INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION

CENTRE (INTEC)
A-LEVEL MEDICINE
BIOLOGY LABORATORY REPORT
NAME : YIN ZHENG DAO
NRIC

: 910902-02-5059
GROUP : 10M7

STUDENT ID : 2009628992
TITLE : Investigating human breathing
DATE : 22nd September 2010
LECTURER : MR. MANOHARAN

Problem Statement
How does the lung capacity differ before and after exercise?

Objectives
To determine lung capacity.

Introduction
Respiration is defined as the transport of oxygen from the outside
air to the cells within tissues and the transport of carbon dioxide in the
opposite direction. This is in contrast to the biochemical definition of
respiration, which refers to cellular respiration: the metabolic process by
which an organism obtains energy by reacting oxygen with glucose to
give water, carbon dioxide and ATP which is used as energy. Although
physiologic respiration is necessary to sustain cellular respiration and thus
life in animals, the processes are distinct: cellular respiration takes place
in individual cells of the animal, while physiologic respiration concerns the
bulk flow and transport of metabolites between the organism and the
external environment.
In unicellular organisms, simple diffusion sufficient for gas
exchange: every cell is constantly bathed in the external environment,
with only a short distance for gases to flow across. In contrast, complex
multicellular animals such as humas have a much greater distance
between the environment and their innermost cells, thus, a respiratory
system is needed for effective gas exchange. The respiratory system
works in concert with a circulatory system to carry gases to and from the
tissues.
Vital capacity (VC) is the maximum amount of air a person can
exhale after filling his lungs to the maximum extent possible. The
anatomical build of the subject, the position of his body during the
measurement, the strength of the respiratory muscles, and the
distensibility of the lungs and rib cage are the major factors which affect
VC. The average VC in a young adult male is approximately 4.6 L, and in
the young adult female about 3.1 L, significant variance from thses values
might be observed.
When measuring VC, the subject should sit as straight as possible,
holding a spirometer with mouthpiece attached. After setting the needle
at the O mark, the subject occludes the nasal airway by pinching the
nose, inhales as deeply as possible, and exhales all of the air through the
spirometer. Care must be taken to avoid any leakage of air around the
edge of the mouthpiece and it is best to perform the maneuver with less
than maximum force, although the lungs must be emptied as completely

as possible. The vales shown on the spirometer gauge are recorded and
readings are repeated to get the average. The largest volume of gas
exhaled in a single trial will be the subjects VC.
Tidal volume (TV) is the amount of air inspired and expired during a
single normal breath. In a young adult male, TV is normally about 500 cc.
The subject should rest quietly for 5 minutes before making the tidal
volume measurement. The recording position is the same as for cital
capacity in the preceding exercise. The subject pinches his nose, places
the spirometer mouthpiece loosely between his lips, and breathes
normally through the corner of his mouth for several breaths. The
diameter of the spirometer mouthpiece is too small to inhale through
comfortably. After a regular breathing pattern is established, the subject
exhales five normal successive normal breaths into the spirometer. It is
necessary to exhale with moderate force to activate the spirometer
mechanism. Record the meter reading for the total of five breahts and
divide by 5 to calculate the average tidal volume at rest.
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) is the maximum amount of air
that can be expelled from the lungs by exhaling forcefully after the end of
a normal tidal expiration. ERV averages about 1100 cc in the young adult
male. The procedure for measuring ERV is similar to that for tidal volume.
The subject sits with his nose pinched and the mouthpiece positioned
lossely between his lips while he takes several quiet breathes without
exhaling through the spirometer. When a regular breathing pattern is
established, the subject exhales normally, then seals his lips around the
mouthpiece and forcefully expires as much of the remaining air as
possible into the spirometer. The values shown on the spirometer gauge
are recorded, just like the measurement procedures as mentioned before.
Residual Volume (RV) is defined as the amount of air remaining in
the lungs after maximum forced expiration and it cannot be measured
using the spirometer. Its value is usually assumed to be 1200 cc for a
young adult male and 900 cc for a young adult female.
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) is the amount of air that can be
inhaled in excess of normal inspiration during quiet breathing. The IRV is
calculated by adding the average values for TV and ERV and subtracting
the total from the measured VC (IRV = VC [TV + ERV]. Among young
adult males of average size, this volume is approximately 3000 cc.
Inspiratory Capacity (IC) is the maximum amount of air that can be
inhaled by subtracting ERV from VC (IC = VC ERV). Finally, Total Lung
Capacity (TLC) is the maximum volume of air that the lungs can hold
when distended to the greatest possible extent. Its value is calculated by
adding the values of VC and RV.

Figure 1 - Spiropet

A spiropet is used to measure lung capacity without using water. It

is small, lightweight, and easy to handle and offers a broad measurement
range of 1,0007,000cc.

Hypothesis
The tidal volume and vital capacity of an individual increases after
exercise.

Materials
Tissue paper, subject.

Apparatus
Spiropet, interchangeable mouthpiece.

Procedures
A. Measuring vital capacity (VC) at rest
1. The end of the mouthpiece was set to the nozzle of the spiropet.
2. The subject sat as straight as possible, holding the spirometer with

the mouthpiece attached to it.

3. The spiropet was then held by one hand and the indicator point set

to be at zero. If the indicator does not point at zero, it can be

adjusted by moving the upper outer ring to right or left.
4. Deep inhalation was then carried out, stretching the body upward in
the process.
5. The mouthpiece was set between lips when the lungs of the subject
was full.

6. Exhalation of all of the air was carried out strongly at one go.
7. After exhaling, the measurement was read on the spiropet gauge.

The experiment is repeated another 2 times. The largest volume of

gas exhaled in a single trial will be taken as the subjects VC value.

B. Measuring tidal volume (TV) at rest

The spiropet mouthpiece was placed loosely between
the lips of the subject.
1.

The subject then breathed normally through the corner

of his mouth or initiate several breaths.
2.

The subject exhales five successive normal breaths into

the spiropet.
3.

The meter reading for the total of five breathes were

taken and divided by 5 to obtain the average value of TV at
rest.
4.

C. Measuring expiratory reserve volume (ERV) at rest

1.

Steps 1 to 4 of experiment B were repeated for this

step.
When a regular breathing pattern is established, the
subject exhaled normally, then sealed his lips around the
mouthpiece and forcefully expired as much of the remaining
air as possible into the spiropet.
2.

3.
The experiment was repeated for another two times and
an average reading was obtained.

D.Measuring inspiratory reserve volume (IRV),

inspiratory capacity (IC), residual volume (RV) and
total lung capacity (TLC) at rest
Based on values of VC, TV and ERV obtained from
experiments A, B and C, the values for IRV, IC and TLC can be
calculated respectively based on the following formulas :
1.

2.
As RV is not measurable, it was assumed that RV for
males is 1200cc and that of female is 900cc.

E. Measuring VC after physical exercise

A form of exerting exercise was carried out by running
up and down the staircase for about 15 times.
1.

Once the subject starts panting, steps 7 to 9 were

repeated immediately.
2.

F. Measuring VC after physical exercise

A form of exercise was carried out by running up and
down the staircase for about 15 times.
1.

Once the subject starts panting, steps 5 and 6 were

repeated immediately.
2.

At the end of the experiment, the water drops and saliva

condensed in the inside of the spiropet were wiped using
tissue paper so that it remains clean for the next usage.
3.

Result
Vital
capacity
(VC), cc

Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3

Highest
value of VC

3800

3700

3900

3900

Table 1.1- Vital capacity (VC) at rest

Tidal volume (TV),

cc

Total for five

breaths
2000

Average reading

= 400

Table 2.1- Tidal volume (TV) at rest

Expiratory
reserve
volume
(ERV), cc

Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3

1800

1800

1800

Average
reading

= 1800
Table 3.1- Expiratory reserve volume(ERV) at rest

Components of lung volume

Reading (cc)

Inspiratory reserve volume

(IRV)

3000 - (1800 + 400)

= 1700

= VC - (TV + ERV)
Inspiratory capacity (IC)

3900 - 1800

= VC - ERV

= 2100

Residual volume (RV)

Assumed RV = 1200 for males

= 900 for
females

Total lung capacity (TLC)

3900 + 12=

= VC + RV

= 5100

Table 4.1- Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV), inspiratory capacity (IC), residual
volume (RV) and total lung capacity (TLC) at rest

Vital
capacity
(VC), cc

Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3

Highest
value of VC

4200

4200

4100

4200

Table 5.1- Vital capacity (VC) after exercise

Tidal volume (TC),

cc

Total for five

breaths

Average reading

2400

= 480

Table 6.1 -Tidal volume (TV) after exercise

Discussion
Evaluation of Data
The changes in lung volume during breathing processes are
investigated using the spirometer. In this investigation, a spiropet is used
to measure the lung capacity. A spiropet is a precision instrument with
broad measurement range, ranging from 1000cc to 7000cc. It has some
advantages over the conventional tank-type spirometer which gives
simplicity to the way of handling it during the procedures. Being light
weight and small size, it is also a dry spirometer which measures the lung
capacity without using water. That way, the setup time and mess
associated with spirometry is prevented.
Table 1.1 shows the vital capacity (VC) of the subject at rest. The
three readings obtained are 3800cc, 3700cc and 3900 cc being the
highest VC value. Table 2.1 meanwhile shows the tidal volume (TV) of
subject at rest. Five consecutive readings and a total of 2000cc and thus,
an average TV value of 400cc . Table 3.1 gives the expiratory reserve
volume (ERV) of subject.
Based of the VC, TV and ERV values, another few components of
lung volume can be calculated. The inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) is the
amount of air that can be inhaled in excess of normal inspiration during
quiet breathing, and is 1700cc. Inspiratory capacity (IC) on the other hand
is the maximum amount of air that can be inhaled from the normal end
expiratory level, calculated by subtracting ERV from VC, giving a lower
than expected reading of 2100 cc. As residual volume cannot be
measured, it can be assumed for to be 1200cc for a young adult male and
900cc for a female. Finally, the addition of VC and RV gives the total lung
capacity (TLC), which is the maximum volume of air that lungs can hold
when distended to the greatest possible extent. The TLC value is normally
around 6000cc . The value obtained in this experiment, though is 5100cc.
Table 5.1 and 6.1 shows the VC and TV values after physical
exercise which are 4200cc and 480cc respectively. Comparing those
values to the ones in Table 1.1 and 1.2, it also be said that exercise
increases the vital capacity and tidal volume of an individual. This results
is parallel with what were being expected and can be explained using
some biological principles. The level of carbon dioxide in blood plays the
most important role in controlling out breathing rate. In the course of an
exercise, the impulses from the cortex of the brain which consciously
recognizes movement
stimulates the respiratory centre in medulla
oblongata. Then, respiratory muscles are stimulated and the rate and

depth of ventilation are also increased. The demand for oxygen by

working muscles increases and more carbon dioxide is produced and
transported in the blood. A fall in pH level is then detected by
chemoreceptors which in turn, send impulses to the inspiratory centre.
Finally, the inspiratory centre sends nerve impulses to the intercostals
muscles and diaphragm, causing an increase in their contraction rates,
making them contract harder and more frequently resulting is the
increase in vital capity and tidal volume of lungs.
Based on the results, we can come to a conclusion that exercises
increases the vital capacity and tidal volume of the subject.

Sources of Errors and Ways to Overcome Them / Safety

Precautions
Some errors in the experiment will cause the result to be less accurate.
One possible source is during the usage of the spiropet. Spiropet may not
have been kept still when used. Consequently, the vanes cannot revolve
evenly and readings obtained will not be of high accuracy. The spiropet
should actually be kept horizontal by holding it firmly with one hand. The
subjects fingers might have also accidentally covered up a few of the
small holes which are at the side of the upper body of the instrument.
Besides that, water drops and saliva might condense on the inside of the
spiropet causing a lost in accuracy. In this experiment, the spiropet is only
wiped at the end of the experiment. To avoid this error, the inside should
be cleaned with tissue paper once in every five measurements.
The leakage of air around the edge of the mouthpiece might have also
caused the exhaled air to escape to the surrounding instead of entering
the spiropet. Hence, the subject should set the mouth carefully and tighly
between his lips so as to avoid any leakage of air. The difference in way of
breathing out when taking measurements of components of lung volume
using the spiropet could also affect the accuracy of the experiment.
Exhalation with too little force will not be enough to activate the spiropet
mechanism, causing a lower reading while too much force may affect the
accuracy of readings as well. Thus, it is always better to perform
moderate force during the experiment.
Comparing results of other subjects, there will be a significant variation
in them. The measurements of TC and ERV are repeated after exercising
so as to investigate the lung capacity at rest and after physical exercise.
Though having said that, the frequency of exercise is not the only factor
affecting the lung capacity of an individual. Other factors include age,

body size, health condition, gender, environment, genetics and others.

That is why the values will show slight variation as the other factors are
not kept constant except the age. One of the limitations in this
experiment is the genetics of the subject which is a factor which cannot
be controlled. Genetics affect the lung capacity of an individual. Before
conducting the experiment, the information on the genetic make-up of
each individual is unknown. This leads to variation in the results obtained
by different individuals as different subjects.
Zero error is another possible error that should be avoided when
rotating the spiropet dial until the needle is aligned with the O mark by
calibrating with the eyes level perpendicular to the calibrated scale. Air
holes of the instrument should not be blocked. The base of the spirometer
is a moisture trap and should be wiped using tissue paper only.
As for safety precautions, fully-covered shoes should be worn in order
to avoid any spillage of any solution on our feet. Long hair should be tied
up as well so that disturbances while conducting the experiment would
not take place. Suitable precautions should be taken when using the
spiropet as it is a precision instrument and is of a high costs.

Further works
Apart from that, further investigation can also be carried out to such
as :
To investigate the effect of age on lung capacity.
To investigate the effect of body size on lung capacity.

Conclusion
Vital capacity and tidal volume of an individual increases after exercise.
Thus, the hypothesis is accepted.

References

Ann Fullick, Edexcel A2 Biology, (Harlow, Pearson Education

Limited, 2009)

C J Clegg, Edexcel Biology for A2, (London, Hodder Education,

2009)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung_volumes, accessed 26th September

2010

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_lung, accessed 26th September

2010

http://www.wikihow.com/Increase-Your-Lung-Capacity, accessed 26th

September 2010

http://www.biologycorner.com/worksheets/lungcapacity.html,
accessed 26th September 2010

http://www.nlhep.org/spirom1.html, accessed 26th September 2010