UNIT 4 COORDINATE GEOMETRY

Structure
4.1 Introduction 59
Objectlves
4.2 Two-dimensional Coordinate System 59
4.3 Area of a Triangle 63
4.4 The Straight Line in Two-dimensional Space 64
Polnt of Intersection of Two Lines
Angle between Two Llnes
Distance of a Point from a Llne
4.5 The Circle 69
P
4.6 Three-dimensionalCoordinate System 70
4.7 The Straight Line in ~hree-dimensionalSpace 72
Direction Cosines a1.d Direction Ratios
Equation of a Lme Passing through Two Given Points
Angle between Two Lines
4.8 The Plane 78
4.9 The Sphere 81
4.10 Summary X1
4.1 1 Solutions/Answers 82

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The French philosopher-mathematicianRene Descartes (1596-1650) wac the first to realise

that geometrical ideas can be translated into algebraic relations. This enabled him to write
his book La Geometrie (in 1637) in which geometry was studied systematically by using
algebra. The combination of algebra and plane geometry came to be known as Coordinate
Geometry. The name coordinate geometry, or analytic geometry, was given because of the
fact that numbers (called coordinates) which are associated with points of some "plane" or
"space" are employed in this study. A basic necessity for the study of coordinate geometry Rene Descartes (1 596-1650)
is, thus, the introduction of a coordinate system and to define 'coordinates' in the
concerned space.
In this unit we have introduced coordinate systems in both two and three-dimensions. Area
of a triangle in terms of the coordinates of three points in two-dimensional space has been
obtained. Also, the formulas for the equation of a straight line passing through two points
both in two and three dimension, the equations of a circle, plane and a sphere have been
derived in this unit.

Objectives
After reading this unit, you should be able to
locate the position of a point in a plane or-in a space;
determine the distance between two points;
Yb
divide a line in any given ratio;
calculate the area of a triangle and a quadrilateral;
find the equation of a straight line, a circle and a sphere.

4.2 TWO DIMENSIONAL COORDINATE SYSTEM

In Unit 2 (Sec. 2.2) we have already familiarised you with the two-dimensional coordinate
system. You know that if 0be any point in a plane then the two lines X'OX and Y'OY at
right angle to each oatherare used as the base lines to locate the position of any point P in the YV
plane (Fig. 1).
Fig. I : Two-(limensional rectangular
If from the point P perpendiculars PM and PN are drawn on the lines X'OX and Y'OY coordinate system
respectively and M represents the number x on X'OX and N represents the number y on
Y'OY then the coordinates of P are given by the ordered pair (x, y), usually written as
 Algebra and Ccometry P(x, y). The numbers x and y are called respectively the abscissa and the ordinate of P.'The
point 0 the origin and the lines X'OX and Y'OY are the x-axis and y-axis respectively.
You already know (ref. Unit 2) that by looking at the signs of abscissa and ordinate of a
given point one can immediately specify the quadrant in which the point lies.
For example, if a point Q has coordinates (3, A),it will be located in the fourth quadrant at
a distance of 3 units from OY and 4~unitsfrom OX (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 2: Quadrants in the plane

Note: The origin has coordinates (0,O) whereas the coordinates of any point on the x-axis

Let us consider a few examples.

Example 1: State the quadrant in which the following points are situated:
(i) (4, 3) (ii) (-5, 2) (iii) (-3, -2) (iv) (2, 0).
Solution: Point (4,3) is situated in the first quadrant since both the numbers are positive.
Point (-5.2) is situated in the second auadrant since its absci93a is negative and ordinate is

Point (-3, -2) is situated in the third quadrant since its abscissa as well as its ordinate are
negative.
Point (2,O) is situated on the x-axis since its ordinate is zero.
Example 2: What will be the coordinates of a point which lies in the fourth quadrant and its
distances from the x-axis and y-axis are respectively 4 and 5?
Solution: Since the point lies in the fourth quadrant, its abscissa will be positive and
ordinate will be negative. The abscissa of the point = its distance from y-axis = 5. The
ordinate of the point = - (its distance from x-axis) = -4.
1 Thus, the coordinates of the point are (5, -4).
You may now try the following exercises:

E l ) State in which quadrant the following points are situated:

(b) (1 + a . 1 - f i ) ;( c ) (COS30, sin 30)
.(a) (6,7);
E2) Plot the following points:
3 -5
(a) (-2,-4) ( b ) (-4, + 4 ) ( c ) (59T)
Now for a given ordered pair (x, y) you know its position in a plane. Let us go further to
calculate the distance between two such points.
 Distance Between TWOPoints Coordinate Geometry

Let OX and OY be coordinate axes and P(x,, y ,) and Q(x2, y2)be any two points-
The drstance of any point P(x. Y)
It will be shown that if d denotes the distance between P and Q then, from the ongin 1s

d =c .
+ (y2-1
~1)2 )2 . . . . (1)

4
Y

0 L M
*
X

Fig. 3 :Distance between two points

Draw PL and QM perpendicular to OX a n w N perpendicular to QM.

Then OL = x,, LP = y,; OM = x, and MQ = y,. Pythagoras theorem:
The square of the hypotenuse of a
Therefore,PN=LM=OM-OL=x,-x,andNQ=MQ-MN=MQ-LP=y,-y,. right-angled aiangle 1s equal to the
sum of the squares of the other two
Now if we apply the Pythagoras theorem to the right-angled triangle PNQ, we get s~des.

+
, PQ2 = PN2 NQ2 = (x2 - x,)' + (y2- y,)'
I
I d = PQ =d (x, - x,), + (y, - Y , ) ~ .
= d(difference of the x coordinate^)^' + (difference of y coordinates)'
1 Example 3: Find the distance between the points (1.3) and (-3.6).
Solution :Using the above formula, the distance between the points ( l , 3 ) and (-3,6) is
d = J(-3-1)2+(6-3)2= 4-=5
Example 4: Prove that the points A (3,4), B (-l,7) and C(-3, -4) are the vertices of a
right-angled triangle.
Solution: Using the distance formula we have
ABZ=(-1 -3)'+(7-4)'= 1 6 + 9 =25
ACZ= (-3 -3)' + (-4 -4)' = 36 + 64 = 100
B c 2 = (-3 + I)'+ (-4-7)'=4+ 121 = 125
Since. ABZ+ ACZ= BCZit follows that the triangle ABC is right-angled.
You can try the following exercises now.

E3) Find the distance between the pair of points

(a) (-3, -4), (5, -10); (b) (a + b, c - d), (a - b, c + d);
(c) (COS8 , sin 8 ), (sin 8 ,cos 8 ); (d) (a, b), (0.0).
E4) Prove that triangle with vertices A (3.1). B (9.7) and C(-3,7) is right-angled.

Let us now find the coordinates of a point which divides a line segment PQ in a given ratio.
Let the coordinates of P and Q be (x,, y,) and (x,, y,), respectively. Let R be the point which
divides PQ in the ratio m:n. Let the coordinates of R be i) . (x,
Algebra and CcomtrY As shown in Fig. 4(a), draw PM, QN and RL perpendicular to OX and PS perpendicular to
PR m
QN cutting RL at T. Since R divides PQ in the ratio m:n, we have -= -
RQ n

Fig. 4: Division of a line segment

PR. = -
As RT ( 1 QS, therefore - RQ or - m
PR =.-PT = -
PT TS RQ TS n
ButPT=ML=TE-x,andTS=LN=ON-OL=x2-x.
-

Therefore, - PT = -E-x, - m
--
TS x2 -TE n
or, n (X' - x,) = m (x, - X) or, n 51 - nx, = mx, - mZ or (n + m)Z = mx, + nx,.

rn
If one puts p= k the coordinates of R can be written as
-X ' kX2 + X I -
y=
ky2 + y l . . . . (2)
k+l k+l
If R is the middle point of PQ then m = n or, k = 1. So the coordinates of the middle point
are given by
;=u, X +X
y=- Y1 + Y 2
2 2 .
. . . (3)
PR r
I f R ( T , y ) isapointonPQlyingbeyondQ (Fig. 4 b ) and - = -, then
QR s
we may obtain the values of z and fin an analogous manner. Clearly from Fig. 4(b)

PQ+QR =-, . PQ
r 1.e.-+I=- r or-=--
P Q r I=- r - s
QR s QR s QR s s
Hence, r -
s
---
s = PQ = PD =.-x2
QR DE 2 - x 2
- XI ,so that

( r - S) (ji - x 2 ) = s(x2 - x , ) ,
-
i.e.,x(r-s)-x2 r-B=s(x2-xI)
Let us now do a few examples. Coordinate CcorndrY
Example 5: Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line joining (1,2) and (4,3)
in the ratio 3:2
Solution: Taking x, = 1, x, = 4, y, = 2. y, = 3, m = 3 and n = 2.
we get, on using the formula (2) the coordmate of the required point as

Example 6: Find the ratio in which the point (-2,2) divides the line joining ( 4 6 ) and
( I n , -3). m
solution: In this problem X and 7 are given. we have to find m and n. n
-
= k . 'hen

from ( 2 )
- kx, + x, - - 1 / 2k - 4 ,-y = ky2 + y, - -3k + 6
X =
k+l k+l k +1 k+l
But 51 =-2 and y = 2, Therefore, L2 = 1 / 2 k - 4 and2=- -3k + 6
k+l k +1
From the first equation we get

-2(k+l)= 1 / 2 k - 4 o r , 4 k - 4 = k - S o r , k = -4
5
m = -.
Thus, - 4 From the other equation that is,
n 5
2 =--3k +d we get the same value of k (Verify).
k +I'
You may now try the following exercises.

E7) If one end of a line segment is the point (-4,2) and the midpoint is (3, -I), find the
coordinates of the other end of the line.
E8) Find the coordinates of the three points that divide the line from (-5,3) to (6, 8) into
four equal parts.

Once a coordinate system is established and the formula giving the distance between two
points in a plane is obtained, it is very easy to find the area of a triangle in terms of the
coordinates of its vertices.

4.3 AREA OF A TRIANGLE

Consider three points A(x,, yl), B (x,, y,) and C (xjr y3) (see Fig 5(a)). Draw, AL,BM and
CN perpendicular to OX.
Recall that the area of a trapezium =
112 x height x (sum of the parallel sides). In Fig. 5(a),
Area of AABC = Area of trapezium ALNC + Area of trapezium CNMB-

= ~ ~ [ ( x , - x , ) ( +Y,)+
Y, (x,-x,) (Y,+Y,),-(x,-x,)(y, +Y,)l
= 112 rx, (Y, - Y,) + x, (Y, - Y,) + j(Y, - y,)l

CNMB)
1
= - - [(x,(y2- Y,)+ xz(Y,- Y,) + X J Y , - Y?)1
2
Since area is always positive, we take the absolute value as the area (without the negative
sign).
Example 7: Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are A(4.2), B(1, 1) and C(2,5).
Solution: Here, (x,, y , ) = (4,2); (xz,yz) = (1, 1); (x,, y,) = (2,5).
Using formula (4) we get,
Areaof AABC = 112 [4(1 -5) + l(5 -2) + 2(2- I)] Fig. 5: Arcs of. Triongle
= 1/2(-16+3 t 2 ) = - 1113
Algebra md cimmtrp Since the area cannot be negative, the required area = 11/2 units.
Example 8: show that the points (l,4), (2,3), (0,5) are collinear.
Solution: The area of the triangle formed by the points, taking,
~ f t h earecrofaA,4BCtumsoutto (x,, Y,)= (1.4); (3' YJ = (2.3); (x37Y,) = (0.5)
be zerothen the points A, B.C are equals 1/2 [ 1 (3 - 5) + 3 5 - 4) + 0(4 - 3)] = 0
dbearl that is A* Bv lic a Since the area turns out to be zero, the given points must be collinear.
straight line.
Now it is easy for you to do these exercises.
- -- - - - -
E9) Find the area of the quadrilateral ABCD, the coordinates of whose angular points,
taken in order are A(-2, -3), B(6, -3, C(18.9) and D(0, 12).
E10) Rove that the points (a, 0). (0, b) and (k, k) are collinear if
1+1=- 1
a b k

Let us now obtain the equation of a line determined by a given set of conditions.

4.4 THE STRAIGHT LINE IN TWO-DIMENSIONAL

SPACE
Consider the equation y = 2x + 1. You know from Unit 2 (Sec. 2.2) that in order to plot such
an equation, we prepare a table of values of x and y.
Let us take x = -3, -2, -1,0, 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 and form the following table with the corresponding
values of y.

If you plot these values of (x, y) on a graph paper by considering say, ten small divisions as

/ one unit, then it can be seen easily that all these points lie on a straight line. (Verify)

i
D (x3 . ~ 3 ) In general, consider the graph of an equation of the form
y=mx+c . . . . . (5)
Q (x~:Yz) and let P(x,, y,), Q(x2, y,), R(x,, y,) be three points on the graph. Then we have y, = mx, + c,
y2 = mx2 + c and y, = mx, + c.
The area of the triangle formed by P, Q and R is
-c(57) I
'[x1(x2 - x3)m+ x2(x3- x l ) m + x3(xl - x 2 ) . m ] = 0
/ p (~1.~1)
2
and so P,Q and R lie on a line and this line may be denoted by PQ. Since two points are
enough to draw a line, one may view R to be lying on this line PQ. Since R is an arbitrary
Fikqa): The Str.ightLine in point it follows that any other point on the graph indeed lies on the line PQ. We shall now
Plane show that every point on PQ is also a point of the graph.
Suppose C(x, 7 ) is a point in PQ and let

then 51 =
. PD r
On the other hand, if D(x,, y,) is a point on PQ beyond Q as shown in Fig. 6(a), and - =-
QD s
rx2 - sx1 ry2 -SY1
A Q($,Y~) then x3 = r -'S and y, = r - S
From y, = mx, + c and y, = mx, + c, we get on multiplying by v and u respectively and

dl
P(X,~Y,) 6
,' X2 - X I R
..dFI"
YzdY1
adding (uy, + vy,) = m(ux, + vx,) + c(u + v),so that
U Y 2 + VYl
u+v
=, ux2 + V X l + c i.e.7 = m51 + c.
u +v
Therefore C(T, 7) indeed lies on the graph. Similarly, we can show y, = mx, + c i.e., D(x,,
0 X*
y,) also lies on the graph. Thus every point on the graph lies on the line PQ and also every
point on the line PQ is indeed a point omthe graph. Therefore, the graph y = mx + c must be
Fi& qb): a Line the line PQ i.e., a straight line. The number m in the equation (5) is called the slope or
 Subtracting the equation y, .: :, + C: from the equation y, = mx, + c we @t,
y2 -
y2 - y1 = m(x2 - x , ) , or m = -
x2 - XI
, since x2 + x, .. .. ..(6) I

As shown in Fig. 6(b), if 8 is the angle which the line makes with the x-axis, then
tan%=--Y2 - Y1 -, Nate~x,#~,ifx,nx,~,.thmm
is not defined. In case x, = x,then
x2 - x1 the line is p d k l to y-uis.
Thus, the slope of the line is equal to the tangent of the angk that it makes with the
positive direction of the x-axis. In casea line is p d e l to the x-axis, its equation will be of
the form y = d, a constant. If a line is parallel to the y-axis, its equation will be of the form x
y = mx is the equation of the line
= d, a constant. In particular y = 0and x = 0 are the equations of the x-axis and the y-axis which passes through the origin
respectively. For example, the slope of the line y = 2x + 3 is 2 and that of iy + 3x = 5 is -3/2 and whose slope IS m.
since the equation can be written as 2y = -3x + 5 or y = -3/2 x + 512.
Example 9: Find the slope of the line passing through the kink (2, -1) and (1.2).
Solution: fiere x, = 2, y, = -1; x, = 1, y, = 2, using (6) we get the slope as
2 - (-1)
m=-=-3.
1-2
Since m = tan 8, therefore, negative sign indicates that the line.makes an obtuse angle wi&
the positive x-axis (see Fig. 7).
Example 10: Find the equation of the line passing through the points (2, -1) and (1.2).
Solution: Assume that the equation of the line is y = mx + c.
Since it passes through (2, -1) and (1,2), -1 = 2m + c and 2 = m + c. Subtracting second
equation from the first we get m = -3. Putting this value of m in the first equation we get
c = 5. Thus, the equation of the line is
y=-3x+5.
How about trying an exercise now?

El 1) a) Find the equation of the line whose slope is -1 which passes through (-3,4).
I
!
I
b) Find the equation of a line passing through the points (2,'3) and (5.9).

Note: Frequently the equation of a line will be given in the form

v I
I

I px+qy=r . . . . (7)
1I If q # 0, we can divide by q to get
1
p/q x + y = r/q or y =-(p/q) x + (r/q) which is of the form (5).
The slope of the line is m = -p/q.

I
4.4.1 Point of Intersection of Two Lines
Consider two arbitrary lines
y = m,x + c,, . . . . (8)
and y = m,x + c, . . . . (9)
If the lines are not parallel then they must intersect. Let (a, b) be the point of intersection.
Then point (a, b) must be on both the lines. Therefore,
1% b = m,a + c,,
b = m,a + c,.
Subtractingthe second equation from fhe first, we get,
O=(m,-m,)a+c,-c,
I or, (m, - m2)a = c,-c,.
.

I
~

If m, # m , we can divide by (m, - m,) to get a = C2 - . With this value of a,

ml - m9

Thus the lines given by equations (8) and (9) intersect at

Algebra and w e If m, = q , the lines d0 not intersect; that is, they are parallel.
We shall now be considering the two non-perpendicular lines, neither of which is parallel to
the y-axis and derive a formula for the angle between them.

4.4.2 Angle between Two Lines

Consider the lines y = m,x + c and y = q x + c (Fig. 8) as given by equations (8) and (9)
respectively.

Fig. 8: Angle between two lines

Let 0 be the angle between the lines. It is clearfrom Fig. 8, that, a = 0 + P or 0 = a - P.
Since a is an exterior angle of a triangle with 0 and P, the opposite interior angles.
Therefore,
tane=tan(a-p)
- tana-tanp
1 + tana tanp
But m, and q are the slopes of the two lines so that, tan a = m, and tan P = m,.
Thus,

is the tangent of the angle between given lines. If the lines are at right angles to each other
than 0 = x/2 and tan0 is undefined. Therefore, we must have 1 + m,m, = 0 or
m,m, = -1 . . . . (11)
Thus, if two lines a r e perpendicular to each other then the product of their slopes = -1.
For example, the lines 3x + 4y = 1 and 4x - 3y + 7 = 0 are at rightangle to each other, since
m, = -314; m, = 413 and m,m, = -1. Similarly, the lines 2x - 5y = 6 and 2x - 5y = 8 are
parallel. The; both have the same slope 215.
Remark: If two lines are parallel, their slopes are the same. Therefore, their equations differ
only in their constant terms; that is, if y = mx + c is any line, then any other line parallel to it
will have equation of the formy = mx + c,.
Let us now do a few example.
Example 11: Find the equation of the line which passes through (1,O) and is parallel to
3x+5y=4.
Solution: Any line parallel to the given line will be of the form 3x + 5y = c, where c is some
constant. Since it passes through (1,0), we have 3 + 0 = c or c = 3.
Thus, the equation of the required line is 3x + 5y = 3.
Example 12: Find the equation of the line which passes through (2, 1) and is at right angles
to the line
 Solution: The slope of the given line (12) is m, = 314. Let m, be the slope of the required
line. Then, m,m, = -1 or 314 m, = -1 or m, = 413.
Therefore, the equation of the required line will be of the form

Since the point (2, 1) lies on this line given by equation (13) we have 3 + 8 = k or k = 11.
Hence, the required equation of the line is 3x + 4y = 11.
Note that the equation (13) can be obtained from equafion (12) if we replace x by y, y by -x
and 5 by a constant. Thus, from Examples 11 and 12 we can straight away say that a line at
right angles to ax + by + c = 0 will be ay - bx + k = 0 and a line parallel to ax + by + c = 0
willbeax+by+k=O.
Example 13: Find the points where the line 2x + 3y = 6 cuts the coordinate axes.
Solution : Let the line cut the x-axis at A. Since the equation of the x-axis is y = 0 therefore.
i A is the point of intersection of 2x +3y = 6 and y = 0, which gives x =3,. y = 0. Thus, A is
B

the point (3.0). h e equation of the y-axis is x = 0. Let B be the point where the line cuts the
y-axis. To get the coordinates of B we solve, 2x + 3y = 6 and x = 0, which gives x = 0, y = 2.
Thus, B is the point (0.2). b
We now give the following definition.
Definition: If a line cuts the axes of x and y at A and B respectively, then the x coordinate
of A and the y coordinate of B are referred to as the intercepts on the x-axis and y-axis
respectively.
In order to find the intercept on the x-axis, put y = 0 in the given equation of the line and to
frnd the intercept on the y-axis, put x = 0. Let us now consider the reverse problem, that is,
suppose the intercepts that a line makes on the coordinate axes are given and-wewant to find
the equation of the line, we then proceed as follows: Consider Fig. 9(a).
Let OA = a and OB = b. The point A being on the x-axis its coordinates will be (a, 0). The
point B being on the y-axis, its coordinates will be (0, b). The x-intercept and the
y-intercepts are a and b respectively. Suppose the equation of AB is y = mx + c. Since it
passes through A (a, 0) and B(0, b).

Solving these equations we get,

c = b and m = -c/a = -bla.
Thus, the equation of the line AB is

Note that the intercepts may be positive or negative as can be seen from Fig. 9(a) and Fig.
903). (b)
In Fig. 9(a) the intercept on the x-axis is negative. In Fig. 9(b) the intercept on the y-axis is
negative. Flg.9: Intempta on the wen#.
You may now t~y the following exercises:
- -

E12) Find the angle between the lines 2y + x = 7 and 3y = 2x + 5.

E13) Prove that the lines

E14) Show that the area of the @iangle formed by the lines

E15) Find the equation of the line which passes through (5, -7) and makes equal intercepts
on the axes.

We shall now find the formula for calculating the distance of the point P(x,, y,) from the line

4.4.3 Distance of a Point from a Line

I Algebraand Geometry x+my=k . . . . (15)
Since the line passes through (x,, y,), we have,
X, + my, = k . . . . (16)
Now suppose that Q (xo,yo)is the point of intersection of (14) and (16), then the required
distance is
dZ= (x, - xo)' + (y, - yo)' . . . . (17)
In order to know the value of d exactly, we must eliminate from (17) the two unknowns xo

Since (xo,yo) lies on both the lines (14) and (16), we thus have,
yo-mx0=c . . . . (18)
and myo + xo = k. . . . . (19)
Subtracting (19) from (16) we get,
m (Y,-yo) + (x, - x0) = 0 Or (xl - x,) = -m(yl - Y,)
:. d2 = m2(y, - yo)2+ (y, - yo)'
= (m2+ 1) (Y,-yo)' . . . . (20)
Multiply (19) with m and add to (1 8) to obtain
c+km
(m2 + l)yo = c + km or yo = -
m2 + I

ylm2 + y , - c - ( x l + m y , ) . m

2
- (y1 - mxl - c)
m2+1
Therefore, d =
JY1 - mx, - cJ . . . . (21)
d m
The modulus sign I I in the numerator implies that we take only'the positive value in (21),
since the distance d cannot be negative. Thus the distance of a point (x,, y,) from the line
y = mx + c is given by the formula (2 1).
If the equation of the line is given in the form
ax + by + c = 0,then it can be written as

--
- (ax, +byl-+c( . . . . (22)
,/m
Example 14: Find the length of the perpendicular from P(2, -3) to the line 6x + 8y - 2 = 0.
Solution: Using (22). the length of the perpendicular from P(2. -3) to the line (6x + 8y - 2)
is
(6x 2 + 8 ~ ( - 3 )- 21
d =
,
In

And now some exercises for you.

E16) Find the length of the perpendicular dropped from (-2, 1) on the line joining (1,4J
and (3, -1).
E17) Find the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular from (-2,6) on the line
2x+3y -1=0.
 You are already familiar with circles. hfany objects of everyday use are in the form of
I circles. For example, wheels, coins etc. We now look at the general form of its equation.

4.5 THE CIRCLE -v

Let there be a circle of radius r and centre C. We klect a suitable coodinate axes with 0 as
origin. Let the coordinates of C be (ab) and P (x, y) be any point on the c k l e (see Fig. 10).
So long as P is on the circumference, its distance from the centre C will be equal to the
-
radius r of the circle. In other words CP = r. But CP =J (x a)2+ (y b)2 -
therefore, J(x-a)2 + (y - b12= r
or, (* a)Z+ (y - b)' = 9 .. . . 2 I
The coordinates of any point P on the circle will satisfy this equation and the equation (23)
is called the equation of the circle with centre (a, b) and radius r.
The circle is real if ? > 0. If ? < 0, then no point in the p1,ane satisfiesequation (23) and the
graph of the equation is empty. For instance, there is no point in the plane satisfying the
relatim(x-2)2+(~-4)2=-1.If?=O,thenequation(23)reducesto(x-a)2+(y-b)2~,
and only one point satisfies this equation and $is point is nothing but the centre (a, b) itself.
Such a circle is called a point circle. Thus a poiat arele is the circle whose radius is zero.
I FblO:(x-aY+@-by=r'

Example 15: Find the equation of the circle with centre (-1.4) and radius 2.
Solution: Using formula (23). we get the required equation as
( x + 1)2+(y-4)2=40r,x2+y2+2x-8y + 13=0.
If the centre of the circle with
radius r is at the origin, the equation
Consider the equation of the circle is x1 + y1 = fl.

I that contains all possible terms of second degree namely. Ax2.Bxy and Cy2;all possible
terms of the first degree, namely, Dx and Ey and the terms of zero degree, the constant term
F. It is called a general equation of second degree. It may be observed that equation (23)
I is, in fact, a special case of the general equation of second degree.
Removal of the parentheses in equation (23) gives

2 2 2
or, x + y - 2 a i - 2 b y + ( a 2 + b 2 - r ) = 0 . . . . (25)
Comparing (24) and (25). we find that equation (24) will represent a circle if A = C, B = 0.
Therefore, the general form of the equation of a circle is

This can be written as

Equation (27) is in the form (23). This equation represents a circle with centre (-D/2A,

- E / 2 A ) and radius pi*:; 4Ay

Example 16: Find the equation of the circle navlng (3.8) and (-3,O) as the ends of a
diameter.
Solution: The centre being the mid-point of the diameter, its coordinates will be
a=-=3 - 3 0, b=-=4. 8+0
2 2
The radius of the circle =the distance from the centre to (3,8) or (-3,O)
=J(o- 3)2+(4- 8)2=5
Hence, the equation of the circle is

You may now do this exercise easily. 69

 r
Algebra and GoomtrY
E l 8) Find the equation of each of the circles from the given information. i

a) Centre at (0.0). radius 2.

b) Centre at (-2,5), radius 6
C) Centre at (2, 1). passes through (4, -1)
d) Centre at (-3,5), tangent to the x-axis
e) Centre on the line 5x = 2y, radius 5, tangent to the x-axis.
0 Passing through (O., O), (-2, -I), (0,5).
I

The two-dimensional coordinate systems are required essentially to specify the position of a
point in a plane. However, these are not enough to deal with different real life situations. A
building is a threedimensional structure and when we look at it, we think of all its three
dimensions: length, breadth and height. The three-dimensional space, all around necessitates
a discussion of three-dimensional geometry.
1
4.6 THREE-DIMENSIONAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
In this section we will discuss the three-dimensional space which is only a generalisation of
two-dimensional space, as you shall see. We will also obtain the distance between any two
points in this space.
Take three mutually perpendicular lines X'OX, Y'OY, Z'OZ as the coordinate axes. Any
two intersecting lines in space determine a plane. A plane containing two of the. coordinate
axes is called a coordinate plane. Clearly, there are three such planes-he xy-plane, the yz-
plane and the zx-plane (see Fig. 1l(a)). These three coordinate planes divide the entire space
into eight cells each called an octant.

I Fig. 11: Three-dimensionalcoordinate system

vertex are along the coordinate axes in the positive directions. Find the coordinates of the Coordinate Geometry
other vertices and the centre of the cube.
Solution: Point A is on the x-axis at a distance 5. Therefore, its coordinates are A(S,O, 0).
Similarly, the coordinates of B and C are B (0,5,0) and C(O,O, 5) (see Fig. 12).
Point E lies in the yz-plane, so its x coordinate will be zero. Thus, its coordinates will be E
(0,5,5). Similarly, the coordinates of F will be F(5,0,5). The coordinates of G will be G
(5,5,5) q d the centre of the cube will have coordinates (512,512,512).
Now we shall derive a formula to compute the distance between two points in space.
Distance between Two Points

d = J (x, - x,)" (Y,- Y,Y + (2, - 2 , ~

distance between two points in plane. Let us consider Fig. 13.

Fig. 12: A Cube

zA

I I
I I
I I
I I

I I
4 I

Fig.,lJ: DIstnna betweentwo points In space

Since PQR is a right-angled triangle we have,
d2= PR2+ RQ2
But PR = MN and viewing M and N as two point in the xy-plane whose x and y coordinates
respectively are x,, y, and x,, y,, the distance formula for finding the distance between two
points in a plane yield
MN2= (x,- x,)' + (y, - y,)' = PR2.
As can be seen from Fig. 13, Q and R are on a line parallel to the z-axis, and therefore
QR = z, - z, so that
QR2= (z, - z , ) ~
~ (x, - xl), + (y2- y1)2+ (z,- zJ2 is the required distance.
Hence, d2= PR2t Q R =
Example 18: Find the distance between the points (2.3.5) and (4.3, 1).
Solution : Using formula 28, the distance between (2,3,5) and (4.3, 1) is
d=1/(4-2), + (3 - 3),+ ( I -5), = ,/-6=2J3
Example 19: Show that the points A (0.4, 1). B(2, 3, -1). C (4.5.0) and D (2.6.2) are the
vertices of a square.
Solution: AB2= (2 - 0)2+ (3 - 4)2+ (-1-1), = 9
- -
BC2= (4 2)' + (5 3)2+ (0 + =9
 Algebra snd Geometry CDZ = (2 - 4)' + (6 - 5)'
+ (2 - 0)' = 9
AD2= (2 -0)2 + (6 -4)2 + (2 - 1)2=9
AC2=(4-0)2+(5-4)'+ (0- I)'= 18 = A B 2 + B C .
BD2=(2-2)2+(6-3)'+(2 + I)'= 18 =AB2+AD2
This shows that ABCD is a square.
You may now try some exercises.

E19) Show that the points (0,7, 10). (-l,6,6) and (-4.9.6) form a right angled isosceles
triangle.
E20) Show that the points (4,7,8), (2,3,4),(-1, ~ 21), and ( l , 2 , 5 ) form a parallelogram.

We now come to the derivation of equation of a straight line in three-dimensional space.

4.7 THE STRAIGHT LINE IN THREE-DIMENSIONAL

SPACE
In this section we shall be deriving the equation of a straight line in three-dimensional space
but before that let us talk about direction cosines and direction ratios.

4.7.1 Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios

Consider a line L passing through the origin and in the direction from 0 to P. Let a, P, y be
the angles which the directed line makes with the positive directions of the x, y and z axes
respectively. Then cos a, cos P and cos y are called direction cosines of the line L.
(see Fig. 14(a)).

Fig. 14: Dlrretlon Coalnes and Direction Ratios

We shall now show that the direction c d e s of a line satiofy the nlation
eosz a + & $ + a m a y =l. . ... (29)
Let P (x, y, z) be any point on the line L [Fig. 14(b)]. Then using the distance fonnula
r?=OP2=(x-0)2+(y-0)2+(z-0)2
= x2+ y2+ z2 ... (30)
But from Fig. 14(b)
I OA
cosa=-=- x

I OP r
O B v
Similarly, cos p = -
OP r
-
= A ,and cos y =
OC z
=
OP r
--
Squaring and adding and using (30) it follows that, coordinrte ~colnctrr
cos2a + cos2P+ cos2 v = 1.
The direction cosines cos a , cos P, cos y of a line are usually denoted by 1, m and n The sum of the squares of the
respectively. For example, the direction cosines of the x-axis are 1,0,O, those of the y-axis direction cosines ofa straight line is
are 0, 1 , 0 and those of the z-axis are 0,0, 1. always equal to unity.

Remark 1: To define the direction cosines of a line L not passing through the origin we
consider a line L' parallel to L which passes through the origin and define the direction
cosines of L to be the same as the direction cosines of L'.
Remark 2: Any three numbers a, b, c which are proportional to the direction cosines of a
line are called its direction ratios. If 1, m, n are the direction cosines, then
-l= - =m- = kn
a b c
orl=ak,m=bk,n=ck
From the relation, l2 + m2+ n2 = 1and on substitution of the above values of 1, m and n we All parallel lines have the same
diction cosines
get,

If the given line is undirected it has two sets of direction cosines

'JZTZ* a
JW*
b
* d
c
m . . . . (31)
Let us now consider the following theorem which gives the direction cosines of a line in
terns of the coordinates of two given points on the line.
Theorem 1: If P (x,, y,, 2 , ) and Q (x,, y,, 5)be two points on a line L, then its direction
cosines are given by

where d is the distance between P and Q.

Proof: Let a, O. y be the angles which PQ makes with the positive directions of the axes as

Fig. 15
Let N be the foot of the perpendicular from Q on the xy-plane and let MN be drawn
perpendicular to OX. Then PM = x, x, = projection of PQ on the x-axis and the length
of the projection is same for any line whose length is PQ and which is parallel to PQ
It is clear from the Fig. 15 that,

,,
Remark: Removing the constant factor d, we can take x2- f y2- y,, 2,- z, as the direction
ratios of the line.
ExampleZILtEind the directioncosines o f a e line joining points P(1.4,3) and Q(2.3, -1).
Solution: The direction cosine of the line joining points P and Q are

whered2=(2- 1 ) ~ + ( 3 - 4 ) ~ + ( - 1- 3 ) 2 = 1 + 1 + 1 6 = l g o r d = f J 1 8 .
Thus, the direction cosines of PQ and QP are
I
---
n'a'J18
-I a and - 1 /a./a.in
1 4 respectively.

Example 21: Prove that the points A (3,-1,.4), B(1,6,8) and C(9,-22.4) are collinear.
Solution: 'The direction ratios of AB are 1- 3 , 6 + l,8- 4 or-2,7,4. Therefore, the direction
cosines of AB are
-2 7 4
dm' d m *44+49+16

Similarly, the direction ratios of BC are 9- 1, -22-6, -8-8 or 8, -28, -16. or-2, + 7, + 4 (on
cancelling the common factor -4)
Therefore, the direction cosines of BC are

Since these direction cosines of BC are the same as the direction cosines of AB, it follows
that AB and BC are parallel. But, AB and BC pass through a common point B. Hence,
points A, B, C are collinear.
You may now try the following exercises:

E21) Determine if the following points are collinear

a) A(3, 1-0) B (2,2,2), C(0,4,6)
b) A(4,2,-I), B (2, 1, I), C (O,O, 2).
E22) Determine if the line through PI,P, is parallel to the line through Q,, Q,.
a) P, (2,-1, O), P, (3, 1,2); Q, (2, 1,4) and Q, (4,0,4)
b) P, (0.-4,2), P, (5,-1,O); Q,(3,0,2), Q, (2, 1 , l ) .
E23) A line has direction cosines proportional to 3,2,5. The line passes through (2,5, 1).
Find the coordinates of another point on the line.

4.7.2 Equation of a Line Passing Through Two Given Points

We know that a line is determined by two points. Let P,(x,, y,, 2,) and P,(x,, y,, 2,) be two
points on a line (see Fig. 16). The direction cosines of the line as stated in Theorem 1, are
given by,

Let P be any point on the line such that PP, = r.

Then the direction cosines of the line can also be written as
---
x-XI y - y , 2 - 2 ,
1
. . . . (34)
r r r
The two sets of direction cosines given by (33) and (34) must be-same since they
represent the same line. Therefore
 Coordinate Geometry IllI;*

Fig. 16: Straight line in space

X-X, X2-X1
-=
r d

z-z
1 z2 -zl -
=
r d
or
x - X , = h (x,- x,)

d
where h = -
r
Coordinates of any point on the line will satisfy these relations. Hence both the relations
(35) and (36) can be taken as the equation of the line. Usually the equation of a line is
written in the form given in (36). Relation (36) can be rewritten as,

which gives us the equation of the line passing,throughtwo given points. Alternatively,
,,
replacing x2- x,: y2- y z2- zl in (37) by Id, md, nd and by virtue of the equation (33) the
equation of the llne can also be written in the form

Coordinates of any point on this line are given by

X = X, + Id

Z=Z, +nd . ,.. (39)

By giving different values to d, we get different points on the line.
Note that in (38) direction ratios can be used in place of direction cosines. Also relation (38)
gives the equations of the line if the direction cosines (or ratios) of the line and one point on
the line are given.
Example 22: Obtain the equation of the line passing through (1, -1.3) and (2, 1.5).
Solution: Equation of the line passing through (1, -1.3) and (2, 1,5) is
Algebra and Geometry X-1
-- y+l-- 2-2
2 0 1
Example 24: Find the equation of the line through (3, 1,5) which is parallel to the line
x=4-t.y=2+3t,2=-4+t
Solution: The equation of the given line can be rewritten as

Since parallel line have the same direction cosines, therefore, the line through (3.1.5) and
parallel to (40) will be

We shall now obtain the formula which gives the angle between two intersecting lines.

4.7.3 Angle between Two Lines

The required result giving the angle between two lines is given in the form of the following
theorem.
Theorem 2: If L, and L, are two lines having direction cosines l,, m,, n, and I,, T,
n, then
the angle 8 between them is given by
cos 0 = 1,12 + m,m2+ n,n2. . . . . (41)
Proof: Draw two lines through the origin. OP and OQ parallel to L, and L, respectively, so
that the angle between OP and OQ is the same as the angle between L, and L, (see Fig. 17).
Let the coordinates of P and Q be (x,, y,, z,) and (x,, y,, z,) respectively.

Fig. 17: Angle between two line

t = OQ = 1 unit. Using the result (32) of Theorem 1, we have

~ eOP
x 1 - 0 - 1 1Y1-0
, - = m l , L -z - 0
1 1 1 - "1
and
x - 0 I,.-= ' 2 - O
L= = zn - 0 2 .
1 1 1
or.
x1 = I,, y1 = ml, Z, = n, and
x2= 1,. y2= m2,5 = f4.
In A OPQ. using the cosine rule we get.
Cosine rule says that in AABC with
I ABC.~AB~=AC~+BF
2AC. BC CQS..~
PQ2 = O F + OQ2-20P.OQ cos 0
+ (y2- yl), + (2,- z , ) ~= 1 + 1- 2 cos 8 (Since OP = OQ = 1 unit)
or (x,- x , ) ~
76 or, (1,- + (m2-rn,), + (n,- n,), = 2 - 2 cos 0
or, 1: + m: + n: + 1; + m ? + n? - 21,12 - 2n2nI2- 2m2ml = 2 - 2cos0,
But 1: + m: + n: = 1 and 1: + mi + n: = 1
Hence, cos 0 = Ill2+ m,m, + nln,.
Remark: If the lines L, and L2are at right angles that is,
0 = d2, then 1,4 + m,m, + n,n, = 0 . . .. (42)
Formula (4 1) can also be used in case the given lines L, and L, are skew. In such case we Skew lines are those lines which are
shift one of them say L, so that its image L', intersects L,. Then the angle between L, and 4 " e i k m e l n0rinte-g.
is defined to be the angle between L( and L,. For example, the angle between AB and CG is
90"(see Fig. 18).
(Imagine AB to be translated until it coincides with DC and the angle between DC and CG
is 900)
Example 25: Find the angle between the lines having d i i t i o n cosines
2
--- 3 1
and-
1 2
--
-a
*'J14'J14 ,li',li',li
Solution: Using formula (41), we get the required angle as,

or, 8 = cos-l(+)

Note: Two lines always have two possible angles of intefsection 8 and x - 8. If cos 8 is
negative, then the angle is obtuse and if it is positive, then it implies that the angle of
intersection is acute.
Example 26: Prove that the line joining the points A(2, -1, O), B(3.1.2) is perpendicular to
the line joining C(2,1,4), D(4,0,4).
Solution: The direction ratios of AB are 3- 2,l- (-I), 2- 0 or 1,2,2. The direction d o g
of CD are

Since,

the lines are at right angles.

You may now try these exercises:

E24) Find the angles of hiangle ABC whose vertices are A(2,3,5), B(-l,3,2) I d
C(3,5, -2),
E25) Show that three lines with direction ratios 1, 1, 2; 4 3 m,
- 4; and - 43-1,
J3-'1,4,are inclined to one another at an angle x / 3.
- .---
After discussing a straight line, we now come to the plane in thnedimenaionrrl space.

4.8 THE PLANE

In two-dimensional geometry an equation of the form
ax+by+c=O
npresents a straight line, A similar equation in thne dimensions will be of the fonn
Ax+By+Cz+D=O ... . (43)
which represents a plane.
In onier to check that (43) represents a plane consider two points P,(x,, y,, 2,) and Pa($, y,,
2,) on (43). Then,
Ax,+By,+Cz,+D=O . .. . (44)
Ax,+By,+C%+D=O . . .. (45)
Subtracting (44) from (45) we get,
A@,- x,) + B(Y,- y,) + C(z,- z,) = 0 . . . . (46)
 - -
Fig. 19 (a) Line P,P, lies on Ule plane
(b) L;ine.P,P, does not lie on the sullPce and a plane

Using (37). equations of the line PI P2are

3-
---Y - Y I - 2-21
(= t)
x2-XI 1 2 - Y 1 22-21
Also, any point on the line is given by

To see whether this point lies on (43). Sub~titutefor (x, y, 2) in the left hand side of (43) it
follows that.
A[x, + (x2- x,) tl + B [y, + W2- y,)tl + C [z, + (2,- 2,) tl + D
= Ax, + By, + Cz, + D + t [A (x2- x,) + B(y2- y,) + C(3- z,)] which is equal to zero, in
view of (44) and (45) and hence the point lies on (43). Thus we have shown that, if PI and P2
are any two points on (43) then any point on the line PIP2also lies on it. Thus (43) represents
a plane (see Fig. 19).
Further, the direction ratios of PIP2are x2- x,, y2- y,, 3- 2, and notice from (46) that the
line PI P2is perpendicular to the line with direction ratios A, B, C. Since PIP2lies in the
All lines perpendicular to the same plane it follows that A, B, C are the direction ratios of a line perpendicular to the plane.
plane are parallel and therefore have We have thus shown two things namely,
the same direction mines. (1) Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 represents a plane.
(2) A, B, C are the direction ratios of the perpendicular, called normal to the plane.
Consider now the following definitions.
Definition: The angle between two planes is defined as the angle between their normals
(see Fig. 20(a)).
Definition: The angle between a line and a plane is defined as the complement of the angle
between the line and the normal to the plane (see Fig. 20(b)).
 In view of the above discussion and definitions (1) and (2) we can further say that, two
planes
Alx + Bly + C,z + D, = 0 and
hx+B2y+C$+D2=0
(1) will be at right angles if
A,A, + BIB, + CICl = 0
(2) will be parallel if

A plane
/ Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 and a straight line
X-X1 2-Z
m n
(1) will be parallel if

(2) will be at right angles if

-A= - =B- C
I m n
I

Fig. 22: Line pp)dkl to the plane

Let us now do a few examples.
Example 27: Show that the plane
2x - 3y + z- 2 = 0is parallel to the line

Solutiop: If the plane is parallel to the line, normal to the plane will be perpendicular to the
line. The direction ratio of the normal to the plane are 2. -3, 1. The direction ratios of the
line are 1, 1,l. We find that

Thus, the line is parallel to the plane.

~ ~ g e b.ad
r s Gcomctr~ Example 28: Find the point of intersection of the plane
3x- y + 22- 3 = O and the line

Solution: Let

Any point on the line is

x = 3 t - l , y = 2 t - 1,2=-'2t+1.
If it lies on the plane.
-
3(3t 1) - (2t - 1) + 2(-2t +1) - 3 = 0
or9-2i-4t-3+ 1+2-3=b*

Thus, the point of intersection is

x=2,y=1,2=-1.
Example 29: Find the equation of the plane passing through the points (2, l,3), ( l , 3 , 2 ) and
(-1,294)-
Solution: Let the equation of the plane be
Ax+By+Cz+D=O . . . . (52)
Since the three points lie on the plane each of them satisfies its equation. We have
(2,1,3):2A+B+3C+D=O
(1,3,2):A+3B+2C+D=O
(-l,2,4):-A+2B+4C+D=O
Solving these three equations for A, B, C in _termsof D we get,
A=-3/25D,B=-4/25D,C=-5/25D
Substituting in (52) and cancelling out D we get,
3x + 4y + 52 - 25 = 0, as the required equation.
Example 30: Find the equation of the plane passing through (2,-1,3) and perpendicular to
the line

Solution: Since the plane is perpendicular to the line, normal to the plane will be parallel to
the line. That means the given line and the normal to the plane have the same direction
cosine.
Therefore, the equation of the plane will be of the fonn
2x+3y-4z+D-O
Since it passes through (2,-1,3)
2 . 2 + 3 . ( - 1 ) - 4 * 3 + D = O o r D = 11.
Thus, the required equation of the plane is
2x+3'y-4z+ 11 = O
How about doing some exercises now?
- -

E26) Find the equation of the plane through (1, -2, -1) and parallel to the plane

-
E27) Find the angle between the planes 3x 2y + 2 = 4 and x + 4y- 32- 2 = Q,
E28) Find the point of intersection of the line
x-1
-=- y + l =-2-1
'2 3 -2
and the plane 3x- y + 22- 5 = 0.
 Coordinate Geometry
4.9 THE SPHERE
1 A sphere is defined as a surface such that the distance of any point on it from a fixed point is
I always the same. The fixed point is called the centre of the sphere and the constant distance
I the radius of the sphere.
If P (x, y, z) is any point on the sphere of radius R and centre C(a, b, c) then CPZ= RZ
or(x-a)l+ (y- b)2+ (z-c)'= RZ . . . . (53)
Any point on the surface of the sphere will satisfy this relation. This is the equation of the

An equation of the form

xZ + y2+ zZ- 2ux- 2vy- 2wz + d = 0
also represents a sphere for it can be written as
(x- u ) +~(y- v ) +~(2- w)' = uZ+ vZ+ w2- d
which is of the form (53). The centre will be the point (u, v, w) and radius will be

Example 31: Find the centre and radius of the sphere

xZ+yZ+zZ-2x-4y+2z-3=0.
Solution: We rewrite the equation as
(xZ- 2x + 1 - 1) + (yZ-4y 4- 4- 4) + (z2+ 22 + 1 - 1) - 3 = 0
or (x- + (y- 2)2i- (z + = 9
comparing with (53) we find that the centre is the point (1,2, -1) and radius = 3.
Example 32: Obtain the equation of the sphere with centre (0, 1, -1) and radius 3.
Solution: The equation of the sphere with centre (0, 1,-1) and radius 3 is,
(x- 0)Z + (y- + (z i- 1)Z = 9
orxZ+yZ+zZ-2y + 22-7 = O
Example 33: Find the equation of the sphere which passes through the points (O,0, O),
(a. O,0). (0, b. 0). (O,O, c).
Solution: Let the equation of the sphere be
X ~ ~ ~ ~ + Z ~ - ~ U X - ~ V ~ - ~ W Z + ~ = O .
Since it passes t&ugh (0,0,0), we have, d = 0
It passes through (a, 0, O), therefore,
az-2ua=Oor2u=a.
It passes through (0, b, 0). therefore,
bZ-2vb=O or 2v=b.
It passes thrwgh (0, 0, c) therefore,
c2-2wc=Oor2w=c.
Hence, the r e q u i d equation is
-
x Z + yZ+zZ- ax -5y cz = 0.
You may now try these exercises.
E29) Find the equation of the sphere passing through the points (O,0, O), (-a, b, o),
(0,-b, c) and (a, O,-c).
E30) Find the equation of the sphere with its centre at (-1,2,3) and which passes through
(1,-192).
T&t us end this unit by briefly summarising what we have studied in i t

4.10 SUMMARY
In this unit we have discussed the following points.
1) The position of a point in a plane can be determined by an ordered pair of n u m b
(x, y) called its coordinates.
ru~carnand u r n 2)
3)
The distance between two points (p(x,,y,) and Q(x,. y,) is J(x, - xI 1' + (YZ- Y I )'.
The coordinates of the point R(Z, y) dividing PQ in the ratio m : n are
- mx2 +nxl - my2 +nx1
X=
m+n
. y=
m+n
1
and if R divides PQ externally, then

4) The area of the triangle having vertices A (x,, y,), B(x,, yd, C(x,, y,) is given by the
formula,
Area of AABC = 112 1 x,(y,- y,) + x,(Y,- Y,) + x,(Y,- Y,) I
5 ) An equation of the form ax + by + c = 0 represents a straight line. Its slope is given by
m = b/a.
6 ) The angle between two lines having slopes m, and m, is
tan 8 = m1- "2'
I + mlm2
i) If m, = m,, the lines are parallel.
ii) If m m = -1 the lines are at right angles.
7) The length of the perpendicular from (x,, y,) to the line ax + by + c = 0 is given by
(ax, + by1 +cl
P=
j m
8) The distance between two points (x,, y,, z,) and (x,, y,, T )is
J(x,- x,)' + (Y,- Y,)' + (2,- z,)'.
9) If 1, m, n are the direction cosines of a line then

10) If a, b, c are the direction ratios of a line then its direction cosines are given by

I 1) Direction cosines of a line joining two points P,(x,. y,, z,) and P, (3,
y,. 4)are
---
x2 - x1 Y2 - Y1 22 - 21
d ' d ' d
Where d = P,P,
12) Equations of the form
x-XI - Y - Y , - 2 - 2 1
-----
I m n
represent a straight line with direction cosines (ratios) 1, m, n and passing through (x,,
Y,. z,).
13) Angle between two lines with direction cosines l,, m,, n, and 1,q, n2is given by
'cos 8 = 1,1, + m,m, + n,n,.
14) An equation of the form Ax +,wQ Cz + d = 0, represents a plane, where A, B, C are
the directions ratios of the normal to the plane.
15) An equation of the form
x2+ yZ+ zZ- 2uxL 2vy- 2wz + d = 0, represents a sphere with its centre at (u, v, w)
and radius =.\lu2+ v2+ W?- d

4.11 SOLUTIONS1ANSWERS
 Coordinate Geometry

Fig. 23

Hence, AB2+ AC2= BC2.

E6) Let (5.4) divide the line joining (3,2) and (6.5) in the ratio m :n. Let 2 = k. Then,
n
6k+3 5k+2
5=- ,4 = - solving we get k = 2.
k+l k+19
E7) Let the coordinate of the other end be (x, y). Then, -1-4 - -3, -=y+2
which gives x = - 10, y = - 4. 3 2
6-5 8+3 1 11
- -
E8) The mid point is
[ 2 * 2, ]o~[z*T]
The mid point of (- 5, 3) and (i,- -y] [-:, 5)
is

The mid point of (-,21 -1112 and (6.8) is 13 27

(q.
Hence, the three points are z,
(-- -~ ) . ( ~ . ~ ] . ( ~ . $ ]
E9) Area of quadrilateral ABCD = Area of [AABC + AACD]
= 68 + 138 = 206.
E10) Hint: Use the fact that if the points are collinear, area of a triangle formed by them is
zero.
E l 1) a) y = - x + c. It passes through (- 3.4)
Algebra and Geometry

1+m1m2 ,- I
.

31
. L.
1
4

The negative sign implieithat this is the obtuse angle,between the two lines. The
7
acute angle is given by tan 8 = -
4
E13) The point of intersection of the lines
8
x- y- 7 = 0 and x + 2y + 6 = 0 is -, - 2.
These coordinates satisfy the third
3 3
equation. Hence. the lines pass through a common point. - (q, ):
E14) To find the area we need the coordinates of the vertices of the triangle. Find the
points of intersection of the lines y = m,x + c,, y = m2x + c,, and x = 0, thus the three
required points are

m, - rn, rn, -m,

the area of a AABC = l(c1 - ~ 2 ) ~

1
c2 - C , m,c, - m2c, , B(0, c, ), C(0, c2)and

21m1 - m2l
E15) Let the intercepts be a, a. Then using the intercept form of the equation of the line, its
equation will be
Y lorx+y=a.
-x+ - =
a a
Since it passes through (5, - 7), 5 - 7 = a or a = -2.
Hence the equation is x+y =- 2.
E16) Equation of the line joining (1,4) and (3, -1) is
2y + 5x -13 = 0.
Thus, the length of the perpendicular from (-2, 1) is

E17) The equation of the line through (-2.6) and at right angles to 2x + 3y = 1 and
2y-3x=c.
Since it passes through (-2,6). Therefore c =-22.
The foot of the perpendicular is the point of intersection of 2x + 3y = 1 and
2y - 3x =-22.
68 41
that is x=-, y=--
13 13'
E18) a) x2 + y2 = 4 .
b) (x + 2)' + (y- 5)' = 5.
4
c) Radius of the circle is (4 - 2)2+ (-1-1)' =a
Therefore, its equation is (x- 2)2+ (y- = 8.
d) Since the circle touches the x-axis and its centre is in the second quadrant, its
radius = 5, b = f 5 which gives a = f 2.
Hence, its equation is (x + 3)2+ (y - 5)' = 25.
e) If the centre is at (a, b). Then, 5a = 2b. Since the circle touches the x-axis and its
radius is $, b =+5 which gives a = f2.
Thus, there are two circles having their centres at (2.5) and (-2.4). Their
equations are
(~-2)~+(y-5)~=25and(x+2)~+(~+5)~=25.
f ) xZ+y2+5x-5y=o.
E19) LetA(O.7, 10),B(-1.6.6) andC(-4,9,6),Then,
AB=Bc=~~~~~Ac~=~~=AB~+B(?.
E20) Let A(4,7,8), B(2.3.4). C(-1, -2, 1) and D(1.2.5).
Then, AB2 = CD2= 36 and ADZ = BC2= 43.
Thus, AB = CD and BC = AD. Hence ABCD is a parallelogram.
E21) a) Direction ratios of AB are -1, 1.2.
Direction ratios of AC are -3,-3,6.
Since the direction ratios of AB and AC are proportional: A, B, C are collinear.
b) Not collinear.
Direction ratios of AB are -2, -1.2.
Direction ratios of AC are -4, -2,3.
E22) a) Direction ratios of PIP2are 1,2,2.
Direction ratios of QlQ2are 2, -1,O.
PIP2is not parallel to QlQ2.
b) Direction ratios of PIP, are 5,3, -2.
'
Direction ratios of QlQ2are -1, 1, -1.
PIP2is not parallel to QlQ2.
E23) Equations of the line through (2,5, 1) and direction cosines proportional to 3 , 2 , 5 is
x-2
-- ---y - 5 ---2-1
- t (say)
3 2 5
Hence, x = 3t + 2, y = 2t + 5, z = 3t + 1 is any other point on the line.
E24) The angle between AB and AC is
-3.1+0-3.(-7) 18 1
cOs el =
d r n : . / ~ = f i . m = z
The angle between AC and BC is

The angle between BC and AB is

1 lt
E25) Angle between the first two lines is cos 0, = -: such that 8 = -. Similarly, find
2 3
the remaining angles.
E26) Any plane parallel to the given plane will be
3x+2y-z+D=Q
It passes through (1, -2, -1). Therefore. we get D = 0.
E27) The direction ratios of the normals to the planes are 3, -2, 1 : 1,4, -3. Their direction
cosines will be

The angle between the planes is the same as the angle between their normals. Hence,

Negative sign means that we have found the obtuse angle.

UNIT 5 VECTORS
Structure
5.1 Introduction
Ohjectivcs
5.2 Vectors as Directed Line Segments
5.3 Algebra of Vectors
AJd~tiono i Vcclors
Diffsrence of Vec~ors
Resolution of a Vcctor
Position Vector
Scalar or Dot Product
Vector or Cross Product
5.4 Summary

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The study of physical problems has most often led to new mathematical concepts. These
concepts provide a simple way of describing the relevant physical situations. One such
concept is that of vectors. You might have noticed that in the study of physical problems you
normally come across two types of quantities:
(a) those that can be completely specified by their magnitude. We call such quantities
scalars. For instance, the number 2 12 on the Fahrenheit thermometer specifies the boiling
temperature of water at standard pressure. Temperature is then a scalar quantity. Other such
cluatities are mass, volume, density etc,
(b) those that cannot be described by their magnitude alone. For a complete description of
such quantities we need to know their magnitudes as well as their directions. Such
quantities are called vectors. For example, the instantaneous velocity of a train is not fully
described by stating that its speed is 100 mph. If one also designates the direction sf the
motion (say by stating that it heads northeast),then the velocity is unambiguously described.
Velocity is thus an example of a vector quantity. The other simple example of a vector is the
displacement of a particle from a position P to a new position V.
Mathematical tools for dealing with directed quantities in three dimensions are outstanding
products of nineteenth century mathematics. f i e algebra of vectors was initiated principally
through the works of W.R. Hamilton and H.G. Grassman in the middle of the 19th century
and brought to the form presented here by the efforts of 0.Heaviside and J.W. Sibbs in the
late 19th century. It is tme that any problem that can be solved by the use of vectors can also
be treated by non-vectorial methods, but vector analysis is a shorthand which simplifies
many calculations considerably. For instance, the problem of finding the area of a triangle,
parallelogram etc. can be done very easily using vectors. The main advantage of using
vectors is that magnitude and directions can be handled simultaneously. In this unit we shall
be first introducing vectors as directed line segments and then develop the algebra of
vectors. This will enable us to use vectors in the study of various physical and geometrical
problems.

Objectives
After reading this unit you should be able to
0 differentiate between vectors and scalars:
0 represent vectors rn directed line segments;
0 obtain the sum. difference, ecalar product and vector pruduct of two or more vectors;
@ use vectors in the study of simple geometrical and physical pmblem8.

5.2 VECTORS AS DIRECTED LINE SEGMENTS

Any finite portion of a given straight line where the two end points are distinguished as
initial point and terminal point, is called a directed line segment. The directed line segment