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DAT/OAT

Reading Comprehension Integration Workshop A


DO NOT OPEN THE TEST BOOK UNTIL YOU ARE READY TO BEGIN DIRECTIONS This workshop consists of the following DAT/OAT section: DAT/OAT Section 3: Reading Comprehension 50 minutes

Complete this workshop in the time indicated. On test day, you may work only on a given section in the time allotted for that section. If you finish a section early, you may check your work within that section, but YOU WILL NOT BE ABLE TO GO BACK TO A PREVIOUS SECTION OR AHEAD TO A FORTHCOMING SECTION. Instructions are provided at the beginning of the test. directions before answering the questions. Make sure you understand the

FILLING IN THE ANSWER GRID 1. Place all your answers on the separate Answer Grid provided. Using a #2 PENCIL ONLY, blacken the space corresponding to the letter of the answer choice you have selected. There should be only one answer per question. Do not be concerned if there are more spaces available on the Answer Grid than there are questions in a section. 2. Be sure your answer mark is dark and fills the space completely. Also, be sure all erasures are complete. The computer may misinterpret an incomplete erasure and you will lose credit for that question. 3. Use your test booklet for any scratch work. DO NOT MAKE ANY STRAY MARKS ON THE ANSWER GRID. Erase any such marks.

1999 KAPLAN EDUCATIONAL CENTERS All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, xerography or any other means, or incorporated into any information retrieval system, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of Kaplan Educational Centers.

Reading Comprehension Workshop A


Time limit: 50 minutes
From the time of ancient Greece, it was commonly believed that life could arise by spontaneous generation from dead material. A clump of dirt, warmth, moisture, and sunlight were considered some of the crucial ingredients for the spontaneous creation of life. The doctrine was advanced by such great figures as Aristotle, Copernicus, Bacon, Galileo, Harvey, Descartes, Goethe, and Schelling. Even Christian philosophers supported the theory of spontaneous generation, pointing out that according to the first chapter of Genesis, God did not create plants and animals directly but bade the waters to bring them forth. Beginning in the sixteenth century, the doctrine of spontaneous generation began to receive closer scrutiny under the newly emerging methods of scientific inquiry of the day. One of the first direct attacks on the doctrine came in 1668 with the experimentation of Italian physician Francesco Redi. Redi placed raw meat in jars, keeping some uncovered and covering others with parchment or wire gauze. The meat in all of the jars spoiled, but maggots were only observed in the open jars. Redi also noticed flies entering and leaving the open jars. Redi concluded from his observations that if the flies had no access to the meat, no worms would be found in the jars. Another blow to the theory of spontaneous generation came in 1767 with Lazzaro Spallanzani's experiment involving boiled meat extracts. After placing the extracts into clean flasks, he sealed the flasks hermetically under flame. He then placed the sealed flasks in boiling water for several minutes to ensure that all germs in the flasks were destroyed. As controls, he left some flasks open to the air. Two days later, the open flasks contained swarms of organisms; the sealed flasks were free of organisms. Despite growing evidence against the doctrine, debate continued to rage in the scientific community over the origins of life. Spallanzani's opponents countered the results of his experiment with claims that either the air excluded from the flasks was necessary for the production of new organisms or that the experimental method he used had destroyed the vegetative power of the medium. In 1861, the French scientist Louis Pasteur provided the fatal blow to the doctrine of spontaneous generation. Pasteur conducted a series of elegant experiments designed to directly address the objections to the lack of air in Spallanzani's earlier experiment. In his experiments, Pasteur used his famous "swan-neck" flasks, which had long S-shaped necks open to the environment. Fermenting material was placed into these flasks, and then the flasks were boiled for a long period of time. Afterwards, the flasks were cooled and left undisturbed, without any covering over the mouth of the flasks. There was no fermentation in any of the flasks; any organism that entered the open end of a flask was deposited on the floor of the neck and was not able to reach the flask content. However, if the neck of a flask was severed, any organism in the air could fall directly onto the fermenting material and fermentation would occur within a short period of time. Pasteur concluded that as long as precautions were taken to keep germs and their reproductive elements, such as eggs and spores, from the fermenting material, no fermentation could occur. Ultimately, Pasteur's work demonstrated that no living organism could come into existence except as a descendant of a similar organism. Paradoxically, in showing that spontaneous generation did not occur as was previously thought, Pasteur's work also ended further inquiry into the origins of life for the next sixty years. The rebirth of interest in the origins of life on earth occurred in the 1920s. At that time, the Russian biochemist Alexander I. Oparin and the British biologist J.B.S. Haldane independently proposed the theory that life on earth originated after an extensive period of "biogenic molecular evolution." Oparin and Haldane suggested that the simplest living units, such as bacteria, came into existence gradually by the progressive assembly of inorganic molecules into more complex organic molecules, which would further react with each other to form living microorganisms. Haldane suggested that the earth's primitive atmosphere consisted of water, carbon dioxide, and ammonia. When such a gas mixture is exposed to ultraviolet radiation, numerous organic substances such as basic sugars and amino acids can be formed. Without oxygen in the atmosphere, the ultraviolet light reaching the primitive earth must have been very intense. The oxygen released from early photosynthetic organisms reacted with the ultraviolet rays to form ozone, a 3-atom oxygen molecule that subsequently served as a protective screen to prevent such intense ultraviolet radiation from reaching the earth's surface. Haldane believed that the early organic molecules accumulated in the primitive oceans to form a "hot dilute soup" in which carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids might have assembled to form the earliest microorganisms. Oparin also suggested that the earth's primitive atmosphere lacked oxygen. Instead, he suggested the atmosphere was comprised of gaseous hydrogen, methane, ammonia, and other reducing compounds. Oparin proposed that the organic compounds required for life spontaneously formed in the highly reducing atmosphere under the

influence of sunlight, lightning, and the intense heat of volcanoes. In sum, the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis proposed that a variety of carbon (organic) compounds gradually accumulated on the surface of the earth during a long period of prebiotic chemical evolution. The primitive reducing atmosphere on earth contained simple gaseous compounds comprised of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen, such as carbon dioxide, molecular nitrogen, water vapor, and perhaps methane and ammonia. Organic molecules then formed from these starting materials. The Oparin-Haldane hypothesis significantly influenced the scientific and philosophical discussions of the origins of life during the 1930s and 1940s. However, it was not until the early 1950s that experimental evidence was provided in support of the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis. In 1953, American scientist Stanley Miller attempted to simulate the environmental conditions of the primitive earth in a laboratory. He built an apparatus designed to circulate a mixture of gaseous methane, hydrogen, ammonia, and water past an electric spark. Liquid water was boiled in a flask connected to the apparatus to produce steam. The products formed from the electrical discharge (representing lightening) were collected in a U-tube and small flask (representing ocean). After a week of continuous sparking, the liquid collected in the U-tube was analyzed. Approximately fifteen percent of the carbon originally present in the reducing "atmosphere" had been converted into organic compounds that collected in the "ocean." Miller's most striking finding was that many compounds related to life were synthesized in the experimental setup. He identified four amino acids commonly found in proteins, urea, and several fatty acids. The findings supported the idea that prebiotic synthesis on the primitive earth may have occurred under conditions similar to those Miller chose to simulate in his experiments. Miller's experiments have been criticized by geochemists who believe that the atmosphere of the primitive earth was quite different from the strongly reducing conditions in Miller's experiments. Nonetheless, his work stimulated other investigators to extend his experiments. It has been found that amino acids could be synthesized in a number of different kinds of gas mixtures that were heated (volcanic heat), irradiated with ultraviolet light (solar radiation) or subjected to electrical discharge (lightening). All that was required to produce amino acids in these experiments was that there was a reducing gas mixture subject to an abundant energy source. More recently, electrical discharges have been passed through mixtures of carbon monoxide, nitrogen, and water, yielding amino acids and nitrogenous bases. These experiments support the idea that the chemical beginnings of life can occur in atmospheres that are only mildly reducing. Ultimately, the

scientific method has answered many questions about the origin of life on earth. 1. According to the passage, who did NOT support the theory of spontaneous generation? A. B. C. D. E. 2. Galileo Schelling Redi Aristotle Goethe

According to the Haldane-Oparin hypothesis, which of the following gases was NOT present in the primitive earth's atmosphere? A. B. C. D. E. hydrogen carbon dioxide ammonia oxygen methane

3.

With which of the following statements would the author of the passage agree? A. Scientific inquiry is no substitute for philosophical debate. B. Pasteur's experiments most likely explain how life originated on earth. C. In order for life to exist on earth, it is necessary for there to be oxygen gas in the atmosphere. D Urea was the first organic compound that existed on the primitive earth. E. The atmosphere of the primitive earth was most likely reducing.

4.

In his experiment, Spallanzani left some flasks containing extract open to the air in order to A. have flasks with the same extract available for the second step of his experiment B. have flasks with the same extract to compare with the sealed flasks C. confirm that all of the germs in the flasks were destroyed during boiling D. compare the different germs in the air with the germs in the meat extract E. the reason is not given in the passage

5.

According to the passage, Pasteur's experiments had which of the following effects? I. They substantially weakened support for the doctrine of spontaneous generation. II. They showed that all organisms originate from similar organisms. III. They stimulated interest in the origins of life on earth. A. B. C. D. E. I only I and II only I, II and III I and III only II and III only

9.

Given the information in the passage, what was the purpose of the spark in Miller's experiment? A. to provide a source of energy for the formation of organic molecules B. to boil the water in the "ocean" C. to prevent extreme pressure from building up in the apparatus due to the boiling water D. to reduce the gases in the apparatus E. to catalyze the formation of oxygen gas in the apparatus

10. Given the information in the passage, why did Spallanzani boil the meat extracts in the flasks? A. to concentrate the organic compounds in the mixture B. to kill any maggot eggs that might be present in the extract C. to break down the meat into the basic organic molecules of life D. to kill any germs in the meat extracts E. none of the above 11. Ozone is composed of

6.

All of the following were present in the "ocean" in Miller's experiment EXCEPT A. B. C. D. E. water fatty acids carbohydrates amino acids urea

7.

Given the information in the passage, what was the importance of using the "swan-neck" flasks in Pasteur's experiments? A. They prevented air from reaching the fermenting material in the flasks. B. Pasteur used these flasks, made famous during a previous experiment, for all his work. C. They prevented germs from entering the flasks. D. They prevented the reducing gases from leaving the flasks. E. They prevented eggs and spores from reaching the fermenting material.

A. B. C. D. E.

oxygen and hydrogen and UV light oxygen and carbon oxygen and carbon and UV light methane and UV light oxygen

12. Given the information in the passage, how does ozone function in the atmosphere today? A. It maintains a reducing environment on earth. B. It is responsible for the formation of oxygen gas in the atmosphere. C. It prevents the temperature of the earth from falling below a critical temperature necessary to sustain life. D. It prevents ultraviolet radiation form reaching the earth's surface. E. It increases the intensity of ultraviolet radiation. from reaching the earth. 13. According to the passage, each of the following energy sources was used in experiments attempting to simulate the environmental conditions on the primitive earth EXCEPT A. B. C. D. E. sparks heat UV light electrical energy All of the above were used

8.

According to the passage, the experiments fashioned after Miller's experiment differed from his in all the following ways I. a different mixture of gases was used as a carbon source II. the gas mixture used was not as reducing III. oxygen was introduced into the gas mixture IV. alternative energy sources were used A. B. C. D. C. I, II and III only I, II, and IV only II and IV only I, III and IV only I and IV only

14. One of the criticisms of Miller's experiments was A. only 4 of the 20 amino acids necessary for life were synthesized under his experimental conditions. B. the experimental design required an energy source that may not have been present in the primitive environment. C. the gaseous mixture he used in his experiments was too oxidizing. D. the gaseous mixture he used in his experiments was too reducing. E. no carbohydrates were synthesized from the experiment. 15. According to the passage, the traditional theory of spontaneous generation was probably most widely accepted A. B. C. D. E. during the time of Aristotle. from the time of Aristotle to 1668. 1861 to 1930. 1668 to 1767. from Genesis to 1861.

16. The author describes the work of other investigators after Miller in order to: A. refute Miller's experimental results B. support the general principles of Miller's experiments C. support the geochemists claim that the atmosphere of primitive earth was different than that in Miller's experiments D. provide comparisons between Miller's and Pasteur's experiments E. demonstrate that experiments conducted after Miller yielded opposing results 17. Imagine that scientists have just discovered samples of air from the earth's primitive atmosphere trapped in amber. If the air is found to contain oxygen, what effect would that have on information presented in the passage? A. strengthen the conclusions drawn from Pasteur's experiments B. weaken the conclusions drawn from Pasteur's experiments C. strengthen the conclusions drawn from Miller's experiments D. weaken the theory set forth by Oparin and Haldane E. have no effect on information in the passage

The art of winemaking dates back to the dawn of humanity. The science of winemaking, or enology, dates back to about 1810, when Gay-Lussac first described the basic chemical process of fermentation. In 1860, Louis Pasteur recognized the importance of yeasts in the fermentation process and showed that substances such as glycerol, acetic acid, and acetaldehyde, in addition to ethanol and carbon dioxide, were also products of fermentation. It is now known that there are at least twelve steps in the overall fermentation process, each step catalyzed by a series of enzymes. Twenty-two enzymes, six coenzymes, and several metal ions have been identified as necessary ingredients in the reaction sequence. Although the fermentation process is at the heart of winemaking, the type of grape and the growing conditions significantly impact the final product. Grapes are a complex mixture of water, simple sugars, starches, organic acids, amino acids, aromatic alcohols (phenolic compounds), metal ions, vitamins, enzymes, volatile esters, and other trace substances. The relative amounts of these materials depend on such factors as the variety of grapes and age of the grapes at harvest. For example, native American grapes, such as the Concord variety, have low sugar and high acid levels compared to European varieties. Growing conditions, such as soil and climate, also affect the chemical composition of the grapes. For instances, the use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers significantly increases the amino acid content of the grapes. After the grapes are harvested, they are crushed to form a must. For white wines, the grape skins are removed after crushing; for red wines, the skins are left in the must. After the grapes are crushed, the must is analyzed for total acid and sugar content. The two major sugars in grapes are glucose and fructose, which occur in approximately equal amounts. Additionally, a significant amount of sucrose is present in many varieties of grapes. Sugar content is very important because it determines the most general characteristic of a wine: whether it is sweet or dry (lack of sweetness). After the grapes have been crushed and the must analyzed, sulfur dioxide is added to kill any bacteria and wild yeasts prior to the addition of a pure yeast culture. As the fermentation of sugar in the grapes proceeds, the alcohol content increases to a point where the yeast can no longer survive. For white wine, the fermentation proceeds until the wine contains about twelve percent alcohol by volume. For red wine, the fermentation is interrupted when the appropriate amount of colored materials has been leached from the skins. Then, the skins are filtered off in a process know as pressing. The fermentation is then allowed to run to completion. As the fermentation of the sugar proceeds, the alcohol content increases to a point where the yeast can no longer survive. If the sugar has been virtually consumed when the yeast die and fermentation ceases, the

resulting wine will be very dry. If, however, sugar remains when the alcohol content reaches twelve percent, the wine will be sweet. The wine will have a sweetness that depends on the amount of sugar left. After fermentation, the yeast is removed, and the wine is stored in containers for aging. Often, oak barrels are used, which also influence the flavor of the wine. During the aging process, the sulfur dioxide and acid levels are monitored to ensure that oxidation or bacterial spoilage does not occur. Before bottling, the wine is filtered, and a substance such as gelatin is added to facilitate aggregation and settling of colloidal suspensions of gums, pectins, and tannins that can cause the wine to appear hazy. This process is called fining the wine. The most important organic acids present in wine are tartaric acid and malic acid. Although organic acids are not present in high amounts in grapes, they are crucial in determining the pH of the wine. Besides affecting the taste, the pH of wine has important implications for its clarity and stability. For example, a pH between 3 and 4 allows yeast to grow, but prevents the growth of bacteria that can cause spoilage. The color of the grape skins is due primarily to a group of compounds called anthocyanins. These molecules react with water as follows: A+ + H20 AOH + H+

where the A+ form is red and the AOH form is colorless. Thus, as the pH of the wine decreases ([H+] increases), the equilibrium shifts to the left in the above reaction (more A+ is formed) and the wine is more highly colored. Another interesting phenomenon is that red wine tends to lose its color when treated with sulfur dioxide (SO2) because SO2 reacts with water to form HSO3- , which reacts with the anthocyanins to form colorless compounds. Hence, as the sulfur dioxide is gradually lost from the wine, the color returns because the chemical equilibrium shifts to the left, reforming the red anthocyanin. From an esthetic point of view, the most important part of the winemaking process involves the refining that takes place after fermentation. High-molecular weight substances such as proteins can cause cloudiness; salts of tartaric acid can precipitate, producing sediment; and bacteria can cause browning of the color and unpleasant tastes and odors. To avoid these problems, various steps are taken to refine and stabilize the wine after fermentation is complete. First the wine is separated from the fermenting solids (the lees) as soon as possible to avoid contamination

of the wine with hydrogen sulfide and other sulfidecontaining compounds from the decomposition of dead yeast cells. The filtered wine is then stored to allow suspended particles to settle, but more must be done to produce a clear wine product. Fining agents are added to break up colloidal suspensions and to absorb contaminants. The most commonly used fining agent is bentonite, a complex aluminum silicate clay that swells greatly in solution. The surface area of the bentonite platelets is about 750 square meters per gram. These platelets are highly efficient in absorbing proteins from the wine. Activated carbon also has a very high surface area and is often used as an absorbent to clarify wine. All of these operations are carried out in the absence of oxygen, since oxygen can react with many of the trace components to produce aldehydes, acids, and other unwanted products that can cause deterioration of color and taste. Modern chemistry has been essential in ensuring the quality of wine through the analysis of the components at various stages of the winemaking process. The most common analysis performed on wine is the determination of its alcohol content for both quality control and tax purposes. The most accurate analytical method for determination of ethanol is titration with a potassium dichromate solution. The measurement of sulfur dioxide content in wine is also important for reasons of consumer health. Analysis for SO2 usually involves distillation to expel the gas from the wine, but may also involve titration with an iodate solution. Winemaking is just one of many examples in contemporary society of how science complements art. 18. Which of the following substances are found in grapes BEFORE fermentation? I. II. III. IV. A. B. C. D. E. amino acids bentonite alcohol SO2 I only I and IV only I, III and IV only I and III only I, II, III and VI

19. Which of the following is the correct sequence for wine production? A. B. C. D. formation of must, pressing, fining pressing, formation of a must, fining pressing, fining, formation of a must formation of must, pressing and fining concurrently E. cannot be determined given the information in the passage 20. Which of the following would increase the color of red wine? I. II. III. IV. A. B. C. D. E. increase pH decrease pH increase SO2 decrease SO2 I and III only I and IV only II and III only II and IV only I only

21. According to the passage, all of the following affect the wine product EXCEPT A. B. C. D. E. climate soil conditions fertilizers carbon dioxide content sugar content

22. If, during the fermentation process, ALL of the sugar in the must is consumed, what will be the outcome? A. B. C. D. E. the wine will be sweet the wine will be sour the wine will spoil the wine will turn from red to white the wine will be dry

23. The process in which the grape skins are filtered off is knows as A. B. C. D. E. musting leeching pressing clearing fining

24. The most important organic acids in wine are I. II. III. IV. A. B. C. D. E. carboxylic acid malic acid sulfuric acid tartaric acid I only I, II, and III only I and III only II and IV only II, III and IV only

29. Which of the following shared characteristics make bentonite platelets and activated carbon efficient clarifying agents? A. B. C. D. E. low pH high pH antibiotic properties high surface area low tannin content

30. According to the passage, in sweet red wines, the yeast will die A. when the sugar content reaches a critical level B. when the alcohol content drops below a critical level C. after all of the sugar has been fermented D. before some of the sugar has been fermented E. sooner than they would in sweet white wine 31. Which of the following events marks the beginning of enology? A. the discovery by Pasteur that glycerol is a product of fermentation B. the discovery by Gay-Lussac that acetaldehyde is a product of fermentation C. the discovery in 1810 of the basic chemical processes of fermentation D. the discovery in 1860 of the products of fermentation in the winemaking process E. the discovery that wild yeasts can contribute to the degradation of the must. 32. Which of the following contributes to the haziness of poorly produced wines? A. B. C. D. E. carnauba wax gelatin activated carbon wild yeast pectin

25. Given the information in the passage, it can be implied that the presence of oxygen gas is undesirable in the winemaking process because A. oxygen would react with the yeast and prevent fermentation B. oxygen would increase the acidity C. oxygen would oxidize the wine components D. oxygen would prevent the formation of anthocyanins E. oxygen would react with SO2 to form sulfuric acid 26. Activated carbon is used in the winemaking process because A. B. C. D. E. it prevents the bacteria from spoiling the wine it prevents the must from becoming too acidic it maintains the must at a neutral pH it has a high surface area it prevents the SO2 concentration from becoming dangerously high

27. During the normal wine making process, the yeast dies primarily because A. B. C. D. E. the level of acetic acid is too high. the pH is too high. the concentration of ethanol is too high. the wine is removed from the fermenting lees. the addition of bentonite breaks up colloidal suspensions.

33. The acid content of the wine is measured at which of the following points during the wine making process? I. II. III. IV. A. B. C. D. E. formation of the must aging in oak barrels fining filtering I and II II and III III and IV I and IV II, III, and IV

28. According to the passage, in the early days of winemaking, the lack of modern chemical analysis techniques would have made it more difficult to A. B. C. D. E. determine the alcohol content of the wine. separate the wine from the lees. crush the grapes to form the must. kill wild yeast. kill bacteria.

34. According to the passage, modern chemistry techniques are used in winemaking for all of the following reasons EXCEPT A. B. C. D. E. to determine wine tax to create the must to measure alcohol content to expel SO2 gas to clarify the wine

Antibacterial agents are potent weapons against infectious disease. Antibiotics can be grouped into several classes: those that destroy the bacterial cell wall, such as lactams; those that interfere with protein synthesis such as aminoglycosides, tetracyclines, and macrolides; those that block bacterial intermediate metabolism such as sulfonamides, and those that interfere with DNA synthesis, such as fluoroquinolones. Antibiotics are usually characterized as either bacteriostatic if they merely slow bacterial growth, or bactericidal if they kill the bacteria outright. Generally, bactericidal agents such as -lactams are preferred over bacteriostatic agents such as macrolides to treat severe and life-threatening infections. Almost all bacteria are enveloped in a covalentlylinked, net-like cell wall made from a specific mixture of protein and carbohydrates, called peptidoglycan. This substance is unique to bacteria and does not exist in eukaryotic organisms, making it an attractive target for antibiotics. The -lactam group of antibiotics are chemical analogs of the components of peptidoglycan. These antibiotics fool the bacteria's enzymes into attempting to incorporate them into the cell wall. The -lactam antibiotics bind irreversibly to the active site of the carboxypeptidases that cross-link elements of the cell wall. This leads to the breakdown of the structure of the peptidoglycan and to osmotic lysis and cell death. -lactam antibiotics are made up of the penicillins, cephalosporins, and other molecules bearing the -lactam ring structure, as well as the carbapenems and monobactams. This class of antibiotics is the least toxic of all antibiotics and active against a broad assortment of infections. Over the last 25 years, many alterations have been made to the chemical structure of the -lactam antibiotics, resulting in a diverse armamentarium of agents that have many desirable properties that the first penicillins lacked. One disadvantage of the -lactam group is their high rate of allergic reactions, and the significant frequency for cross-reactivity of allergies between agents of this class. Aminoglycoside antibiotics, such as gentamicin, amikacin, and tobramycin, are agents that primarily block protein synthesis. This arrests the bacterial cell growth and division, leaving the organism susceptible to attack from the host immune system. These antibiotics prevent protein synthesis by binding to the 30S ribosomal subunit, thereby blocking the ribosomal initiation complex. Unlike other agents that block protein synthesis, aminoglycoside antibiotics are bactericidal because of their additional property of distorting the translation of RNA, leading to the production of nonsense proteins. A major disadvantage of the aminoglycosides is their narrow therapeutic window, the range of blood drug levels in which the risk of toxicity is low and beneficial effects are high. Major toxicities of aminoglycosides include kidney and inner ear damage.

Sulfonamides are among the first antibacterials discovered. They are inhibitors of the synthesis of dihydrofolate, which is used in the formation of nucleotides and amino acids. Eukaryotic organisms, in contrast to bacteria, are able to use preformed folate in their synthetic pathways, while prokaryotic bacteria are unable to grow and replicate when their own synthetic pathway for folates is blocked. As a result, host immune responses can destroy the bacteria. This class of drugs is bacteriostatic, since the actions of the antibiotic do not directly kill the bacteria. The fluoroquinolones are a group of antibiotics that are effective in treating a wide variety of infections caused by gram-negative bacilli as well as certain gram-positive bacteria. These antibiotics interfere with DNA synthesis by blocking the action of the enzyme DNA gyrase. As a result, the bacteria cannot replicate. These antibiotics are very well tolerated, and generally have a benign side effect profile. Furthermore, these agents are very unlikely to induce drug resistance, and have good oral absorption. This last quality allows them to be used in outpatient therapy for infections that formerly used to require hospitalization. The macrolide group of antibiotics are inhibitors of protein synthesis. These drugs, which contain a macrocyclic lactone ring, bind to the 23S ribosomal subunit of the 50S ribosome disrupting protein synthesis by interfering with translocation. The macrolides, as a group, are poorly tolerated secondary to gastrointestinal disturbances, including diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting, although newer members of this class have fewer side-effects. The classic member of this class of antibiotic is erythromycin. These antibiotics have the unique property of being active against certain intracellular pathogens which are not susceptible to many other antibiotics. These agents are bacteriostatic, since they do not directly cause cell death. The tetracyclines also inhibit protein synthesis. These drugs bind to the 30S ribosomal subunit and inhibit the binding of the aminoacyl-tRNA to the ribosome, preventing protein translation, resulting in bacteriostasis. Tetracyclines initially were used widely as broad-spectrum antibiotics because they had a low incidence of toxicities. However, they do have the unpleasant side effect of causing permanent discoloration in the teeth of young children. Drug resistance has made this class of antibiotic less desirable, although certain infections such as Rocky Mountain spotted fever and Lyme disease are still predominately susceptible to tetracycline derivatives. These drugs are also alternative medications in treating certain sexually-transmitted diseases. There are many different mechanisms by which bacteria may become resistant to antibiotics. First, the bacteria might produce enzymes that degrade the active drug. The most common type of resistance to penicillins is through the action of a -lactamase, which destroys the drug. A second mechanism may be through the development of an

altered target for an antiobiotic. For example, erythromycinresistant bacteria demonstrate methylation of the 23S ribosome; this alters the binding site for erythromycin. Another mechanism of resistance results from changes in permeability of the cell membrane to the antibiotic or from increased excretion of drug from the bacteria. This is seen most dramatically in the tetracyclines, where an efficient pump pushes the tetracycline molecule out of the bacterium. The emergence of resistance to antibiotics has become an increasingly important threat to health care. Diseases that were formerly incurable in the days prior to antimicrobial therapy were easily treated in the 1950's and 1960's. Now, in the 1990's, many of these infections are becoming more difficult to treat as many strains of bacteria become resistant to virtually all antibiotics. We may soon find ourselves in an era when bacterial infectious diseases again threaten the public health. 35. Aminoglycoside antibiotics are toxic to the I. II. III. IV. A. B. C. D. E. Kidney Liver Inner ear Lung I only II only I and III II and III all of the above

39. Bacteria may become resistant to antibiotics by I. II. III. IV. A. B. C. D. E. producing an enzyme that inactivates the drug developing an altered target for an antibiotic producing renin excreting the drug from the cell I only II only III and IV only I, II, and III I, II, and IV

40. The passage implies that all of the following are potential drawbacks of different antibiotics EXCEPT A. B. C. D. E. short therapeutic window gastrointestinal disturbances likelihood of inducing resistance likelihood of inducing allergic reactions effect on folate synthesis

41. Pharmaceutical companies commonly develop drugs that target the cell wall of bacterial. This is because A. peptidoglycans are easy to make in the laboratory, so it is very cheap to develop drugs against them B. the cell wall of the bacteria is very fragile, so can be broken down easily. C. the bacteria's cell wall does not exist in humans, so it is not likely to cause toxicities D. the peptidoglycans of human cell membranes are immune to the effects of the drug E. there are no other effective targets for drugs in the bacteria 42 -lactam antibiotics include the I. II. III. IV. A. B. C. D. E. penicillins cephalosporins aminoglycosides tetracyclines I and II III and IV I, II, and IV all of the above none of the above.

36. Macrolide antibiotics A. B. C. D. E. are effective against Lyme disease inhibit synthesis of folate damage the lungs are made up of a macrocyclic lactone ring none of the above

37. The bacterial cell wall is attacked by which of the following antibiotics? A. B. C. D. E. macrolides tetracyclines cephalosporins fluoroquinolones all of the above

38. Fluoroquinolones inhibit bacterial replication by A. B. C. D. E. inhibiting DNA gyrase disrupting the bacterial cell wall interrupting protein synthesis action of a -lactamase preventing differentiation

43. The sulfonamides act against bacteria by A. B. C. D. E. inhibiting protein synthesis. compromising their cell walls. inhibiting nucleotide and amino acid synthesis. binding to the 50S subunit of the ribosome. opening pores in the cell membrane.

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44. The therapeutic window is A. B. C. D. E. the dose at which toxicity is high. the portal through which drugs are dispensed. an important threat to health care in the future. the toxicities to the inner ear and kidney. the range of drug levels in which the risk of toxicity is low and beneficial effects are high.

50. Which of the following is correctly paired with its target? I. erythromycin : 30S ribosomal subunit II. gentamicin : 30S ribosomal subunit III. tetracycline : 30S ribosomal subunit A. B. C. D. E. I II III II and III I, II, and III

45. Aminoglycoside antibiotics are bactericidal because they A. B. C. D. E. interfere with RNA translation block protein synthesis force the cell to divide break up the bacterial cell wall cause the cell to become dormant

STOP! END OF SECTION.

46. The major drawback to penicillins is their A. B. C. D. E. narrow therapeutic window high frequency of allergic reactions poor oral absorption high rate of nausea and vomiting risk for causing kidney damage

47. All of the following are true of bacteriostatic antibiotics EXCEPT A. they may bind to ribosomal subunits of the bacteria B. they may lead to the ultimate destruction of the bacteria C. they have benign side effect profiles D. they include macrolides and tetracyclines E. they prevent the replication and growth of bacteria 48. All of the following drug classes are bacteriostatic EXCEPT A. B. C. D. E. aminoglycosides fluoroquinolones tetracyclins sulfonamides All of the above are bacteriostatic

49. Fluoroquinolones are the drug of choice for many types of infections because A. they kill many bacteria B. they are a potent antibacterial that causes few side effects C. they can easily be administered intravenously D. their anti-RNA ability disables the bacteria E. they are very inexpensive to make

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