This article was published in ASHRAE Journal, September 2011.

Copyright 2011 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. Posted at www.ashrae.org. This article may not be copied and/or distributed electronically or in paper form without permission of ASHRAE. For more information about ASHRAE Journal, visit www.ashrae.org.

New Opportunities for Solar

Adsorption Refrigeration
A
By Kai Wang, Ph.D., Member ASHRAE; Edward A. Vineyard, P.E., Fellow ASHRAE

dsorption (also called solid sorption) refrigeration systems use solid sorption material such as silica gel and zeolite to produce

cooling effect. These systems are attracting increasing attention because they can be activated by low-grade thermal energy and use refrigerants having zero ozone depletion potential and low global warming potential. The adsorption refrigeration system has several advantages compared to the absorption refrigeration system.

Wide range of operating temperatures.1 Adsorption systems can be activated by a heat source with a temperature as low as 50C (122F), while the heat source temperature for an absorption system should be at least 90C (194F). Also, adsorption systems have less corrosion issues for the adsorbentrefrigerant working pairs when they incorporate high temperature heat sources compared to an absorption system, while severe
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corrosion might occur in absorption systems when the regeneration temperature is greater than 200C (392F). No crystallization issue. In the lithium bromide (LiBr) /water absorption system, there is a specic minimum solution temperature for any given LiBr solution concentration below which the salt begins to crystallize out of the solution.2 Crystallization results in interruption of machine operation and possible damage

to the unit. By contrast, in adsorption systems the adsorbent remains in a solid state, which means no crystallization issues. Suitability for application where serious vibration occurs.3,4 Absorption systems cannot operate normally under conditions where serious vibration occurs, such as in shing boats and locomotives, because the absorbent in these systems, which is in a liquid state, may ow from the generator to the condenser or from the absorber to the evaporator. Adsorption systems are suitable for such applications, because their adsorbents stay in a solid state. Depending on the nature of attractive forces existing between the adsorbate and adsorbent, adsorption can be classied as physical adsorption or chemiAbout the Authors
Kai Wang, Ph.D., is a postdoctoral research associate, and Edward A. Vineyard, P.E., is group manager of the Building Equipment Research Group at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tenn.

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cal adsorption. In physical adsorption, the forces of attraction between the molecules of the adsorbate and the adsorbent are of the Van der Waals type. Since the forces of attraction are weak, the process of physical adsorption can be easily reversed by heating. In chemical adsorption, the forces of attraction and chemical bonds between the adsorbate and adsorbent molecules are strong. The adsorbate and adsorbent molecules change their original state after the adsorption process, e.g., complexation occurs between chlorides and ammonia. Moreover, chemical adsorption also exhibits the phenomena of salt swelling and agglomeration, which are critical to heat and mass transfer performance.1 The major drawbacks of adsorption systems are their low energy efciency, the COP (coefcient of performance: the ratio of cooling capacity to thermal energy supplied to the system) is usually less than 0.4, due to the thermal coupling irreversibility.5

Adsorbents and Refrigerants

The adsorbents used in adsorption systems are categorized as physical, chemical, or composite adsorbents, according to the nature of the forces involved in the adsorption process. The types, characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages of different adsorbents are summarized in this section. Two parameters are widely used to evaluate the performance of an adsorption system and adsorbents, namely, COP and SCP (specic cooling power: the ratio of cooling capacity to mass of adsorbent in the adsorbers).

Physical Adsorbents
The commonly used physical adsorbents for adsorption refrigeration systems are activated carbon, silica gel and zeolite. Activated carbon is a form of carbon that has been processed to make it extremely porous, and it has a large surface area available for adsorption. Methanol and ammonia are the most common refrigerants paired with activated carbon. Activated carbonmethanol is one of the most promising working pairs in practical systems because of its large adsorption quantity and low adsorption heat (about 1800 to 2000 kJkg1 (773.9 to 859.8 Btu/lb).1 Low adsorption heat is beneficial to the systems COP because the majority of heat consumption in the desorption phase is the adsorption heat. Another advantage of activated carbonmethanol is low desorption temperature (about 100C [212F]), which is within a suitable temperature range for using solar energy as a heat source. However, activated carbon will catalyze methanol to decompose into dimethyl ether when the temperature is higher than 120C (248F).6 Since typical pressures in an activated carbonmethanol system are subatmospheric, a hermetically sealed outer vessel is required. Activated carbonammonia has almost the same adsorption heat as the activated carbonmethanol working pair. The main difference is the much higher operating pressure (about 1600 kPa [232 psia] when the condensing temperature is 40C [104F]) of activated carbonammonia. The high operating
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pressure leads to rather small pipe diameters and relatively compact heat exchangers, as compared to activated carbon methanol. Another advantage of activated carbonammonia is the possibility of using heat sources at 200C (392F) or above.7 The drawbacks of this working pair are the toxicity and pungent smell of ammonia. Silica gel is a granular, highly porous form of silica made synthetically from sodium silicate. For the silica gelwater working pair, the adsorption heat is about 2500 kJ/kg (1074.8 Btu/lb) and the desorption temperature could be as low as 50C (122F).1 Such a low desorption temperature makes it suitable for solar energy use. There is about 4% to 6% (by weight) of water connected with a single hydroxyl group on the surface of a silica atom, which cannot be removed; otherwise the silica gel would lose its adsorption capability. Thus, the desorption temperature cannot be higher than 120C (248F), and it is generally lower than 90C (194F).1 One of the drawbacks of the silica gelwater working pair is its low adsorption quantity (about 0.2 kg water/kg [0.2 lb water/lb] silica gel). Another drawback is the limitation of evaporating temperature due to the freezing point of water. Zeolite is a type of alumina silicate crystal composed of alkali or alkali soil. The adsorption heat of zeolitewater is higher than that of silica gelwater, at about 3300 to 4200 kJkg1 (1418.7 to 1805.7 Btu/lb).1 The desorption temperature of zeolitewater is higher than 200C (392F) due to its stable performance at high temperatures. The drawbacks of zeolitewater are the same as for silica gelwater, low adsorption quantity and inability to produce evaporating temperatures below 0C (32F).

Chemical Adsorbents
Chemical adsorption is characterized by the strong chemical bond between the adsorbent and the refrigerant. The chemical bond mainly includes the functions of complexation, coordination, hydrogenation and oxidization.1 The chemical adsorption reaction is represented in Equation 1:8 (1) <S > + v(G ) <S > + vH

The equilibrium of this reaction is monovariant. Since the liquid-vapor equilibrium is also monovariant, the solidgas and liquidvapor equilibrium lines can be calculated using the Clausius-Clapeyron equation,8
Ln ( Peq ) = H S + (2) RT R

H is the reaction enthalpy, S is the reaction entropy, R is the gas constant. The most commonly used chemical adsorbentrefrigerant pair is metal chlorides and ammonia, which exhibits the complexation force. The metal chlorides include calcium chloride (CaCl2), strontium chloride (SrCl2), magnesium chloride (MgCl2), barium chloride (BaCl2), manganese chloride (MnCl2), and cobalt chloride (CoCl2), among others.
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As an example, the complexation reaction of CaCl2 and ammonia (NH3) can be written as

CaCl2 ( n1 n2 ) NH 3 + n2 NH 3 CaCl2 n1 NH 3 + n2 H (3)

where the numbers of n1 and n2 could be 2, 4 and 8. The advantage of metal chlorideammonia working pairs is the higher adsorption quantity than that of physical adsorbentrefrigerant pairs. The drawbacks of metal chlorideammonia pairs are: 1) they require more energy to remove the adsorbed molecules than in physical adsorption, and 2) adsorption performance is degraded because of salt swelling and agglomeration in repeated adsorption/desorption processes.

Composite Adsorbents
The composite adsorbents (or complex compounds)9,10 are made from porous media, and chemical sorbents are commonly a combination of metal chlorides and expanded graphite, activated carbon, active carbon ber, zeolite or silica gel. The objectives of using composite adsorbents are: 1) improve heat and mass transfer of chemical adsorbents11, 2) increase the adsorption quantity of physical adsorbents.12 The addition of chemical sorbents to the physical adsorbents could result in higher adsorption quantity than that of physical adsorbents alone.

The main composite adsorbentsrefrigerants in the recent literature can be categorized as silica gel and chloridewater, and chlorides and porous mediaammonia. Composite adsorbents of silica gel and chloride are usually produced using the impregnation method. The silica gel is immersed in a chloride salt solution and is then dried to remove the water. The adsorption characteristics of silica gel and chloride composite adsorbents could be modied by 1) changing the silica gel pore structure, 2) changing the type of salt, and 3) changing the proportions of chloride and silica gel.13 Daou, et al.,14 impregnated silica gel with calcium chloride, which improved the COP by 25% and increased the SCP by 283% compared to pure microporous silica gel. Four types of porous media reported in the recent literature were used to produce composite adsorbents with chlorides: expanded graphite,11,12,15 activated carbon,16 and activated carbon ber as well as vermiculite.17,18 Han, et al.,19 measured the effective thermal conductivity and gas permeability of a composite adsorbent made from expanded graphite impregnated with MnCl2 using the consolidation method. The measured effective thermal conductivities ranged from 14.0 to 25.6 Wm1K1 (8.1 to 14.8 Btu/hftF) and permeability ranged from 8.11015 to 2.51013 m2 (8.71014 to 2.71012 ft2). Wang, et al.,11 used the same method to produce the composite

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adsorbent of expanded graphite and CaCl2. Effective thermal conductivities of the expanded graphiteCaCl2 consolidated composite adsorbent are in the range of 7.05 to 9.2 Wm1K1 (4.07 to 5.3 Btu/hftF). The obtained results indicated that the thermal conductivity of the composite adsorbent has a strong dependence on the bulk density, the mass fraction of expanded graphite and the ammoniated state of CaCl2. Wang, et al.,20 investigated the effective thermal conductivity of a composite consolidated adsorbent of expanded graphite and activated carbon, and test results showed that its thermal conductivity could reach as high as 30 Wm1K1 (17.3 Btu/hftF).

ducing the desired refrigeration effect. This step is equivalent to the evaporation in the vapor-compression cycle. The basic adsorption refrigeration cycle is an intermittent system and the cooling output is not continuous. A minimum of two adsorbers are required to obtain a continuous cooling effect (when the rst adsorber is in the adsorption phase, the second adsorber is in desorption phase). These adsorbers will sequentially execute the adsorption-desorption process.

Adsorption Cycle Description Basic Adsorption Cycle

A basic adsorption cycle consists of four steps (Figure 1): heating and pressurization, desorption and condensation, cooling and depressurization, and adsorption and evaporation. In the rst step, the adsorber is heated by a heat source at a temperature of TH. The pressure of the adsorber increases from the evaporating pressure up to the condensing pressure while the adsorber temperature increases. This step is equivalent to the compression in the vapor-compression cycle. In the second step, the adsorber continues receiving heat and its temperature keeps increasing, which results in the desorption (or generation) of refrigerant vapor from adsorbent in the adsorber. This desorbed vapor is liqueed in the condenser and the condensing heat is released to the rst heat sink at a temperature of TC. This step is equivalent to condensation in the vapor-compression cycle. At the beginning of the third step, the adsorber is disconnected from the condenser. Then, it is cooled by heat transfer uid at the second heat sink temperature of TM. The pressure of the adsorber decreases from the condensing pressure down to the evaporating pressure due to the decrease in the adsorber temperature. This step is equivalent to the expansion in the vapor-compression cycle. In the last step, the adsorber keeps releasing heat while being connected to the evaporator. The adsorber temperature continues decreasing, which results in the adsorption of refrigerant vapor from the evaporator by adsorbent, proSeptember 2011

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Ln(P) Pc

Heating and Pressurization

Ln(P) Pc

Desorption and Condensation

PE

PE

1/T Desorber TH QH Desorbed Vapor Condenser QC TC TH QH Desorber Desorbed Vapor Condenser

1/T

QC

TC

TM

QM

Throttling Valve TE

TM

QM

Throttling Valve QE TE

QE

Ln(P) Pc

Ln(P) Pc

Cooling and Depressurization

PE Adsorption and Evaporation 1/T Adsorber TH QH QC QM Throttling Valve Absorbed Vapor Evaporator QE TE Condenser TC

PE

1/T Adsorber TH QH QC QM Condenser TC

TM

TM

Throttling Valve Absorbed Vapor Evaporator QE TE

Figure 1: Basic adsorption refrigeration system. A. Heating and pressurization. B. Desorption and condensation. C. Cooling and depressurization. D. Adsorption and evaporation.29

Advanced Adsorption Cycle

Since the efciency of the basic adsorption refrigeration cycle is low, and the cooling output is not continuous, many advanced adsorption refrigeration cycles (such as the heat recovery cycle, mass recovery cycle, thermal wave cycle, forced convective thermal wave cycle, etc.) have been developed to improve efciency and practicability. The heat recovery cycle is an advanced adsorption cycle used in a system with two or more adsorbers. Figure 2 shows the heat recovery system on the P-T diagram. After the adsorption
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phase and desorption phase are nished in the adsorbers, the heat from the hot adsorber is transferred to the cold adsorber by circulating heat transfer uid between them in a closed loop. The experimental results show that the COP of the system will increase by up to 25% with the heat recovery cycle.21,22 The mass recovery cycle uses refrigerant mass recovery between two adsorbers to effectively increase cooling output and COP of the system. Figure 3 presents a diagram of the mass recovery cycle of an adsorption system. In the end of the desorptionadsorption phase, the high-pressure adsorber
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Ln(P) Pc

Heating and Pressurization TH

High Pressure Desorber Open

Low Pressure Adsorber TM

Refrigerant Vapor

PE

Figure 3: Diagram of mass recovery cycle.

Cold Adsorber 1/T Temperature B Energy Supplied by The Heat Source Heat Source Adsorber 1 A Condenser C Adsorber 2 Heat Sink D Energy Released To the Adsorber

Ln(P) Pc Cooling and Depressurization PE

Hot Adsorber

1/T

Figure 2: Pressure-temperature diagram of heat recovery cycle.

Evaporator

is connected to the low-pressure adsorber in a closed loop. The refrigerant in the high-pressure adsorber will be re-adsorbed by the adsorbent in the low-pressure adsorber due to the pressure difference between the two adsorbers. In a mass recovery process, the adsorption quantity of adsorbent is increased, which causes the cooling capacity and COP to increase. The experimental results showed the mass recovery cycle may help obtain a COP increase of more than 10%.21 The concept of thermal wave cycle, proposed by Shelton, et al.,23,24 is shown in Figure 4.25 The heat transfer uid circulates through four components: (1) Adsorber 1 in adsorption phase, (2) the heat source; (3) Adsorber 2 in desorption phase, and (4) heat sink. The adsorption heat released from Adsorber 1 is recovered by the heat transfer uid and transferred to Adsorber 2, and only limited thermal energy is required from the heat source since about 65% of the total energy received by each adsorber can be internally recovered.26 Experimental results showed the COP of a two-bed adsorption air conditioner (zeolitewater) with thermal wave cycle was approximately 1.0 in cooling season.27 Critoph28 invented and theoretically investigated the convection thermal wave cycle, which uses refrigerant as a heat transfer medium for internal heat recovery. The simulation results predicted a COP of 0.95 for this system when the evaporating temperature and condensing temperature are 0C and 42C (32F and 107.6F), respectively.

Reversible Pump

Figure 4: Thermal wave adsorption cycle. However, they could be used as a reference to what can be expected from adsorption refrigeration systems.

Summary
Compared to the vapor compression refrigeration systems, adsorption systems have the following advantages: 1) they can be driven by waste heat and low-grade heat such as solar energy; 2) they use environmentally friendly uids such as water or ammonia as refrigerants. The major drawbacks of adsorption systems are their low energy efciency (low COP and SCP). Silica gelwater and activated carbonmethanol are suitable working pairs for low temperature waste heat and solar energy due to their relatively low desorption temperatures. Zeolite water, activated carbonammonia, and metal chloridesammonia, as well as composite adsorbentsammonia can be used in adsorption systems driven by high temperature waste heat. Since the typical pressures in silica gelwater, zeolitewater, and activated carbonmethanol systems are subatmospheric, a hermetically sealed outer vessel is essential to maintain good machine performance. The basic adsorption refrigeration cycle is an intermittent system and the cooling output is not continuous. A minimum of two adsorbers are required to obtain a continuous cooling effect (when the rst adsorber is in the adsorption phase, the second adsorber is in the desorption phase). Several advanced adsorption cycles (such as heat recovery cycle, mass recova s h r a e . o r g September 2011

Performance of Adsorption Systems

Table 125 summarizes the performance of some typical adsorption refrigeration systems that were manufactured and tested in the last 20 years for use of waste heat and solar energy. These results were obtained under various operating conditions; hence they should not be compared to one another.
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Application

Heat Source Temperature or Insolation 20 MJ m2 day1 105C 18.1 to 19.2 MJ m2 day1

Working Pair ACMethanol ACNH3 ACMethanol ACMethanol Silica GelWater ACBlackened SteelMethanol ACMethanol AC+CaCl2NH3 Silica GelWater ACMethanol Silica GelWater Silica GelWater Silica GelWater Silica GelWater ACNH3 ZeoliteWater ZeoliteWater ZeoliteWater ACNH3 ZeoliteWater

COP 0.12 0.10 0.12 to 0.14 0.13 to 0.15 0.16a 0.16 0.18 0.39 0.36 0.40 0.28 0.35 to 0.60 0.30 to 0.60 0.33 to 0.50 0.42 to 1.19 0.60 to 1.60 0.41 0.38 0.20 0.20 to 0.21

SCP or Ice Production 6 kg day1m2 35 W kg1

Year 1986 1997 2002 2004 2004 2004 2005 2006 2001 2001 2004 2004 2004 2005 1996

5.0 to 6.0 kg day1m2 6.0 to 7.0 kg day1m2 2.05 MJ m2day1 9.4 kg day1m2b 27 W 770 W kg1 kg1c

Ice Making

17 to 20 MJ m2day1 15.4 MJ m2 day1 20 MJ m2 day1 <120C 115C 55C 100C

3.2 kW Unit1 73.1 W kg1 12.0 kW Unit1 15.0 kW m3

Chilled Water

65C 75 to 95C 80 to 95C 80C 232C 204C

20 W kg1d 91.7 to 171.8 W kg1 NIe 36 to 144 W 97 W kg1

1988 1999 2000 2003 2004

Air Conditioning

230C 310C 100C 230 to 300C

kg1

25.7 W kg1 600 W kg1 21.4 to 30 W kg1

a Average

value obtained during 30 days of continuous operation; b Based on the area of the adsorber, which was different from the area of the reector panels;

c The SCP is based on the mass of CaCl inside one adsorbent bed and only for the duration of the adsorption phase; d At generation temperature of 95C; e Not informed. 2

Table 1: Performance of adsorption refrigeration systems for different applications.25 ery cycle, and thermal wave adsorption cycle) have been developed to improve efciency and practicality. Although the advanced cycles can improve the adsorption system performance, the complexity and the initial costs of the system also increase. In these advanced cycles, the mass recovery cycle has the potential to be a cost-effective way to boost the COP and SCP of the adsorption systems.25 Although the adsorption refrigeration systems have several advantages over vapor compression refrigeration systems, there are several challenges (such as improvement in systems energy efciency and/or reduction of manufacturing costs, advanced cycles with less thermal coupling irreversibilities, and formulation of new composite adsorbents with enhanced adsorption capacity and improved heat and mass transfer properties) to overcome before they can be considered as possible alternatives to replace the present vapor compression systems, especially in regions with abundant waste heat or solar energy resources available. These challenges also point to new research and development opportunities and leave opportunity for considerable creativity.
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Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge Dr. Liwei Wang and Dr. Ruzhu Wang of Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, and Dr. Abdolreza Zaltash, Dr. Moonis R. Ally and Erica Atkin of Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tenn., for their support, enlightening discussions and insights.

Note
Figure 4 and Table 1 are reprinted from Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 32(4), R.Z. Wang, R.G. Oliveira, Adsorption refrigerationAn efcient way to make good use of waste heat and solar energy, pp. 424 458 with permission from Elsevier.

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