The Junction Diode

In electronics, a diode is a component that restricts the direction of movement of charge carriers. Essentially, it allows an electric current to flow in one direction, but blocks it in the opposite direction. Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. Circuits that re uire current flow in only one direction will typically include one or more diodes in the circuit design.

!hort history
Thermionic and solid state diodes developed in parallel. The principle of operation of thermionic diodes was discovered by "rederick #uthrie in $%&'. The principle of operation of crystal diodes was discovered in $%&( by the #erman scientist, )arl "erdinand *raun. Thermionic diode principles were rediscovered by Thomas Edison on "ebruary $', $%%+ and he took out a patent in $%%', but developed the idea no further. *raun patented the crystal rectifier in $%,,. The first radio receiver using a crystal diode was built around $,++ by #reenleaf -hittier .ickard. The first thermionic diode was patented in *ritain by John /mbrose "leming 0scientific adviser to the 1arconi Company and former Edison employee on 2ovember $3, $,+(. .ickard received a patent for a silicon crystal detector on 2ovember 4+, $,+3. /t the time of their invention such devices were known as rectifiers. In $,$, -illiam 5enry Eccles coined the term diode from #reek roots6 di means 7two7, and ode 0from odos8 means 7path7.

Diode schematic symbol Current can flow from the anode to the cathode, but not the other way around. 1ost modern diodes are based on semiconductor p9n :unctions. In a p9n diode, conventional current can flow from the p9type side 0the anode8 to the n9type side 0the cathode8, but not in the opposite direction. /nother type of semiconductor diode, the !chottky diode, is formed from the contact between a metal and a semiconductor rather than by a p9n :unction.

 / semiconductor diode7s current9voltage, or I-V, characteristic curve is ascribed to the behavior of the so9called depletion layer or depletion zone which e;ists at the p9n :unction between the differing semiconductors. -hen a p9n :unction is first created, conduction band 0mobile8 electrons from the 29doped region diffuse into the .9doped region where there is a large population of holes 0places for electrons in which no electron is present8 with which the electrons <recombine<. -hen a mobile electron recombines with a hole, the hole vanishes and the electron is no longer mobile. Thus, two charge carriers have vanished. The region around the p9n :unction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as an insulator.

 5owever, the depletion width cannot grow without limit. "or each electron9hole pair that recombines, a positively9charged dopant ion is left behind in the 29doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is left behind in the .9doped region. /s recombination proceeds and more ions are created, an increasing electric field develops through the depletion =one which acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. /t this point, there is a 7built9in7 potential across the depletion =one.

 If an e;ternal voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built9in potential, the depletion =one continues to act as an insulator preventing a significant electric current. This is the reverse bias phenomenon. 5owever, if the polarity of the e;ternal voltage opposes the built9in potential, recombination can once again proceed resulting in substantial electric current through the p9n :unction. "or silicon diodes, the built9in potential is appro;imately +.3 >. Thus, if an e;ternal current is passed through the diode, about +.3 > will be developed across the diode such that the .9doped region is positive with respect to the 29doped region and the diode is said to be 7turned on7 as it has a forward bias.

/ diode7s I9> characteristic can be appro;imated by two regions of operation. *elow a certain difference in potential between the two leads, the depletion layer has significant width, and the diode can be thought of as an open 0non9 conductive8 circuit. /s the potential difference is increased, at some stage the diode will become conductive and allow charges to flow, at which point it can be thought of as a connection with =ero 0or at least very low8 resistance. 1ore precisely, the transfer function is logarithmic, but so sharp that it looks like a corner on a =oomed9out graph.

 In a normal silicon diode at rated currents, the voltage drop across a conducting diode is appro;imately +.3 to +.& volts. The value is different for other diode types 9 !chottky diodes can be as low as +.4 > and light9emitting diodes 0?EDs8 can be $.( > or more 0*lue ?EDs can be up to (.+ >8. @eferring to the I9> characteristics image, in the reverse bias region for a normal .92 rectifier diode, the current through the device is very low 0in the A/ range8 for all reverse voltages up to a point called the peak9 inverse9voltage 0.I>8. *eyond this point a process called reverse breakdown occurs which causes the device to be damaged along with a large increase in current. "or special purpose diodes like the avalanche or =ener diodes, the concept of .I> is not applicable since they have a deliberate breakdown beyond a known reverse current such that the reverse voltage is <clamped< to a known value 0called the zener voltage or breakdown voltage8. These devices however have a ma;imum limit to the current and power in the =ener or avalanche region.

!ome types of semiconductor diode

2ormal 0p9n8 diodes which operate as described above. Bsually made of doped silicon or, more rarely, germanium. *efore the development of modern silicon power rectifier diodes, cuprous o;ide and later selenium was used6 its low efficiency gave it a much higher forward voltage drop 0typically $.(C$.& > per <cell,< with multiple cells stacked to increase the peak inverse voltage rating in high voltage rectifiers8, and re uired a large heat sink 0often an e;tension of the diode7s metal substrate8, much larger than a silicon diode of the same current ratings would re uire.

!chottky diodes
!chottky diodes are constructed from a metal to semiconductor contact. They have a lower forward voltage drop than a standard .2 :unction diode. Their forward voltage drop at forward currents of about $ m/ is in the range +.$D > to +.(D >, which makes them useful in voltage clamping applications and prevention of transistor saturation. They can also be used as low loss rectifiers although their reverse leakage current is generally much higher than non !chottky rectifiers. They also tend to have much lower :unction capacitance than .2 diodes and this contributes towards their high switching speed and their suitability in high speed circuits and @" devices such as mi;ers and detectors.

Esaki or tunnel diodes

These have a region of operation showing negative resistance caused by uantum tunneling, thus allowing amplification of signals and very simple bistable circuits. These diodes are also the type most resistant to nuclear radiation. #unn diodes These are similar to tunnel diodes in that they are made of materials such as #a/s or In. that e;hibit a region of negative differential resistance. -ith appropriate biasing, dipole domains form and travel across the diode, allowing high fre uency microwave oscillators to be built.

?ight9emitting diodes 0?EDs8

In a diode formed from a direct band9gap semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide, carriers that cross the :unction emit photons when they recombine with the ma:ority carrier on the other side. Depending on the material, wavelengths 0or colors8 from the infrared to the near ultraviolet may be produced. The forward potential of these diodes depends on the wavelength of the emitted photonsE $.4 > corresponds to red, 4.( to violet. The first ?EDs were red and yellow, and higher9fre uency diodes have been developed over time. /ll ?EDs are monochromatic6 7white7 ?EDs are actually combinations of three ?EDs of a different color, or a blue ?ED with a yellow scintillator coating. ?EDs can also be used as low9efficiency photodiodes in signal applications. /n ?ED may be paired with a photodiode or phototransistor in the same package, to form an

 ?aser diodes -hen an ?ED9like structure is contained in a resonant cavity formed by polishing the parallel end faces, a laser can be formed. ?aser diodes are commonly used in optical storage devices and for high speed optical communication.

.hotodiodes
!emiconductors are sub:ect to optical charge carrier generation and therefore most are packaged in light blocking material. If they are packaged in materials that allow light to pass, their photosensitivity can be utili=ed. .hotodiodes can be used as solar cells, and in photometry.

Fener diodes
Diodes that can be made to conduct backwards. This effect, called Fener breakdown, occurs at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a precision voltage reference. In practical voltage reference circuits Fener and switching diodes are connected in series and opposite directions to balance the temperature coefficient to near =ero. !ome devices labeled as high9voltage Fener diodes are actually avalanche diodes. Two 0e uivalent8 Feners in series and in reverse order, in the same package, constitute a transient absorber 0or Transorb, a registered trademark8. They are named for Dr. Clarence 1elvin Fener of !outhern Illinois Bniversity, inventor of the device.

>aricap or varactor diodes

These are used as voltage9controlled capacitors. These are important in .?? 0phase9locked loop8 and "?? 0 fre uency9locked loop8 circuits, allowing tuning circuits, such as those in television receivers, to lock uickly, replacing older designs that took a long time to warm up and lock. / .?? is faster than a "??, but prone to integer harmonic locking 0if one attempts to lock to a broadband signal8. They also enabled tunable oscillators in early discrete tuning of radios, where a cheap and stable, but fi;ed9fre uency, crystal oscillator provided the reference fre uency for a voltage9controlled oscillator

Diodes 0The .2 Junction8

Diodes 0The .2 Junction8

If a piece of intrinsic silicon is doped so that half is n-type and the other half is p-type, a pn :unction forms between the two regions as indicated in on the first slide The p region has many holes 0ma:ority carriers8 from the impurity atoms and only a few thermally generated free electrons 0minority carriers8. The n region has many free electrons 0ma:ority carriers8 from the impurity atoms and only a few thermally generated holes 0minority carriers8.

Diodes 0The .2 Junction8

The free electrons in the n region are randomly drifting in all directions. /t the instant of the pn :unction formation, the free electrons near the :unction in the n region begin to diffuse across the :unction into the p region where they combine with holes near the :unction. The same is true for the p-type material.

Diodes 0The Depletion @egion8

-hen the pn :unction is formed, the n region loses free electrons as they diffuse across the :unction. This creates a layer of positive charges 0ions8 near the :unction. /s the electrons move across the :unction, the p region loses holes as the electrons and holes combine. This creates a layer of negative charges 0ions8 near the :unction. These two layers of positive and negative charges form the depletion region.

Diodes 0The Barrier Potential 8

/ny time there is a positive charge and a negative charge near each other, there is a force acting on the charges. In the depletion region there are many positive charges and many negative charges on opposite sides of the pn :unction. The forces between the opposite charges form an electric field. This electric field is a barrier to the free electrons in the n region, and energy must be e;pended to move an electron through the electric field. That is, e;ternal energy must be applied to get the electrons to move across the barrier of the electric field in the depletion region.

Diodes 0"orward *ias 8

To bias a pn junction, apply an external dc voltage across it. Forward bias is the condition that allows current through a pn junction. The picture shows a dc voltage source connected by conductive material (contacts and wire) across a pn junction in the direction to produce orward bias. This external bias voltage is designated as !"#$%. &otice that the negative side o !"#$% is connected to the n region o the pn junction and the positive side is connected to the p region. This is one re'uirement or orward bias. $ second re'uirement is that the bias voltage, V "#$%, must be greater than the barrier potential ((.)! in silicon and (.* in

Diodes 0"orward *ias 8

*ecause like charges repel, the negative side of the bias9voltage source <pushes< the free electrons, which are the ma:ority carriers in the n region, toward the pn :unction. This flow of free electrons is called electron current. The negative side of the source also provides a continuous flow of electrons through the e;ternal connection 0conductor8 and into the n region as shown.

Diodes 0"orward *ias 8

!ince unlike charges attract, the positive side of the bias9voltage source attracts the electrons from the 29@egion into the .9@egion. The holes in the .9@egion provides a medium for electrons to move through the .9@egion. The electrons move from hole to hole on to the left. /s they move they leave holes behind. The holes ellectively not actually move towards the pn :unction. This is called hole current.

Effect of Forward Bias on the epletion !egion

/s more electrons flow into the depletion region, the number of positive ions is reduced. /s more holes effectively flow into the depletion region on the other side of the pn :unction, the number of negative ions is reduced. This reduction in positive and negative ions during forward bias causes the depletion region to narrow.

Effect of the Barrier Potential uring Forward Bias

-hen forward bias is applied, the free electrons are provided with enough energy from the bias9voltage source to overcome the barrier potential and effectively move and cross the depletion region. The energy that the electrons re uire in order to pass through the depletion region is e ual to the barrier potential. In other words, the electrons give up an amount of energy e uivalent to the barrier potential when they cross the depletion region. This energy loss results in a voltage drop across the pn :unction 0+.& for silicon and +.' for germanium8. /n ideal diode does not have a barrier potential.

Characteristic curve for forward bias

>ery little current will flow until the bias voltage passes the value for the potential barrier

Characteristic curve for reverse bias

Diodes are not designed to allow current to flow in reverse bias. Bnder high voltages the diode will break down and start conducting in reverse bias. This voltage if called the break down voltage >*@ The diode at this point is no longer of any use as it cannot conduct current in only one direction any more.