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Tiwanaku Influence in the South Central Andes: Strontium Isotope Analysis and Middle Horizon Migration Author(s): Kelly J. Knudson Source: Latin American Antiquity, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Mar., 2008), pp. 3-23 Published by: Society for American Archaeology Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25478206 . Accessed: 03/03/2011 12:40
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TIWANAKU INFLUENCE IN THE SOUTH CENTRAL ANDES: STRONTIUM ISOTOPE ANALYSIS ANDMIDDLE HORIZON MIGRATION
Kelly J.Knudson

Although the presence of Tiwanaku-style material culture throughout southern Peru, northern Chile, and western Bolivia iswell documented, the nature of Tiwanaku influence during the is variously attributed to Middle horizon (A.D. 500-1100) human remains imperial expansion or economic and/or religious relationships. Strontium isotope data from archaeological sites identifiedfirst-generation immigrants from the Lake Titicaca basin outside of the Tiwanaku from Tiwanaku-affiliated site of Chen Chen. These data provide an important component to studies that demonstrated close Middle horizon but could not demonstrate the direction of population movement. How biological relationships during the ever, no immigrants from the Lake Titicaca basin were identified at the San Pedro de Atacama cemeteries of Coyo Orien tal, Coyo-3, and Solcor-3. At the sites of Tiwanaku, Tilata, Iwawe, and Kirawi, strontium isotope ratios were also variable, and demonstrate movement within the Lake Titicaca basin. This demonstrates that Tiwanaku influence involved direct col heartland at thePeruvian onization

in the local inhabitants adopted Tiwanaku Valley but that in other regions, like San Pedro de Atacama, Moquegua style material culture. This elucidates the complex and highly variable relationships between the Tiwanaku heartland and Middle horizon. peripheral sites during the Aun cuando naturaleza la presencia del estilo Tiwanaku esta bien documentada en el sur de Peru, norte de Chile y el oeste de Bolivia, la de esta influencia durante el horizonte Medio (500-1000 d.C) ha sido atribuida a la expansion imperial o a las relaciones economical y/o religiosas. Los datos obtenidos de los isotopos del estroncio de restos humanos arqueologicosproce

dentes de sitios defiliacion Tiwanaku identifcaron una primera generacion de migrantes de la cuenca del Titicaca, fuera del nucleo Tiwanaku en el sitio de Chen Chen. Estos analisis muestran una cercania biologica entre las poblaciones del horizonte Medio aunque no la direccion del flujo poblacional Sin embargo, ningun migrante de la cuenca del lago Titicaca fue identi ficado

en las muestras de los cementerios de Coyo Oriental, Coyo-3, y Solcor-3 en San Pedro de Atacama. En los sitios de Tiwanaku, Tilata, Iwawe, y Kirawi, los datos isotopicos^ son tambien diversos e indican un movimiento interno en la cuenca del lago Titicaca. Esto demuestra que Tiwanaku influencio de manera directa la colonizacion del valle de Moquegua pero que en otras regiones,como San Pedro de Atacama, los habitantes locales adoptaron el estilo Tiwanaku en su cultura material. la compleja y altamente variable relacion entre el nucleo de Tiwanaku y los sitios perifericos durante el horizonte

Esto aclara Medio.

Despite

Tiwanaku influence in theSouth Central Andes is stilldebated. Based on thespread ofTiwanaku-style material culture throughout southernPeru, north ern Chile and western Bolivia, Tiwanaku alterna tively has been called an expansionist state, a trade (e.g., Browman 1984; Dillehay andNunez A. 1988; Kolata 1993a; Mujica et al. 1983). Here, strontium isotope analysis is used to examine the nature of Tiwanaku influence and its relationship
Kelly J. Knudson University, PO Box religious phenomenon, and a center for caravan

the clear importance of the Middle hori Tiwanaku polity during the zon (A.D. 500-1100), the nature of

residential mobility by identifying first-generation migrants from theLake Titicaca basin in other regions in theSouth Central Andes. Using strontiumisotope signatures inhuman teeth and bone fromvarious Tiwanaku-affiliated sites, I demonstrate thatthe Tiwanaku polity utilized both direct colonization at sites such as Chen Chen and more ephemeral formsof influencein theSan Pedro
de Atacama oasis.

to Tiwanaku

evidence for Tiwanaku influence in theSouth Cen tral Andes. I thenintroducestrontium isotope analy
and Social Change, Arizona

I begin with a brief discussion of theprevious research on Tiwanaku residentialmobility and the

Center for Bioarchaeological Research, School of Human Evolution 872402, Tempe, AZ 85287 (kelly.knudson@asu.edu) Latin American Antiquity 19(1), 2008, pp. 3-23 by the Society forAmerican Archaeology 3

State

Copyright ?2008

4LATIN AMERICAN

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[Vol.

19, No. 1,2008

PERU

IBOLIVIA

'mt^3KKSCHILE\
Figure 1.Map

ARGENTINA
sites included in this study.

of the South Central Andes with Tiwanaku-afhTiated

sis before presenting strontium isotope data from archaeological human toothenamel and bone from the following sites: Chen Chen, Coyo Oriental,
Coyo-3, Solcor-3, Tiwanaku, Tilata, Kirawi, and

ship between theTiwanaku polity and Tiwanaku affiliatedperipheral sites have been explained in a
number

Iwawe (Figure 1). I conclude with a discussion of Tiwanaku residential mobility, and the nature of
Tiwanaku influence.

expansionist state or centralized bureaucracy that established colonies throughout theSouth Central Andes (Kolata 1982; Kolata 1992, 1993a, 1993b; Ponce Sangines 1972; Stanish 2003). Ifrulingelites at the siteofTiwanaku established colonies togain
access to valuable resources,

of ways.

Tiwanaku

may

have

been

an

The Tiwanaku

Polity: Models

and Mobility

The widespread distributionofTiwanaku-style arti facts in the South Central Andes and the relation

migrants atTiwanaku-affiliated siteswere colonists sentby the Tiwanaku polity.This would imply that theTiwanaku polity was an expansionist state or

first-generation

Knudson]

TIWANAKU

INFLUENCE

INTHE SOUTH

CENTRAL

ANDES

empire, although theestablishmentof state-directed system thatprovided maize toLake Titicaca basin sur inhabitants. More colonies is certainly not the only attribute of regional recently, extensive new on et al. data the Alcock and 2001; Doyle 1986; veys empires (e.g., development of Montiel Smith Smith and and have led to Tiwanaku enclaves 2001; Sinopoli 1994; Moquegua Valley theuse of a diasporic archipelago model to explain Schreiber 2005). The establishment of colonies and imperial expansion is, of course, only one ofmyriad ways inwhich groups interact (e.g.,Alcock et al. 2001;

the heterarchical and segmentary nature of the Tiwanaku state and thedevelopment ofTiwanaku affiliated sites outside of theLake Titicaca basin

Given 2004; Gosden 2004; Lightfoot 1995; Light (Goldstein 2000a, 2005). Owen (2005) has also footandMartinez 1995; Renfrew and Cherry 1986; used a two-stage diasporic model to elucidate Stein 1999,2005). Some scholars have argued that Tiwanaku expansion in the Moquegua and IloVal to these models, the spread of Tiwanaku material culture is best leys. According first-generation explained by economic and/or religious influence migrants from the Lake Titicaca basin were pre sent in the (Browman 1980, 1984; Dillehay and Nunez A. Moquegua Valley, butwere not sent by movement ofmaterial culture did theTiwanaku ruling elites to colonize the area. 1988). Here, the not involve the settlementof distant zones by indi Strontium isotope analysis has great potential viduals from theTiwanaku heartland. In models ofTiwanaku political integrationthat emphasize the role of theayllu, a self-definedkin of Tiwanaku

generationmigrants from theTiwanaku heartland in the southeasternLake Titicaca basin who were buried in Tiwanaku-affiliated sites. I used strontium isotope analysis to test the hypotheses that indi viduals buried in theTiwanaku-afflliated sites of Albarracin-Jordan (1992, 1996, 2003) argues that Chen Chen, Coyo-Oriental, Coyo-3, and Solcor-3 the Tiwanaku politywas a loosely centralized seg lived in the southeasternLake Titicaca basin dur mentary state or integratednested hierarchy that ing enamel formation in thefirstyears of life.The relied upon ayllu organization, reciprocity, and ide Lake presence of first-generation migrants from the Titicaca basin inTiwanaku-affiliated sites would ology ratherthandirect controlof local elites.Other group that is a basic political and social unit in the Andes, residentialmobility andmovement outside of the Lake Titicaca basin would have not been con trolledby theTiwanaku polity. For example, Juan scholars have similarlyemphasized therole of local communities while deemphasizing the role of Tiwanaku statecontrol,particularly in thevast agri
support the models of Tiwanaku as an

to test thevarious hypotheses regarding thenature influence by identifying first

cultural systems of theLake Titicaca basin (e.g., Erickson 1988, 1998; Graffam 1990, 1992). If the Tiwanaku polity did not utilize direct control by local elites,Tiwanaku influenceoutside of the Lake Titicaca basin may have been characterized by the establishment of a "vertical archipelago" ofmulti ethnic productive colonies (Mujica et al. 1983) based on John Murra's (1972,1985a, 1985b) sem
inal work.

ist statewith colonies, a vertical archipelago, or a diasporic archipelago. Only when combined with other lines of evidence can the strontium isotope evidence help to distinguish thesemodels of the
nature of Tiwanaku influence.

expansion

isotope analysis of individuals buried atTiwanaku and Tiwanaku-affiliated siteswithin theLake Tit icaca basin is used to test thehypothesis thatdiver sity ingeographic origins was an importantaspect of Tiwanaku ritual activity at Tiwanaku. Previous Research on Tiwanaku Residential Mobility Multiple lines of evidence have been used to test models ofTiwanaku influence.For example, in the mid-altitudeMoquegua Valley, domestic and pub lic architectureas well as residential andmortuary artifactassemblages suggest thatthe inhabitantsof Chen Chen were from or affiliated with the Tiwanaku heartland in the Lake Titicaca basin

Finally,

strontium

More recently,some scholars have continued to

move away

tives of the expansion of theTiwanaku polity to Goldstein 2000a, 2005; Janusek 1999,2002,2003a, 2004a, 2004b, 2005a, 2005b). For example, exca vations at major Tiwanaku-affiliated sitecomplexes in the Moquegua Valley of southernPeru led Paul Goldstein (1989,1992,1993) toconclude thatthese siteswere part of a centrally governed provincial
agency-oriented or "bottom-up" perspectives (e.g.,

from globalist

or

"top-down"

perspec

6 LATIN AMERICAN

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2000b, (Goldstein 1989,1990,1992,1993,2000a, 2003, 2005; Goldstein and Owen 2001; Moseley et al. 1991; Owen 2005; Owen and Goldstein 2001). This diaspora community specialized inpro ducing maize for export to theLake Titicaca basin (Goldstein 2000a, 2005). Similarly, genetic analy ses, including biodistance analysis using cranial nonmetric traits and aDNA of human skeletal remains fromChen Chen, shows that the genetic distance between the inhabitantsofChen Chen and Middle horizon Tiwanaku was smallest during the

much more evidence thata substantial local popu lation coexisted with individuals buried with Tiwanaku material culture in San Pedro de Ata cama. At cemeteries such as Coyo Oriental, Coyo

3, and Solcor-3, thereisevidence ofTiwanaku-style material culture such as snufftablets,ceramics, and textilesas well as local artifactsand foreigngoods from northernChile and northwesternArgentina (Berenguer 1978; Berenguer etal. 1980; Costa Jun queira and Llagostera 1994; Llagostera 1996; Llagostera et al. 1988; Oakland 1986; Oakland Rodman 1992, 1994; Oakland Rodman and Fer nandez 2000; Stovel 2001, 2002; Torres 1985,

has not been determined. In otherwords, decreased genetic distance between Tiwanaku and Chen Chen may be the result of individuals fromTiwanaku moving toChen Chen. This would supportamodel of Chen Chen as either a colony or diaspora com

(Blom 1999,2005; Blom et al. 1998; Lewis 2005; Lewis et al. 2007; Lewis et al. 2005; Lewis and Stone 2005). However, thedirection of population movement

Tiwanaku polity.However, as analy munity of the sis of thecranialmodification styles suggests (Blom 1999, 2005; Blom et al. 1998), decreased genetic mov distance could also be theresultof individuals ing fromChen Chen toTiwanaku. There is also evidence forTiwanaku influence in other regions that could have provided mid altitude crops toLake Titicaca basin populations. For example, theCochabamba region of eastern
Bolivia may have been colonized by Tiwanaku,

small, portable, and ritually important artifacts. Given the long caravan tripbetween theLake Tit icaca basin and San Pedro deAtacama, itisunlikely that the San Pedro de Atacama region ever con tained agricultural colonies affiliated with the Tiwanaku polity. Instead, it ismore likely that the turquoise, lapis lazuli, andmetal ores,were traded, water and thattheoasis was an importantsource for and food on long caravan trips (Stanish 2003; Tor
important mineral resources near the oasis, such as

1987, 2001, 2005; Torres and Conklin 1995). The types of Tiwanaku-style artifacts found in San Pedro de Atacama cemeteries mainly consist of

res and Conklin 1995). of the relationship between San Interpretations Pedro and Tiwanaku are highly variable. Based on
biodistance analysis of cranial nonmetric traits,

although a cultural,but not biological, relationship which showed the greatest genetic variability in Middle horizon, a Tiwanaku the oasis during the may have existed between the two areas (Caballero have been physically present at the Ibarra Grasso 1984; Higueras-Hare 1996, 2001; population may oasis (Varela 1997; Varela and Cocilovo 2000), andQuerejazu Lewis 1986; Kolata 1993a; O'Brien 2003; Stanish 2003). In addition, thereare at least while Amy Oakland Rodman (1992) came to the three cemeteries in theAzapa Valley of northern same conclusion based on her excellent analysis of on mortuary based textiles. However, Chile that contain individuals buried with exclu mortuary are and modification ceramics cranial and scholars artifacts, styles, other sively Tiwanaku-style
not a that there was have argued using various lines to evidence to examine the researchers Tiwanaku presence, or lack thereof,in this region Tiwanaku population at the oasis (Stovel 2002; Torres-Rouff 2002). It ispossible thatthe increased (Goldstein 1996, 2005; Rothhammer et al. 2006; Rothhammer and Santoro 2001; Sutter2000,2005, genetic variabilityat the siteresulted from increased caravan traffic and contacts with other regions, not and future Current Mertz and Sutter 2003). 2006;

Moquegua, Azapa, chaeological evidence from the the evidence for and Cochabamba Valleys, Tiwanaku influence in the San Pedro de Atacama There is oasis of northernChile is very different.

research in these regions will undoubtedly eluci date Tiwanaku influence in these regions. When compared to thearchaeological and bioar

Tiwanaku

colonization. previous research on Tiwanaku

In conclusion,

residential mobility has demonstrated close bio logical and cultural ties between the Tiwanaku heartland and other regions in the South Central
Andes. However,

be adopted by local populations and genetic analy

Tiwanaku-style

artifacts

could

Knudson]

TIWANAKU

INFLUENCE

INTHE SOUTH cent

CENTRAL and

ANDES 3.5^4

7 percent per year, respec

ses cannot determine the direction of population

movement. In contrast, strontium isotope analysis

per year

provides complementary informationby identify Lake Titicaca ingfirst-generation migrants from the
basin.

tively (Carr et al. 1962; Kulp and Schulert 1962; Parfitt 1983). On theotherhand, toothenamel does not incorporate strontium after formation. For

Strontium Isotope Analysis: An Introduction

Strontium isotope analysis can elucidate thenature ofTiwanaku influence in theSouth Central Andes by identifyingindividualswho lived inor near the migration and the geologic origins of immigrants siteofTiwanaku during childhood and then moved (Ericson 1985,1989; Price et al. 1994; Sealy et al. to and/orwere buried inTiwanaku-affiliated sites 1991;Sillenetal. 1989). outside of theLake Titicaca basin. While archae Strontium isotope ratios inhuman toothenamel ologists and bioarchaeologists have traditionally used proxymeasures for migration such as artifact
or biodistance

molar example, strontium isotope ratios in first toothenamel reflect thegeologic region or regions thatsupplied an individual's strontiumfor thefirst 3-4 years of life (Hillson 1986, 1996). Therefore, differences in strontium isotope ratios in human tooth enamel and bone can be used to identify

sis is increasinglyused to identify migration within the human skeleton (e.g., Knudson et al. 2005; Montgomery et al. 2005; Price et al. 2006; Wright 2005a). Although strontiumconcentrations inbone and tooth enamel vary according to trophic level, the strontiumisotope ratios inan individual's teethand

analyses,

strontium

isotope

analy

and bone reflectplace of residence during enamel and bone formationonly if thegeologic region in which an individual's high-strontium food was grown or raised was also the region inwhich they lived.Therefore, understanding thefood sources of the individuals analyzed is imperative.Nonlocal
sources can have a variable effect on an indi

food

bones will reflectthe strontiumisotope ratios of the geologic region or regions thatprovided that indi vidual's diet.The strontiumisotope ratios ina given geologic region are dependent on theage and com

dramatically differentstrontiumisotope ratiomay change the strontium isotope signature in an indi

vidual 's isotopic signature (Bentley 2006). For example, relatively small quantities of high strontium products imported from a regionwith a

position of the bedrock as 87Sr is formed from radioactive decay of rubidium 4.88 X (87Rb,t]/2= 1010 years) (Faure 1986a). Because the relative mass differencesbetween thefour isotopes of stron
tium

vidual's toothenamel and bone substantially. Alter natively, large quantities of high-strontium foods froma regionwith a very similar strontiumisotope signaturewill not substantially change her or his
strontium

Finally, it is necessary to ensure that the bone

or tooth enamel was not

isotope

signature.

topic composition of strontium is not appreciably fractionated during transportthrough the ecosys tem (Aberg 1995; Blum et al. 2000; Faure 1986b). During the development of teeth and bones, strontiumsubstitutesforcalcium inhydroxyapatite (Carr et al. 1962; Hodges et al. 1950; Kulp and Schulert 1962). Because strontiumis continuously incorporated intobone as itremodels, bone stron tium isotope ratios reflectwhere that individual livedduring bone formation. Cortical bone turnover rates varywidely and are dependent on the skele tal element involved as well as theage, sex, health, and activity levels on an individual (e.g., Branca and Robins 1992;Mulhern 2000; Mulhern andVan Gerven
elements tical bone

(86Sr,

87Sr, 88Sr, and

90Sr)

are

small,

the iso

While bone is suscep depositional contamination. tible to diagenetic contamination from the burial
environment, tooth enamel

changed

by

post

to contamination (e.g., Budd et al. 2000; Chiara dia et al. 2003; Ericson 1993; Hedges 2002; Lee Thorp 2002; Montgomery et al. 1999; Shellis and Dibdin 2000; Sillen 1989).Mechanical and chem ical cleaning of archaeological tooth enamel and
bone can eliminate some

is remarkably

resistant

mination thatoccurs (Hoppe et al. 2003; Lambert et al. 1991;Nielsen-Marsh andHedges 2000; Price et al. 1992; Price et al. 1994; Sillen and LeGros 1991; Sillen and Sealy 1995). In addition, several different techniques, including monitoring uranium concentrations and the ratio of calcium to phos contaminated samples phorus (Ca/P), can identify (Edward and Benfer 1993; Knudson 2004; Kohn

of the diagenetic

conta

1997). For femora and ribs, the skeletal

most commonly turnover rates used are in this study, cor 2 per approximately

8 LATIN AMERICAN Table 1. Strontium Isotope Data Laboratory Moquegua Moquegua Valley Valley (Moquegua) (Moquegua) F1027 F1028

ANTIQUITY and Modern

[Vol. Fauna Samples.

19, No. 1,2008

forArchaeological Corrected Specimen MOQ-005A MOQ-009A MOQ-014A QT6-0018 QT6-0033 SPA-0001 F1912 TIW-005A F1717 TIW-006A

Region(Site)_Number_Number_Material_87Sr/86Sr guinea pig bone (modern) guinea pig bone (modern) guinea pig bone (modern) .706184 .706452 .706121 .707659 .707762 .707511 .709877 .709304 .709291 .710561 .709368 .709545

F1029 Moquegua Valley (Moquegua) San Pedro de Atacama (Quitor-6) F1635 San Pedro de Atacama San Pedro de Atacama Titicaca Basin (Achuta) (Achuta) (Chiripa) (Lukurmata) (Tiwanaku) (Tiwanaku) (Yanarico)_F1715_TIW-003A_guinea Titicaca Basin Titicaca Basin Titicaca Basin Titicaca Titicaca Titicaca Basin Basin Basin (Quitor-6) (Quitor-6) F1636 F1714

mouse

bone (archaeological) dog bone (archaeological) guinea pig bone (modern) guinea pig bone (modern) guinea pig bone (modern) guinea pig bone (modern) guinea pig bone (modern) guinea pig bone (modern) guinea pig bone (modern) pig bone (modern)_.709562

F1024 CHIR-001A F1025 LKM-002A F1026 TIW-001A TIW-0007 F1718

et al. 1999; Nielsen-Marsh andHedges 2000; Price et al. 2002). Strontium Isotope Analysis: Field Methodology and Sampling Strategy For each individual included in this study,at least one toothenamel sample, preferably a first molar, was collected. When available, a rib or femoral fragmentwas also collected. At each site, 10-15 percent of the individualswho were included inpre vious biodistance and cranialmodification studies were included in this study (Blom 1999; Cocilovo and Zavattieri 1994; Costa Junqueira and et al. 1999; Varela 1997; Neves Llagostera 1994; Varela and Cocilovo 2000). Individuals were cho sen for inclusion in this study through a random

grown in the same or similar agricultural field sys were used in the tems that Middle horizon were col lected. When
available,

able strontiumisotope signatures fromeach region (Table 1).The animals' owners provided informa tion about the animals' life histories and food sources.When possible, animals raised on foods

modern

guinea

pigs were
were

not
ana

archaeological

small mammals

lyzed. Strontium Isotope Analysis: Laboratory Methods

Tooth and bone

sampling strategydesigned to reflect the cemeter ies' age and sex compositions. Although this strat egywas designed toaccurately reflectthe mortuary population at each site, it is expected thatfirst generation migrants will be underrepresented in This studycan identify this study. only individuals who migrated from a geologic zone with a differ ent strontium isotope signature than the zone in were buried during enamel formation. which they In addition, individuals whose ancestors migrated from the Lake Titicaca basin may have self identified as Tiwanaku-affiliated but will not be identifiedas first-generation migrants according to

chemically cleaned and prepared for analysis in the Laboratory for Archaeological Chemistry at the at of Wisconsin Madison byK.J. Knud University son, as described elsewhere (Knudson and Price 2007; Knudson et al. 2004; Knudson et al. 2005).
K.J. Knudson and P.D.

samples

were

mechanically

and

Geochemistry Laboratory in theDepartment of Geological Sciences at the University ofNorth Car olina at Chapel Hill.1 Diagenetic contamination
was monitored through uranium concentrations and

tium isotope ratios using a VG Sector 54 thermal mass spectrometer(TIMS) at theIsotope ionization

Fullagar

obtained

the stron

theirstrontium isotope signatures. Modern and archaeological smallmammal sam ples, mostly guinea pigs, from the study regions were also analyzed toprovide thebiologically avail

Ca/P ratiosobtained byK.J. Knudson and J.H.Bur tonusing a Finnegan Element inductivelycoupled spectrometer (ICP-MS) and an plasma?mass Labs Model 3520 inductively Research Applied (ICP-AES) in theLaboratory forArchaeological Wisconsin at Madi University of Chemistry at the son.2The toothenamel data presented here did not
coupled plasma?atomic emission spectrometer

Knudson]

IN THE SOUTHCENTRAL ANDES 9 TIWANAKU INFLUENCE Faunal Data from theSouth Central Andes The strontium isotope values found in geologic analyses of exposed bedrock and groundwater resemble the strontium isotope ratios inmodern fauna from theregions included in this study (Price et al. 2002). Analysis ofmodern and archaeologi cal small mammal bones from the southeastern Lake Titicaca basin, the Moquegua Valley and the

exhibit evidence of diagenetic contamination, although some bone samples did, as will be dis
cussed below.

Baseline Strontium Isotope Data from the South Central Andes Geologic Data from theSouth Central Andes The South Central Andes exhibit broad patterns of make strontium isotope geologic variability that

analysis feasible.The Tiwanaku heartland is located in the southeasternLake Titicaca basin and is bor dered by theCordillera Blanca and theCordillera Real, which are composed of Paleozoic andesites, mudstones (Argollo et al. 1996; sandstones, and red Binford and Kolata 1996; Lavenu 1991; Rodrigo and Wirrmann 1991). The bedrock in the Tiwanaku River basin, where the sites ofTiwanaku and Tilata are located, is composed of igneous basalts and andesites and is overlain by up to 10-20 m ofQua

mean of theguinea pig bone stron By taking the tium isotope data and adding and subtracting two standard deviations (Price et al. 2002), the local

San Pedro de Atacama oasis support the strontium isotope ratios from the geologic literature(Figure 2, Table 1) (Knudson 2004; Knudson et al. 2004).

ranges of the strontiumisotope isotopes signatures for theregions included in this studyare as follows:
87Sr/86Sr = .7087-.7105 for the southeastern Lake

tope signatures for the southeasternLake Titicaca fluvial and lacustrine sediments (Argollo et ternary basin, the San Pedro de Atacama region, and the al. 1996; Binford and Kolata 1996; Lavenu 1991; Moquegua Valley are distinctand non-overlapping, Rodrigo andWirrmann 1991). Surface water from and are similar to the published geologic values. = .7082-.7085 Lake Titicaca exhibited 87Sr/86Sr The comparison of archaeological and modern (Grove et al. 2003). Similarly, 20 samples from faunal strontium isotope data with data from the four sediment cores taken from Lake Titicaca were most common way to iden is the literature = .7083-.7087 (Grove et geologic characterized by 87Sr/86Sr in the strontium isotope archaeo tify immigrants al. 2003). one of thekey questions literature. However, logical In contrast, the Cenozoic volcanic rocks, pre in strontiumisotope analysis involves thedetermi dominately andesites, where Chen Chen and San nation of local signatures (Bentley 2006; Price et Pedro de Atacama are located, exhibit strontium al. 2002; Wright 2005b). Although mean archaeo isotope signatures thatare lower than those found bone values human have been the used, logical in the alluvial deposits of theLake Titicaca basin cause of contamination could prevalence diagenetic (Figure 2) (Argollo et al. 1996; Grove et al. 2003; an artificiallynarrow "local" signature (Bentley et Hawkesworth et al. 1982; James 1982; Rogers and al. 2004). When available, archaeological tooth Hawkesworth 1989). Samples of exposed bedrock an aver enamel from small mammals will provide samples from theSan Pedro deAtacama region are of thebiologically available strontiumisotope age = .7062-.7068 87Sr/86Sr (Rogers andHawkesworth ratios in theirdiet catchment area (Bentley et al. 1989). Farther north in theMoquegua Valley of Andes, the lack of a large number of 2004). In the southern Peru, exposed bedrock range exhibits mammals with large teeth and relatively small = .7055-.7068 87Sr/86Sr (Hawkesworth et al. 1982; ranges, like the sheep and pigs used in studies of James 1982; Rogers and Hawkesworth 1989). German Neolithic sites,make this more difficult. Finally, the strontium isotope signature in sea Ingeneral, thedeterminationof local signatures for = .7092 water is 87Sr/86Sr (Veizer 1989). There a given population is complex and requires several fore, populations consuming large quantities of mean independent lines of evidence. Although the marine products will have strontium isotope of the modern and archaeological faunal values are ratios that reflect this value instead of or in com predominately used in this study,alternative defi bination with a terrestrial strontium isotope sig nitions of local will be discussed for each popula nature. tion in the sections thatfollow.

= .7074-.7079 for theSan Titicaca basin, 87Sr/86Sr = .7059 Pedro de Atacama region, and 87Sr/86Sr .7066 for the Moquegua Valley. The strontiumiso

10 LATIN AMERICAN

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[Vol.

19, No. 1, 2008

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^________________8_HH____HI__b I oiLro !-< <t K. t Paaiia ^_____Hfl___HH____________B JTUU|JU

ll^Slia ill||i|!l

sketch map showing the broad geologic zones of the South Central Andes mentioned in the text as well Figure 2. Geologic as themeasured strontium isotopes ratios in exposed bedrock, surface water, seawater and modern faunal bones (Grove et al. 2003; Hawkesworth et al. 1982; James 1982; Knudson and Price 2007; Knudson et al. 2004; Knudson et al. 2005; San Pedro de Atacama, and Chen Chen are based 1989; Veizer 1989). Ranges for Tiwanaku, Rogers and Hawkesworth on themean of modern and archaeological in the text. faunal analyses, as discussed Strontium Sources and Strontium Isotope

Results: A Discussion

After estimating the local ranges of the regions Moquegua Valley, carbon and nitrogen isotope included in this study, itwas then necessary to analysis of individuals buried at pre-Tiwanaku and Tiwanaku-affiliated sites shows a shifttohigh lev determine the strontiumsources of thepopulations included in this studybecause the consumption of els of maize consumption from a predominately

nonlocal strontiumcould cause themisidentifica tion of an individual's geographic origin. In the

Knudson]

TIWANAKU

INFLUENCE

INTHE SOUTH

CENTRAL

ANDES

11

marine subsistence base (Sandness 1992; Tomczak 2001, 2003). In addition, the botanical remains excavated from Chen Chen are predominately maize with smaller amounts of high-altitude crops
such as tubers, while faunal remains are

Strontium Isotope Archaeological Data from the South Central Andes Strontium isotope analysis was performed on archaeological human tooth enamel from individ uals buried at the Moquegua Valley site of Chen Chen and from the San Pedro de Atacama ceme teries of Coyo Oriental, Coyo-3, and Solcor-3 to test thehypothesis that these siteswere inhabited

with littleevidence ofmarine food nately terrestrial sources (Goldstein 1995). Therefore, it is unlikely thathigh strontium isotope ratios at Chen Chen would be the resultof high amounts ofmarine food mid-valley consumption. In addition, because the region contains prime agricultural land formid altitude crops such as maize, it is highly unlikely
that maize was imported. Maize kernels are rela

predomi

tively low in calcium, and hence strontium,so it is most likely thatthe majority of strontiumin thediet of individuals at Chen Chen came from locally

maize. It isunlikely, there grown plants other than fore, that significant amounts of strontiumcame from foods traded in from regions outside the

Varela and Cocilovo 2000).

vious biodistance and cranial modification studies were included in this study (Blom 1999; Cocilovo and Zavattieri 1994; Costa Junqueira and et al. 1999; Varela 1997; Neves 1994; Llagostera StrontiumResults ofArchaeological Human Remains from Chen Chen As defined through modern fauna, the local range = .7059-.7066 for the is 87Sr/86Sr Moquegua Val

in part by individuals who immigrated from the Lake Titicaca basin. As previously discussed, 10-15 percent of the individuals included in pre

Moquegua Valley. In San Pedro deAtacama, the longdistance from San Pedro tootherTiwanaku-affiliated sites and the ideal agricultural conditions in the oasis make it highly unlikely that significant amounts of food
were

structions can test this hypothesis. Botanical macroremains found in San Pedro de Atacama
tombs show

being

traded

into the oasis.

Paleodiet

recon

which were most likely locally grown, as well as camelid bones and freshwatershells from theeast ern slopes of the Andes or thePacific (Costa Jun

the presence

of maize

and

algarroba,

queira and Llagostera 1994; Oakland Rodman 1992). Although the animal products could intro
duce nonlocal strontium isotope signatures, it is

most likely thatthe majority of the strontiumcame

from local food sources.

Andes. As previously discussed, althoughmaize is Therefore, present, itskernels have littlestrontium. themost likely sources for strontium in theLake Titicaca basin are locally grown foods.

the local range as defined by modern fauna = as maize and camelids (87Sr/86Sr .7059-.7066). This male had a bone crops, including far-ranging well as local plant foods such as tubersand quinoa strontium isotope signature higher than the local = et al. Webster and Webster 2006; 1993; (Berryman Moquegua Valley signature (M1 -1600 (87Sr/86Sr Janusek 2003; Wright et al. 2003). Because the .708850). Given theexcellent preservation atChen camelids consumed at Basin sites were typically Chen, it is not surprising that these bone samples Webster and Janusek 2003), did not exhibit thehigh uranium concentrations or young (Webster 1993; are to caravan have been anomalous Ca/P ratios indicativeof diagenetic con unlikely they specialized llamas from the eastern or western slopes of the tamination. StrontiumResults ofArchaeological Human Remains from San Pedro de Atacama Enamel strontiumisotope signatures from theSan

Finally, in theLake Titicaca basin there is evi dence for the consumption of both lower altitude

ley. Strontium isotope ratios in archaeological human toothenamel from theTiwanaku-affiliated site of Chen Chen show four individuals, all females, of the25 individuals analyzed with stron tium isotope ratios thatare clearly outside of this = local range (Ml-3840 [87Sr/86Sr .708843], Ml = S/NB092 [87Sr/86Sr Ml-0036 .709995], [87Sr/86Sr = = .714404], andMl-2947, [87Sr/86Sr .719211]) (Figure 3, Table 2). A subset of 10 archaeological bone samples were analyzed in order to test the hypothesis that the individuals buried at Chen Chen lived there during the lastyears of their lives (Figure 4). Only one of the 10 individuals sampled had a bone stron
tium isotope signature that was clearly outside of

12 LATIN AMERICAN

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87Sr^6Sr from Archaeological Tiwanaku 0719 0.718 0.717 0.716 0.715 0.714 ? 0.713 &? 0.712 0.711_____P_^____ Tilata, Kirawi, Iwawe

Tooth Enamel from Tiwanaku-Affiliated Oriental Coyo Coyo-3

Sites in theSouth Central Andes

Solcor-3 Chen Chen

___?,__?__

0.709 __ H ft70*

IH

I 11^ -^ :.| ?..<..t^V/.LT.ffSH.r_"

!*.'i-..,

'- -:?'^C&ft? [_'

-.',._--'?M5&?%&l&yffi?X: ?

human tooth enamel samples from Tiwanaku-affiliated sites in Figure 3. Strontium isotope ratios from archaeological the South Central Andes. The horizontal bar represents the local range in the southeastern Lake Titicaca basin as deter mined by the mean of modern faunal strontium isotope ratios plus and minus two standard deviations.

Pedro de Atacama
Coyo-3 and Solcor-3

cemeteries of Coyo Oriental,

were more homogenous than

as defined bymodern and archaeological fauna.All = were males (CO-4049 [87Sr/86Sr .707023], = CO-4090 .708171], CO3-0046 [87Sr/86Sr = = [87Sr/86Sr .706845], and SC3-0050 [87Sr/86Sr .712522]). Because of the homogeneity of the enamel strontium isotope ratios at the San Pedro de Atacama cemeteries and the lack of postcranial
skeletal elements at some cemeteries, bone sam

those found atChen Chen. Four of the27 analyzed individuals exhibit enamel strontium isotope sig natures clearly outside of the local range in San Pedro deAtacama, which is^Sr/^Sr = .7074-.7079

and one male were buried in the Putuni sector, located adjacent to theAkapana (PUT-25785-1 = = [87Sr/86Sr .711758] and PUT-24106 [87Sr/86Sr Aka .711303]). Finally, one individualburied in the pana East residential sector (AKE-8908 [87Sr/86Sr = .710907]) also had an enamel strontium isotope ratio above the local range as determined bymod = ern fauna (87Sr/86Sr .7087-.7105). For three of the individuals with nonlocal enamel strontium isotope values at the site of
the bone strontium isotope values were

Tiwanaku,

ples have not yet been analyzed. StrontiumResults ofArchaeological Human Remains from theLake Titicaca basin

centrations that may indicate diagenetic contami nation; bone generally has Ca/P = 2.1 and uranium At Tiwanaku, threeof the 10 individuals exhibited concentrationsbelow thedetection limit of the ICP enamel strontium isotope signatures outside the MS (AK-4931 [Ca/P = 2.32, U = 5.1 ppm], and local southeastern Lake Titicaca basin range, which PUT-24106 [Ca/P = 2.28, U = 8.38 ppm]). There = is 87Sr/86Sr .7087-.7105 as defined by modern fore, it is possible that thebiogenic strontium iso fauna. One 17-30-year-old individualwas buried tope signature in these bone samples was higher or on theAkapana pyramid in the center of the site lower than thediagenetic strontiumisotope signa = ture that was measured. (AK-4931 [87Sr/86Sr .716256]), while one female

within the local southeasternLake Titicaca basin = signature (AK-4931 [87Sr/86Sr .709595], PUT = 25785-1 [87Sr/86Sr .709731], and PUT-24106 = [87Sr/86Sr .711303]) (Figure 4). Two of the three samples exhibited Ca/P ratios and uranium con

Knudson]

TIWANAKU

INFLUENCE

INTHE SOUTH forArchaeological

CENTRAL

ANDES Sampled. Age Material Corrected

13

Table 2. Strontium Isotope Data

Human Remains

Specimen Laboratory Site (Sector)_Number_Number_(years)a_Sexa Moquegua Valley F1015 Chen Chen F1700 Chen Chen Chen F1016 Chen F1701 Chen Chen Chen Chen F1017 F1702 Chen Chen Chen Chen F1018 Chen F1703 Chen Chen F1019 Chen F1704 Chen Chen ChenF1020 Chen Chen F1705 Chen Chen Chen F1201 Chen Chen F1205 F1204 Chen Chen Chen Chen F1207 Chen Chen F1206 F1209 Chen Chen Chen F1208 Chen Chen F1203 Chen Chen Chen F1966 Chen Chen F1968 Chen Chen F1970 Chen Chen F1972 Chen Chen F1974 Chen Chen F1976 Chen Chen F1978 Chen Chen F1980 Chen Chen F1982 Chen Chen F1984 Chen Chen F1986 Chen Chen F1988 Chen Chen F1990 Chen Chen F1998 San Pedro de Atacama Oasis F1652 Coyo-3 F1654 Coyo-3 F1656 Coyo-3 F1658 Coyo-3 F1661 Coyo-3 F1662 Coyo-3 F1664 Coyo-3 F1666 Coyo-3 Coyo Oriental Coyo Oriental Coyo Oriental Coyo Oriental Coyo Oriental Coyo Oriental Coyo Oriental Coyo Oriental Coyo Oriental Coyo Oriental F1668 Coyo-3 F1637 F1638 F1639 F1641 F1642 F1643 F1644 F1645 F1649 F1651 Solcor-3 F1670 CO3-0001 CO3-0005 CO3-0016 CO3-0023 CO3-0032 CO3-0035 CO3-0035 (13363) (13576) (13608) 40-44 30-34 45-49 40-44 25-29 30-34 30-34 19-20 40-44 M URM1 .707608 M URM1 .707704 M URM1 .707526 F ULM1 F M ULM1 F LM1 .707641 F LLM1 M LRM2 Ml-0681 Ml-0681 Ml-1600 Ml-1600 Ml-3660-1 Ml-3660-1 Ml-3718 Ml-3718 Ml-3840 Ml-3840 M1-S/NB092 M1-S/NB092 Ml-0016 Ml-2947 Ml-2947 Ml-3154 Ml-3154 M1-S/NK380 M1-S/NK380 Ml-2115 Ml-2622-1 Ml-3472 Ml-3527 Ml-0036 Ml-2762 Ml-2068 Ml-2296 Ml-1370 Ml-3833 Ml-3768 Ml-3536 Ml-3747 Ml-0086 Ml-0572 50-80 50-80 40-45 40-45 30-44 30-44 50-80 50-80 35-39 35-39 25-35 25-35 50-70 50-80 50-80 40-59 40-59 40-50 40-50 35-49 30-70 19-24 15-18 40-50 19-21 18-21 40-50 35-45 30-35 20-34 19-22 12-17 40-60 35-39 M LRC .706786 M femur M LLM1 .706932 M femur F LRM1 .706726

87Sr/86Src

.706985 .708850

rib F .707004 F LRC .706992 rib F .706861 F LLM1 .708843 R F F LRM1 .709995 rib F .707165 F LLM1 .706562 F LRM1 .719211 rib F .707688 M LRM1 .706921 M rib .706642 F LLM1 F Ml .707128 M LLM1 .707362 M URM1 .707031 SA LLM1 F LLM1 .714404 PF LLM1 .708186 F LLM1 .707136 M LLM1 .707810 M LRM1 .706785 M Ml .707048 F ULM1 .707191 PF LRM1 SA LRM1 .706844 F URM1 .706887 F URM1 .707087 .706700 .706702 .707422 rib F .707109 ulna .707004

.707712 .707653LLM2 .707782 .707667 .706845

(13611) CO3-0045 CO3-0046 CO-3978 CO-3981 CO-3996 CO-4049 CO-4064 CO4090 CO-4093 CO4150 CO-5377 CO-5383 SC3-0005

40-44 ULM2 M .707773 M 45-49 ULM1 .707628 35-39 URM2 .707825 F 35-39 URM1 M .707023 35-39 ULM2 M .707690 35-39 LRM1 .708171M 40-44 LLM1 M .707713 40-44 URM2 .707862 F 35-39 LRP2 .707879 F 40-44 LRM1 M .707684 35-39 M LRM1 .708206

14 LATIN AMERICAN Table 2 (continued). Strontium Isotope Data

ANTIQUITY

[Vol. Human Remains Sampled.

19, No. 1, 2008

forArchaeological Corrected Age

Laboratory Specimen Site (Sector)_Number_Number_(years)a F1671 Solcor-3 SC3-0006 (1078) Solcor-3 F1673 Solcor-3 F1675 Solcor-3 F1677 Solcor-3 F1678 Solcor-3 F1679 Solcor-3 F1680 F1681 Solcor-3 F1684 Solcor-3 Solcor-3 F1686 Solcor-3 F1688 Solcor-3 F1690 F1692 Solcor-3 F1694 Solcor-3 Solcor-3 F1695 Lake Titicaca Basin F1199 Iwawe Kirawi F1195 F1191 Kirawi FlKirawi 193 F1197 Kirawi F1217 Tilata F1216 Tilata Tiwanaku Tiwanaku Tiwanaku Tiwanaku Tiwanaku Tiwanaku Tiwanaku Tiwanaku Tiwanaku Tiwanaku Tiwanaku Tiwanaku Tiwanaku (Akapana East) (Akapana East) (Akapana) (Akapana) (Akapana) (Ch'iji Jawira) (Mollu Kontu) (Mollu Kontu) (Putuni) (Putuni) (Putuni) (Putuni) F1021 F1213 F1215 F1022 F1707 F1023 F1012 F1013 F1189 F1188 F1187 F1014 LVIW-0001 CK65-1130 CK65-1027 CK65-1100 CK65-1691 TMV101-0392 TMV101-0392 AKE-20727 AKE-8908 AK-4931 AK-4931 AK-12149 CJ-35250 MK-29412 MK-39788 PUT-20995 PUT-24106 PUT-24106 PUT-25785-1 SC3-0006 (1080) SC3-0008

Sexa 25-29 50-54 40-44 20-24 20-24 30-34 40^4 40-44 30-34 30-34 30-34 30-34 40-44 fardo 25-29 M LLM1 F ULM1 F LRM2 .707725 LLM1 M .708015 F LLM1 .707823 LRM1 M .707975 F LLM1 .707580 URM1 M .712522 LLM1 M .708204 M ULM1 .708118 M URM1 .707699 LRM2 M .708072 LLM1 M .707837 fardo LRM1 M .708052

Material .707892 .707663

87Sr/86Src

SC3-0012 SC3-0016 SC3-0020 SC3-0027 SC3-0050 SC3-0052 SC3-0055 SC3-0067 SC3-0069 SC3-0078 SC3-0106 SC3-0117

LLM1 .708093

44-49 20-30 20-25 12-15 35-45 20-34 20-34 18-21 18-21 17-30 17-30 30-39 22-24 40-60

URI1F LRM1 M LRM1 F PM F LLM1 .710790 LRM1 F F longbone LRM1 F .710334 LRM1 PM c .709595PF rib

.708850 .712800 .707800 LLM1 .709462 .708223 .709684 c .710907

URI2PF .716256

50-59 LRM1 .709513 M URI1 F .709674 F LLM1 .708320 LLM1 F .708478

20-24 ULM1 .709523 F 20-29 LRM1 .711303M 20-29 rib M .709891 c 18-21 LLM1 .711758 F

female, PM= probable male, SA=subadult, and fardo=unsexed and unwrapped mummy bundle. M=male, PF=probable b Tooth enamel samples are identified by the location in themandible or maxilla (L or U), side (R or L), tooth type, and molar. identifies a lower right first position, so thatLRM1 c These bone samples exhibited signs of diagenetic contamination through either high uranium concentrations and/or anom alous Ca/P ratios, as discussed in the text.Therefore, it is possible ples were higher or lower than the diagenetic signature here. that biogenic

(Putuni)_F1708_PUT-25785-1_18-21_F_rib_.709731 aThe age and sex of the individuals included in this study were determined by Drs. Deborah E. Blom and Maria Antonietta Costa Junqueira (Blom 1999; Costa Junqueira and Llagostera 1994). Here, the following abbreviations are used: F=female,

strontium isotope ratios in these bone sam

Finally, enamel and bone strontiumisotope sig natureswere obtained from the Lake Titicaca basin sites ofKirawi (CK-65), Iwawe, and Tilata. At the Katari Valley site ofKirawi, two of four individu als analyzed had enamel strontium isotope ratios outside of the southernLake Titicaca basin local = [87Sr/86Sr .709462], and range (CK65-1100 CK65-1691 Tiwanaku [87Sr/86Sr=.710790]). In the

Valley, the enamel strontium isotope signature in one individual buried at Iwawe was within the southeasternLake Titicaca basin signature (LVIW 1 [^Sr/^Sr = .708850]). At theTiwanaku Valley site of Tilata, the enamel strontium isotope signa was just below the southeasternLake Titicaca ture = basin signature (TMV101-392 [87Sr/86Sr the while strontium .708223]), isotope signature

Knudson]

TIWANAKU 7Sr/8Sr from Archaeological

INFLUENCE Human

INTHE SOUTH

CENTRAL

ANDES

15

Tooth Enamel

and Bone from -?-

Tiwanaku-Affiliated -i

Sites 0.720 0.719 0.718 0.717 0.716 0.715 0.714 ? 0.713 |-

in the South

Central Andes

TiwanakuTilata Chen Chen

ST 0.712

tooth enamel samples from Tiwanaku-affiliated sites bone-human Figure 4. Strontium isotope ratios from archaeological in the South Central Andes; for each bone-tooth pair, the enamel value is dark grey and the bone value is striped. The horizontal bar represents the local range in the southeastern Lake Titicaca basin as determined by themean ofmodern faunal strontium isotope ratios plus and minus two standard deviations.

was within the local signature froma rib fragment = (TMV101-392 [87Sr/86Sr .709684]). Although
the uranium

thedetection limitsof the ICP-MS, Ca/P = 2.19 so

diagenetic strontium may be present.

concentration

in this sample

was

below

viduals from the Lake Titicaca basin. There are = also two individuals (Ml-2762 [87Sr/86Sr = and Ml-2296 .708186], [87Sr/86Sr .707810]) whose values are high enough that they may rep
resent viduals an average may have of the two areas. moved between have These two indi zones large the two consumed

some

Interpretations of Strontium Isotope Data from Tiwanaku-Affiliated Sites Any individualwith enamel strontiumisotope sig natures that match theLake Titicaca basin signa = as defined ture, by modern fauna (87Sr/86Sr most in lived the southeastern .7087-7105), likely Lake Titicaca basin during enamel formation in the firstyears of life.Two of the 25 individuals ana = [87Sr/86Sr lyzed from Chen Chen (Ml-3840

on

amounts of imported,high-strontium foods from the Lake Titicaca basin inaddition to locally grown
foods.

the regular

basis,

or may

The two females whose toothenamel strontium isotope values were within the local range of the = Lake Titicaca basin (Ml-3840 [87Sr/86Sr andMl-S/NB092 .708843], [87Sr/86Sr=.709995])
have bone strontium isotope signatures that were

= much lower (Ml-3840 [87Sr/86Sr .707004], and = M1-S/NB092 [87Sr/86Sr .707165]). Interestingly, .708843],andMl-S/NB092[87Sr/86Sr=.709995]) one male had enamel strontiumisotope ratios (M1 clearly exhibit strontiumisotope ratios thatare non = local forChen Chen but local for the southeastern 1600 [87Sr/86Sr .706932]) that indicated a child hood spent inor near Chen Chen, thoughhis bone Lake Titicaca basin (Figure 3, Table 2). The pres = ence the strontium isotope ratios (Ml-1600 of first-generation [87Sr/86Sr supports migrants were was within the for the south that inhabited indi local Chen Chen .708850]) range by hypothesis

16LATIN AMERICAN

ANTIQUITY

[Vol.

19, No. 1, 2008

Lake Titicaca basin and thenreturnedto Chen Chen a smaller sam influx of Tiwanaku shortlybefore or afterdeath. migrants. Larger Finally, although none of the individuals buried ple sizes are necessary to test the hypothesis that atChen Chen have strontiumisotope ratioswithin Chen Chen maintained or strengthened ties to the local value, as determined by modern guinea Tiwanaku througha regular influxof femalemar = pig, or cuy (87Sr/86Sr .7059-.7066) (see also riage partners from theLake Titicaca basin. How Knudson et al. 2004), it ishighly unlikely thatthese ever, it is clear thatTiwanaku influence in the individualswere all migrants to the site. It ismore Moquegua Valley involved Lake migration fromthe that the of local terrestrial Titicaca which of would the models range basin, likely signatures support in the as is an than ver the Tiwanaku state, Moquegua mid-valley region larger polity expansionist the small range representedby theguinea pigs here, tical archipelago, or a diasporic archipelago.

eastern Lake Titicaca basin. It is likely, then, that thisman spent his adulthood in the southeastern

stantflow of people from theLake Titicaca basin. Instead, Chen Chen was likely sustained over the generations through local population growthwith

and that the human bone and enamel fromChen In contrast, strontiumisotope ratios from tooth Chen more accurately represents thediet of Chen enamel fromSan Pedro de Atacama cemeteries do mean of all strontium not show any individualswith Lake Titicaca basin Chen inhabitants. In fact, the tooth enamel values, isotope excluding the four signatures (Figure 3, Table 2). In fact, in addition = .707059 obvious nonlocal signatures, is 87Sr/86Sr to the lack of Lake Titicaca basin signatures, this ? .000385 (la, n = 21). This is slightlyhigher population also exhibits very homogenous stron mean of the than the modern guinea pig strontium tium isotope signatures, which range from 87Sr/86Sr = .706252 ? = .706845-.708171 with the which is ^Sr/^Sr isotope signatures, exception of theout = .000175 (la, n = 3), although both are within lier SC3-0050 (87Sr/*6Sr .7172522) (see Torres observed strontium and Rouff and Knudson This 2007). expected suggests that the isotope signa tures in the lateCenozoic volcanic rocks of south vastmajority of individuals buried in the cemeter ernPeru and northern Chile (e.g.,Hawkesworth et ies of Coyo Oriental, Coyo-3, and Solcor-3 share al. 1982; James 1982; Rogers and Hawkesworth the same geographic origin. Because individuals mean most In this it is that the buried with Tiwanaku material culture are not first case, 1989). likely human strontium better repre isotope generation migrants from the southeastern Lake signature sents the local signature,and thedietary strontium Titicaca basin, thisweakens the argument that a
sources, of Chen Chen inhabitants. As such,

thefive individuals previously discussed as outliers in the Chen Chen dataset should be considered non
local.

only

Therefore, there are at least three individuals who spent thefirstor lastyears of their lives in the and Solcor-3, southeasternLake Titicaca basin yet were buried Oriental, Coyo-3, Tiwanaku-style at Chen Chen. However, these individuals cannot mortuary artifactscannot be used to identify first be distinguished from other individuals buried at generation migrants from the southeastern Lake Chen Chen based on cranial modification style, Titicaca basin. For example, while a 40-44 year old mortuary artifacts,tomb type,or tomb location. In male atCoyo-Oriental was buriedwith a Tiwanaku otherwords, only strontium isotope ratios distin style snuff tablet, he was not a first-generation migrants from theLake Tit guish first-generation icaca basin who were buried at Chen Chen. In addition, even though strontium isotope analysis should underestimate rates ofmigration, thenum ber of individuals atChen Chen who are identified as migrants from theLake Titicaca basin is small. Because Chen Chen was not inhabited by large
numbers

substantialpopulation from the Lake Titicaca basin coexisted with a local population at San Pedro de Atacama and instead supports models ofTiwanaku influence that rely on religious and/or economic influence rather thandirect colonization. In theSan Pedro deAtacama cemeteries ofCoyo

migrant from the southeasternLake Titicaca basin = (CO-4093 (87Sr/86Sr .707713)) (Torres 1987). of theoasis may have utilized inhabitants Instead, Tiwanaku-style mortuary artifactsas theyadopted without bio Tiwanaku ethnic or religious identity

Chen Chen was not populated by a largeor con that

of first-generation

migrants,

it appears

logical ties to the Tiwanaku heartland (see also Knudson 2004, 2007). mortuary population atTiwanaku is Finally, the not a typical cemetery population, and therefore

Knudson]

TIWANAKU

INFLUENCE

INTHE SOUTH

CENTRAL

ANDES

17

cannot be used to compare the geographic origin of Tiwanaku inhabitants to other Tiwanaku affiliated sites, although continuing excavations at Tiwanaku may providemore individualswho were not buried as offerings. In contrast to the large

Lake Titicaca basin atChen Chen migrants fromthe supports models of the Tiwanaku polity as an or a diasporic archipelago. However, multiple lines of evidence, including the strontium isotope data, increasingly support the diasporic model of Tiwanaku influence in the Moquegua Valley (Gold stein 2005). In contrast, thenature ofTiwanaku influence in
expansionist state or empire, a vertical archipelago,

cemeteries at Chen Chen and in San Pedro, the individuals interredat Tiwanaku include human sacrifices on theAkapana pyramid, dedicatory offerings in areas such as the Putuni sector and patio or household burials found in residential areas

theoasis of San Pedro de Atacama did not include like the direct colonization. Strontium isotope analysis did Akapana East (Couture and Sampeck 2003; Janusek 2003a; Manzanilla any individuals who had lived in the 1992). Interestingly, not identify one nonlocal individual was sacrificed in a very Lake Titicaca basin as children and then migrated to San Pedro. This implies that local atacamenos Akapana (AK-4931 public and violent event on the = [87Sr/86Sr J16256]) (Blom et al. 2003; Knudson adopted Tiwanaku material culture in order to et al. 2004). Two other individuals whose tooth strengthen economic and/or religious ties. Given are of outside the of enamel strontium signatures prevalence portable, ritually important isotope were the southeastern Lake Titicaca basin signature Tiwanaku-style artifacts in San Pedro de Atacama buried in thePutuni Complex, and were identified (e.g., Llagostera et al. 1988; Oakland Rodman = as dedicatory offerings (PUT-25785-1 [87Sr/86Sr 1992; Torres 1987; Torres and Conklin 1995), the = strontium .711758] and PUT-24106 .711303]) [87Sr/86Sr isotope andmaterial culturedata support one a The of and model Tiwanaku individual influence inSan Pedro deAta 2003). (Couture Sampeck at cama sector from the Jawira Tiwanaku that involves shared Chi' sampled iji ideologies but notmigra had a local southeasternLake Titicaca basin sig tion. nature,despite ceramic evidence of a potential rela tionshipwith the eastern yungas (Janusek 1994, 2003a, 2003b; Rivera Casanovas 2003). In addi tion,residentialmobility was higher thanexpected at the southernLake Titicaca basin sites ofKirawi (CK-65), Iwawe and Tilata (Figure 3,Table 2); this implies a high amount of residential mobility at
zon and earlier Formative periods.

Lake Titicaca basin sites during the Middle hori

Finally, strontiumisotope resultsfrom the south ernLake Titicaca basin demonstrate a higher than expected degree of residentialmobility at smaller Tiwanaku-affiliated sites.These data also illustrate the potential of strontium isotope analysis to elu cidate Tiwanaku ritual activity by identifyingthe as human geographic origin of individuals interred
sacrifices. In conclusion, strontium isotope analysis has

Conclusion By identifying first-generation migrants from the southeasternLake Titicaca basin who were buried inTiwanaku-affiliated sites throughout the South Central Andes, it is possible to use these data to reconstructthehighly variable nature ofTiwanaku influenceduring the Middle horizon.At Chen Chen thereis clear evidence that migrants from the south ernLake Titicaca basin lived and were buried at the site. However, the presence of at least two first generation Tiwanaku migrants at Chen Chen does not suggest a large or constant flowof people from

demonstrated the complex and variable nature of Tiwanaku influence throughout the South Central Andes. Strontium isotope analysis supports the direct colonization of the Moquegua Valley by the Tiwanaku polity, either through imperial expan sion or,more likely, through the establishment of a diasporic archipelago. However, in theSan Pedro de Atacama oasis, Tiwanaku religious influence was not accompanied by the migration of individ uals from theLake Titicaca basin. Future isotopic analyses of archaeological human remainswill con tinue to elucidate Tiwanaku residential mobility and political integration.
funded by theNational and SBR-9708001),

theLake Titicaca basin, and it ismore likely thata small Tiwanaku-derived population migrated to Chen Chen. The presence of first-generation

Acknowledgments. This project was Science Foundation (BCS-0202329

Society of America, American Chemical Society Geological Women Chemists and the University of Committee,

18LATIN AMERICAN Wisconsin at Madison Latin American Studies and

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human remains Anthropology Departments. Archaeological from Tiwanaku were excavated through the Proyecto Wila Jawira and grants awarded to Alan L. Kolata (National DEB BNS-8607541, BNS-8805490, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Endowment for the Humanities RO GC-95-174; Science Foundation 9212641; 21806-88, Tiwanaku Foundation RO-21368-86). Bioarchaeological analyses at and Chen Chen was funded by a Wenner-Gren

Journal ofArchaeological Science 31:365-375. Berenguer, Jose 1978 La problematica Tiwanaku en Chile: vision retro spectiva. Revista Chilena de Antropologia 1:17^40. Berenguer, Jose,Victoria Castro, and Osvaldo Silva 1980 Reflexiones acerca de la presencia de Tiwanaku en el norte de Chile. Estudios Arqueologicos 5:81-92. Berryman, Carrie Anne, Paula Tomczak, Deborah E. Blom, and Robert H. Tykot 2006 Paleodiet and theTiwanaku State: A Bioarchaeolog icalAssessment of Exchange Networks and State Forma tion Processes. Paper presented at the 71 st Annual Society

forAnthropological Research Grant (grant num ber 5863) toDeborah E. Blom. Finally, I would like to thank the following individuals and institutions for providing con

textual information, laboratory and museum access, and/or logistical support: Deborah E. Blom, Jane E. Buikstra, James H. Burton, Centro de Investigaciones Arqueologicas de Cerro Verde, Arequipa, Costa Junqueira, Nicole Llagostera, Jose Cocilovo, Maria Antonietta Couture, Paul Fullagar, Agustin T. Douglas Price, Rodman, Amy Oakland Paula Pumapunku-Akapana, Arqueologico

Proyecto Tomczak, Christina Torres-Rouff, Hugo Varela and Bertha for translating the Vargas. Thank you to Luis Melodelgado abstract and to four anonymous reviewers for thoughtful comments. All the author. errors or emissions are the responsibility of

for American Archaeology Meeting, San Juan,Puerto Rico. Binford, Michael W., and Alan L. Kolata 1996 The Natural and Human Setting. InTiwanaku and Its Hinterland: Archaeology and Paleoecology of an Andean Civilization, Volume 1, edited byAlan L. Kolata, pp. 23-56. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Blom, Deborah E. 1999 Tiwanaku Regional Interaction and Social Identity: A Bioarchaeological Approach. Ph.D. dissertation, Uni

versity of Chicago. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor. 2005 A Bioarchaeological Approach to Tiwanaku Group Dynamics. In Us and Them: Archaeology and Ethnicity in theAndes, edited by Richard M. Reycraft, pp. 153-182. The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of Cali fornia at Los Angeles, Los Angeles.

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versityMicrofilms, Ann Arbor. 2003 Prehistoric Diet and Socio-Economic Relationships within the Osmore Valley of Southern Peru. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 22:262-278.

Knudson]

TIWANAKU

INFLUENCE

INTHE SOUTH 2005b

CENTRAL

ANDES

23

Torres-Rouff, Christina, and Kelly J.Knudson 2007 Examining theLife History of an Individual from Sol cor 3, San Pedro de Atacama: Combining Bioarchaeology

and Archaeological Chemistry. Chungara 39:235-257. Torres, Constantino M. 1985 Estilo e iconografia Tiwanaku en las tabletas para Andino inhalar substantias Didlogo psicoactivas. 4:223-245. 1987 The Iconography of thePrehispanic SnuffTrays from San Pedro de Atacama, Northern Chile. Andean Past 1:191-245. 2001 Iconografia Tiwanaku en la parafernalia inhalatoria de los Andes centro-sur. Boletin de Arqueologia PUCP 5:427-154. 2005 Tiwanaku SnuffingParaphenalia. InTiwanaku: Ances

Identifying Immigrants toTikal, Guatemala: Defin ingLocal Variability inStrontium Isotope Ratios ofHuman Science Journal of Archaeological Tooth Enamel. 32:555-566. F., Christine A. Hastorf, and Heidi A. Wright, Melanie

Lennstrom 2003 Pre-Hispanic Agriculture and Plant Use atTiwanaku: Hin Social and Political Implications. In Tiwanaku and its terland: Archaeology and Paleoecology of an Andean Civ ilization: Volume 2, Urban and Rural Archaeology, edited by Alan L. Kolata, pp. 384-403. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.

Dransart, pp. 78-108. Avebury, Aldershot. Varela, Hector Hugo 1997 La Poblacion Prehistorica de San Pedro de Atacama: Composition, Estructura yRelaciones Biologicas. Unpub lished Ph.D. dissertation, Universidad Nacional de Rio Cuarto, Argentina, Departamento de Ciencias Naturales. Varela, Hector Hugo, and Jose A. Cocilovo

tors of the Inka, edited by Margaret Young-Sanchez, pp. 114-135. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln. Torres, Constantino M., andWilliam J.Conklin 1995 Exploring theSan Pedro de Atacama/ Tiwanaku Rela tionship. In Andean Art: Visual Expression and Its Rela tion to Andean Beliefs and Values, edited by Penny

Notes
in quintuple-collector 1. The TIMS instrument was = .1194 to dynamic mode using the internal ratio 86Sr/88Sr correct formass fractionation. Recent analyses of strontium carbonate standard SRM 987 yielded 87Sr/?6Sr= .710245 ? .000018 (2a). Long-term analyses over approximately 24 months of SRM 987 yielded an average of 87Sr/86Sr = .710242. Internal precision for strontium carbonate runs is typically .0006-.0009 percent standard error, based on 100 dynamic cycles of data collection. 2. The presence of diagenetic contamination was moni

Veizer, Jan 1989 Strontium Isotopes inSeawater throughTime. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Science 1:141-167. Webster, Ann D.

2000 Structure of the Prehistoric Population of San Pedro de Atacama. Current Anthropology 41:125-132.

tored through uranium concentrations in 26 tooth enamel and 25 bone samples included in this study. Total procedural blanks for uranium were below the levels of ICP-MS detec 1400 yielded U tion, and strontium carbonate standard NIST = .024 ? .31 = 11). Trace element analysis of 42 ppm (2a, n human bone samples provided Ca/P ratios archaeological used for identifying contaminated samples. Analyses of Laboratory forArchaeological Chemistry standard reference 9511 yielded Ca = 3.12 X 104? 1.42 X 103ppm (2a, n = 7) and P = 5.39 X 103? 2.24 X 102ppm (2a, n = 7). Long-term analyses of laboratory standards and international bone stan dard reference material have determined accuracy of ? 5 per cent and precision of ? 2 percent (Burton, et al. 2003).

University Microfilms, Ann Arbor. W. Janusek Webster, Ann D., and John 2003 Tiwanaku Camelids: Subsistence, Sacrifice, and In Tiwanaku and itsHinterland: Social Reproduction. Archaeological and Paleoecological Investigations of an Andean Civilization: Volume 2, Urban and Rural Archae ology, edited by Alan L. Kolata, pp. 343-362. Smithson ian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Wright, Lori E. In Search ofYax Nuun Ayiin I: Revisiting theTikal 2005a 16:89-100. Project's Burial 10.Ancient Mesoamerica

1993 The Role of the Camelid in theDevelopment of the Tiwanaku State. Ph.D. dissertation, University ofChicago.

Received May 5, 2006; revised September 11, 2006; 17, 2006. No conflicts declared by accepted December reviewers.