Systme International dUnits

Seven Basic SI Units 1. Length 2. Mass 3. Time 4. Electrical current 5. Temperature 6. Luminous intensity 7. Amount of substance metre kilogram second ampere Kelvin candela mole m kg s A K cd mol

These are the only units necessary to describe any quantity.

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Examples of Derived Units

Energy Force Power Charge Potential difference Resistance Capacitance kg m2 s-2 kg m s-2 = J m-1 kg m2 s-3 = J s-1 As kg m2 s-3 A-1 = J A-1 s-1 kg m2 s-3 A-2 = V A-1 A2 s4 kg-1 m-2 = A s V-1 Joule Newton Watt Coulomb Volt Ohm Farad J N W C V F

In general, the derived unit is used for simplicity.

In any physical expression, the units also balance either side of the equation. This is a useful check on the validity of the expression.

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Prefixes and Notation

The following prefixes indicate multiples of a unit.

In physics numbers are usually recorded in standard notation, e.g: me=9.110-31 kg So only the significant figures are quoted, unlike with a fixed decimal point. The number of figures quoted implies a precision in measurement.
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Converting Units
The basic rule for converting units is that in an equality, the units must balance as well as the numbers. So a conversion equation can be rearranged and substituted into the actual equation, e.g: Suppose you want to know how many minutes are in 2.5 hours.
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This is effectively: x min = 2.5 hour so rearranging: x = 2.5(hour/min) You know: 1 hour = 60 min so rearranging: (hour/min) = 60/1 = 60 Substituting this in above: x=2.560=150

So 2.5 hour is 150 minutes.

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Uncertainty in Measurement
A more accurate value for a quantity may be obtained by repeated measurement. The best estimate of the value of the quantity is the arithmetic mean:

1 n = xi n i=1
The spread, , of the values reflects random errors in measurement. The spread will be different if different measurement methods are used.
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A statement of a measured value without an accompanying estimate of the uncertainty is useless.

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The Normal Distribution

The normal, Gaussian or error curve arises in nature from random processes. Spread of values is the standard deviation, . Two thirds of values are within of the mean .
(X )2 exp 22 f (x ) = 2

0.5 0.4

f(x)

0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0 2 4 6 8 10

x
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Standard Deviation
The best measure of the spread is the root mean square deviation, also called the standard deviation: With many measurements of a normal distribution the mean can be found more accurately. The uncertainty in the mean is less than the spread. Standard error in mean is:

1 n 2 ( ) = x n i=1
The standard deviation is a way of determining the spread of values. For a few measurements, this is the best estimate of the uncertainty (error) of the determination of the value.

n 1
Where

n 1

1 n 2 ( ) = x n 1 i=1
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Uncertainties
All measurements must be quoted with an associated uncertainty (error): Combining Uncertainties
Z = A +B Z = A B Z = A B Z = A B Z = An

A A
E.g. the length of the object was:

(Z )2 = (A )2 + (B )2 (Z )2 = (A )2 + (B )2
Z A B = + Z A B
2 2 2 2 2

15.3 0.2 m
The uncertainty tells you how many figures are significant. Do not quote insignificant figures.

Z A B = + Z A B Z A n = Z A

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Sources of Error
Sources of Random Error
Blunders not genuine uncertainty, eliminate by double checking. Human error be careful in set up, avoid parallax. Binning error data are always rounded off depends on the fineness of scale of instrument. Statistical fluctuation when drawing measurements from a large sample, there will be a necessary spread of values.

Systematic Error
Instrumental error calibration is never perfect. Errors caused by the act of measurement taking the data changes the value.
Systematic Error

Random Error

True Value
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Making Measurements
Where possible, make multiple measurements to determine the random error properly. Where this is not possible, then regard you single measurement as one drawn from a Gaussian population. Use commonsense and experience to estimate what the uncertainty would be you are looking to accommodate 2/3 of all measurements within the spread.
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Contributions to random error include, for example

half the last digit on a

display, ~ half the range of fluctuating of a needle, ~ half the variation in the property with time, ~ half the variation in the property with position, Often one source of error will dominate and the others may be neglected. Always carry through error calculation to final result.

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Maintaining a Notebook
The laboratory notebook is the principal tool of a scientist: maintain it to a professionally. It must contain a Do not use pencil except on

contemporaneous record of actions commentary. Use neat ink records only. Permanently attach loose pieces of graph paper, scripts, etc. Cross out mistakes neatly. Perform calculations in the book. Every piece of data that is recorded must have an estimate of uncertainty. The result of every calculation must have an estimate of uncertainty.

graphs and diagrams. Do not tear out pages. Do not use corrective fluid. Do not use loose leaf paper for records aiming to write them up later. Do not simply take the measurements with the aim of analysing later: when you start analysing you often find a data point is wrong, or you need a further piece of information.

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Plotting Graphs
A Cartesian graph comprises two axes (the abscissa and ordinate ), which cross at an origin, upon which data are plotted as coordinates. Data points have error bars. The abscissa usually has the independent variable, the ordinate usually has the dependent variable. It is often useful to construct a plot to give a straight line. A fitted line passes through 2/3 of error bars maximum and minimum gradient lines give estimate of uncertainty.
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70 60 50 ordinate 40 30 20 10 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 abscissa
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Charge
Static electricity can be generated by rubbing a cloth on a plastic rod. What happens is CHARGE is transferred from one to the other. Charge can be negative or positive. Similar charges repel, opposite charges attract. When we say a body is uncharged, we mean it has equal quantities of positive and negative charge.

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Origin of Charge
Atoms in matter comprise three particles: electrons (electrically negative). protons (electrically positive). neutrons (electrically neutral). The protons and neutrons form a positive nucleus that the electrons orbit. The friction in the rubbing causes electrons to be transferred to the plastic, leaving behind a net positive charge - ions.
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Conductors and Insulators

Some materials allow electrical charge to pass through them easily - called CONDUCTORS. Some do not INSULATORS. Conductors such as metals have free electrons that can carry the charge from one place to another. In insulators, the electrons are bound in place. Semiconductors are insulating materials that may be made partially conducting by adding impurities.
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Field and Potential

Q Q

Electric Field, NC -1 or Vm-1 E= Q 4 0r

2

Electrical Potential, V V= Q 4 0r

= F/q

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Electrical Current
Electrical current in Amps is the flow of charge. Conventional d.c. current flows from out the positive terminal of a battery, around a circuit, and into the negative terminal. In metals, the charge carriers are electrons, which move in the opposite direction. Current is measured using an ammeter - a device used is series that does not impede current flow but which has a deflection proportional to current.
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Potential Difference
Potential difference (p.d.) in Volts is the driving force that makes current flow around a circuit. It is the energy delivered to the circuit per unit charge. Often called voltage. The voltage generated by the chemical reactions in a battery is called the electromotive force (e.m.f.). Potential difference is measured using a voltmeter, which goes in parallel with the circuit.
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Electrical Resistance
All conductors offer resistance to the flow of electrical current. R=L/A is the resistivity in m A cross-sectional area, L length The unit of resistance is the Ohm (). An electrical component specifically made to limit current is called a resistor. The current that a potential difference drives through a resistor is given by I=V/R Ohms law.
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Electrical Power
Electrical power is the energy delivered per unit time in a circuit. The power is the voltage times the current. The unit is the Watt, W. 1 W = 1 J/s. Power P=VI Since V=IR then the power is P =I2R =V2/R. In a resistor, the power delivered manifests itself as heating caused by electrons colliding with atoms and giving them energy.
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Properties of Current
Current must flow in a complete circuit - current cannot be lost anywhere. Kirchoffs point rule - the current flowing into any point or component must be equal to the current flowing out of it. Components in series must have the same current flowing through them. For components in parallel, the current is split between them.

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Properties of p.d.
The electric field is conservative so the potential at a given point is independent of the route taken. Kirchoffs loop rule the sum of potential differences around a closed loop must be zero. For a simple circuit, the sum of potential differences is equal and opposite to the e.m.f. of the power supply. If a circuit branches, the p.d. across each branch is the same and is not split.
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Resistors in Series and Parallel

Rtotal 1 R total = R1 + R 2
For two resistors in series, the resistances add. The same is true of three, four, five...resistances

R total

Rtotal 1 1 = + R1 R 2

For two resistors in parallel, the resistances add in reciprocal to give the reciprocal resistance. The same is true of three, four, five...resistances
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Potential Divider
If a voltage supply is connected across two resistors in series, then we have a potential divider. The potential difference across each one is proportional to the resistance.

VR1 V1 = (R1 + R 2 )

VR 2 V2 = (R1 + R 2 )

Any real voltage source has an internal resistance, so whenever it is connected to a real load there is a potential divider effect.
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Cells and Batteries

electrical power. A dry cell is a primary cell the electricity is generated by a chemical reaction and it is not rechargeable. A lead acid accumulator is a secondary cell it store electrical energy generated in another source. As it discharges, Pb ions dissolve into the acid and electrons are left behind. Charging reverses the process. A battery comprises several cells.
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Cells are portable source of

Electromotive Force
A cell provides the energy to create a potential difference to make a current flow round a circuit. It can do this because the chemical action within it creates an electromotive force (e.m.f.). E.m.f. is the energy created per unit charge in the cell, i.e. the units are J/C or, that is the volt. By contrast, a potential difference is the electrical energy delivered per unit charge.
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Internal Resistance
A cell or any power supply has an internal resistance that limits the current that it can deliver. The potential difference appearing on the output of a cell will be reduced by the effect of the internal resistance.

V = E IR i
The term IRi behaves like a lost voltage.

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Cell Characteristics
The internal resistance of a cell is the thing that determines the uses to which it may be put. A power supply or battery must be matched to the application in both e.m.f. (usually actually specified by operating current). When a cell discharges, the parameter that changes is the internal resistance, not the e.m.f. The internal resistance increases with time.
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and internal resistance

Current Measurement
May be measured using a moving coil ammeter or a digital multi-meter, which is put in series with the circuit. The range of a meter may be extended by inserting a

shunt resistance in parallel. If i is the full scale deflection

(f.s.d.) current of the meter, Rm is the meter resistance and I is the desired new f.s.d. current, then:

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Voltage Measurement
A voltmeter is really an ammeter with a series resistance (multiplier resistance). It is used in parallel and draws only a small current from the circuit. The range of the meter may be varied using the series resistance. If v is the f.s.d.voltage across the meter, V is the desired new f.s.d. and Rm is the meter resistance, then:

R = Rm
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(V v )
v

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Potentiometer
A potentiometer is a variable potential divider which may be used to measure an e.m.f. To measure e.m.f., it is necessary to draw no current so that there is no voltage loss in the internal resistance. This can be done using a known driver cell, a potentiometer and a galvanometer. The potentiometer is varied until the galvanometer reads zero (null detection) the e.m.f. of the unknown can then be determined as a fraction of the known e.m.f.
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Wheatstone Bridge
Potentiometer rearranged to compare two resistances. Unknown e.m.f. replaced by a divider that produces a fraction of the known p.d. Wheatstone bridge is a null detection circuit. Reads zero when V2=V4. Therefore R1/R2=R3/R4. R3 is usually unknown resistance, other three are known. Ratio R1/R2 is varied until bridge balances, and galvanometer reads zero. Then R3=R1R4/R2.
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The Capacitor
The capacitor is a useful device for storing electrical energy (storing charge). They comprise two conducting plates in close proximity to each other. When the capacitor is connected to a battery, equal and opposite charge flows onto the plates until the potential difference between them is the same as the battery e..m.f.

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Dielectrics
An insulating material (dielectric) contains atoms with bound electrons. A positive charge attracts these electrons to one side of the atom, a negative charge repels them to the other - creates a dipole. The net effect is to reduce the effective surface charge on the plates, and so the capacitance increases. The electrical permitivity of a vacuum is 0 and the permitivity of a dielectric is r0.
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Charging a Capacitor
Charge through a resistance. The larger the resistance, the longer it takes to charge. As charge flows onto the plates, a potential difference appears between the plates. The value of capacitance is defined as the amount of charge on each plate when it has reached the battery e.m.f. divided by that e.m.f.

C=

Q V

C is measured in Farads.
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Parallel Plate Capacitor

Consider two parallel metal plates of the same area.
Larger area plates means more charge can be stored on each. Closer together plates gives stronger attraction between dissimilar charges, so more charge can be stored. Larger dielectric constant of the material in between the more charge can be stored. It can be shown that:

0 r A C= d
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Energy in a Capacitor
The energy stored in a capacitor can be used to temporarily drive a circuit. As a capacitor is charged using constant current, I =Q/t for time t, the voltage increases from 0 to V. So the average voltage is V. Power is IV, energy is IV x t, so the total energy delivered to the capacitor is:

E = I 12 V t =
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2 QV

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Capacitors in Series
If two capacitors C1 and C2 are connected in series, each capacitor must store the same charge, so:

Q V1 = C1

Q V2 = C2

Also V = V1 + V2 = So

Q Q + C1 C 2

1 V Q Q 1 = = + C Q C1 C 2 Q 1 1 = + C1 C 2
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Capacitors in Parallel
Capacitors in parallel must have the same potential difference across them. Total Charge stored,

Q = Q1 + Q2 = C1 V + C 2 V
Combined capacitance,

C=

Q C1 V + C 2 V = V V = C1 + C 2

Capacitors in parallel add

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Sharing Charge
A capacitor C1 is charged to Vi and then disconnected from the battery. Then it is connected to capacitor C2. The voltage on C1 falls and that on C2 rises as charge flows from one to the other. Charge stops flowing when the voltage on each equalises at Vf. Initial charge equals final charge:

Q = C1 Vi = C1 Vf + C 2 V f
So or

C1 Vi = C1 Vf + C 2 Vf C1 Vi Vf = (C1 + C2 )

When Whentwo twocapacitors capacitors share sharethe thecharge chargethat that was wasinitially initiallyon onone, one,The The resultant resultantvoltage voltageis is

V =C Vi/(C +C2 ) V =C ff 1 1 1V i/(C 1+C 2)

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Capacitor Discharge
Consider a capacitor being discharged through a resistor. The voltage on the capacitor is proportional to the charge stored. As the capacitor discharges the charge stored decreases. The rate of discharge is the current, which is proportional to voltage so the rate of discharge decreases.

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Analysis of Discharge
Charge, Q=CV, so V=Q/C. Discharge current, I=V/R. Eliminating V gives, I=Q/CR, In time t, the charge flow Q=-It, so I =-Q/t =-dQ/dt dQ/dt =-Q/CR. This is clearly exponential behaviour. If Q=Q0 at t=0 then:

Q = Q0 exp( t RC )
The quantity RC has units seconds and is known as the time constant. It is the characteristic time over which the capacitor discharges
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Alternating Current
So far we have considered direct current (DC) where the polarity of the supply and the e.m.f are constant. In alternating current (AC) polarity and e.m.f. are timedependent. The form of an a.c. signal is:

V = V0 sin(2ft )

Vrms =

V0 is the peak voltage 2V0 is the peak-to-peak voltage f is the frequency in Hz (s-1) T=1/f is the time period the 2 converts to radians
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V0 2

Irms =

I0 2

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Capacitors in AC
In the same way that a resistor has resistance, a capacitor has reactance.

Q = CV = CV0 sin(2ft ) dQ d I= = (CV0 sin(2ft )) dt dt = 2fCV0 cos (2ft )

V0 1 Xc = = I0 2fC
The capacitor will pass AC current, and the higher the frequency the less it opposes tha passage of current. However, the current leads the voltage by a quarter cycle (90, /2) because current is needed to charge the capacitor before a voltage appears.
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