Table of content

Argument / 1 1. African slaves in the United States of America / 2 1.1 The early beginning / 2 1.2 Outline of US slavery / 2 2. Two Americas / 4 2.1 alf!slave and half! free /4 2.2 The Underground "ailroad / 4 2.# The $ivil %ar ! &incoln's (manci)ation *roclamation /+ 2.4 ,lac- $odes / + #. The $ivil "ights .ovement/ / #.1 The beginning of a .ovement / / #.2 (0ual education/ / #.# The .ontgomery ,us ,oycott/ 1 #.4 .artin &uther 2ing 3unior / 1 #.+ The Sit!in movement / 4 #./ ,irmingham5 Alabama / 4 #.1 The .arch on %ashington / 6 #.4 $arrying on the 7ream / 6 #.6 The trium)hs of the $ivil "ights .ovement/ 18 $onclusion / 11

,ibliogra)hy / 1#

Anne9es / 14

Argument

: became interested in this to)ic after : had noticed numerous )roblems of the democratic system5 a system that should guarantee the unalienable rights of life5 liberty and the )ursuit of ha))iness. istory shows us that the humanity believed in those )rinci)les and struggled to a))ly them5 even with the )rice of their lives. The United States of America is a mosaic of nations and all these nations are )ursuing to live the so called American 7ream. The same ha))ened with the African!Americans. Since their arrival in USA ;as slaves! until their status of citi<ens with full rights5 the )ath of the =egro has always been a long struggle. :n this )a)er : decided to offer an insight view u)on the struggle of the African Americans over the slavery system that America had to deal with more than 288 years. :n the first cha)ter5 : will )resent the ince)tion of slavery in the United States of America and how slaves were treated. The second cha)ter will contain a brief view u)on the American $ivil %ar and the differences between the =orth and the South. :n the third cha)ter5 : will analy<e the ste)s and the actions of the $ivil "ights .ovement and also the ama<ing victory of ,arac- Obama as the first blac- )resident of the United States of America. A mosaic of ethnicities and all these ethnicities

1 African Slave in the United States of America

1.1 The early beginnings

Slavery is a )ractice in which )eo)le own other )eo)le. A slave is the )ro)erty of his or her owner and wor-s without )ay. The owner5 who is called a master or mistress5 )rovides the slave with food5 shelter5 and clothing. >(tymology? the (nglish word slave derives through Old @rench and .edieval &atin from the medieval word for the Slavic )eo)le of $entral and (astern (uro)eA. The African slaves were brought to America between 1/16 and 1484 >around +88.888 )eo)leA by the (uro)eans. They have enslaved blac-s in the South America >we can see here the develo)ment of sugar )lantation in $uba5 ,ra<il5 3amaica or aitiA but also in the =orth America5 in the founding colonies >see anne9 1A. This common )ractice soon generated the system of slavery. :t is not too much to say that )rofits made from slavery and the slave trade in the years from 1+88 to 1418 greatly contributed to the emergence of %estern (uro)e and the United States as the dominant nations of the world. The vast number of enslaved Africans was brought to the =ew %orld to wor- the sugar5 coffee5 tobacco5 rice5 and cotton )lantations.1

1.2 Outline of US Slavery

7uring the mid!1/88Bs5 the colonies began to )ass laws called slave codes. :n general5 these codes )rohibited slaves from owning wea)ons5 receiving an education5 meeting one another or moving about without the )ermission of their masters5 and testifying against white )eo)le in court. Slaves received harsher )unishments for some crimes than white )eo)le. A master usually received less )unishment for -illing a slave than for -illing a free )erson for the same reason. Slaves on small farms )robably had more freedom than )lantation slaves5 and slaves in urban areas had fewer restrictions in many cases than slaves in rural areas. One of the most curious facts of US slavery is that slaves in the US South re)roduced themselves in numbers e0ual to the white birth rate. Slave mortality rates were so high that the slave )o)ulation re0uired massive im)ortation of slaves in order for the institution to survive. The most im)ortant thing to be said about slavery from the )ers)ective of the enslaved is that millions of African Americans endured slavery by ma-ing a world for themselves in the
1

amby5 A. &5 Outline of U.S. History, (,ureau of :nternational :nformation *rograms5 U.S. 7e)artment of State5 288+A? 118

midst of their bondage. ,y 111/5 a viable African ! American culture had emerged out of slavery5 fashioned and sha)ed by the slaves themselves )artly out of the African )ast but mainly in res)onse to slavery as an institution. At the foundation of this enslaved culture stood the blac- family. ,ecause of the nature of the wor- )erformed in slavery and the scarcity of labour5 slaveholders usually allowed their human chattel to live in family cabins and to observe family connections. Slaveholders did this for sim)le economic reasons and to ma-e it easier to control the slaves. %hatever the reasons5 slaves too- advantage of the o))ortunity to use the family environment as a refuge and as a source of cultural endurance.2 At its heart5 American slavery was a brutal system based u)on )hysical force5 threats5 torture5 se9ual e9)loitation5 and intimidation. Any blac- resisting overtly the orders of a slaveholder5 or almost any white in the community5 could e9)ect immediate and often brutal retaliation. @ew laws )revented slaveholders from doing whatever they wanted with their human )ro)erty. Acce)ted methods of )unishment for slaves included verbal rebu-es5 a few CcutsC with a stic- or riding whi)5 -ic-s to the body5 bo9ing of ears5 confinement in corn cribs or tool sheds5 branding on the flesh of the hand or head with a hot iron a))lied for 28 seconds5 and mutilation of the body by cli))ing the ears5 brea-ing legs5 severing fingers5 and slitting tongues. :n some cases5 slaves were forced to wear iron chains and even iron mas-s on their heads for wee-s and months at a time. ,ut the most common form of slave )unishment was a severe whi))ing. Slave codes usually defined as a moderate whi))ing the laying on of #6 lashes on the bare bac-. :n some cases5 the whi))ings could be 0uite severe in number. @or slaves who lived on large )lantations5 whi))ings and similar )unishments were common5 and few slaves esca)ed at least one severe whi))ing in their life. *erha)s the greatest agony for the enslaved stemmed from the -nowledge that one could be sold from family and friends at any moment. Usually slaves were sold for one of the following reasons? the slave was so troublesome as to undermine the functioning of the )lantationD the estate was bro-en u) at the death of the slaveholderD an economic downturn forced slaveholders to li0uidate their )ro)ertiesD or else slaveholders Eust wanted the slave gone for )ersonal reasons that fre0uently involved the se9ual e9)loitation of enslaved women. Several hundred thousand slaves were thus sold and trans)orted to the lower South in the nineteenth century. Almost all of them were members of families torn a)art by the sale. .ost of them never saw their families ever again.

"onald5 &. @. 7avis. Slavery in America: Historical Overview. $alifornia State University5 =orthridge 16 A)ril 2811 htt)?//www.slaveryinamerica.org/history/hsFesFoverview.htm

2. Two Americas 2.1 Half slave and half ! free"

The differences between =orth and South were obvious in the nineteenth century. The =orthern states )rotected their young industries against the com)etition of foreign manufactured goods5 but in the meanwhile the southerners relied u)on foreign manufactured goods for both necessities and lu9uries of many -ind.# One overriding issue e9acerbated the regional and economic differences between the =orth and the South? slavery. The United States of AmericaG 7eclaration of :nde)endence >111/A includes stirring language on universal brotherhood?H %e hold these Truths to be self!evident5 that all .en are created e0ual5 that they are endowed by their $reator with certain unalienable "ights5 that among these are &ife5 &iberty and *ursuit of im)ortance as a national issue. :n the early years of the "e)ublic5 when the =orthern states were )roviding education of the slaves5 many leaders thought that the )rocess of slavery would die out. :n 114/ Ieorge %ashington said that Jslavery may be abolished by slow5 sure5 and im)erce)tible degreesH. The e9)ectation )roved false5 because the South became solidly united behind the institution of slavery as new economic factors made slavery far more )rofitable than it had been before 1168. a))inessH5 but slavery began to assume a great

2.2 The Underground #ailroad

:n a nation that was half free5 half slave5 one obvious tactic was to s)irit slaves northward to freedom. ,eginning around 1488 an organi<ed system called JThe Underground "ailroadH started to offer runway slaves in the =orth to reach $anada. @ree blac-s came to assume increasingly )rominent roles in the movement. Iuides5 who led the fugitives to freedom5 were called JconductorsHD they were familiar with the local area and would s)irit one or more slaves to a JstationH5 ty)ically the home of sym)athi<ing JstationmasterH5 then to another station5 and so on5 until the slaves reached the free territory. All these were terms that were used on the ordinary railroad. 4 The most famous JconductorH was a young blac- woman named arriet Tubman >see anne9 2A. :n 1446 she esca)ed and Eoined the Underground "ailroad. Although she could not read or write5 she had great abilities as an organi<er. Over the ne9t ten years she made 28
3 4

,ryan O'$allaghan5 An illustrated history of the USA, >&ongman Irou) U2 &imited51668A?4+ .ichael 3ay @riedman5 Free at last- The US ivil !i"hts #ovement, >,ureau of :nternational :nformation *rograms5 U.S. 7e)artment of State52884A? 12

Underground "ailroads missions that rescued about #88 slaves. She was a master of disguise5 and no man in TubmanGs care was ever ca)tured. She was called by the African Americans J.osesH. +

2.$ The %ivil &ar 'incolns (manci)ation *roclamation

The issue of slavery eroded relations between the =orth and the South from the first days of American inde)endence until the election of Abraham &incoln to the )residency in 14/8 >see anne9 #A. *resident &incoln o))osed slavery calling it Kmonstrous inEusticeH5 but the most im)ortant concern was to maintain the Union5 so he was willing to acce)t slavery in those states where it already e9isted while )rohibiting its further e9tension in the westerns territories./ :n 7ecember5 11 southern states seceded from the Union5 forming the $onfederate States of America. On A)ril 12 $onfederate guns o)ened fire in the harbour of $harleston >South $arolinaAD these shots mar-ed the beginning of the American $ivil %ar. ,y the summer of 14/2 *resident &incoln reali<ed that the =orth would only win the war if he could arouse more enthusiasm for its cause. On Se)tember 22 he issued the (manci)ation *roclamation with its aim. This *roclamation declared that from 3anuary 15 14/#5 all slaves in the rebellious states Jthenceforward and forever freeH. The $ivil %ar )ut an end to slavery. :n 14/+ this was abolished everywhere in the United States by the 1#th and the 14th Amendments to the $onstitution and decided that the United States was one nation5 who could not be se)arated. The J"econstruction AmendmentH abolished slavery5 guaranteed e0ual )rotection of the law5 and barred voting discrimination. The (manci)ation 7eclaration and the two Amendments were a historic )olitical ste) but shamefully5 the meaning of the law would be ignored for nearly another century.

2.+ ,lac- %odes

:n the last half of the nineteenth century America was not ready to acce)t blac-s as e0uals5 es)ecially in the Southern sates5 so whites formed a common front against blac-s to remove their )olitical rights.1 As a fact5 a series of laws called ,lac- $odes or J3im $rowH5 )ractically limited the rights of blac-s4. They were e9tended to all forms of )ublic activity ! fre0uently under the force of law5 but also in a matter of custom and tradition. @or e9am)le5 )ublic accommodations were strictly segregatedD blac-s were banned from white hotels5 restaurants and theatres. @urthermore they )rohibited blac- children from attending school with white
5 6

OG$allaghan541 amby5 11# 7 7onal =iemen5 Black Southerners and the $aw: %&'(-%)**, >Iarland *ublishing5 :nc. =L5 1664A ?/1 8 Iary A. *uc-rein5 The ivil !i"hts #ovement and the le"acy of #artin $uther +in" ,r.,> ,ureau of :nternational :nformation *rograms5 U.S. 7e)artment of State5 166#A?#

childrenD they mandated and regulated contracts between whites and free blac-sD they banned interracial marriages between whites and blac-sD they )revented blac-s from voting or from serving in states militias. @or the first time the term of J)erson of colourH a))ears. The legislature decreed that any )erson with one!fourth =egro blood in their veins was a )erson of colour. At the end of the nineteenth century we can see a Jse)arate!but!e0ualH America. The death of the /885888 Americans who fought in The $ivil %ar was in vain. The dream of an e0ual and free land was still far away.

$. The %ivil #ights .ovement $.1The beginning of a .ovement

After decades of silently enduring second!class citi<enshi) and dissatisfied with the absence of racial e0uality5 ,lac-s began to agitate for a new restoration of civil rights. :n the beginning of the twentieth century a))eared an organi<ation called =ational Association for the Advancement of $olored *eo)le >=AA$*A which declared itself for e0ual educational o))ortunities and com)lete enfranchisement of blac- Americans. The leader of the grou) named %illiam (dward ,urghardt 7u ,ois aside with many others blac- intellectuals fought for establishing e0uality for blac-s in voting5 civil rights5 housing and education and they cam)aigned against )ublic and )rivate discrimination. 7uring %orld %ar ::5 white Americans became aware of the contradiction in fighting against the =a<i ideology while )ermitting racial discrimination at home. :n this conte9t of international instability5 the =AA$* )iled u) victory after victory in the American courts. :t successfully attac-ed racially restrictive covenants in housing5 segregation in interstate trans)ortation and discrimination in )ublic. ,lac- )eo)le wanted America to live u) to the ideals for each they had fought and died. 6

$.2 (/ual education

The Kse)arate but e0ualH doctrine stood almost unchallenged for nearly fifty years in the matter of segregation in )ublic facilities across the country5 including schools5 until a series of decisions 0uestioning the constitutionality of segregation in institutions of higher learning. :n 16+15 the seven years old &inda ,rown >see anne9 4A was obliged to attend a blacschool 21 bloc-s from her house5 although there was a white school only seven bloc-s away5 the reason was sim)le ! she was a blac- )erson.
9

er father5 hel)ed by the =AA$*5 hired

7

*uc-rein5 #

lawyers and intended a case >called -rown v. the -oard of .ducationA in which they fought for African American children all around the United States to be able to go to the same schools as white children. After three long years the case finally ended5 with the United States Su)reme $ourt finding in favour of &inda ,rown and the other African American children li-e her >see anne9 +A. (ven so5 resistance continued in some states. :n 16+15 when blac- students were turned away from $entral igh School in &ittle "oc-5 Ar-ansas5 *resident 7wight 7. (isenhower ordered federal troo)s into &ittle "oc- to enforce the court order. As a result blac- children went to school under the watchful eyes of the troo)s >see anne9 /A. ,rown5 &ittle "oc-5 and the =AA$* team's other legal trium)hs illustrated both the strength and the limits of the JlegalH civil rights movement.18

$.$The .ontgomery ,us ,oycott

On 7ecember 1 16++5 "osa *ar-s >see anne9 1A finished her wor- as a seamstress and waited for a city bus in .ontgomery5 Alabama5 to ta-e her home. On her way bac- home5 she sat in the first row of the Jcolored sectionH of seats between the JwhiteH and Jblac-H rows. %hen the white seats filled5 the driver ordered *ar-s to give u) her seat when another white )erson boarded the bus. *ar-s refused. She was arrested5 Eailed5 and ultimately fined. This was the start of the modern!civil rights movement. ,lac-s5 under the leadershi) of local minister named .artin &uther 2ing 3r. organi<ed a boycott of the .ontgomery bus com)any. Under 2ing's leadershi)5 boycotters organi<ed car)ools5 while blac- ta9i drivers charged boycotters the same fare ! 18 cents ! they would have )aid on the bus. ,y auto5 by horse and even sim)ly by wal-ing5 direct5 non!violent )olitical action forced the city to )ay a heavy economic )rice for its segregationist ways. 11 :t also made a national figure of 2ing5 whose )owerful )resence and oratorical s-ills drew )ublicity for the movement. Time maga<ine later concluded had Jrisen from nowhere to become one of the nation's remar-able leaders of men.H On 3une +5 16+/5 a federal district court ruled that the bus segregation )olicy violated the @ourteenth Amendment5 which forbids the state from denying e0ual rights to any citi<en. Thus fortified5 the $ivil "ights .ovement moved on to new battles.

$.+ .artin 'uther 0ing 1unior

2ing was born on 3anuary 1+5 16265 the second of three children >see anne9 4A. is father was a ,a)tist minister.
10 11

e attended )ublic elementary and high schools as well as the )rivate

@riedman5 26 *uc-rein5 +

&aboratory

igh School of Atlanta University.

e entered .orehouse $ollege at 1+ in

Se)tember 1644 as a s)ecial student. 2ing was awarded a doctorate by ,oston University in 16++. %hile attending this university5 he met $oretta Scott whom he married in 3une 16+#. (arly in 16+45 2ing acce)ted his first )astorate at the 7e9ter Avenue ,a)tist $hurch in .ontgomery. 2ing5 urged by )rominent blac- ,a)tist ministers in the South to assume a larger role in the struggle for blac- civil rights5 acce)ted the )residency of the newly formed Southern $hristian &eadershi) $onference >S$&$A. This new civil rights organi<ation was devoted to a more aggressive a))roach than that of the legally oriented =AA$*. The S$&$ launched J$rusade for $iti<enshi)5H a voter registration effort. 12

$.2The Sit in movement

:n Ireensboro5 on @ebruary 15 16/85 four students? (<ell ,lair 3r.5 @ran-lin (ugene .c$ain5 3ose)h Alfred .c=eil and 7avid &einail from =orth $arolina Agricultural and Technical $ollege5 too- whites!only seats at a local %oolworth de)artment store lunch counter. They were denied service5 but sat 0uietly until the store closed. The ne9t morning 28 =egro students too- lunch!counter seats in grou)s of three or four. This was the beginning of the sit!in movement. 1# :n the s)ring and summer of 16/85 young )eo)le5 white and blac-5 )artici)ated in similar forms of )eaceful )rotest against segregation and discrimination. Segregated libraries5 beaches and hotels became the targets of the demonstrators. As a direct result of the sit!ins5 lunch counters across the South began to serve blac-s5 and other )ublic facilities were desegregated.

$.3 ,irmingham4 Alabama

2ing5 in his civil rights struggle5 has regarded non!violence as a convenient tactic for his demonstrations. The most critical demonstration began in ,irmingham5 on A)ril #5 16/# under the leadershi) of 7r 2ing and the S$&$. They demanded desegregation of )ublic facilities and fair em)loyment o))ortunities. The demonstrations had a large number of )artici)ants5 including schoolchildren5 but also a large number of arrests. 2ing himself was arrested and5 while im)risoned5 he wrote his celebrated J&etter from a ,irmingham 3ailH ;J: have earnestly o))osed violent tension5 but there is a ty)e of constructive5 non!violent tension which is
12

*uc-rein5 + Anthony &ewis5 /ortrait of a 0ecade: The Second American !evolution5 >=ew Lor-? "andom ouse5 16/4A? 4/
13

necessary for growth. MNO The =egro has many )ent!u) resentments and latent frustrations5 and he must release them. So let him marchD let him go on freedom rides! and try to understand why he must do so.H The ,irmingham demonstration was im)ortant because it com)elled the American )eo)le to face the )roblem of discrimination. @or the first time in American history5 the )resident !3ohn @. 2ennedy! a))eared before the nation and declared that race discrimination was a moral issue. A few days later he submitted a new and broadened civil rights )rogram to $ongress. 14

$.5 The .arch on &ashington

The blac- community was eager to )artici)ate in a mass effort to show the world their im)atience. On August 245 16/#5 more than 2+85888 Americans from many religious and ethnic bac-grounds converged on %ashington5 staging the largest demonstration in the history of the nation's ca)ital. The orderly )rocession moved from the %ashington .onument to the &incoln .emorial >see anne9 6A. ere5 2ing gave what was later ac-nowledged to be one of the greatest s)eeches in American history5 entitled ! J: have a dream.H ; JNwhen we allow freedom ring5 when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet5 from every state and every city5 we will be able to s)eed u) that day when all of IodBs children5 blac- men and white men5 3ews and Ientiles5 *rotestants and $atholics5 will be able to Eoin hands and sing in the words of the old =egro s)iritual? @ree at lastP @ree at lastP Than- Iod Almighty5 we are free at lastPH1+ Through the efforts of &yndon b. 3ohnson5 the #/th )resident of US5 the $ivil "ights Act of 16/4 was )assed. The act outlawed discrimination in most of )ublic accommodationD established a federal $ommunity "elations Service and a federal (0ual (m)loyment O))ortunity $ommission. The blac-s were now satisfied that the semblance of e0uality might now be attainable.

$.6 %arrying on the 7ream

:n 16/45 in recognition of his wor- and leadershi)5 2ing was awarded the =obel *eace *ri<e in Oslo5 =orway. Acce)ting the award on behalf of the $ivil "ights .ovement5 7r. 2ing said? JSooner or later5 all )eo)le of the world will have to discover a way to live together in )eace5 and thereby transform this )ending cosmic elegy into a creative )salm of brotherhood.H

14 15

@riedman5 #6 *uc-rein5 11

10

2ing continued wor-ing to integrate housing5 Eobs and schools to ma-e the dream of racial e0uality a reality. :n .arch 16/+5 he led celebrated 41!-ilometer march from Selma5 Alabama5 to .ontgomery! to dramati<e the need for federal voting rights bills. This landmar- legislation5 the Qoting "ights Act5 was )assed by the $ongress in 16/+. Tragically5 on A)ril 45 16/45 he was assassinated by a sni)er as he stood on a balcony in .em)his5 Tennessee. As a result of his efforts5 America has moved boldly toward the vision of society where all )eo)le are e0ual in the in the eyes of the law5 no matter the colour of their s-in.

$.8 The trium)hs of the %ivil #ights .ovement

The trium)hs of the $ivil "ights .ovement were a ste) forward for the American's democracy and society. The e9)erience of African Americans will always last in their souls and memories. The rights to vote e0ui))ed blac- Americans with the tools that immigrant and other grou)s have used to )ursue and achieve! the American 7ream. %ith the vote !and )assage of time! legal and )olitical e0uality for African Americans has )roduced gains in nearly every wal- of life. Over time the African Americans asserted it s)orts5 music5 literature or )olitics. After 4# years since The $ivil "ights .ovement5 ,arac- Obama5 the son of a blac- man from 2enya and white woman from 2ansas5 was elected the 44 th *resident of United States of America >see anne9 18A. On =ovember +5 28845 on the night of his electoral trium)h he declared?H if there is anyone out there who still doubts that America is a )lace where all things are )ossibleD who still wonders if the dream of our founders is alive in our timeD who still 0uestions the )ower of our democracy5 tonight is your answer.H ObamaGs victory is one measure of the nation's )rogress. 1/

16

@riedman5 /1

11

%onclusion
:t has been a long and a difficult struggle to reali<e the ideals of e0uality5 liberty5 and democracy. The struggle of African Americans in the United States has been nothing more than a fight for inclusion into the )olitical )rocess5 which they were e9cluded from on the grounds of economic basis ! white Americans e9)loited slave labor for )rofit and they based their economy on the gains made by slavery. African Americans were subEected to slavery because they were a race robust for labor5 ine9haustible and chea) com)ared to the natives. Since then5 the ince)tion of slavery has given a racial twist to what is basically an economic )henomenon. :n the 16/8s Cfreedom nowC was the ringing cry of the $ivil "ights .ovement. The trium)hs of the $ivil "ights .ovement were a ste) forward for the American's democracy and society. :n what concerns the relationshi)s between blac- and white southerners5 these have changed5 emerging into the =ew South mentality. %hite and blac- res)ect each other and wortogether for social )ur)oses5 li-e contributing to the economical develo)ment of the states >still based u)on manufactured )roductsA5 building u) s-y scra)ers5 li-e Atlanta and little "oc-5 Ar-ansas. Above all these as)ects5 the greatest change in American society concerning the condition of African Americans and other minorities5 too- )lace in the attitudes of America's white citi<ens. .ore than a generation has come of age since 2ingBs C: acce)tance of blac-s by whites in all wal-s of life and social situations. Today5 African Americans constitute about 1#.+ )ercent of the total U.S. )o)ulation. :n recent decades blac-s have made great strides5 and the blac- middle class has grown substantially. :n 28825 +854 )ercent of em)loyed blac-s held Cwhite!collarC Eobs ! managerial5 )rofessional5 and administrative )ositions rather than service Eobs or those re0uiring manual labor. =evertheless in the current )eriod of high!advanced technology5 African Americans are either dis)ro)ortionately dis)laced from the labor force5 or are generally found in most im)overished )art of labor. $lass e9)loitation and racial o))ression of the African American )eo)le continue to e9ist because they are integrated into the economic and )olitical structure of the United States ca)italism at the lowest level of each class. ave a 7reamC s)eech. Lounger Americans in )articular e9hibit a new res)ect for all races5 and there is an increasing

12

Today5 African Americans constitute about 1#.+ )ercent of the total U.S. )o)ulation. :n recent decades blac-s have made great strides5 and the blac- middle class has grown substantially. :n 28825 +854 )ercent of em)loyed blac-s held Cwhite!collarC Eobs ! managerial5 )rofessional5 and administrative )ositions rather than service Eobs or those re0uiring manual labor. =evertheless in the current )eriod of high!advanced technology5 African Americans are either dis)ro)ortionately dis)laced from the labor force5 or are generally found in most im)overished )art of labor. $lass e9)loitation and racial o))ression of the African American )eo)le continue to e9ist because they are integrated into the economic and )olitical structure of the United States ca)italism at the lowest level of each class. :n 288#5 +4.# )ercent of all blac- high school graduates enrolled in college within one year >com)ared to #+.4. R in 1642A. @or whites5 the college )artici)ation rate in 288# was //.1 )ercent. Thus5 the racial ga) was less than 4 )ercentage )oints. The average income of blac-s is still lower than that of whites5 however5 and unem)loyment of blac-s ! )articularly of young men ! remains higher than that of whites. And many blac- Americans are still tra))ed by )overty in urban neighborhoods )lagued by drug use and crime. The African Americans sought to forge themselves as )eo)le in the )rocess of the e9)ansion of democracy for all Americans5 the conce)t of freedom has been central to their struggle. Obama's victory as )resident in 2884 is one measure of the nation's )rocess. Another measure5 surely the most im)ortant of all5 is the emergence5 not least among the younger Americans who will build the nations future5 of a broad and dee) consensus that the shameful histories of slavery5 segregation and disadvantage must be relegated to the )ast.

13

,ibliogra)hy
7avis5 "onal &. @. Slavery in America, Historical Overview. $alifornia State University5 =orthridge 16 A)ril 2811? httt)?//www.slaveryinamerica.org/history/hsFesFoverview.htmD @riedman5 .ichael 3ay. Free at last - The US ivil !i"hts #ovement. ,ureau of :nternational :nformation *rograms5 U.S. 7e)artment of State5 2884D amby5 A. &. Outline of U.S. History. ,ureau of :nternational :nformation *rograms5 U.S. 7e)artment of State. %ashington5 7.$.5 288+D &ewis5 Anthony. /ortrait of a 0ecade: The Second American !evolution . =ew Lor-? "andom ouse5 16/4D =ieman5 7onald I. -lac1 Southerners and the $aw: %&'(-%)**. Iarland *ublishing5 :nc. =L5 1664D O'$allaghan5 ,ryan. An 2llustrated History of the USA. &ongman Irou) U2 &imited5 1668D *uc-rein5 Iary A. The ivil !i"hts #ovement and the le"acy of #artin $uther +in" ,r. ,ureau of :nternational :nformation *rograms5 U.S. 7e)artment of State5 166#D

14

Anne9es
Anne9 1?
African slave! trade ma)

Anne9 2?
arriet Tubman

15

Anne9 #
Abraham &incoln ;*resident of United States of America

Anne9 4
&inda ,rown ; the case -rown v. the -oard of .ducation

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Article of the To)e-a State 3ournal >.ay 215 16+4A

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$entral igh School in &ittle "oc-5 Ar-ansas

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"osa *ar-s! the .ontgomery bus boycott

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.artin &uther 2ing 3r.

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%ashington5 7.$.5 August 245 16/#

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,arac- Obama! the first African America *resident of USA

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