1

Coupling and Bypass

Capacitors
AC coupling through capacitors is
used to inject ac input signal and
extract output signal without
disturbing Q-point
Capacitors provide negligible
impedance at frequencies of interest
and provide open circuits at dc.
C
1
and C
3
are large coupling capacitors
or dc blocking capacitors, their
reactance at signal frequency is
negligible.
C
2
is bypass capacitor, provides low
impedance path for ac current from
emitter to ground, removing R
E

(required for good Q-point stability)
from circuit when ac signals are
considered.
2
DC and AC Analysis
DC analysis:
Find dc equivalent circuit by replacing all capacitors by open
circuits and inductors by short circuits.
Find Q-point from dc equivalent circuit by using appropriate large-
signal transistor model.
AC analysis:
Find ac equivalent circuit by replacing all capacitors by short
circuits, inductors by open circuits, dc voltage sources by ground
connections and dc current sources by open circuits.
Replace transistor by small-signal model
Use small-signal ac equivalent to analyze ac characteristics of
amplifier.
Combine end results of dc and ac analysis to yield total voltages
and currents in the network.
3
DC Equivalent for BJT Amplifier
All capacitors in original amplifier circuits are
replaced by open circuits, disconnecting v
I
,
R
I
, and R
3
from circuit.
4
AC Equivalent for BJT Amplifier
k 100 k 3 . 4
3
k 30 k 10
2
1
= =
= =
R
C
R R
R R
B
R
5
Hybrid-Pi Model of BJT
The hybrid-pi small-signal
model is the intrinsic low-
frequency representation
of the BJT.
Small-signal parameters
are controlled by the Q-
point and are independent
of geometry of BJT
Transconductance:
C
I
T
V
C
I
m
g 40 ~ =
Input resistance:
m
g
o
C
I
T
V
o
r
|
|
t
= =
Output resistance:
max) (guadagno
o
r
m
g
f
C
I
A
V
C
I
CE
V
A
V
o
r
=
~
+
=

6
Equivalent Forms of Small-
Signal Model for BJT
Voltage -controlled current source g
m
v
be
can be
transformed into current-controlled current
source,



Basic relationship i
c
=|i
b
is useful in both dc and
ac analysis when BJT is in forward-active region.
b
i
ce
v
b
i
c
i
b
i
b
i
be
v
b
i
be
v
o
o
r
o
o
r
m
g
m
g
r
| |
|
t
t
~ + =
= =
=
7

Small-Signal Analysis of
Complete C-E Amplifier: AC
Equivalent
Ac equivalent circuit
is constructed by
assuming that all
capacitances have
zero impedance at
signal frequency and
dc voltage source is
ac ground.

Assume that Q-point
is already known.
2
1
R R
B
R =
8
Small-Signal Analysis of
Complete C-E Amplifier: Small-
Signal Equivalent
3
R
C
R
o
r
L
R =
L
R
m
g
be
v
o
v
b
v
c
v
vt
A = = =
Terminal voltage gain between
base and collector is:
Overall voltage gain from source v
i

to output voltage across R
3
is:
( )(
(
(
(

|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
= = =
t
t
r
B
R
I
R
r
B
R
L
R
m
g
v
A
i
v
be
v
vt
A
i
v
be
v
be
v
o
v
i
v
o
v
v
A
9
C-E Amplifier Voltage Gain:
Example
Problem: Calculate voltage gain
Given data: |
F
=100, V
A
=75 V, Q-point is (1.45 mA,
3.41 V), R
1
= 10 kO, R
2
= 30 kO, R
3
= 100 kO, R
C
=
4.3 kO, R
I
= 1kO.
Assumptions: Transistor is in active region, |
O
=
|
F
. Signals are low enough to be considered small
signals.
C
be
I ic
mV v
% 20
5
~
((
10
Analysis

( )
dB 3 . 42 130= =
+
=
(
(
(
(

t
t
r
B
R
I
R
r
B
R
L
R
m
g
v
A
mS 0 . 58 ) mA 45 . 1 ( 40 40 = = =
C
I
m
g
k 72 . 1
mA 45 . 1
) V 025 . 0 ( 100
= = =
C
I
T
V
o
r
|
t
k 1 . 54
mA 45 . 1
V 14 . 3 V 75
=
+
=
+
=
C
I
CE
V
A
V
o
r
k 83 . 3
3
= = R
C
R
o
r
L
R
k 5 . 7
2
1
= = R R
B
R
( )
mV 57 . 8
) (
V) 005 . 0 ( =
+
s
(
(
(
(
(

t
t
r
B
R
r
B
R
I
R
i
v
i
B B
B
be
be
v
r R R
r R
v
mV v
) || (
||
5
t
t
+
=
((
11
Small-Signal Model
Simplification
If we assume






t
r
B
R
I
R <<
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = ~
3
R
C
R
o
r
m
g
L
R
m
g
vt
A
v
A
This implies that total signal voltage at input
appears across r
t
.
12
Progetto amplificatore piccoli
segnali (carico resistivo)
Generally R
3
>> R
C
and R
3
<< r
o
.
If we assume I
C
R
C
= V
CC
with 0<<1 (tip. 1/3 o
)

With =1/3, since common design allocates one-third
power supply across R
C
. To further account for other
approximations leading to this result, we use:

Also, if R
C
and R
3
are infinite, voltage gain is limited by
amplification factor,
f
of BJT itself.

CC
V
T
V
C
R
C
I
C
R
m
g
vt
A
v
A , 40 = = = ~
CC
V
CC
V
v
A 10 13 ~ =
13
C-E Amplifier Input Resistance
Input resistance, the total
resistance looking into the
amplifier at coupling
capacitor C
1
represents total
resistance presented to
source.
t t
t
r R R r
B
R R
r
B
R
2
1
x
i
x
v
in
) (
x
i
x
v
= = =
=
14
C-E Amplifier Output Resistance
Output resistance is the total
equivalent resistance looking
into the output of the amplifier
at coupling capacitor C
3.
Input
source is set to 0 and test
source is applied at output.
C
R
o
r
C
R R
m
g
o
r
C
R
~ = =
+ + =
x
i
x
v
out
be
v
x
v
x
v
x
i
but v
be
=0
As r
o
>> R
C
.
15
Sample Analysis of C-E
Amplifier
Problem: Find voltage gain, input
and output resistances.
Given data: |
F
= 65, V
A
=50 V
Assumptions: Active-region
operation, V
BE
=0.7 V, small signal
operating conditions.
Analysis: To find the Q-point,
dc equivalent circuit is
constructed.
A 245 66
A 241 65
A 71 . 3
= =
= =
=
B
I
E
I
B
I
C
I
B
I
5 )
4
10 6 . 1 ( ) 1 (
5
10 = + + +
B
I
F BE
V
B
I |
V 67 . 3
)
4
10 6 . 1 (
4
10 5 5
=
+ + = +
CE
V
E
I
CE
V
C
I
j
j
j
i
i
I R V

=
KVL
16
Sample Analysis of C-E
Amplifier (contd.)
0 . 84
in
in
)
3
out
( =
+
= =
(
(
(
(
(

R
I
R
R
R R
m
g
i
v
o
v
v
A
S
3
10 64 . 9 40

= =
C
I
m
g
k 64 . 6 = =
C
I
T
V
o
r
|
t
k 223 =
+
=
C
I
CE
V
A
V
o
r
k 23 . 6
in
= =
t
r
B
R R
k 57 . 9
out
= =
o
r
C
R R

17
CE senza Capacit di bypass
18
Inverting Amplifiers: Terminal
Voltage Gain
Using test source v
b
to drive the base
terminal of the transistor, neglecting
r
o
,
E
R
L
R
E
R
m
g
L
R
m
g
A
CE
vt
E
R
o m
g
o
L
R
o
E
R
o
r
L
R
o
b
v
o
v
vt
A
~
+
=
+ +
=
+ +
= =

1
) 1 ( / ) 1 ( | |
|
|
t
|
1 >>
o
|
Assuming
Lamplificazione
dipende solo dai
resistori esterni!
L
R
m
g
be
v
o
v
b
v
c
v
vt
A = = =
E o b
R ir v
KVL
) 1 ( |
t
+ + =
19
Inverting Amplifiers: Input
Resistance and Overall Voltage
Gain
m
g r
o
o
t
|
|
=
>>1
Input resistance looking into the base
terminal is given by




) 1 (
) 1 (
E
R
m
g r
R
CE
in
E
R
o
r
i
b
v
R
CE
in
+ ~
+ + = =
t
|
t
(
(
(
(
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
(
(
(
(
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
+
=
= = =
R
CE
in
B
R
I
R
R
CE
in
B
R
CE
in
R
L
R
o
R
CE
in
B
R
I
R
R
CE
in
B
R
A
CE
vt
i
v
b
v
A
CE
vt
i
v
b
v
b
v
o
v
i
v
o
v
A
CE
v
|
Overall voltage gain is






Assuming
Generatore reale!
A
v

( )(
(
(
(

|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
= = =
t
t
r
B
R
I
R
r
B
R
L
R
m
g
v
A
i
v
be
v
vt
A
i
v
be
v
be
v
o
v
i
v
o
v
v
A
20
Inverting Amplifiers: Output
Resistance
0 i
x
i 0 i
0
e
v 0
) 1 (
1
e
v
i ) 1 (
e
v
= = =
= =
+
+
+
+ =

|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
o
r
th
R
E
R
o
E
R
o
|
t
|
|
t
r
th
R +
=
e
v -
i
But R
out
= r
o
when R
E
= 0, not infinite.
Now, we also include r
o
in our analysis.
= =
x
i
x
v
out
R
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+ ~
+ +
=
+ =
+ = + =
t
|
t
t
|
r
th
R
E
R
E
R
o
o
r R
r
th
R
E
R
E
R
E
R r
th
R
o
r
o
1
out
x
i i
x
i
e
v
e
v ) i
x
i (
e
v
r
v
x
v
I B TH
R R R // =
CORTOCIRCUITANDO
IL GENERATORE DI
INGRESSO
neglecting r
o

21
Inverting Amplifiers: Output
Resistance (contd.)
t
| r
m
g
o
= Assuming and , with


.for

Finite current gain of BJT places an upper limit on size of output
resistance. r
t
appears in parallel with R
E
if R
th
is neglected. If we let R
E
be
infinite, maximum value of output resistance is


th
R
E
R r >> + ) (
t
E
R
o
r >>
) ( ) (
out
) ( ) ( 1
out
E
R r
f
E
R r
m
g
o
r R
E
R r
f
o
r
E
R r
m
g
o
r R
t

t
t

t
= ~
+ = + ~

|
|
.
|

\
|
1 ) ( >>
E
R r
m
g
t
o
r
o
R ) 1 (
out
+ = |
C
R
o
r
C
R R ~ = =
x
i
x
v
out
R
out
modifica A
v
perch R
L
diventa il
parallelo tra il carico
e Rout
22
Inverting Amplifiers: Current
Gain

o
A
CE
it
A
CE
it r R R
R
i
r R R
R
i
i
i
i
i
A
r R R
R
i i
i i
E o B
B
i
E o B
B
i O
i
O
i
L
i
E o B
B
i
O L
|
t
t
t
|
|
|
|
|
|
=
+ + +
=
+ + +

= =
+ + +
=
=

) 1 (
) 1 (
) 1 (