.18 m elbow
0.12 m
0.40 m
Physics: Torque
Questions:
Pop-Quiz : Torque
Physics: Torque
Q: Where on a door do
If You want to close this door most easily (i.e. with the smallest possible force), along which line should you push?
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
A:
Physics: Torque
Torque is the tendency of a force to produce rotation about an axis. Torque may be considered as the rotational equivalent of force.
Torque produces rotational acceleration, like Force that produces translational acceleration
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
Physics: Torque Torque, (Greek tau), due to a force F applied at a distance r from the axis of rotation (pivot, hinge, fulcrum), at an angle to the radial line is:
= r F sin
F sin r
F = F sin
Axis
F sin
Physics: Torque
Torque = (distance between axis of rotation and point of application of force) x (component of force perpendicular to this line) = (r) x (Fsin)
F F sin
Axis
Physics: Torque
Torque , sign convection for direction:
r
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
Physics: Torque (Review) We quantify the effectiveness of a force in creating rotation using the quantity called torque. Torque plays the same role in rotational motion that force plays in translational motion.
Physics: Torque
The ability of a force to cause a rotation or a twisting motion depends on:
The magnitude, F, of the force. The distance, r, from the pivot to the point at which the force is applied. The angle, , at which the force is applied
= r F sin
Axis
F
Axis
= r F sin
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
r Larger Torque
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
r Smaller Torque
= F r sin
r = r sin
Axis
F r
= F r
F is the perpendicular component of the force F which contributes to the torque. F is the parallel component of the force F which passes through the axis and does not contribute to the torque.
PHYS PHYS 1L03, 1L03, Fall Fall 2013, 2012, McMaster McMaster University, University, R.Nejat R.Nejat
The distance r is called Lever arm (moment arm). The Lever arm is the perpendicular distance to the line of action of the force.
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
Le r ver = r s arm in ,
Example 4: Torque
A person is lying on an exercise mat and lifts one leg at an angle of 30.0o from the horizontal with an 89 N weight attached to the ankle. The distance between the ankle weight and the hip joint is 84 cm. What is the torque due to the ankle weight on the leg.
pivot
Fg
Physics: Mechanical equilibrium An object is said to be in mechanical equilibrium if it has neither translational acceleration nor rotational acceleration it can still be translating and/or rotating at constant speeds (dynamic mechanical equilibrium) An object is in static mechanical equilibrium if it is neither rotating nor translating
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
r F =0
=0
Fx = 0 Fy = 0 Rotational Equilibrium:
F = 0
=0
counterclockwise
clockwise
=0
Torque: Example 5
Calculate the torque due to the three forces shown about the left end of the bar (the blue X). The length of the bar is 4 m and F2 acts in the middle of the bar.
F2=30 N
30
F = 0
=0
45
F3=20 N
If a body returns to a static equilibrium after being displaced from it by a force, it is in stable static equilibrium.
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
10
F1=25 N
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
Example 5 continued:
Lever arm r2 for F2 F2=30 N
= r F
30
Example 5: Torque
Another Way:
= r F
F3=20 N
10
F2=30 N
30
45
F1x
45
F2x
X
F1y
10
F3x
F1=25 N
PHYS PHYS 1L03, 1L03, Fall Fall 2013, 2012, McMaster McMaster University, University, R.Nejat R.Nejat
PHYS PHYS 1L03, 1L03, Fall Fall 2013, 2012, McMaster McMaster University, University, R.Nejat R.Nejat
Example 5: Torque
Another Way:
= r F
F1x
45
Example 5: Torque
F2=30 N
30
Another Way:
30 F2y
= r F
F1x
45
F2x
F3y
F3=20 N
10
X
F1y
10
F3x
F3x
F1y
1 = 0
F3 x = 20 cos10 = 19.69 N = 19.7 N F3 = F3 y = 20 sin 10 = 3.47 N
F1=25 N
F1=25 N
F1x = 25 cos 45 = 17.67 F1 = F1 y = 25 sin 45 = 17.67 F2 x = 30 sin 30 = 15 N F2 = F2 y = + 30 cos 30 = 25.98 N = 26 N
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
3 = ( F3 y ) ( r3 ) = + (3.47 N ) ( 4 m) = + 13.88 Nm
net =
Torque
Fb
Find the force exerted by the biceps muscle in holding a one liter milk carton with the forearm parallel to the floor.
Load
Example 7:
Two children, of mass mA and mB, sitting on a teeter-totter. The teeter-totter itself is hinged to the pivot about which it rotates. Take the distances of the children to the pivot dA and dB, respectively. Write the conditions that the teeter-totter stays in equilibrium.
The rigid body system is the beam and the two children. Neglect the mass of the beam.
Practice:
Two children, of mass mA and mB, are sitting on a teeter-totter. The teeter-totter itself is hinged to the pivot about which it rotates. Take the distances of the children to the pivot dA and dB, respectively. Write the conditions that the teeter-totter stays in equilibrium. if : mA = 100 kg mB = 40 kg dA = 1 m Find dB= ?
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
Translational equilibrium:
Rotational equilibrium:
F =0
+ R FA FB = 0
R m A g mB g = 0
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
= 0
FA d A FB d B + R(0) = 0
FA d A = FB d B
2. A 10 m long pole, of mass 400 N, is held stationary by a rope as shown. The rope is connected 6.0 m from the ground. At the end of the pole hangs a 1000 N weight. What is the tension in the rope?
10 m
Does walking upright need change to the function of gluteal (abductor) muscles?
30o
53.1o
87
Bipedalism
Does walking upright need considerable change to the shape of the pelvis bones?
Human
Chimpanzee
The human pelvis is shaped more in the form of a basin (bowl) to support internal organs; moreover, it is shorter and broader, thus stabilizing weight transmission.
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
Mass Distribution
Much of the mass of a chimp is not aligned with the pelvis Most of the mass of the human lies along a vertical line passing through the pelvis
Does walking upright create a change in the position of the center of mass (center of gravity)? Does it create a change in position of weight line?
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
Quadrupedalism
Having long upper body shifts apes center of mass far ahead of pelvis, which is the result of the shape of the pelvis bones, weight line does not pass through pelvis.
Bipedalism
Having long hind limbs and basin shape pelvis shifts humans center of mass close to the pelvis, so weight line does pass through the pelvis.
Bipedalism
Does walking upright need change to the function of gluteal (abductor) muscles?
There are Large (maximus), medium (medimus), and small (minimus) gluteal
Quadrupedalism
The gluteal muscles stretch the ape at the hip joint, causing a large mostly horizontal force, accelerating its body forward. Pushing (applying force) into the ground (at a small angle with the ground) accelerates apes body.
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
Human Bipedalism
Contracting the abductor (medium and small gluteal) muscles (applying force) accelerate human body upward and not forward. The gluteal muscles (large, medium, small) are critical for maintaining the lateral stability (balance) during walking. The gluteal muscle keeps human upper body from falling forward while walking.
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
So the function of these muscles are balance rather than rapid acceleration.
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
Human Bipedalism
PHYS PHYS 1L03, 1L03, Fall Fall 2013, 2012, McMaster McMaster University, University, R.Nejat R.Nejat
http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Sciences/LifeScience/PhysicalAnthropology/HumansEvolved/HumanLineage/EarliestHominids/mechbiped.gif
Stability, Equilibrium Having center of mass directly over the bodys base, the normal force at the base of support cancels the force of gravity (weight) and the torque produced by it.
A body is in stable equilibrium under its weight if its center of mass (gravity) is directly over its base of support.
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
The wider the base on which the body rests, the more stable it is; (more difficult to topple it).
PHYS 1L03, Fall 2013, McMaster University, R.Nejat
Stability, Equilibrium Here, the weight and the normal force cancel, so:
Stability, Equilibrium
r F =0
=0
r w
r N
Balance
Stability, Equilibrium
Here, we have:
r F =0
But
r N
0
r w
Bipedalism Summary:
Figure 14.04
walking upright required: considerable change to the shape of the pelvis bones. change in the role of gluteal muscles, from propulsion to producing balance. walking upright needs: change in center of mass position.
PHYS PHYS 1L03, 1L03, Fall Fall 2013, 2012, McMaster McMaster University, University, R.Nejat R.Nejat
Why?
Examining the pelvis and lower limbs of Ape, Australopithecus (Lucy), and Human
PHYS PHYS 1L03, 1L03, Fall Fall 2013, 2012, McMaster McMaster University, University, R.Nejat R.Nejat
Lucy-Chimp Skeleton
Lucy-Human Skeleton