57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 3

Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999

1
Chapter 3: Fluid Statics

3.1 Pressure

For a static fluid, the only stress is the normal stress since
by definition a fluid subjected to a shear stress must deform
and undergo motion. Normal stresses are referred to as
pressure p.

For the general case, the stress on a fluid element or at a
point is a tensor


For a static fluid,

ij
= 0 ij i.e., shear stresses = 0


ii
= p =
xx
=
yy
=
zz
i = j i.e., normal stresses
= p

Also shows that p is isotropic i.e., one value at a point
which is independent of direction, a scalar.

ij
= stress tensor

=
xx

xy

xz

yx

yy

yz

zx

zy

zz
i = force
j = direction
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
2
x z
Definition of Pressure:

dA
dF
A
F
0 A
lim
p

F = normal force acting over A N/m
2
= Pa (Pascal)

As already noted, p is a scalar, which can be easily
demonstrated by considering the equilibrium of forces on a
wedge-shaped fluid element


Geometry
A = ly
x = lcos
z = lsin




F
x
= 0
p
n
A sin - p
x
A sin = 0
p
n
= p
x


F
z
= 0
-p
n
A cos + p
z
A cos - W = 0
y ) sin )( cos (
2
W

l l
p
n
A
p
x
Asin
W=weight
p
z
Acos
x


l
z
W = mg
= Vg
= V

V = xzy
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
3
+ p p
n z

2
0 lsin


p p for
n z
l 0

i.e., p
n
= p
x
= p
y
= p
z

p is single valued at a point and independent of direction


A body/surface in contact with a static fluid experiences a
force due to p

B
S
p
dA n p F












Note: if p = constant, F
p
= 0 for a closed body


Scalar form of Greene's Theorem:

f nds fdV
s V

f = constant f = 0
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
4
Pressure Transmission

Pascal's law: in a closed system, a pressure change
produced at one point in the system is transmitted
throughout the entire system.

Absolute Pressure, Gage Pressure, and Vacuum













For p
A
>p
a
, p
g
= p
A
p
a
= gage pressure


For p
A
<p
a
, p
vac
= -p
g
= p
a
p
A
= vacuum pressure








p
A
< p
a
p
g
< 0
p
g
> 0
p
A
> p
a
p
a
= atmospheric
pressure =
101.325 kPa
p
A
= 0 = absolute
zero
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
5
3.2 Pressure Variation with Elevation

Basic Differential Equation

For a static fluid, pressure varies only with elevation within
the fluid. This can be shown by consideration of
equilibrium of forces on a fluid element






Newton's law (momentum principle) applied to a static
fluid
F = ma = 0 for a static fluid
i.e., F
x
= F
y
= F
z
= 0

F
z
= 0

pdxdy p
p
z
dz dxdy gdxdydz + ( )

p
z
g

Basic equation for pressure variation with elevation
1
st
order Taylor series
estimate for pressure
variation over dz
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
6

0
y
p
0 dxdz ) dy
y
p
p ( pdxdz
0 F
y

0
x
p
0 dydz ) dx
x
p
p ( pdydz
0 F
x

+



For a static fluid, the pressure only varies with elevation z
and is constant in horizontal xy planes.

The basic equation for pressure variation with elevation can
be integrated depending on whether = constant or
= (z), i.e., whether the fluid is incompressible (liquid or
low-speed gas) or compressible (high-speed gas) since
g constant

Pressure Variation for a Uniform-Density Fluid
= g = constant
dp
dz


dp = dz
p = z + constant
p + z = constant

piezometric pressure





57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
7
Alternate forms:

p
1
+ z
1
= p
2
+ z
2
p = - z

57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
8
Pressure Variation for Compressible Fluids:

Basic equation for pressure variation with elevation

g ) z , p (
dz
dp

Pressure variation equation can be integrated for (p,z)
known. For example, here we solve for the pressure in the
atmosphere assuming (p,T) given from ideal gas law, T(z)
known, and g g(z).

p = RT R = gas constant = 287 J/kg K
p,T in absolute scale

RT
pg
dz
dp


) z ( T
dz
R
g
p
dp
which can be integrated for T(z) known




dry air
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
9
z
o
= earth surface
= 0

p
o
= 101.3 kPa

T = 15C

= 6.5 K/km
Pressure Variation in the Troposphere

T = T
o
(z z
o
) linear decrease

T
o
= T(z
o
) where p = p
o
(z
o
) known
= lapse rate = 6.5 K/km

)] z z ( T [
dz
R
g
p
dp
o o


dz ' dz
) z z ( T ' z
o o




constant )] z z ( T ln[
R
g
p ln
o o
+

use reference condition

constant T ln
R
g
p ln
o o
+

solve for constant

R g
o
o o
o
o
o o
o
T
) z z ( T
p
p
T
) z z ( T
ln
R
g
p
p
ln

1
]
1

i.e., p decreases for increasing z

57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
10
Pressure Variation in the Stratosphere

T = T
s
= 55C


dp
p
g
R
dz
T
s


constant z
RT
g
p ln
s
+


use reference condition to find constant


] RT / g ) z z ( exp[ p p
e
p
p
s o o
RT / g ) z z (
o
s 0

i.e., p decreases exponentially for increasing z.




See examples 3.5 and 3.6 in text for p analysis in
Troposphere and Stratosphere, respectively.





57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
11
3.3 Pressure Measurements

Pressure is an important variable in fluid mechanics and
many instruments have been devised for its measurement.
Many devices are based on hydrostatics such as barometers
and manometers, i.e., determine pressure through
measurement of a column (or columns) of a liquid using
the pressure variation with elevation equation for an
incompressible fluid.

More modern devices include Bourdon-Tube Gage
(mechanical device based on deflection of a spring) and
pressure transducers (based on deflection of a flexible
diaphragm/membrane). The deflection can be monitored
by a strain gage such that voltage output is p across
diaphragm, which enables electronic data acquisition with
computers.

In this course we will use both manometers and pressure
transducers in EFD labs 2 and 3.










57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
12
Manometry

1. Barometer

p
v
+
Hg
h = p
atm

i.e., p
atm
=
Hg
h p
v
0 i.e., vapor pressure Hg
nearly zero at normal T
h 76 cm
p
atm
101 kPa (or 14.6 psia)


Note: p
atm
is relative to absolute zero, i.e., absolute
pressure. p
atm
= p
atm
(location, weather)


Consider why water barometer is impractical

O H O H Hg Hg
2 2
h h

. ft 34 cm 6 . 1033 76 6 . 13 h S h h
Hg Hg Hg
O H
Hg
O H
2
2

57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
13
p
atm

2. Piezometer






p
atm
+ h = p
pipe
= p absolute

p = h gage

Simple but impractical for large p and vacuum pressures
(i.e., p
abs
< p
atm
)


3. U-tube or differential manometer







p
1
+
m
h l = p
4
p
1
= p
atm

p
4
=
m
h l gage
=
w
[S
m
h S l]

for gases S << S
m
and can be neglected, i.e., can neglect p
in gas compared to p in liquid in determining p
4
= p
pipe
.
Example 3.8
p
atm

57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
14
Air at 20 C is in pipe with a water manometer. For given
conditions compute gage pressure in pipe.

l = 140 cm
h = 70 cm

p
4
= ? gage (i.e., p
1
= 0)


p
1
+ h = p
3
step-by-step method
p
3
-
air
l = p
4


p
1
+ h -
air
l = p
4
complete circuit method
h -
air
l = p
4
gage

water
(20C) = 9790 N/m
3
p
3
= h = 6853 Pa [N/m
2
]

air
= g
p
abs
( )
( )
3 atm 3
m / kg 286 . 1
) 273 20 ( 287
101300 6853
273 C R
p p
RT
p

+
+

+
+

K

air
= 1.286 9.81m/s
2
= 12.62 N/m
3


note
air
<<
water


p
4
= p
3
-
air
l = 6853 12.62 1.4 = 6835 Pa
17.668
if neglect effect of air column p
4
= 6853 Pa
or
could
use
Table
A.3
h

air

57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 3
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
15
A differential manometer determines the difference in
pressures at two points and when the actual pressure
at any point in the system cannot be determined.










h ) ( ) ( p p
p ) h ( h p
f m 1 2 f 2 1
2 2 f m 1 f 1
+
+
l l
l l


h 1
p p
f
m
2
f
2
1
f
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

l l
difference in piezometric head

if fluid is a gas
f
<<
m
: p
1
p
2
=
m
h

if fluid is liquid & pipe horizontal l
1
= l
2
:
p
1
p
2
= (
m
-
f
) h