1

How Computer Network Works

In the world of computers, networking is the practice of linking two or more computing devices together for the purpose of sharing data. Networks are built with a mix of computer hardware and computer software. Introduction to Network Types Networks can be categorized in several different ways. One approach defines the type of network according to the geographic area it spans. ocal area networks ! "Ns#, for example, typically reach across a single home, whereas wide area networks !$"Ns#, reach across cities, states, or even across the world. The Internet is the world%s largest public $"N. One way to categorize the different types of computer network designs is by their scope or scale. &or historical reasons, the networking industry refers to nearly every type of design as some kind of area network. 'ommon examples of area network types are( "N ) ocal "rea Network $ "N ) $ireless ocal "rea Network $"N ) $ide "rea Network *"N ) *etropolitan "rea Network +"N ) +torage "rea Network, +ystem "rea Network, +erver "rea Network, or sometimes +mall "rea Network '"N ) 'ampus "rea Network, 'ontroller "rea Network, or sometimes 'luster "rea Network ,"N ) ,ersonal "rea Network -"N ) -esk "rea Network "N and $"N were the original categories of area networks, while the others have gradually emerged over many years of technology evolution. Note that these network types are a separate concept from network topologies such as bus, ring and star. " local area network (LAN) supplies networking capability to a group of computers in close proximity to each other such as in an office building, a school, or a home. " "N is useful for sharing resources like files, printers, games or other applications. " "N in turn often connects to other "Ns, and to the Internet or other $"N. *ost local area networks are built with relatively inexpensive hardware such as .thernet cables, network adapters, and hubs. $ireless "N and other more advanced "N hardware options also exist. Wireless Local Area Network (WAN) ) " wireless "N !or $ "N, for wireless local area network, sometimes referred to as "$N, for local area wireless network# is one in which a mobile user can connect to a local area network ! "N# through a wireless !radio# connection.

2
Wide Area Network !$"N# is a geographically dispersed telecommunications network. The term distinguishes a broader telecommunication structure from a local area network ! "N#. " wide area network may be privately owned or rented, but the term usually connotes the inclusion of public !shared user# networks. "n intermediate form of network in terms of geography is a metropolitan area network !*"N#. ) 'overs a broad area !i.e., any network whose communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries /01#. Or, less formally, a network that uses routers and public communications links /01. 'ontrast with personal area networks !,"Ns#, local area networks ! "Ns#, campus area networks !'"Ns#, or metropolitan area networks !*"Ns# which are usually limited to a room, building, campus or specific metropolitan area !e.g., a city# respectively. The largest and most well)known example of a $"N is the Internet. Wide Area Networks !$"Ns# span broad geographical distances ) entire regions, states, continents, or the entire globe. The most universal and powerful $"N is the Internet. 'omputers connect to a $"N through public networks such as the telephone system or private cable systems, or through leased lines or satellites. " *etropolitan "rea Network !*"N# is a large computer network that spans a metopolitan area or campus. Its geographic scope falls between a $"N and "N. *"ns provide Internet connectivity for "Ns in a metropolitan region, and connect them to wider area networks like the Internet.

Network Topology
) In computer networking, topology refers to the layout of connected devices. This article introduces the standard topologies of networking. ) 2epresents its layout or structure from the point of view of data flow.

Topology in Network Design

Think of a topology as a network%s virtual shape or structure. This shape does not necessarily correspond to the actual physical layout of the devices on the network. &or example, the computers on a home "N may be arranged in a circle in a family room, but it would be highly unlikely to find a ring topology there. Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types( 3us 2ing +tar Tree *esh

*ore complex networks can be built as hybrids of two or more of the above basic topologies.

Bus Topology
3us networks !not to be confused with the system bus of a computer# use a common backbone to connect all devices. " single cable, the backbone functions as a shared communication medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface connector. " device wanting to communicate with another device

3
on the network sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and processes the message. .thernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don%t re4uire much cabling compared to the alternatives. 053ase)6 !7ThinNet7# and 053ase)8 !7ThickNet7# both were popular .thernet cabling options many years ago for bus topologies. 9owever, bus networks work best with a limited number of devices. If more than a few dozen computers are added to a network bus, performance problems will likely result. In addition, if the backbone cable fails, the entire network effectively becomes unusable. 3us Topology -iagram

This diagram illustrates the bus network topology. " bus topology such as 053ase)6 or 053ase)8 .thernet uses a single communication backbone for all devices.

Ring Topology
In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes. "ll messages travel through a ring in the same direction !either 7clockwise7 or 7counterclockwise7#. " failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network. To implement a ring network, one typically uses &--I, +ON.T, or Token 2ing technology. 2ing topologies are found in some office buildings or school campuses. 2ing Topology -iagram

This diagram illustrates the ring network topology. " ring topology such as &--I or +ON.T sends messages clockwise or counterclockwise through the shared link.

4 tar Topology
*any home networks use the star topology. " star network features a central connection point called a 7hub7 that may be a hub, switch or router. -evices typically connect to the hub with :nshielded Twisted ,air !:T,# .thernet. 'ompared to the bus topology, a star network generally re4uires more cable, but a failure in any star network cable will only take down one computer%s network access and not the entire "N. !If the hub fails, however, the entire network also fails.# +tar Network Topology -iagram

This diagram illustrates the star network topology. " star topology typically uses a network hub or switch and is common in home networks.

Tree Topology
Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its simplest form, only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus, and each hub functions as the 7root7 of a tree of devices. This bus;star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network much better than a bus !limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates# or a star !limited by the number of hub connection points# alone. Tree Network Topology

This diagram illustrates the tree network topology. " tree topology integrates the star and bus topologies in a hybrid approach to improve network scalability.

5 !es" Topology
*esh topologies involve the concept of routes. :nlike each of the previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to destination. !2ecall that even in a ring, although two cable paths exist, messages can only travel in one direction.# +ome $"Ns, most notably the Internet, employ mesh routing. " mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. "s shown in the illustration below, partial mesh networks also exist in which some devices connect only indirectly to others. *esh Network Topology

This diagram illustrates the mesh network topology. " mesh topology provides redundant communication paths between some or all devices !partial or full mesh#. +ummary Topologies remain an important part of network design theory. <ou can probably build a home or small business computer network without understanding the difference between a bus design and a star design, but becoming familiar with the standard topologies gives you a better understanding of important networking concepts like hubs, broadcasts, and routes.

C#L#R$C#D% TANDARD
"gain, please bear with me... et%s start with simple pin)out diagrams of the two types of :T, .thernet cables and watch how committees can make a can of worms out of them. 9ere are the diagrams(

Note that the T= !transmitter# pins are connected to corresponding 2= !receiver# pins, plus to plus and minus to minus. "nd that you must use a crossover cable to connect units with identical

6
interfaces. If you use a straight)through cable, one of the two units must, in effect, perform the cross)over function. Two wire color)code standards apply( .I";TI" 8>?" and .I";TI" 8>?3. The codes are commonly depicted with 2@)A8 Backs as follows !the view is from the front of the Backs#(

If we apply the 8>?" color code and show all eight wires, our pin)out looks like this(

Note that pins A, 8, C, and ? and the blue and brown pairs are not used in either standard. Duite contrary to what you may read elsewhere, these pins and wires are not used or re4uired to implement 0553"+.)T= duplexing))they are Bust plain wasted. 9owever, the actual cables are not physically that simple. In the diagrams, the orange pair of wires are not adBacent. The blue pair is upside)down. The right ends match 2@)A8 Backs and the left ends do not. If, for example, we invert the left side of the 8>?" 7straight7)thru cable to match a 8>?" Back)) put one 0?5E twist in the entire cable from end)to)end))and twist together and rearrange the appropriate pairs, we get the following can)of)worms( This further emphasizes, I hope, the importance of the word 7twist7 in making network cables which will work. <ou cannot use an flat)untwisted telephone cable for a network cable. &urthermore, you must use a pair of twisted wires to connect a set of transmitter pins to their corresponding receiver pins. <ou cannot use a wire from one pair and another wire from a different pair.

7
Feeping the above principles in mind, we can simplify the diagram for a 8>?" straight)thru cable by untwisting the wires, except the 0?5E twist in the entire cable, and bending the ends upward. ikewise, if we exchange the green and orange pairs in the 8>?" diagram we will get a simplified diagram for a 8>?3 straight)thru cable. If we cross the green and orange pairs in the 8>?" diagram we will arrive at a simplified diagram for a crossover cable. "ll three are shown below.

L%T& !A'% (T (!)L%

There are only two uni4ue cable ends in the preceding diagrams. They correspond to the 8>?" and 8>?3 2@)A8 Backs and are shown to the right. "gain, the wires with colored backgrounds may have white stripes and may be denoted that way in diagrams found elsewhere. &or example, the green wire may be labeled Green)$hite))I don%t bother. The background color is always specified first. Now, all you need to remember, to properly configure the cables, are the diagrams for the two cable ends and the following rules(

A straig"t$t"ru ca*le "as identical ends+ A crosso,er ca*le "as di--erent ends+

It makes no functional difference which standard you use for a straight)thru cable. <ou can start a crossover cable with either standard as long as the other end is the other standard. It makes no functional difference which end is which. -espite what you may have read elsewhere, a 8>?" patch cable will work in a network with 8>?3 wiring and 8>?3 patch cable will work in a 8>?" network. The electrons couldn%t care less. !y pre-erence is to use t"e ./0A standard -or straig"t$t"ru ca*les and to start crosso,er ca*les wit" a ./0A end+ T"at way all ( "a,e to remem*er is t"e diagram -or t"e ./0A end1 t"at a straig"t$t"ru ca*le "as two o- t"em1 and t"at t"e green and orange pairs are swapped at t"e ot"er end o- a crosso,er ca*le. .T%+ *"F. +O*. '"3 .+

0. ,ull the cable off the reel to the desired length and cut. I have a box of cable at one end of my shop and a mark on the floor 05% away. &or cable lengths which are a fraction of ten feet, I eye)ball the length as I pull the cable out of the box !also, my feet are about one foot long#. &or longer cables, I pull it out to the ten foot mark and go back to the box and pull the remaining fraction or another ten feet. If you are pulling cables through walls, a hole in the floor, etc., it easier to attach the 2@)A8 plugs after the cable is pulled. The total length of wire segments between a ,' and a hub or between two ,'%s cannot exceed 055 *eters !H6? feet or about the length of a football field# for 0553"+.)T= !and 053"+.)T#. 6. +trip one end of the cable with the stripper or a knife and diags. If you are using the stripper, place the cable in the groove on the blade !left# side of the stripper and align the end of the cable with the right side of the stripper. This is about right to strip a little over 0;67 of the Backet off the cable. Turn the stripper about one turn or so. If you turn it much more, you will probably nick the wires. The idea is to score the outer Backet, but not go all the way through. Once scored, you should be able to twist the end of the Backet loose and pull it off with one hand while holding the rest of the cable with the other. If you are using a knife and diags, carefully slit the cable for about an inch or so and neatly trim around the circumference of the cable with the diags to remove the Backet. H. Inspect the wires for nicks. 'ut off the end and start over if you see any. <ou may have to adBust the blade with the screw at the front stripper. 'able diameters and Backet thicknesses vary. A. +pread and arrange the pairs roughly in the order of the desired cable end.

10
8. :ntwist the pairs and arrange the wires in the order of the desired cable end. &latten the end between your thumb and forefinger. Trim the ends of the wires so they are even with one another. (t is ,ery important t"at t"e unstripped (untwisted) end *e slig"tly less t"an 2345 long+ If it is longer than 0;67 it will be out)of)spec and susceptible to crosstalk. If it less than slightly less than 0;67 it will not be properly clinched when 2@)A8 plug is crimped on.. &latten again. There should be little or no space between the wires.

>. 9old the 2@)A8 plug with the clip facing down or away from you. ,ush firmly into the plug. Now, inspect t"e darn t"ing+++ *e-ore crimping and t"e plug6 ooking through the bottom of the plug, the wire on the far left have a white background. The wires should alternate light and dark from right. The furthest right wire is brown. The wires should all end evenly at of the plug. The Backet should end Bust about where you see it in the diagram))right on the line. "ren%t you glad you didn%t crimp the plugI

the wire wasting side will left to the front

Color Coding In the cabling industry color coding is used to identify a pair of conductors by its uni4ue number, corresponding to the combination of tip and ring colors. 'opper and fiber color coding are somewhat different, so the tables are split onto copper and fiber sections. ,lease follow the links below to see the color code tables, depending on the pair !fiber# count of the cable. A pair cable%s color code table. .very pair uses white as a tip color and one of four !blue, orange, green, brown# ring colors. pair 2 4 7 8 pair -igure tip w"ite w"ite w"ite w"ite tip ring *lue orange green *rown ring

-igure