Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
np
Chapter - 1
Power Electronics Control
Power
control
analog/digital
electronic
device circuit
power
component
static retrtary
electronic
Vg
+
V
Thyristor
S or SCR
V
R V
Vs
SITH
Vg
V
GTO
VS
K
MCT
ON
t1
T1
OFF
VB
VS
t1
Vo
t1
d) MOSFET/IGBT Switch
Downloaded from www.bhawesh.com.np/- 3
vgs
1
vs
IGBT
V0
S +
V
gs
1)
2)
3)
4)
t1
vs
-
1 T
AC
Supply
D
1
+ v =v Sinwt
s m
load resistance
+
R
vs
-
a) Circuit Diagram
D2
Vm
Vs=Vm
Sinwt
wt
Vm
V0
Vm
wt
b) Voltage waveform
.
Vm
Vs=Vm
Sinwt
wt
AC
Supply
Lead result
vs=Sinwt
Vm
vs
T
Fig : Circuit Diagram
2
Vm
V0
wt
3. AC-AC Converter
Such types of converter are used to obtain a variable ac voltage from fixed ac voltage.
Output Voltage is controlled by varying the conduction time or firing angle .
Chapter - 2
Semi-conductor Diodes
When anode potential is higher than that of cathode, the diode is said to be forward biased
and the diode conducts.
When cathode junction is higher than that of anode, the diode is said to be reversed. Under
reverse condition, a small reverse current (also known as leakage amount) is the range of
micro or milli ampere flows and this leakage amount of current increases slowly in magnitude
with reverse voltage until the avalanche or zenor voltage is reached.
VD
V
0
D
Reverse
l eakage
current
a) Practical
b) Ideal
Fig : V-I characteristics of diode
I D = I s e Vp
nVT
:
:
n=1
n=2
VT = Thermal Voltage =
KT
q
-23
-19
= I s (e
1)= I s (e
= I s (48.23 1)[neglecting I s ]
nV
0.1 10.0288
(
)
1)
(V
ID =Is e
nVT
Ise
VD nVT
( V
ID =Is e
nVT
I s
In Breakdown Region, the reverse voltage is high usually greater than 1000 V, the magnitude of the
reverse voltage exceeds the specified voltage known as breakdown voltageVBr . The reverse voltage
increases rapidly with small change in reverse voltage beyondVBr .
Reverse Recovery Characteristics
The current in a forward leased junction diode is due to the net effect of majority and
minority carriers. Once a diode is in forward conductor mode and then its forward current is reduced
to zero, the diode continuity to conduct due to minority carrier which remain store in P-N Junction
and bulk semi-conductor material. The minority carrier requires a certain time to recombine with
opposite charges and to be neutralized. This time is called reverse recovery time of the diode.
Figure shows two reverse recovery characteristics of a junction diode.
IF
trr
IF
ta
trr
0.25IRR
RR
a) Soft Recovery
RR
t6
b) Abrupt Recovery
Fig : Reverse Recovery Characteristics
( 1)
trr = ta + tb
I
RR
di
dt
(2 )
RR
It is the amount of charge carrier that flow across the diode in the reverse direction due
to charge over from forward conduction to reverse blocking condition.
1 t .I
1
a RR + tb .I RR
2
2
1
= I RR .trr (3)
2
g
RR
I RR =
RR
(4 )
RR
dt
rr
t
rr
RR
di
2 RR
di dt
ta
dt
(6 )
. di (7 )
2
RR
RR
dt
Ls
+
I1
Sw
D1
I2
Vs
I0
R
IP=Is/R
I2
I0
Vs
Dm
I
3
t1
I0
a) Circuit Diagram
t
t1
t2
b) Wave Form
If the switch is
Io = Vs / R would flow through the load and the free wheeling diode Dm will be reverse bias.
If the switch is turned off at t=t1 diode Dm would circulate through Dm. Again, the switch is
turned on at t=t2.
The rate of rise of forward current of diode D1 and the rate of fall of forward current of diode
Dm would be very high tending to be infinity.
According to the equation, I RR = 2
RR
di
dt , the peak reverse current of diode would be very
high and diodes D1 and Dm may be damaged. This problem is normally overcome by connecting
di/dt limiting inductor Ls as shown in the figure.
I Sw
1
I2
D1
R
Vs
I1
I0
Ip
I0
Dm
t1
I2
t2
I2
I0
tm
a) Circuit Diagram
t1
t2
b) Waveform
The practical diodes require a certain turn on time before the entire area of junction becomes
conductive and di / dt must be kept low to meet the turn on time limit. This time is some time known
as forward recovery time (tfr). The rate of rise of current through the diode D1 which should be same
as the rate of fall of current through diode Dm is
di V
dt
I
RR
rr
di
dt
V
s
=trr Ls
Vs
and, the peak current through the inductor Ls would be I p = Io + I rr = Io + trr Ls
When the inductor current becomes I p diode Dm turn off suddenly. Due to a highly inductive
lead, the current cannot change suddenly from Io to I P . The excess energy stored in Ls would induce
high reverse voltage across Dm and this may damage diode Dm .
The excess energy stored as a result of reverse recovery time is
1
2
2
wR = 2 Ls I p Io
1
2
2
= 2 Ls ( I o + I RR ) Io
1
2
2
= 2 Ls ( I o + trr ) Io
This excess energy can be transfer from inductor Ls to a capacitor Cs which is connected across
[
[
]
]
diode Dm .
2 CsVc
Cs =
2w
2
= wR
Vc
where, VC is the allowable reverse voltage of the diode. A resistor Rs is connected in series with Cs
to damp out any transient oscillation.
I=-Is
-
D1
+
-
D1
D2
D1
D2
Is
+
Is
a) Circuit Diagram
b) v-i chracteristics
In practical v-i characteristics for the same type of diode differ due to tolerances in their
production process. In forward bias condition, both diodes conduct the same amount of current and
the forward voltage drop of each diode would be all most equal. However in reverse blocking
condition each diode has to carry the same leakage current and as a result the blocking voltage will
be differ significantly.
A simple solution to this problem is to force equal voltage sharing by connecting a resistor
across a diode.
I =I +I
s
(i )
s2
(ii )
IR +Is =Is
1
D1
D1
+Is =
+Is =
1
V D2
R
Is1
R1
Is2
R2
D2
D2
+Is
1
2
R1
R2
If R1 = R2 = R, then
V D1
i=-Is
-V =-V
D1
(iii )
+Is
2
D2
V
-Is 1
-Is
2
= 35mA
Is
VD = ?
VD = ?
R1 = R2 = R =100k
Is +IR=Is +IR
VD
R1
Is +
VD
1
VD
=Is +
2
R1
VD =VD +VD
1
R2
VD
2
R2
(ii )
Q. The reverse recovery time of a diode is trr = 5s and the rate of fall of diode current
di
= 80A / s. If the softness factor, SF = 0.5, then determine storage charge.
dt
(a) RR
Solution:
=t
I
RR
(i )
1
= I RR .trr (ii )
2
t
b
SF = = 0.5
ta
RR
tb = 0.5ta
(i)
trr = ta + tb = 5s
(ii )
ta = 3.33s
Chapter - 3
Diodes Circuit & Rectifier
Diodes with RC Load
S1
Vs
R1
idt +Vc (t = 0)
I ( s)
RI (s) +
s
or, R
(s) =
cs
Rcs +1
I (s )=
or,
Vs
s
Vs
cs
s
Vsc
or, I ( s )= Rc(s +1 Rc)
Vs
or, I ( s )= R( s +1/ Rc)
Taking Inverse Laplace,
V
s
i(t) = R et / Rc
Capacitor Voltage
1 t
Vc (t) = c 0 idt
=
=
t VR
1
c
V
R
s
Rc
et Rc dt
t
et / Rc
1/ Rc
= Vs [1 e
t / Rc
]
= Vs [1 e
T = Rc = Time constant of Rc load.
t / T
dt
et / Rc
Rc
Rc
s
-By Manoj Basnet (Ass. Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering) /- 14
S/R
Vc
Vs
0.632Vs
0.36 VS/R
t
t
=Rc
Diode Circuit with RL load
Ls
+
D1
R
VR
Vs
L
+
L
a) Circuit Diagram
When switch S is closed at t=0
Vs = VR +VL
= Ri + L dt
di z
= RI ( s ) + L[sI (s ) ) i(0 )]
( R + Ls)I s = Vs
V s
s
I (s )= s( R + Ls)
V
s
= Ls( s + R / L)
V 1
1L
I (s) = s
Ls
s+R/L R
R s
By inversion,
V
s+R/L
s 1eL
i(t) =
R t
R
di
= Vs
dt t =0 L
Voltage across inductor,
Rt
L
VL = L di = Vs e L = Vs e T
dt
L
where, T =
= time constant RL load
R
t
VL
VS
i
Vs/R
0.63Vs
0.36 VS
b) waveform
idt +V
(t = 0)= 0
Vc (t = 0)= Vo
Taking laplace transform,
V
RI ( s )+
I(s)
Cs
VR
Solution:
at t=0, s is closed
R+ 1
=0
V V
0
Vo
I ( s )=
Cs
RCs +1
s
Vo
I (s )=
Cs
s
CVo
I (s )=
RC s
RC
Vo
I (s )=
1
R s + RC
By inversion,
i (t ) = V o
R
et / RC
V
R
220
44 = 5A
(t)
V0/R
et / RC
RC
Vo
RC
=Vo (1 e
= V e
t / RC
)Vo
-Vo
t / RC
/ 40.110
) = 139.64V
di 1
Vs = L dt
t
0
i(0) = 0
Ls +
Lcs
V
= s
s
1
I (s)
cs
2
+1
cs
+
V
- c
Vs
(s )=
Vs
s
CVs
I (s ) )=
2
+
LC s
LC
Vs
I (s )= L(s +
By inversion,
2
i(t) =
,
where
.sin
LC
.sin t
=Vs
L
i(t )= I p sin
t where I p = Vs
C
L
cos t = Vs C . 1 .cos t
L LC
(2 )
di = s .cos t
dt
L
Initial rate of rise of current,
di
dt
=
t =0
Vs
L
( 3)
I
0
sin
tdt = .Vs
c
C cos t
(1 cos t)
LC
= Vs (1 cos t)
At t = t1 =
(4)
LC , the diode current i falls to zero and the capacitor is changed to 2Vs.
O
Vc(t)
1/2
t
t =
1
2c
2Vs
Vs
O
Q. A diode circuit with Lc load is shown in figure with the capacitor having initial voltage Vo=220V,
capacitance C=20 F and inductance L = 80H. If switch s1 is closed at t=0, determine:
a) Peak current through the diode
b) Conduction time of the diode
c) Steady state capacitor voltage
Solution:
At t=0, s1 is closed.
L
di
dt
S1
C 0
Vc (t = 0)= Vo
Taking laplace transform,
I (s
L[SI (s ) i(0 )]+
Cs
V
Ls +
I (s )=
=0
Cs
C
i(t) = Vo
=110A
L
Conduction time, t1 =
Vc (t )= C
1
LC =125.66s
t
0
idt +Vc (t = 0)
C
Vo
C
=
sin
C
o
tdt Vo
cos t
Vo
. 1 (1 cos t)Vo
LC
Vc (t )= Vo cos t
= Vo
VL
+
Vc
V0
(t = t )= V
V
c
cos t = V cos
o
. LC = V
cos = V = 220V
o
LC
V0
V0
t
t
1/2
-V0
Q. In the diode LC H /W `is shown in the figure. The capacitor is initially charged to voltage Vc with
upper plate +ve. Switch s is closed at t=0, device expressions for the current through and voltage
across C.
Find the conduction time of the diode, peak current through the diode and final steady state
voltage across C. In case Vs = 400V , Vo =100V , L =100H , C = 30. Determine also the voltage
across the diode after stage
conduction. Solution:
At t=0, switch s is closed,
Vs = L
di
dt
Ls
1 t idt +V (t = 0)
+
c
Vs
I ( s )=
s
V s V
I ( s )=
c(V s Vo )
1
2
I ( s )=
LC
LC
V
V
or, I ( s )=
cs
+1
cs
+ C V0 -
Vs = L[sI (s ) i(s)]+ I ( s ) + Vo
s
Cs
s
1
V s V
Ls +
VL
Lcs
C 0
V c (t = 0 )= V o
where
s2+
1
LC
Vc
Vs Vo 1
sin
. sin t = (V s Vo ).
L
L
Voltage across capacitor,
i(t) =
Vc ( t ) = 1
C
i(t)
V -V
1
idt +Vc (t = 0)
C/2
=C
t +Vo
Vc(t)
cos t
1/2
(V s Vo ). L sin
V V
2Vs-V
+Vo
Vs
Vs
a) t1 =
LC = 54.77s
-Vs+V
b) I p = (V s Vo ) C =164.32A
L
c) Steady state voltage across capacitor = 2Vs Vo = 700V
d) Vo = Vs VL Vc = Vs 0 (2Vs Vo )= Vs 2Vs +Vo = Vs +Vo = 300V
Diode Circuit with RLC Load
At t=0, switch s1 is closed.
t
V = R + L di + 1 idt +V (t = 0)
s
i
c
dt C 0
S1
d 2i
di i
L 2+ R
+ =0
dt
dt c
d 2i R di
i
=0
+
+
2
dt
L dt
LC
Changing equation in s domain,
2
s +R s + i = 0
LC
L
R
2L
We define,
2L
LC
damping factor
R
2L
resonance frequency,
s
1,2
L
-
Vs
By differentiation,
s1,2 =
+
+ VR -
= 1
LC
2
o
1st case
Downloaded from www.bhawesh.com.np/- 21
C+
Vc
, the roots are equal s1 = s2 and the circuit is called critically damp and the solution will be
of the form
i(t) = ( A1 + A2t)es1t
If > o , the roots are real and the circuit is called over damped. The solution takes the form:
i(t) = A es1t + A es2t
1
If
<
o , the roots are complex and the circuit is called under damped.
2
1
where,
i(t )= e
t A cos
nd
t +A sin
r
t
r
order RLC circuit shown in the figure has the source voltage Vs = 220V , Inductance
Capacitance C = 0.05F and Resistance R =160 . The initial value of the capacitor
Q. The 2
L = 2m +1,
160
3
1.
<
2L 2 2 10
5
= 1 =10 rad / sec
o
LC
o it is an under-damped circuit . The solution is
i(t ) = e
( A cos
t + A sin
t)
(i)
At t=0 i(t=0)=0
i(0)=A1=0
From (i),
t
i(t )= e .A sin t
2
di
dt
= A2 (e
cos
t e
sin
t)
di
=A
2
dt t =0
Initial rate of rise of current is limited only by inductor L.
V
di
= s = 220
r
dt
V
=
A
2
t =0
A = Vs
2
2 10
=1.2
L
r
-By Manoj Basnet (Ass. Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering) /- 22
i(t ) = 1.2e
40,000t
sin(91,652)t
= 91,652 = 34.27s
Freewheeling Diodes
In the circuit steady state current after switch s1 is
equal to
1 V
D1
close is
stored
R
Dm
L s
S 1
arc
Vs
if
at
1e
R
When the switch is open at t=t1, current at that time becomes
V
Rt
i (t = t ) = s 1 e L 1
1
1
R
i2
Mode-2
di
0 = L 2 + Ri2
R
L
dt
L[sI 2 (s ) i2 (0 )]+ RI 2 ( s )= 0
Vs
i2 (0 )= = I1
R
V
( L s + R)I 2 ( s )= L.
I 2 ( s )=
i2
I1
LVs R
t1
RL( s + R / L)
R
i2 (t )= I1e = t
L
f
i2
t1
Waveform
V
AC, Supply Vp
Vs=Vm sinwt R
-
V2 o
/2
Vm
Is o
Vm/R
/2
VD
/2
wt
2
2
wt
o
o
wt
-Vm
During +ve half cycle of i/p voltage diode D1 conduct and the i/p voltage appears across the lead.
During ve half cycle of input voltage, the diode is in blocking condition and the o/p voltage is zero.
Performance Parameter
A rectifier is a power processor that should give a DC output voltage with minimum amount of
harmonic contains. There are different types of rectifier circuit. The performances of rectifier are
normally evaluated in terms of following parameters.
Average value of o/p (lead) voltage
Average value of o/p current
Output DC Power
RMS value of o/p voltage RMS
value of o/p current Output AC
Power
Vdc
Idc
Pdc = Vdc Idc
Vrms
Irms
Pac = Vrms . Irms
P
dc
P
ac
Output Voltage can be considered as being composed of two components (1) DC value (2) AC
component or ripple.
= V
dc
rms
rms
V
dc
V ac
dc
Vrms2 Vdc2
V
dc
V
=
rms
1 =
FF
dc
P
dc
dc
VA
Vs I s
where, Vs & Is are rms voltage and rms current of transformer secondary respectively. Let
us consider the waveform
Ip
Is
Input Current
Is
1
wt
o
-Ip
Fundamental
Component
Input Voltage
is the angle between fundamental component of input current and voltage, then the angle
defined as
2
Is
HF =
Is
I
Is
=I
2
2
Both I s and I s are expressed in rms. Input Power Factor is defined as:
1
Vs I s cos
I s1
PF =
P
ac
= I cos
Vs I s
VA
s
Crest Factor, CF is to specify the peak current ratings of devices and components CF of input
current is defined as:
CF =
I s ( peak )
Is
P
dc
P
ac
V =
dc
1
T
1
=T
=
Vm
VL (t)dt
T2
0
Vm sin tdt t
V
=T
T
2
cos t
0
m
[1 cos
T / 2]
2
V
= 0.318Vm
0.318V
V
dc
I dc =
(1 cos )
R
1
rms
(t )dt
T
2
T2
=
T
Vm sin tdt
V
=
1 cos 2 t
dt
Vm
sin 2 t
2T
=
0
1
T2 2
sin
2T 2
T2
2
1
Vm
2T 2
V = Vm
= 0.5Vm
rms
2
=V
rms
rms
0.5Vm
R
(0.5Vm )2
P =V I
ac
rms
rms
P =V I
dc
dc
dc
= (0.31Vm )
=
P
dc
=(
R
0.318V
m
)2 = 40.5%
2
= 0.5Vm
0.318V
rms
b) FF =
R(0.5Vm )
Pac
V
dc
=1.57
m
2
FF 1 =1.21
c) RF =
d) Vs =
T
0
(V m sin t)2 dt 2 =
Vm
2
dc
e) PIV of diode = Vm
0.5Vm
f) I s ( peak) = Vm
Is =
R
R
CF = I s ( peak) = 2
Is
Single Phase Half wave Rectifier with RL load
i
+
is
1
Vs=Vm sinwt
R VR
AC, Supply Vp
Dm
VL
VS
VS=VS- VR
VR=iR
+6
i i
s=
VD
D1
6
Current Io continuous to flow even after source voltage Vs has become ve, this is because of
presence of inductance L in the lead circuit. Voltage VR = Io R has the same wave shape as that of
Io . Conduction period of D1 will extend beyound 180 until the current becomes zero at
+
0
Vm sin
td t =
V
2
V dc
R
[1 cos(
t=
)]
+ .
, the current
wt
Vm-E
i2
s
E
Vm+E
i
a) Circuit Diagram
Vm-E
R
If the output is connected to a battery, the rectifier can be used as a battery charger. For Vs > E , the
diode D1 conducts
wt
Vm sin = E
sin =
1
= sin
Charging Current, I L =
Vs E
V m sin t E
for <
t<
R
R
=
Q. The battery shown in the figure is E =12V
and its capacity is 100 watt hour. The average
charging current should be I dc = 5A . The primary input voltage Vp =120V ,60Hz and transfer has a
turn ratio of N = 2 :1. Then calculate
a) The conduction angle of the diode
b) Current turning resistance R
c) Power ratings PR of R
d) Charging time ho in hours
e) Rectifier efficiency
f) Peak inverse voltage
Solution:
E =12V
Vp =120V
Vs =
Vp 120
= 60V
=
n
2
Vm = V2Vs = 84.85V
+
V
D1
+
V
iL
E
= sin
1 E
V
=171.87
b)
=163.74
1 V
I dc =
=
=
1
2
1
2
1
a) Conduction Angle,
=180
sin
tE
d t
R [ Vm cos
R Vm cos
( Vm cos(
t - E t]
E. +Vm cos + E.
) + E(
)+Vm cos + E
2 R
I dc = 1 (2Vm cos + 2E E )
2 R
R = 4.26
2
1 V sin t E
m
=
d t
R
2
2
1 V2
V
2
=
+ E ( 2 )+
sin 2 4Vm E cos
2 R2
2
2
= 67.4
I rms = 8.2A
Power Rating of R,
PR = I rms2 .R = 67.4 4.26 = 286.4W
d) Power deliver to the battery, Pdc = EIdc =12 5 = 60W
ho Pdc =100
ho =
e) Rectifier efficiency,
100
60 =1.667hrs
P
=
P +P
dc
60
=17.32%
60 + 286.4
D1
+
+
Vp
-
Vm
i2
D1
+ Vs
-
-V
i2
D2
o
2
D2
V
V
m
o
wt
VD
V
V
D1
D2
=0
D2
=0
D1
-2Vm
wt
2
-Vm
VL
D3
V1
-
Vm
o
Vp
D2
wt
Vs
D4
-Vm
During positive half cycle of input voltage, the power is supplied to the load through diode
D1 and D2 during negative half cycle the diode D3 and D4 conduct.
Q. A single phase full wave center tapped transformer has a purely resistive load of R. Determine: a)
Efficiency b) Wave-form Factor c) Ripple Factor d) TUF e) PIVof diode D
f) CF of input current.
VL
Solution:
Average Output Voltage:
1
Vdc = 0 VL d t
=
Vm
o
2Vm
= 0.6366Vm
dc
(0.6366Vm )2
P = V .I
dc
dc
dc
R
RMS value of output voltage:
1
V
rms
VL d t
1
2
m
sin
tdt
1
1 cos t
2
m
d t
wt
2
sin 2 t
Vm
2
= Vm = 0.707Vm
2
RMS Value of Load Current:
rms
rms
0.707Vm
R
P = V I = (0.707Vm )2
ac
rms
P
a)
(0.6366V m )
dc
.R
( R.0.707Vm )
ac
V
rms
b) FF =
rms
0.707Vm
0.6366V
= 81%
dc
=1.11
c) RF = FF 2 1 = 0.482
d )Vs =
Vm
I s2 = I rms .R
2.R
Is =
rms
V
=
V
=
2.R. 2 2R
0.5Vm
= R
(0.6366V )2 2 R
P
TUF =
= 57.32%
=
2Vs I s
2 R Vm 0.5 Vm
m
dc
I peak V 2R
)= m =
f) CF = s (
I
R.Vm
Q. A single phase full wave bridge rectifier has a purely resistive load of with the supply voltage
220V and supply frequency 50Hz. Then calculate:
a) Efficiency b) Ripple Factor c) TUF d) PIV of diode e) CF
Solution:
rms
R=5
Vm = 2 220V = 311V
Vdc = 0.6366Vm
Vrms = 0.707Vm
I dc =
0.6366Vm
R
= 0.707Vm
I
rms
0 .6366V 2 . R
m) 2
=
a) = dc = (
81% Pac R.(0 .707Vm )
Vrms
b) FF =
=1.11
dc
RF =
FF 1 = 0.482
P
dc
0.6366Vm
I peak V . 2.R
s(
)= m
=2
e) CF =
Is
R.Vm
D3
D4
D2
Max
IL
a) Circuit Diagram
min
/2
b) Wave Form
di
L
dt
+ RiL + E =
2Vs sin t
2V
i =
sin
t )+ A e
E
R
R 2 + ( L)
where, z =
= tan 1
R
Case 1: Continuous Load Current
iL = I1
R
A
1
=I
2V
sin
s
At t = ,
e L
z
Downloaded from www.bhawesh.com.np/- 33
2Vs
sin( t )+ I
2Vs
+E
R
sin
At t = 0, iL ( t = 0)= I1
R
2V s
E
1+e L
= 2 sin
R
R
1e L
After substitution, we get
.R sin e
t )+
;i
sin(
2Vs
1e
V
Vm
E
o
wt
iL
Wave Form
Case 2: Discontinuous Load Current
Load Current Flows only during the period
1
= sin
E
V
m
t )= 0
)e
iL =
2Vs
sin( t )+
2Vs
E
R
sin(
)e
2Vs sin(
z
A =E
; iL (
At t =
E =0
R
= 0 by an iterative method of
I =
r
i d t
2
Average diode current
Id =2
iL (d t)
D2
1
Va
N 3
R VL
-
Circuit Diagram
t +120)= Vm sin
2
3
2
t+ 3
-120
-60
30
At t = 30
60
360
At t =150
V
Vr = 2
Vr = 2
Vy = Vm
V
Vb = 2
Vy = 2
Vb = Vm
So, Vr is most positive phase voltage and D1 conducts from 30 to 150. At t =150, Vy is most
positive phase voltage and D2 conducts from 150 to 270.
At t = 270
Vr = Vm
V
Vy = 2
Vb = 2
So, Vb is most positive phase voltage and D3 conducts from 270 to 30 next cycle. Hence output
consists of 3 phase voltages VR ,Vy ,Vb . Each lasting for a period of 120.
Q. A 3 star rectifier has a purely resistive load with R
Ripple factor d) TUF e) PIV of each voltage f) Peak current through a diode. If the rectifier deliver I
dc
Solution:
Average Output Voltage
5
1
2
V dc =
V m sin td t
3
5
= 1 Vm cos
2
3
= 0.827Vm
-By Manoj Basnet (Ass. Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering) /- 36
dc
dc
0.827Vm
R
1
2
5
6
(V
V rms =
sin t) d t
3
= 0.84068Vm
I
=
rms
0.84068Vm
R
P
dc
= Vdc I dc =
(0.827Vm )2
R
P = V I = (0.84068Vm )2
ac
rms
rms
0.8272 2
) =
a) = dc = (
2
96.77% Pac (0.84068)
V 0.84068V
m
b) F = rms =
=1.0165 Vdc 0.827Vm
FF 2 1 = (1.0165)2 1 = 0.1824
c) RF =
d) Vs =
Vm
2
3I s R = I rms R
I =
s
rms
= 0.4855Vm
R
P
TUF =
e) PIV =
dc
3Vs I s
(0.827V m )
3Vm (0.4855Vm )
= 0.6643
3Vm
3 bridge rectifier:
iL
D1
D3
D5
VB
Nr
+
Vy
VL
D4
D6
D2
This is a full wave rectifier. The pair of diodes which are connected between that pair of supply
lines having the highest amount of instantaneous line to line voltage will conduct.
Phase Voltages:
Downloaded from www.bhawesh.com.np/- 37
Vy = Vm sin( t 120)
Vb = Vm sin(
t +120)
= Vm .2sin
VD
t 200)
V
ry
rb
yb
yr
br
by
wt
120
150
180
3
1
6
90
60
210
240
270
300
330 360
Vry d t
30
-30
3V m
sin
t+
d t
3
=1.6539Vm
1
2
1
=
rms
Vm sin
t+
d t
=1.6554Vm
Q 1. A 3 bridge rectifier has a purely resistive load of R. Determine a) efficiency b) foam factor c)
Ripple factor d) TUF e) PIV of each diode f) Peak current through a diode. The rectifier deliver I dc =
60A at an output voltage of Vdc = 280.7V and the source frequency is 60Hz .
Solution:
V
rms =1.6554Vm
Vdc =1.6539Vm ,
V
V
I
rms
rms =
I dc = dc ,
R
R
P = V I = (1.6539Vm )2
ac
dc dc
R
-By Manoj Basnet (Ass. Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering) /- 38
P = V I = (1.6554Vm )2
P
ac
rms
rms
1 .6539V 2 .R
m)
=
a) = dc = (
2
99.8% Pac (1 .6554Vm ) .R
b) FF =
rms
1.6554V
=1.009
Vdc 1.6539Vm
2
c) RF = FF 1 = 0.042
d) rms voltage of transformer secondary voltage, Vs
V
= m2
current 3I a R = I rms R
Ia =
Is
rms
3
2
R = 2I a R
I s = 2I a = 2
P
3
dc
e) TUF =
3V I s
rms
(1.6539Vm )2 2 3.R
= R 3Vm 2 1.6554Vm
3Vm = 3 169.72 = 293.9V
f) PIV =
dc
=
R
V
dc
R=
= 4.67
dc
dc
2 Vry sin
for
When Vry = line to line rms voltage , the lead current io can be found from,
L
di
dt
i =
+ R + E = 2V ry sin
2Vry
sin( t
) + A e
E
R
+
= tan
( 1)
1
2 2
R
A1 in the equation can be determined from the condition at
t=
3 ,io
= Io
sin
A1 = Io +
2Vry
c 3
After substitution,
io
t=
sin( t
) + Io
= io t =
sin
sin
ry
L 3
3
R
1e
Io =
E
R
(2 )
3
2
2V
= Io
io =
2Vry
E
+
sin
R
z
3
ry
(3) For Io
E
R For 3
After substitution,
2
)+ sin
1eL
sin
2Vm
io = z
sin(
2
3 & io
I dc d t = 1 60
5
6
d t = 20A
6
1
5
6
I2 d t
d
= 34.64A
t=
= sin
V
dc
V
m
)for
Chapter 4
Thyristor Characteristics
A
cathod
p
n
G
J2
G
gate
J3
G
cathod
J1 and J 2 are forward bias, the junction J 2 is reverse bias and only a small leakage current flows
from anode to cathode. The thyristor is then said to be in forward blocking or off state condition and
leakage current is known as off state current I
breakdown and the corresponding voltage is called forward break down voltage (V
BD
). Since the
other junction J1 and J o already forward bias there will be free movement of carriers across all the
junctions resulting in a large forward anode current. The device will then be in a conducting state or
on state. The anode current must be more than a value known as latching current I
current I
. The latching
is the minimum anode current required to maintain the thyristor in on state immediately
after a thyristor has been turned on and the gate signal has been removed.
Once a thyristor conducts, it behaves liek a conducting diode and there is no control over the
device. However, if the anode current is induced below a level known as holding current I
, a
depletion region is developed around the junction J 2 due to reduce no. of carriers and thyristor will
be in blocking state.
IL
Forward
voltage drop
gate troggered
IH
V
Forward
break down
voltage
BR
Ak
is forward biased
reverse leakage current would flow through the device. In practice, the forward voltage is maintain
below VBO and the thyristor is turn only by applying a positive voltage between its gate and cathode.
Two transistor model of thyristor:
A
IT
I I
A= T
n
J2
IG
B1= C2
I2
G1
1
P
G
IG
Ik
I
B2
2
2
Ik
b) Equivalent Circuit
a) Basic Structure
Fig : Two transistor model of Thyristor
Ic = I E + ICBO
where, ICBO = leakage amount of collect or base junction
= common base current gain
For transistor 1,
Ic =
(i )
I A + ICBO
where,
For transistor 2,
+I
CBO
Ic 2 = 1 I k
(ii )
2
where,
I
CBO2
I A + ICBO +
1
I k + ICBO
But, I k = I A + IG
( 3)
2
(4)
Downloaded from www.bhawesh.com.np/- 43
and the
1IA
+I
CBO
1
I +I
2 G
IA =
[1 (
+ 2IA+
+I
CBO
CBO
1
1 (
1
1+
)]I A
2 IG
= ICBO
(5 )
2)
+ ICBO
+I
CBO
1
2 IG
IG is suddenly increased, this will immediately increase anode current I A , which would
further increase 1
and 2 . The increase in the value of 1 and 2 would furhter inrease I A I. Therefore,
there is a regenerative of positive feed back effect. If 1 + 2 tends to infinity, the denominator of equation
(5) approaches zero, resulting in a large value of anode current I A and the thyristor will turn on with a small
gate current.
Thryristor turn on:
1. Thermal
2. Light
3. High Voltage
dv
4.
dt
5. Gate Current
A thyristor a turn on by increasing the anode current. This can be done in one of the following ways:
1. Thermal : If the temperature of thyristor is high, there will be increse in the number of electro-hole pair,
which would increase the leakage current and cause
1
and
2 may tend to be unity and the thyristor may be turn on. This type of turn on may cause thermal runaway
3. High Voltage : If forward anode to cathode voltage is greater than the forward breakdown voltage VBO
sufficient, leakage current will flow to initiate regenerative turn on. This type of turn on may be destructive
and should be avoided.
4.
dv
dt
dV
ij
2
d
= (a j
dt
)
2
= d (C j V j = C
dt
2
2
j2
di
i2
dt
+V j 2
j2
dt
If the rate of rise of anode to cathode voltage is high, the charging current of capacitive junction may be
sufficient enough to turn the thyristor, a high value of charging current may damage the thyristor and device
must be protected against high
dv
dt .
5. Gate Current:
If a thyristor is forward bias, the injection of gate current by applying positive voltage between the gate and
cathode terminals would turn on the thyristor. As the gate current is increased, the forward blocking voltage is
decreased as shown in the figure.
G1 > G2 > G3
IL
G2 G1
G=O
V
V V
3
1>
V V
Ak
B0
2> 3
di
dt Protection :
T
Ls
Im
load
C2
-
A thyristor requires a minimum time to spread the current conduction uniformly through the
junction. If the rate of rise of anode current is very fast compared to the spreading velocity of turn on
process, a localize hot spot heating will occur due to high current density and the device may fail
as a result of excessive temperature.
di
dt . Under steady state operation Dm
di
conduct when the thyristor T1 is off. If T1 is free when Dm is still conducting dt can be very high
di
and limited only by the stray inductance of the circuit. In practice dt is limited by adding a series
The practical devices must be protected against high
di
dt = Vs Ls
dv
dt Protection :
VA
Vs
Cs
0.632Vs
Vs
O
t=
Rs
T1
s is close at t = 0,
If switch
dt
dv
dt can be limited by connecting capacitor Cs . When T1 is turn on, the
discharge current of capacitor is limited by resistor Rs .
dv
0.632 V
s
=
dt
dv 0.632V
s
or, =
9i
dt Rs Cs
where, = Rs Cs
Rs =
I
TD
+
Ds
R2
T
Vs
R1
Cs
I =
RD
dv
V s
R1 + R2
Types of Thyristor:
Depending upon the physical construction, turn on and turn off behaviour, thyristor can be
broadly classified into following categories:
1. Phase Control Thyristor (SCR)
2. Fast Switching Thyristor (SCR)
3. Gate Turn off Thyristor (GTO)
4. Bidirectional Triode Thyristor (TRIAC)
5. Reverse Conducting Thyristor (RCT)
6. Static Induction Thyristor (SITH)
7. Light Activated Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (LASCR)
8. FET Controlled Thyristor (FET-CTH)
9. MOS Controlled Thyristor (MCT)
I
G
TA
Tm
1
TA
T2
TRIAC Sumbol
MT2
Equivalent of TRIAC
A TRIAC can conduct in both directions and is normally used in AC phase control. It can be
considered as two SCR connected in anti-parallel with a common gate connection as shown in the
figure.
FET Controlled Thyristor:
M1
T1
N channel
P channel
pnp
(off-FET)
(n-channel)
on FET(p-channel)
off
npn
on
a) Equivalent Circuit
It is basically a thyristor with two MOFET built into the get structure. One MOSFET is used
for turning on the MCT and other for turning off the device with the application of negative voltage
pulse, on FET gets turn on and off FET is off. With on FET on, current begins to flow from anode A
through ON FET and then as the base current and emitter current of NPN transistor and then to the
cathode K. This turn on NPN transistor as a result collector current begins to flow in NPN transistor
as OFF FET is off. This collector current of NPN Transistor acts as the base current of PNP
transistor. Subsequently, PNP transistor is also turn on, MCT turn on.
For turning off, OFF FET is energise by positive voltage pulse at the gate. With the application
of positive voltage off FET is turn on and ON FET is turn off. After off FET is turn on emitter base
terminal of PNP transistor are short circuited by off FET. So anode current begins to flow through off
FET and therefore base current of PNP transistor begins to decrease. Further, the collector current of
PNP transistor that forms a base current of NPN transistor also become to decrease. As a result MCT
turn off.
Thyristor Turn Off:
v
Vm
i
+
AK
R1
wt
2
i
Vm
RL
O
wt
2
T1
off-state
V1 V2
V
O
Is
String current
Gm
String voltage
I1 = I Ibmn &
I 2 = I I rms
where, I = total string current
Voltage across SCR1 = Vbm = I1R
Voltage across (n+1) SCR = (n 1)I 2 R
Now,
Vs = I1 R + (n 1)I 2 R
=Vbm +(n 1)( I Ibmx )R
=Vbm +(n 1)[I 1 ( I bmx Ibmn )]R
=Vbm +(n 1)I 1 R (n 1)R Ib
R=
nV V
bm
(n 1)
Ib
R1
I1
T1
2 T2
Fig : Current Sharing Thyristor
ILED
R1
+
V1
D1
R
optocoupler
Photoser
V1
gate voltage
N2
N1
R1
C1
A simple isolation arrangement with pulse transformer is shown in the figure. When a pulse
of adequate voltage is applied to the base of switching transistor 1, the transistor saturate and DC
voltage Vcc appears across the transformer primary, inducing a pulse voltage on the transformer
secondarily which is applied between the thyristor gate and cathode terminal. When pulse is removed
from base of the transfer turn off and voltage of opposite polarity is induced across the primary and
the freewheeling diode Dm conducts.
Vs
B2
B2
E
IE
+
B1 +
B1
Fig : Circuit
Negative
resistance region
B1
VE
Vp
Saturation
Region
Vp
Peak Point
Vv
Valley Point
E(Set)
Vv
2T
B1
IE
IE (VA)
Ip
Iv
Fig : Characteristics
2T
Fig : Waveform
conduct, the UJT turns off and the charging cycle is repeated. The
triggering voltage are shown in the figure C.
The period of oscillation is approximately given by:
1
1
T=
where
RC ln
f
1
is intrinsic stand off ratio.
= 0.51 to 0.82
Vs Vp
I
(i )
RB = 10
Vs
2
(iii )
Vs +VD (= 0.5V )
Vp
- (iv)
Q. Design triggering circuit of figure between the parameter of UJT are Vs = 30V ,
= 0.51V,
I p =10A, Vv = 3.5V , IV =10mA.. The frequency of oscillation is f = 60Hz and width of triggering
pulse is tg = 50s .
Solution:
T=
f = 60
=16.67ms
Vs Vp
30 15.8
Vs
R > VV
IV
T=
=1.42m
10
= 30 3.5 = 2.65K
10
1
RC ln
1
1
= R 0.5ln
60
R = 46.7K
tg = RB .C
1 0.5
which falls within limiting value we have
RB = 50 =100
1
0.5
10 4
RB =
= 654
Vs
2
Programmable Unijunction Transistors (PUT):
+V3
R1
Rv
anode
anod
Gate
+
+
VA
Cathod
R2 VG
a) Symbol
Rk
Rk
b) Circuit
PUT is a small thyristor shown in figure (a). PUT can be used as relaxation oscillator as shown in
figure (b).The gate voltage VG is maintained from the supply by the resistor divided by R1 and R2
and determine the peak voltage Vp in case of UJT Vp is fixed for a device by DC supply voltage. But
Vp of PUT can be varied by varying resistor dividor R1 and R2 . If anode VA
VG , the device will remain in its off state. If
Period of Oscillation
1
T = RC ln
1
Vs
V
= RC ln
V
s
= RC ln 1 +
p
R2
R
1
V
) s
RG
Downloaded from www.bhawesh.com.np/- 53
R1 R2
R1 + R2
R
G
R1 =
R=
1
Q. Design triggering circuit of figure (i) the parameter of PUT are Vs = 30V , IG =1mA frequency of
oscillation f = 60Hz, pulse width is tg = 50s . Peak triggering voltage is VRK =10V .
Solution:
1
1
T=
= =16.67ms
f
60
V =V
Let,
p
Rk =10V
C = 0.5F
tg = Rk .C
RK = 0
50
.5 =100
= 10 = 1
30 3
Vs
T = RC ln 1
1 = R 0.5ln 1
60
1
1
3
R = 82.2K
V
IG = (1 ) Rs
2
=1
2
1 30
= 20K
3 1
Chapter - 5
Thyristor Commutation Technique
Introduction:
A thyristor is normally switched on by applying a pulse of gate signal. When a thyristor is in
conduction mode its voltage drop is small. Once the thyristor is turn on, and the output requirement
are satisfied, it is normally necessary to turn it off. Commutation is the process of turning off a
thyristor and it normally causes transfer of current flow to other parts of the circuit. A commutation
circuit normally uses additional component to accomplish the turn off.
There are many techniques to commutate a thyristor. However, these can be broadly classified
into two types:
1. Natural Commutation
2. Forced Commutation
Natural Commutation:
i
+
V
Vs= Vmsinwt
o
-
i 0= 0R
V
0
a) Circuit Diagram
wt
2
b) Wave-Form
Fig : Thyristor with natural commutation
If the source voltage is AC, the thyristor current goes through a natural zero and a reverse
voltage appears across the thyristor. The device is then automatically turn off due to the natural
behaviour of source voltage. This is known as natural commutation of line commutation .
Forced Commutation:
In some thyristor circuit, the input voltage is DC and the forward current of thyristor is forced
to zero by an additional circuitry called commutation circuit to turn off the thyristor. This technique
is called as forced commutation. The forced commutation of thyristor can be achieved by seven ways
and can be classified as:
1) Self Commutation
2) Impulse Commutation
3) Resonant Pulse Commutation
4) Complementary Commutation
5) External Pulse Commutation
6) Load Side Commutation
7) Line Side Commutation
Downloaded from www.bhawesh.com.np/- 55
+
T1
2L
Vs
Vc -
a) Circuit Diagram
In this type of commutation, a thyristor is turn off due to the natural characteristics of the
circuit. When the thyristor T1 is switch on, the capacitor charging current is given by:
Vs = VL +Vc = L
di 1
+
d
t c
idT +Vc (t = 0)
C sin mt
L
And the capacitor voltage as :
Vc (t ) = Vs (1 cos
where
mt
)
1
LC
i(E)
Vs
/2
OO
m to
w2t2
to
=
m
to =
t0
LC
b) Waveform
At time t = to =
LC charging current becomes zero and thyristor t1 is switch off itself, to is
commutation time. This method of turning off a thyristor is called self commutation and the thyristor
t1 is said to be self commutated.
The figure shows a typical circuit where the capacitor is an initial voltage of Vo when the
thyristor t1 is fire the current that will flow through a circuit is given by:
L di + 1 idt +V c (t = 0)= 0
dt C
sin
Vc -
a) Circuit
L
Capacitor Voltage, Vc (t)= Vo cos
i(t)
wmt
V0
O
/L
-V0
After time t = to =
LC , the current becomes zero and the capacitor voltage is reverse to Vo, tr is
Im
V
Vs
+
0
Solution:
Vs = L di + 1 idt +Vc (t = 0)
dt
1
LC
1
L
C
sin
t +Vs
V (t)
i(t)
Im
/2
wm t
w
/2
LC = 35.12s
2
L +V
Impulse Commutation:
Im
T
T3
Vs
1
Dm
T2
It is assumed that the capacitor is initially charge to voltage of Vo . Let us assume that thyristor T1 is
initially conducting and carrying a load current of I m . When the auxillary thyristor T2 is fire,
thyristor T1 is reverse bias by the capacitor voltage and T1 is turned off. The current through T1 and
cease to flow and the capacitor would carry the load current .The capacitor will discharge from Vo
to 0 and then charge to the DC input voltage Vs . When the capaitor current falls to zero and thyristor
of capacitor from Vo (= Vs ) to Vo is then done by
T2 turns off. The charge reversal
thyristorT3 . Thyristor T3 is self commutated. Time required for capacitor to discharge from
firing
Vo to
off
t
off
I t
I m dt =
m off
= Vo C
Im
Q. An impulse commutated thyristor circuit is shown in the figure. Determine the available turn off
time of the circuit if Vs = 210V , R =10 , C = 5F & Vo = Vs .
Solution:
T1
V0=Vs
Vs = Vc + Ri = C
Vs
i(t )=
2V
s
T2
t
RC
R
Capacitor Voltage
1
Vc (t )= idt +Vc (t = 0)= Vs
C
At t = toff
t
RC
2e
Vc (t = toff )= 0
t
off
RC
=0
Vs 1 2e
toff = RC ln 2 = 347s
Line-side Commutation:
T
Im
L
T3
C
Lr
Vs
Dm
T2
In this type of commutation, the discharging and recharging of capacitor are not accomplished
through the load and the commutation circuit can be tested without connecting the load. When the
thyristor T2 is fired, the capacitor is charged to 2Vs and T2 is self commutated. Thyristor T3 is fired to
reverse the voltage of capacitor to 2Vs and T3 is also self commutated. Assuming that thyristor T1
is conducting and carries a load current of I
carries the load current I
figure.
L
+
i(t)
-
Im
Vs
Vs +
Vc(t)
di
+1
dt
idt +Vc (t = 0)
Vs = L
mt
V (t ) = I
c
+ 3Vs C sin
L
sin
where,
t 3V cos
m
(1)
(ii )
t +V
m
1
LC
The circuit turn off time is obtained from the condition Vc (t = toff )= 0 of equation (2).
m
Chapter - 6
Controlled Rectifier
Introduction:
A diode rectifier provides a fixed output voltage only. In order to obtain controlled output
voltage, phase controlled thyristor are used instead of diode. The output voltage can be varied by
controlling the decay or fixing angle of thyristor.
Since, these rectifiers convert from AC to DC, these controlled rectifiers are also called AC to
DC converter and are used extensively in industrial applications specially variable speed drive
ranging from fractional h.p. (horse power) to mega watt power level.
The phase controlled converter can be classified into two types depending on the input supply.
1. Single Phase Converter
2. Three Phase Converter
Each type can be sub-divided into
1. Semi Converter
2. Full Converter
3. Dual Converter
Semi Converter is the one quadrant converter and it has one polarity of voltage and current.
Full Converter is a two quadrant converter and the polarity of its output voltage can be either
positive or negative. However, the output current of full converter has only one polarity.
Dual Converter can operate in four quadrant and both the output voltage and current can be
either positive or negative.
Vo
Vo
o
Io
Io
Vs
Vm
iv
+
Vs
Vp
Vo
V0
a) Circuit Diagram
Vm
wt
2
V0/R
wt
2
T1
wt
-Vm
b) Wave Form
During positive half of input voltage the thyristor anode is positive with respect to its cathode and the
thyristor is said to be forward bias. When the thyristor T1 is fired at t = , thyristor T1 conduct and
input voltage appears across the load. When input voltage starts to be negative at t = the thyristor
anode is negative with respect to its cathode and thyristor T1 is said to be reverse bias and it is turned
off. The average output voltage can be formed from
Vdc = 2
= 0, V =
When,
td t =
Vm sin
dc
V
2
(1 + cos )
= , Vdc = 0
RMS Output Voltage is given by:
1
V
rms
(V m sin t)
d t =
Vm
sin 2
+
2
Q. If the converter of above figure has a purely resistive load of R and the delay angle is
determine a) Rectification Efficiency b) Foam Factor c) Ripple Factor d) TUF e)
PIV of thyristor T1
Solution:
=
2
-By Manoj Basnet (Ass. Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering) /- 62
2,
Vm
dc
(1 + cos )= 0.1592Vm
V
dc
dc
0.1592Vm
V = Vm 1
rms
2
V
I
=
rms
sin 2
rms
0.3536Vm
R
(0.1592Vm )2
P
= Vdc I dc =
dc
ac
rms
rms
(0.3536Vm )2
P = V .I
=
R
P
=
a) Rectification Efficiency,
dc
ac
b) Foam Factor, FF =
rms
c) RF = FF
= 20.27%
0.1592Vm
1 =1.983
Vs
.I = 0.3536Vm
2 s
R
dc
TUF =
R(0.3536Vm )2
IsIs
(0.1592V m ) 2R
= 0.1014
RVm (0.3536Vm )
(0.1592V m )2 .R
= 0.3536Vm = 2.21
dc
= 0.3536Vm
d) V
v0
e) PIV = Vm
wt
T1, D2
wt
2
T1
Vs
T2, D1
Ia
Vo
T4
a) Circuit
L -
wt
ID
Vp
T
3
io
ma
i0
a
wt
b) Wave Form
Fig shows a single phase semi converter with highly inductive lead such that current is as same
continuous and ripple free.
Downloaded from www.bhawesh.com.np/- 63
the load is
from
t=
During negative half cycle of input voltage thyristor T2 is forward bias and firing of T2 at
t=
+ will reverse bias Dm . The load is connected to the supply through T2 and D1 . Average
Vm
2
Vm sin td t =
Vdc = 2
output voltage is
(1 + cos )
1
sin 2
di
(1)
+ RiL + E = 0
dt
Initial conduction, iL ( t = 0)= I L
L
IL =I
1
R
e L.t
E1 e
L.t
for i
Lo
0 ( 2)
R
, load current becomes I L e
t=
E R
1R e L
At
for iL
while thyristor T1
input voltage the load current I1,2 during mode 2 can be found as
LdiI 2 + RI L2 + E = 2Vs sin
IL =
( 2Vs / Z )sin(
)+ A1e
I .t
z = [R
= tan 1
2
+ ( L)
E
R
]1
R
A1 can be determined from the initial condition at
t=
iL = iL ;
2
L
1
.V
sin(
)e
A =I
(5 ) where,
For I L
(6 )
With substitution of A1 ,
-By Manoj Basnet (Ass. Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering) /- 64
R
t=
+E
)= I L
.Vs sin(
sin(
)e
for I
(7 )
) sin(
.V
z
; we get :
)e L
1e
IL
R
L
z
Applying initial condition iL
.V sin( t
IL =
for I L
(8 )R
T
I
L2 d t
ms current of thyristor, I r
2
Average current of thyristor, I av = 2
iL2 d t
T T
T T
1, 2
3, 4
Vo
T1
T
3
wt
R
Vo
s
L
T4
T2
E
wt
Io=Ia
wt
During the positive half cycle thyristor T1 and T2 are forward biased and io = ia when these two ,
thyristor are fired simultaneously at t = the load is connected to the input supply through T1 and
T2 . Due to inductive load thyristor T1 and T2 will continue to conduct beyound t = even those
the input voltage is already negative.
Single Phase Dual Converter:
Lr/2
Lr/2
T1
T3
+
Vs
-
01
+
Vs
02
T4
T2
a) Circuit Diagram
4
2
Vm
wt
Vo1
Vm sinwt
Converter 1 o/p
=
wt
2
Vm sinwt
Vo2
Vm sinwt
If two of these full converters are connected back to back as shown in the figure above both output
voltage and load current flow can be reversed. The system will provide four quadrant operation and
is called dual converter. The delay angles are controlled such that one converter operates as rectifier
and the other as inverter. If
and
V
=
DC1
2V m
cos
&
DC 2
2Vm
cos
= V
V
DC1
DC 2
cos
1
= cos
= cos(
Since the instances output voltages of two converter are out of phase there will be instantaneous
voltage difference. This will result in circulating current between the two converters. The circuiting
current will not flow through the load and is normally limited by a circulating current reactor Lr as
shown in the figure.
d
1
=
t 1
i = 1
Lr
+V d t
V
o1
o2
Lr
-By Manoj Basnet (Ass. Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering) /- 66
Vm sin
ir =
Lr
2Vm
(cos
td t
t cos
Lr
Q. A single phase dual converter is operated from 120 V, 60Hz supply and the load resistance is R
=10
= 60 &
2Vm
(cos 2
cos 60)=11.25A
Lr
Peak Load Current =
=16.97 A
1
R
3
2
T2
T3
a) Circuit Diagram
The circuit functions in a manner such that only one thyristor is conducting at any given instant, the
one which is connected to the phase voltage having highest instantaneous positive value. Here no any
thyristor can be trigger below phase angle of 30 because it remains reverse bias by other conducting
phases. The firing angle for a particular thyristor connected in a particular phase is therefore
measure from 30 w.r.t. corresponding phase voltage. T1 can conduct from
1 is most positive in the period 30 to 150. Similarly T2 can conduct from
from
t = 30 to150 as phase
t =150to270 and T3
V1
V3
wt
o
30
60
120
150 180
240
230
360
+6
+
2
1
2
cos
Vm sin td t
3V
=3
Average load voltage for discontinuous conduction mode is Vdc =
Vm sin td t
3
3
Vm
1 + cos
V rms = 3V
rms
cos 2
3V
24
+
4
1
+2
sin
8
half wave converter is operated from 3 star connected 208V, 60Hz supply and the load
resistance R =10
c) Average and rms thyristor current d) Rectification efficiency e) TUF f) Input Power
Factor (IPF)
Solution:
208V, 60Hz
R=10
208
Phase Voltage (V s )=
3V
Vm = 2Vs =169.83V
Vdc( max ) =
3
3Vm = 3 3 169.89
2
2
V = 0.5 V
= 70.23V
=
dc
70.23
=
7.023A
=
10
R
dc( max )
dc
I dc
3V
Vdc = 3
cos
3 3V
m
2
70.23V =
cos
+
6
1
= 3V
V
rms
= 97.74A
24 4
8
3
rms
94.74
R = 10 = 9.474A
rms
=V
d)
+2
sin
I rms
I dc
3
7.023
3 = 2.34A
3 = 5.47 A
70.237.023
= 54.95%
94.74 9.474
e) TUF =
= 70.237.023 = 0.25
208
3Vs I s
3 3 5.47
dc
f) Output Power, Po = I
2
rms
.R = 9.47 10 =
896.81
= 0.455(lag)
1970.84
Chapter 8
DC Choppers
DC Choppers:
DC Choppers converts fixed DC input voltage to variable DC output voltage. It can step up or
step down DC voltage. The main principal is to chop a constant DC voltage for a particular time
interval and by changing the chopping time, output DC voltage can be controlled. Generally, power
transistors are used as switch for chopper operation.
Principal of Step-Down Operation:
Vo
Vs
Chopper
+
io
-
t1
t2
H sw
+
Vs
Vo
-
io
Is=Vs/R
-
a) Circuit Diagram
t1
t2
t
b) Wave Form
t1
where, k = T
0 Vo
dt = T
t1
0 V o dt =
Vs
V
s
T .t1 = tl Vs = T t1 = kVs
= duty cycle
T = chopping period
f = chopping frequency
Rms Output Voltage is
kT
Vo =
Vs dt = kVs
T
Assuming a loss less chopper, the input power to the chopper is same as the output power and is
given by
2
1 kT
1 0V
V2
=
V idt =
dt = k
Q. A step down DC chopper has a resistive load of R =10 and the input voltage Vs = 220V . When
f =1KHz . If the duty cycle is 50%
Vs = 220V , R =10 ,
ch
= 2V , k = 0.5, f =1Kmz
Vs
Vo
=
i
iv) =
P
o
2376.2
V2
kT
T
1
Input Power, P
kT
V idt
kT
dt =
kT
(V s
V
V
V ch )
R
V ch
R
dt
dt =
k (V s V ch )2
R
1 V (V s V ch )
.
= 99.09%
Pi 2398
v) Ri =
= 2398kW
10
k = 0 .5 = 20
.kT
Vo
Vs
t1
t2
t
i
+
+
L
Dm
Vo
Vs
Countineous
Current
IV
R
1
kt
(1-k)T
Discountineous
Current
I2
i1
i2
F
The operation of the chopper can be divided into two modes. During mode1, the chopper is
switch on and current flows from supply to the load. During mode2, the chopper is switch off and
the load current continuous to flow through freewheeling diode.
The load current for mode1 can be found
+
Vs = Ri + L di + E
(i )
dt
Vs
R
(t )= I 1 e t L + (V s
E)
t
1e
R
L
(2 )
E
-
R
t1 (= kT )at the end of this mode, the load current becomes
I1 (t = t1 = kT ) = I 2
(3 )
t R
L
E1 e
t R
R
This mode is valid for 0
(5 )
t2 (= (1 k )T )at the end of this mode, load current
becomes i2 (t = t2 ) = I3 (6 )
-By Manoj Basnet (Ass. Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering) /- 72
I1 = I3
Now from (2)
(V s E)
kT R
=I e
kT R
1e
(8 )
R
From (5)
I 3 = I 1 = I2 e
(1R )T R
L
E 1 e
(1k )T R
L
(9 )
R
Peak to peak ripple current is I = I 2 I1 which after simplification becomes
R
kT
I = V s 1e L
R
TR
+ eT L e(1k ) L
TR
1e L
The condition for maximum ripple
d( I)= 0
gives
dk
k = 0.5
The maximum peak to peak ripple current at (k = 0.5) is
=V
I
max
tanh R
4 fL
R
s
&
I
max
4FL
1 e
R
(1K )T R
I 1= e
kT R
1 e
R
I2
E
I1
(i )
I 2 = 0.7165I1 +12.473
(ii )
I1 = 0.7165I 2
Solving these two equations, we get:
I1 =18.37 A, I 2 = 25.63A I
I = I 2 I1 = 7.26A
Q. The step down chopper has a load resistance R = 0.25 , input voltage Vs = 550V and E = 0V . The
average load current I
Calculate the load inductance L which would limit the maximum load ripple current to 90% of I A .
Solution:
i =10% of I a = 0.1 200 = 20A
T=
f = 0.004sec
di
= Vs RI a = Vs kVs = (1
k )Vs i = (1 k )
.kT
i
dk
= 0, k = 0.5
iL
D1
Chopper
Vs
Load
_
a) Step-up Arrangement
Vo/Vs
6
i
5
I2
4
i2
i1
3
2
I1
t1
t2
t
T
1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
c) Output Voltage
1.0
di
And, this gives the peak to peak ripple current in the inductor as
V .t
i = sL 1
The instantaneous output voltage is
di
Vo = Vs + L dt
i
Vo =Vs + L
t2
V s .t1
t2
t
1+t 1
= Vs +
= Vs
=V . T
s t 2
=V . T
s T t1
= Vs .
1 T1
V
V =
o
1 k
If a large capacitor CL is connected across the load as shown by dash line in figure, the output
voltage will be continuous. The voltage across the load can be step up by varying the duty cycle k.
This principle can be applied to transfer energy from one voltage source to another as shown in the
figure.
L
+
L
L
L D1
I2
iL
Vs
Chopper
Mode 1
+
_
Vs
D1
di
Vs = L dt
And, it is expressed as
i (t )= Vs t + I
where, I is initial current.
1
1
1
L
During mode 1, current must rises and necessary condition
Downloaded from www.bhawesh.com.np/- 75
I1
t1
t2
t
di
dt > 0 or Vs > 0
The current for mode 2 is given by
Vs = L
di 2
dt
+E
And is solved as
V
(t )=
i2
where, I 2
di2
dt
E
t+I2
L
is initial current for mode 2. For stable system, the current must fall and condition is:
< 0 or Vs < E
Performance Parameter:
The power semi-conductor devices require a minimum time to turn on and turn off. Therefore,
the duty cycle k can only be controlled between a minimum value Kmin & Kmax , thereby limiting the
minimum and maximum value of output voltage, we have:
I max =
Vs
4 fL
Load ripple current depends inversely on chopping frequency f and frequency should be as high as
possible to reduce load ripple current.
Chopper Classification:
Depending on the direction of current and voltage flow chopper can be classified into 5 types:
1. Class A Chopper
2. Class B Chopper
3. Class C Chopper
4. Class D Chopper
5. Class E Chopper
Class A Chopper:
vL
VL
VL
Class A Chopper
iL
-IL
Class B Chopper
IL
-IL
Class C Chopper
IL
v
L
V
L
+IL
iL
+IL
iL
-VL
-VL
Class D Chopper
Class E Chopper
Class A Chopper:
The load current flows into the load. Both the load voltage and load current are positive. This is a
single quadrant chopper and is to be operated as rectifier. Its example is step-down chopper.
Class B Chopper:
i2
I2
is iL
+
Vs
VL
E
kt
Load Current
a) Circuit Diagram
The load current flows out of the load, the load voltage is positive but the load current is negative.
This is also a single quadrant chopper but operates in second quadrant and said to be operated as
inviter. When switch s1 is closed, the voltage E drives current through inductor L and load voltage
VL becomes zero. The current I m which rises is described by:
0=L
di + Ri + E
L
dt
iL = I1e
i
R
R
t
E
R
for 0
kT
at t = t1 , iL = (t = t1 = kT )= I 2
When switch is turned off, a magnitude of energy stored in inductor L is returned to the supply Vs .
Vi diode D1 . The load current falls. The load current is described by,
Vs = L
di
+ RiL + E
dt
An initial current of I 2 ;
R
=I
t
L
V E
s
1 e
t
L
for 0
t
2
R
Downloaded from www.bhawesh.com.np/- 77
Class C Chopper:
S1
VL
D1
iL
Vs
S2
a) Circuit Diagram
The load current is either positive or negative. The load voltage is always positive. This is known as
two quadrant chopper. Class A and Class B chopper can be combined to form Class C chopper. S1
and D2 operate as Class A Chopper whereas S2 and D1 operates as Class B Chopper. Care must be
taken to insure that two switches are not fire together; otherwise, the supply Vs will be short
circuited. Class C Chopper can be operated either as a rectifier or as an invitor.
Class D Chopper:
D
V
S1
s
+
D2
a) Circuit Diagram
Class D Chopper can also operate as rectifier or as inverter. If S1 and S4 are turn on VL, iL become
positive. If S1 and S4 are turn off, load current will be positive and continue to flow for a highly
inductive load.
Class E Chopper:
VL
S1
Inverting
V
+ve
D3
S3
iL
Rectifying
+ve
VL
-ve
iL
+ve
V
L
-ve
+ve
Vs
D4
D2
V2
i
L
VL -ve
-ve
Rectifying
iL
Inverting
a) Circuit Diagram
b) Polarities
st
1 Quadrant Operation:
S2 and S3 are kept off, S4 is kept on and S1 is operated when S1 is on, VL and iL are positive. When
S1 is switched off, current free wheels through S4 and D2.
nd
2 Quadrant Operation:
-By Manoj Basnet (Ass. Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering) /- 78
Input
+
Vr
dc
chopper
Vc
Vg
Va
Vs
Ve
Control
Vref
Vc
Vr
Amplifier
KT T
a) Block Diagram
b) Control Signal
DC chopper can be used as switching mode regulator to convert DC voltage normally unregulated to
a regulated DC output voltage. The regulation is normally achieved by pulse width modulation
(PWM) at a fix frequency and the switching device is normally BJT or MOSFET. Control voltage Vc
is obtained by comparing the output voltage with its desired value. Vc can be compared with saw
tooth voltage to generate the PWM control signal for DC Choppers. Therefore, there are four basic
topologies of switching regulator.
1. Buck Regulator
2. Boost Regulator
3. Buck-Boost Regulator
4. Cuk Regulator
Buck Regulator:
Figures
In a Buck regular, the output voltage Va is less than the output voltage Vs .This is like a step
down chopper. The circuit operation can be divided into two modes. Mode 1 begins when
switch on and mode 2 begins when transistor
is switch off.
is
(3)
L I
= Va
where, I = I 2 I1 = peak to peak ripple current of inductor
from (1) and (2),
I = (V s Va )t1 = Va t2
L
L
V V
t2
or, s a
V
t
=
Vs
(1 k
)T
kT
Vs =1 + 1 k = 1
Va
k
k
Va = kVs
-(5)
circuit
Assuming a lossless
,
Vs I s = Va I a = kVs I a , average input current
(6 )
I s = kIa
The switching period T can be expressed as,
I
IL + L ( From (2 ) and (4 ))
1
T = = t1 + t2 =
Vs Va Va
f
ILVs
= Va (V s Va ) (7 )
which gives peak to peak ripple current as
I=
Va (V s Va )
fLVs
or, I =
Vs k(1 k )
fL
(8 )
(9 )
t 1 t 2 T
2 + 2 = 2 is
I
4
-By Manoj Basnet (Ass. Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering) /- 80
I
I.T
I
VC = C
dt = 8C = 8 fC
0 4
from (8) and (10)
Va (V s Va
Vc =
(10 )
(11)
8LCf Vs
V = Vs k(1 k )
C
8LCf
(12 )
Q. The buck regulator has an input voltage of Vs =12V . The required average output voltage is Va =
5V & peak to peak ripple voltage is 20 mv. The switching frequency is 29 kHz. If the peak to
peak ripple current of inductor is limited to 0.8A, determine (a) Duty Cycle K (b) Filter inductance L
(c) Filter capacitor.
Solution: Vs =12V , Va = 5V , Vc = 20mV , f = 25kHz Va =
kVs
a)
k = 12 = 0.4167
b) I =
V V V
a(
s
a)
fLVs
V V V
L= a( s a)
IfVs
L =148.83H
c)
Vc = 8
C=8f
I
fC
Vc
= 200F
Boost Regulator:
Figures
In boost regular the output voltage is greater than the input voltage. The circuit operation can be
divided into two modes. Mode 1 begins when MOSFET M1 is switch on and mode 2 begins when
MOSFET is switch off.
Mode-1
Vs = L I
t
( 1)
or, t1 = L I
Vs
Mode-2
(2 )
Vs
1k
I=
(V a Vs )
(7 )
fLVa
I=
Vs .k
- (8)
fL
Peak to peak ripple voltage is
Vc = C
IC dt = C
t1
0
t1
0
I a dt
= I a .t1
C
=
I a (V a Vs )
Va fC
VC =
I a .k
fC
(9 )
- (10)
Q. A boost regular has an input voltageVs = 5V , Average output voltage 15V , Average output load
current I a = 0.5A . The switching frequency f = 25kHz, L =1500H & C = 220 C . Determine a)
Duty cycle b) ripple current of inductor i c) peak current of indcutor I s d) ripple voltage of filter
capacitor.
-By Manoj Basnet (Ass. Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering) /- 82
Solution:
a) Va =
Vs
.k
s
fL = 0.89A
I a
= 1 k =1.5A
b) I =
c) I s
Figure
I k
d) V =
fC
I s = 2.5A
I2 =Is+
Vc =
I
fC
=1.5 +
a
.k
0. 69
2 =1.945A
= 80.61mV
Figures
It provides the output voltage which is less than or greater than the inut voltage. But the output
voltage polarity is opposite to that of the input voltage. The circuit operation can be divided into two
modes. Mode 1 begins when T1 is turn on and mode 2 when T1 is turn off.
Mode 1:
Vs =
L. I
t1
(1)
or, t1 = L. I
Vs
Mode 2:
(2 )
Va = L I
t2
( 3)
t2 = L
(4 )
Va
V .t
V t
I= s 1 = a 2
L
L
V = kVs
a
1k
= kT
t
- (5)
t2 = (1 k )T
kVa
Vs I s = Va I a =
1k
Is =
I a .k
1k
- (6)
Downloaded from www.bhawesh.com.np/- 83
Now, T =
IL(Va Vs )
1
IL
IL
= t1 + t2 =
=
Vs
Va
Vs Va
f
VV
s
I = fL(Va Vs ) - (7)
Vs .k
(8 )
fL
Peak to peak ripple voltage of capacitor is
I aVs
1 t1
1
1 t
I=
I dt =
Vc = C
V
= C I a.t1 = (V a Vs )fC (9 )
0 I a .dt
I a .k
- (10)
fC
Q. The buck boost regulator has an input voltage Vs =10V , duty cycle k = 0.5V and switching
L =150H and fileter capacitance C = 220F . The average
load current I a =1.25A . Determine a) average output voltage Va b) Peak to peak output ripple
voltage Vc c) Peak to peak ripple current of inductor.
Solution:
Vs k
a) Va =
= 4V
1k
I k
b) Vc = a = 56.8mV
fC
Figures
c) I = Vs k = 0.8A
fL
It provides an output voltage which is less than or greater than an input voltage but the output
voltage polarity is opposite to that of input voltage. The circuit operation can be divided into two
modes. Mode 1 begins when 1 is turn on and mode 2 begins when 1 is turn off.
Mode-1
Vs =
L1 I1
t1
or, t1 =
( 1)
L1 I1
Vs
Vs Vc =
L1 I1
(2 )
(3 )
2
I .L
t2 = 1 1
V V
s
c1
V .t
I1 = Ls 1 1
Vs Vc
=
L 1
)
t2
V
Vc =
1
(5 )
1 k
=
L2
Now, Vc +Va
I2
t
(6 )
I 2. L2
Vc +Va
t1 =
(7 )
L2 I 2
t2
Va =
(8 )
t2 = I 2 .L2
Va
(Vc
+Va t1
Vt
I2 =
= L
2
L2
Va
(9 )
k
From (5) and (9), we get:
V c2 =
Va =
KVs
1K
(10 )
Vs .K
I1 =
fL
(11)
I2 =
KVs
fL
(12)
Vc =
I s (1 k )
Vc 2 =
(13 )
fc
KV1s
8c2 L2 f
Limitation of single stage conversion:
1. The four regulator use only one transistor employing one stage conversion due to current
handling limitation of single transistor, the output power of these regulator is small, there is no
isolation between input and output voltage which is highly desirable characteristics in most
applications. For high power application, multi-stage conversion are used where a dc-voltage is
converted to ac by inverter. The ac output is isolated by the transformer and converted to dc by
rectifier.
Chopper circuit design:
1. Identify the modes of operation for cheaper circuit
2. Determine the equivalent circuit for the various mode.
3. Determine current and voltage for the modes and their waveform.
4. Evaluate value of L and C that would satisfy design limit.
5. Determine voltage and current rating requirement of all components.
Downloaded from www.bhawesh.com.np/- 85
Chapter 10
DC Drives
Basic Characteristics of DC motor:
If, if
+
La
Lf
vf, Vf
Ra
va Va
Rf
-
+
eg
-
Td
Tc
B
When a separately excited DC motor is excited by a filed current of If and armature current
of Ia flows in the armature circuit, the motor develops a back emf and a torque to balance the lead
torque at a particular speed. The instantaneous field current if is described as:
di f
Lef = R f i f + L f dt
The instantaneous armature current can be found from V = R i + L dia + e
a
dt
a
a a
g
The motor back emf is expressed as:
eg = kV i f
The torque developed by motor is
Td = kt i f i a
The developed torque must be equal to load torque,
T = I d + B +T
L
d
dt
Where,
= motor speed, rad / s
= viscous friction cons tan t N m / rad / s
Kv = Voltage Cons tan t V / A rad / s
di f
dt = 0
Va = Ra I a + Kv I f
Td = Kt I f I a = B
+TL
Developed power is
Pd = Td .
Eg
w = constant
applcoximately
linear region
If
Torque Td
Speed, w
ia, if
Ia
armature current
If
field current
o
Speed, w
Constant
torque
Constant
power
ia = if
La, Ra
Lf, Rf
va Va
Td
Tc
B
Eg = Kv I f
Va = (Ra + R f )I a + Eg = (Ra + R f )I a +
Kv I f Td = Kt I f I a = B tI f
V (R + R )I
a
a
a
Kv I f
Speed
Id, Pd
Power Pd
Torque Td
armature current
Speed, w
Constant
torque
Constant
power
The speed can be varied by controlling (1) armature voltage Va or (2) armature current Ia which is a
measure of torque demand.
Numericals:
Q. A 15 HP, 220 V, 2200 r.p.m. separately excited d.c. motor controls a load requiring a torque of TL =
45 Nm at a speed of 1200 r.p.m. The field circuit resistance is Rf = 147
resistance is Ra = 0.25
Ra = 0.25
V f = 220V
Kv = K f = 0.7032 V / A rad / s
Td = TL = 45Nm
= 2 1220 =125.66rad / s
60
If =
V f 220
=1.497 A
=
R f 147
Td
KI f
45
0.7032 1.497
= 42.75A
rated
= 15 746
= 50.87 A
220
Operating Modes:
(i) Motoring
Rf, If
Ia = If
Ia
Ra
Ra, La
La
Va
+
M
Eg
Separately Excited Motor
Series motor
Ia
Ra
Ra, La
RF
La
Va
Rb
iF
+
Eg
+
Eg
M
-
M
-
The motor acts a generator and develop induce emf voltage Eg . Eg must be greater than the supply
voltage VA . The armature current is ve.
iii) Dynamic Braking
Ia
Ia
Ra
Ra, La
Rb
RF
La
Rb
iF
+
Eg
+
Eg
Series motor
It is similar to regenerate braking except the supply voltage VA is replaced by braking resistance Rb .
The kinetic energy of motor is dissipated in Rb .
iv) Plugging
Ia=If Rf, Lf
If
Rb
La
Va
RF
Vf
iF
+
Eg
Va
+
Eg
M
-
M
-
Ia
Ia
Ra, ta
Va<Eg
+
M
M
Va>Eg
Eg
-
Forward Braking
Forward Motering
Torque
Ia
Ia
Ra, La
-
Va +
M
Eg
-
Va
Eg Va < Eg
M
-
Reverse Braking
Va > Eg
Reverse Motoring
Single Phase Motor: If the armature circuit of dc motor is connected to the output of single phase
control rectifier, the armature voltage can be vary by varying the delay angle of converter
.A
converter is also applied in field circuit to control the field current by varying delay angle .
Depending on the type of single phase converter, single phase drive may be sub-divided into:
1. Single Phase Half-wave Converter Drive
2. Single Phase Semi-conductor Device
3. Single Phase Full-converter Drive
4. Single Phase Dual-converter Drive
Single Phase Half-wave Converter Drive:
is
Ia
Ia
if
wt
is
id
Va
Dm
+
Ia
La, Ra
Eg
Vc
LF, Rf
id
wt
Ia
a) circuit
wt
(1 + cos a ) for 0 a
2
Where, Vm = peak voltage of ac supply
Va =
Vm (1 + cos
for 0
f
Ia
= a
ia
wt
a
La, Ra
id
is
Vs
Vs
+
id
Ia
LF, Rf
Eg
-
= a
wt
) for 0
if
ia
La, Ra
Va
+
Eg
Vs
Ia
LF, Rf
wt
is
a) Circuit
Ia
Is
+ a
Va
-Ia
b) Quadrature
c) Waveform
wt
Va =
Vf =
2Vm
2Vm
a,
for 0
cos
for 0
converter-2
a1
a2
if
Ia
La,
Ra
Vs
Vs
LF, Rf
2Vm
cos
a1
for 0
2Vm
cos
a2
for 0
a1
a1
a2
a2
where
a2
a1
With a full converter in the field circuit, the average field voltage is
Vf =
2Vm
cos
for 0
Q. The speed of the separately excited motor is a controlled by 1 semi-converter. The field current
which is also controlled by a semi-converter is to the maximum possible value. The ac supply to the
armature
Kv = 0.7032V / A rad / s load torque TL = 45Nm at 1000 rpm. The viscous friction and
constant
no load losses are negligible. The inductance of the armature and field circuit are sufficient enough to
make the armatural field current, continuous and ripple free. Determine
a) Field current i f
b) Delay angle of converter in the armature circuit
1000
60 =104.72 rad / s
Downloaded from www.bhawesh.com.np/- 93
V
m
a) V f =
When,
(1 + cos f )
=0
V
If =
187.27
b)
=1.274A
147
=?
V = Vm (1 + cos
Td = kt I a I f
T
d
Ia= k I
45
= 50.20A
0.7032 1.274
Eg = Ra I a + Eg = 0.25 50.23 + 93.82
t
=106.38V 106.38 =
a
294 .16
(1 + cos a )
= 82.2
sa
I =
2
2
d t
=Ia
2
a
= 37.03A
Power supply
Vr +
-
Ve
Speed
Converter
Vc
Va
Converter
T2
dc motor
Seed sesing
Vf
Conerter of
gain
Vs
K2
Td
The motor speed is adjusted by setting reference voltage Vr . Assuming a linear power conver of
gain K2 . The armature of the motor is Va = k2Vr (i)
Assuming filed current I a remains constant during any transient disturbances, the system equation
are:
(2 )
eg = Kv I f
V = R i + L dia + K I
a
m a
m dt
V f
Td = Kt I f ia
(3 )
(4)
T = J d + B +T (5 )
d
L
dt
Taking Laplace transform of above equation:
V a (s ) = K 2 V 1 ( s )
(6 )
Va (s ) = Rm I a (s) + Lm sI a (s )+ KV I f
Td (s )= Kt I f I a (s) = sJ
( s )+TL (s)
(s)
( 8)
( 7)
I
a
( s )= Va ( s ) Kv I f (s )
(9 )
( sLm + Rm )
T=
Where, Ta =
Va (s) kv I f ( s )
(10
R ( sT +1)
Lm
Ra
From (8), motor speed is
w( s )=
Td
( s ) TL (s )
(11)
+ )
(
SI B
Td ( s ) TL (s )
= B( sT +1)
(12 )
Td(s
)
Kt If
w(s)
B(STm+1)
+
-Kv If
Vr(s)
K2
Rm(STa-1)
(s)
Vr ( s
)
K2 K r I f / ( R m . B )
=s
(T T ) + s(T
o m
.B
+T )+1(K I
) /( R )
2
(13 )
The response due to a change in load torque TL can be obtained by setting Vr to zero.
(s )
TL (s
)
a m
(14 )
2
= Rm B + (K v I f ) Vr
Rm
(15 )
(16 )
= Rm B + (K V I f ) T1
Close Loop Transfer Function:
2
TL(s)
Vrs
Vc
Va
la
K2
w(s)
Kv If
- Eg(s)
Kf If
K2 K r i f / Rm B
Vr ( s ) = S
(1)
can be obtained by setting Vr to zero.
( 1/ B)(S a +1)
W (s )
Vr ( s ) = S
Using final value theorem the steady change in speed due to step change in control voltage IL can
be found from (1) and (2) by substituting S=0.
KK I
W=
W=
Rm B + ( K v I f
Vr
(3 )
TL
(4 )
+ K1 K2 Kv I f
Rm
Rm B + (K v I f 2 + K1 K2 Kv I f
Phase Locked Loop ( PLL) Control:
Phase detector
Converter k2
DC mortor
Speed encoder
In PLL control system, the motor speed is converted to a digital pulse train by using speed
encoder the output of encoder acts as a speed signal of frequency to the phase detector compares a
reference pulse train fr with the feed back frequency fo and provides a pulse with modulated output
voltage Vc to a continuous dc level Vc which varies the output of power converter and in turn the
motor speed.
When the motor runs at same speed as the reference pulse train the low frequencies could be
synchronized (or blocked) with a phase difference. The output of the phase detector would be
constant voltage proportional to the phase difference and motor speed would be main trained at first
value. Any disturbances contributing to the speed change would result in phase differences in the
output of phase detector could respond immediately to vary the speed of motor. In such direction and
magnitude as to retain the locking of reference and feedback frequencies.
Micro-computer control of DC Drives:
Time
and
Logic
If
Rf
Lf
Current controller
Pulse
amplifier
Current comparator
AD
Motor
Current
Speed controller
AD
Speed
Signal
Speed comparator
Speed reference ( r)
start/stop command
A micro computer control reduces the size and cost of hardware electronics improving
reliability and control performance. This control scheme is implemented in software and it flexible to
change the control strategy to meet difference performance characteristics. A micro computer control
system can also perform various desirable functions: ON/OFF of main power supply, start/stop of
drive, speed control, current control, etc.
The speed signal is fed into micro-computer using A/D converter to limit armature current of
motor inner current control loop is used the line synchronizing circuit is required to synchronize the
generation of firing pulses with a supply line frequency. The pulse amplifier provides the necessary
isolation and produces gate pulses of required magnitude and duration.
Chapter 11
Properties of Devices & Circuit
Introduction:
Due to the reverse recovery process of power devices and switching action in the presence of circuit
inductance voltage transient occurring converter circuit, short circuit fault conditions may exist
resulting in excessive current flow through the devices. In practice power devices are protected from:
1. Thermal runaway by heat sink
2. High
dv
dt and dt
di
by shutter circuit
Ric T
T1
Rcs
PA
Ts
SA
TA
R1
D1
R1
R
D
R
R1>R
D
a) Polarized
T1
C
R1>R
T2
L
s
b) Reverse Polarized
R1>R
dv
Ls
dt within the
maximum allowable rating. The snubber could be polarized or unpolarized. The forward polarized
c) Unpolarized
snubber is suitable when thyristor is connected with anti-parallel diode; R limit the forward
dv
dt and
R1 limit the discharge current of capacitor when the device is turn on.
A reverse polarized snubber limits reverse
dv
dt where R1
When a pair of thyristor is connected in inverse parallel, the snubber must be effective in either
direction.
Design of snubber circuit:
R
Rs
Cs
+
T1
RL
R
Vs
i=I
1 e
di
dt
= Ie T
which gives
dt
Vs
Where, I = Rs + RL
Now,
di
Vs = ( R s + R L ) i + L
&
L
T = Rs + RL
R +R
t
s
.1 =
. s L .e T = seT
T Rs + RL
R
L
-By Manoj Basnet (Ass. Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering) /- 100
Vs
at t = 0
max
Vs
L = di
dt
- (1)
max
dv a
dt
dv
= Rs . dt
dt
di
=R
di
dt max
= R . Vs
L
s
L dv a
max
Rs =
(2 )
dt
Vs
Rs = 2
cs
( 3)
max
where,
= damping ratio =
R cs
2
2
C
2
R
(4 )
.L
s
Vs
s
+
Rs
. It should be less than peak current rating of thyristor.
R
RL
Q. Following are the specification
s
repetitive
peak current I p
= 250A
dt max
circuit, if the minimum load resistance is 20
data.
= 60A / sec,
. Take
Vs
di
dt
of 500V and
the snubber
dt max
= 0.65 . Take a factor of safety for the given
Solution:
For a factor of safety 2, permitted values are:
250
di
60
Ip =
=125
= = 30A / sec
2
2
dt max
dv
200
=100V sec s
=
dt max
2
Now,
L=
supply
= 500 =16.67H
30
max
R
s
L dv
16.67 100
= 3.33
500
s dt max
When thyristor is turned on, the peak current through thyristor is
Vs + Vs = 500 + 500 =175.15A
Rs RL 3.33 20
This peak current is more than permissible peak current of 125A. The value of Rs must be increased.
Take Rs = 7
, peak current
through thyristor is
dt
max
(2 )2
Cs =
2 0.65
.L =
35 =1.20F
7
Rs
Take Cs =1F
R=7-2
C=1uF
15aH
+
20
Vs
-
dv
dt
protect, the snubber limits the peak transient voltage across the device. The equivalent
C
R
Divice under
recovery
The energy stored in the inductor L which is transferred to the snubber capacitance C is dissipated
mostly in snubber resistor.
Supply and Load side transient
-By Manoj Basnet (Ass. Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering) /- 102
S1
Vp
Lm
C
Np
Ns
I0
i
+
+
C
Vo
R
R
-
a) Circuit Diagram
C
Vo
b) Equivalent Circuit
during turn off
L
O
A
D
c) Equivalent Circuit
due to load disconnection
A transformer is normally connected to the input side of converter, under steady state condition
and amount of energy is stored in the magnetizing inductance Lm of the transformer and switching
off the supply provides a transient voltage to the input of converter, a capacitor may be connected
across the primary or secondary of the transformer to limit the transient voltage.
When load is disconnected the transient voltage are produced due to the energy stored in
inductance.
Voltage Protection by Selenium Diodes and Metal Oxide Varistors:
i
Clamping Vz Voltage
v
b) Symbol
a) V-I characteristics
The selenium diode may be used for protection against transient over voltage. The
characteristics of selenium diode are shown in the figure.
Normally, the operating point lies before knee of the characteristics curve and draws very small
current from the circuit. However, when an over voltage appears, the knee point is crossed and the
reverse current flow through the selenium increases suddenly, thereby, limiting the transient voltage.
Varistors are non-linear variable impedance device consisting of metal oxide particles. As the
applied voltage is increased, the film become conductive an the current is increased. The current is
expressed as I = KV where,
K = constant and V = applied voltage. The value of
Current Protection:
The power converter may develop short circuit of faults and the fault current must be clear
quickly. Fast acting fuses are normally used to protect the semi-conductor device. As the fault
current increases, fuse opens and clears a fault current in few milliseconds.
Fusing:
T1
T3
L
F1
F2
ac supply
F3
F2
T4
T2
The semi-conductor device may be protected by carefully choosing the location of fuse. When the
fault current rises, the fuse temperature also rises and fuse melts and arcs are developed across the
fuse. Due to the arc, the impedance of fuse as increased thereby reducing current.
Crowbar Protection Circuit:
F
+
L
Dm
Vs
Tc
R
1
_
Transistors can be protected by a crowbar circuit. A crowbar is used for protecting circuits or
equipment under fault condition where the amount of energy involved is to high and the normal
protection circuit cannot be used. A crowbar consists of thyristor with voltage or current sensitive
firing circuit. The crowbar thyristor is placed across the converter circuit to be protected. If the fault
condition are sensed and crowbar thyristor Tc is fired. A virtual short circuit is created and fuse link
F1 is blown thereby relieving the converter circuit from over current.
Fault Current with AC source and DC source:
The fault current and fuse clearing time will be dependent on time constant of fault circuit. The
fuse manufacture specify the current-time characteristics for ac circuit and there is no equivalent
curve for dc circuit for a circuit operating from dc-voltage, the voltage rating of fuse should be
typically 1.5 times the equivalent ac rms voltage. The fuse protection of dc circuit require more
careful design then that of ac circuit.
Chapter 7
Power Transistors
Introduction:
Power transistor have controlled turn ON and turn OFF characteristics. The power transistors
can be classified broadly into four categories:
i) By-polar junction transistor (BJT)
ii) Metal-oxide semi-conductor filed effect transistor (MOSFET)
iii) Static-induction transistor (SIT)
iv) Insulated gate by-polar transistor (IGBT)
i) BJT:
collector
collector
C
Ic
n
Ic
IB
B
IB
p
Base
Base
n
IE
E
emitter
emitter
Ic
RC
VCF1
R
VB
CE1
IB
CE
_
BE
IE
Fig a) Circuit Diagram
IC
Active region
CE
Cut off
IB 3
Active region
Saturation
CC
IB 2
IB 1
IB=0
CE
CE
There are three operating region of transistor circuit active and saturation. In circuit off region,
the transistor is off or the base current is not enough to turn it ON. In active region, the transistor acts
amplifier by a gain. In the saturation region the base current is sufficiently high so that the collection
emitter voltage VCE is low and the transistor acts as switch.
Downloaded from www.bhawesh.com.np/- 105
Ie = Ic + I B
Current gain,
=
Ic
IB
(2 )
= I B (1 +
) + ICEO
(4 )
I B (1 + )
1
I 1+
=I
IE
+1
( 5 )I
IE
IC
Where,
(7 )
1+
(8 )
1
Let us consider the circuit of fig 1(a) where transistor is operated as switch.
=
Or,
I =
V V
(9 )
BE
RB
(10 )
VC = VCE = VCC Ie Rc
= VCC I B RC
RC
= VCC
(V B VBE )
RB
V = V +V
CE
CB
BE
V =V V
CB
CE
(11)
BE
The maximum collector current in active region which can be obtained by setting
VCB = 0 and VBE =VCE is
V V
I
CM
CC
V V
CE
CC
RC
RC
BE
(12 )
I
CM
(13)
The transistor saturation may be defined as the point above which any increase in base current does
not increase collector current significantly. In the saturation, the collector current remains almost
constant
V V sat ( )
ICsS = CC CE ( ) 14
R
ODF =
(16 )
BS
(17 )
IB
The total power less in two junctions is
= f=
Forced
CS
RB
V
_
CC
V
_
BE
The bipolar transistor shown in the figure is specified to have in the range 8 to 40. The load
resistance is RC =11 . The dc supply voltage VCC = 200V and the input voltage to the base circuit is
N B =10V . If VCE ( sat ) =1V & VBE ( sat ) =1.5V . Find
CE ( sat )
=1V
=1.5V
BE ( sat )
min
=8
max
= 40
a) RB = ?
V V
BE ( sat )
RB =
IB
V V
CC
CS
I
BS
CE ( sat )
CS
min
200 1
= 11 =18.1A
= 18.1 = 2.26A
8
I
ODF = I B
BS
P
T
Switching Characteristics:
V
V
KT
(1-K)T
-V2
VB
VB
V1
IB
KT
-IB
-V2
Ics
0.9cs
0.1Ic s
t
td
tn ts tf to
When the input voltage is reverse from V1 to V2 and the base current is also changed to I B 2 the
collector current does not change for a time ts called the storage time. Ts is required to remove the
saturating charge from the base. Due to the change in polarity of VB from V1 to V2 , the reverse
current I B helps to discharge base current .The turn on time ToN is the sum of delay time td
and
rise time tr .
T
oN
= td + tr
CC
parameters are
= 250V ,VBE ( sat ) = 3V , I B = 8A. VCE ( sat ) = 2V , ICS =100A,Td = 0.5s, Tr =1s, Ts = 5s,Tf = 3
and f s =10KHz. The duty cycle is 50%, the collector to emitter leakage current is Iceo
Determine the power loss due to collector current
a) During turn on (ton = td + tr )
b) During conduction period (tn)
c) During turn off (Toff = ts + tf)
d) During off time to
e) Total average power loss (PT)
= 3mA .
CE
CC
CC(Sat)
o
on
off
IC
cs
CCo
t
t
r
t
s
Bs
KT
(1-K)T
T=1/fc
iB
BE(Sat)
Solution:
1
T = f =100s
s
(1 K )T = ts + t f
+ to = 50s
to = 50 3 5 = 42s
a) Due to delay time,
0 t td
ic (t ) = ICEO
VCE (t )=VCC
Instantaneous power due to collector current,
PC (t ) = iC (t )VCE (t )= ICEO .VCC = 5 10
250
Pd = T
td
0
( I CS +
ICEO )t
+ ICEO
tr
VCC V CE ( sat )
VCE (t )=
+VCC
t r
Downloaded from www.bhawesh.com.np/- 109
tr
PC (t )dt =
tr
ICS .t
CC
.t +VCC dt = 42.33W
tr
tr
T
T
Total power loss during turn on time
Pon = Pd + Pr = 3.75mW + 42.32W = 42.33W
0
B1
BS
t
-IB2
The commonly used technique for optimizing the base drive of transistor are:
1. Turn on Control
2. Turn off Control
3. Proportional Control
4. Anti-saturation Control
-By Manoj Basnet (Ass. Lecturer, Eastern College of Engineering) /- 110
IC
Rc
R
1
t1
t2
Vcc
R2
VB
_
-V2
When an input voltage is turned on, the base current is limited by R1 and initial value of base current
is I BO =
V1 VBE
R1
V1 VBE
R1 + R2
VC
V1 . R + R
2
RD
RD
GS
_
G
DD
DD
GS
a) n-channel
b) p-channel
G
S
RD
GS
+
DD
DD
GS
a) n-channel
b) p-channel
VP
VP
GS
GS
-ID
b) p-channel
a) n-channel
a) Depletion MOSFET
Vr
V
o
V
r
GS
GS
-ID
b) p-channel
a) n-channel
b) Enhancement MOSFET
Linear
region
Saturation region
GS2
V
V
GS
=V
GS1
DS
Switching Characteristics:
V
V
V
GS
V1
GSo
td(on)
tr
td(off) f
RD
G
+
RS
DD
R1
VG
RG
G
S
Symbol
A SIT is a high power, high frequency device. A SIT has a short channel length, loop gate series
resistance, loop gate source capacitance and small thermal resistance. It has low noise, low distortion
and high audio frequency power capacity. The turn on and turn off times are very small. Typically
0.25 s . The current rating of SIT can be output 300A, 1200V and switching speed can be as high as
100kHz. It is most suitable for high frequency applications. Example: audio, VHF, UHF and
microwave amplifier.
IGBT:
C
Symbol
Downloaded from www.bhawesh.com.np/- 113
IGBT combines the advantes of BJT and MOSFET. IGBT has high input impedance like
MOSFET and low ON-state conduction loss like BJT. IGBT is inherently fast then BJT. However,
the switching speed of IJBT is inferior to that of MOSFET. The current rating of IGBT can be up to
400A, 1200V and switching frequency can be up to 20 kHz. IGBTs are finding increasing
application in medium power application such as DC and AC motor drive, power supplies.
Series and Parallel Operation:
Transistor may be operated in series to increase their voltage handling capability. It is very
important that the series connected transistor are turn on and turn off. Simultaneously, the device
should be match for gain, transconductance threshold voltage, on-state voltage, turn on time and turn
off time. Even the gate or base drive characteristics should be identical. Voltage sharing n/w, similar
to diode could be used.
Transistor are connected in parallel if one device cannot handle load current demand for equal
current sharing, the transistor should be matched for gain, transconductance, turn on time and turn off
time. But, in practice, it is not always possible to meet this requirements, a reasonable amount of
current sharing can be obtained by connecting resistor in series with emitter (or source) terminals as
shown in figure.
I
T
Vcc
I
E1
E2
RC2
C1
Q. Two MOSFET are connected in parallel to carry a total current of IT = 20A. The drain to source
voltage of MOSFET m1 is VDS1 = 2.5V1 and that of MOSFET m2 is VDS 2 = 3V . Determine the drain
current of each transistor (MOSFET).
IT = 20A
D
RD
S1
DD
S2
IT = I D1 + I D 2 (i )
V + I R =V + I .R
DS1
D1
s1
Ds2
D2
s2
(ii)