Professional Development

by Barbara Wood

Copyright 2013 CTI Education Group

Table of Contents
Background information
Aim of the course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Learning outcomes and assessment criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Learning outcomes and assessment criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

course content Using the coursebook

Copyright 2012 CTI EDUCATION GROUP Publication Date Developer Quality Assured By Editor Place of Publication Publisher Cover Design Book Design and Layout : : : : : : : : January 2013 Barbara Wood Elizabeth Dietrichsen & Leon de Beer Ali Parry Johannesburg CTI EDUCATION GROUP Chantal Alves Bloomer
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Design and structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Glossary .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Individual units
Learning activities and the assessment toolbox. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

The use of icons Glossary Unit 1: Assessing your employability and professional development (epd) profile
1.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 1.2 Assessment of personal behaviour and competence . . . . . . . 20
1.2.1 Activity: personality and learning styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

1.3 Assessing your learning and personality styles . . . . . . . . . . . 21 1.4 Expected attitudes and behaviour, current skills and competencies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4.1 Punctuality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.2 Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.3 Trustworthiness .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 24 24

ISBN : 13-978-0-9921989-5-4

1.4.4 Honesty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 1.4.5 Politeness/courtesy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 1.4.6 Respect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 1.4.7 Self-discipline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 1.4.8 Tidiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 1.4.9 Being organised and able to plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4.10 Good time management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 27

1.4.11 Commitment and tenacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 1.4.12 Being resourceful. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 1.4.13 Looking for continuous self-improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 1.4.14 Ability to communicate clearly and appropriately. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

1.5 Comparing demands and current self-assessment. . . . . . . . . 30

1.5.1 Activity: identify gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.7.5 Decision-making processes and skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 2.7.6 Activity: decision making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

1.6 Identification of own development needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

1.6.1 Activity: strengths and weaknesses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.8 Completing a cv and forms needed in the work place and job interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.8.1 Activity: writing an up-to-date curriculum vitae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

1.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

2.9 Maintaining transcripts and a cv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 2.10 Portfolio building: developing and maintaining a personal portfolio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 2.11 The job interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.11.1 Activity: the job interview role play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Unit 2: Performance assessment, professionalism and development plan

2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 2.2 Performance measurement/monitoring methods . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.1 Self-assessment requires honesty and deep reflection . . . . . . . . . . 35 2.2.2 Activity: list all your achievements/strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 2.2.3 Activity: list all your personal drawbacks/weaknesses . . . . . . . . . . . 37 2.2.4 Activity: group work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 2.2.5 Activity: short-term and medium-term goals .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

2.12 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Unit 3: Effective communication and time management

3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.2 Effective communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.2.1 Oral communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.2.2 Business/professional communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.2.3 Written communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.2.4 Effective communication .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

2.3 Goal setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

2.3.1 Communication goals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 2.3.2 Time management goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3 Activity: identification of specific goals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 41

2.4 Evaluation of own development needs and the activities to meet them . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4.1 Expectations by the employer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 2.4.2 Activity: the most important employer expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3.3 Barriers to effective human communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

3.3.1 Physical barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 67

3.3.3 Attitudinal barriers .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 3.3.4 Ambiguity of words and phrases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 3.3.5 Individual linguistic ability .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 3.3.6 Physiological barriers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 3.3.7 Communication noise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

2.5 Know your employment contract. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

2.5.1 The actual employment contract. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 2.5.2 Regulation of working time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 2.5.3 Leave (annual and sick leave). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 2.5.4 Remuneration (salaries and wages). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 2.5.5 Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 2.5.6 Behaviour at work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 2.5.7 Employment rights and responsibilities .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

3.4 Clarity in communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

3.4.1 Clear messages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3.4.2 Concise messages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3.4.3 Concrete messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3.4.4 Correct messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3.4.5 Coherent messages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3.4.6 Complete communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.7 Courteous communication .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.9 Creative communication .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 71 71

2.6 Professionalism in the workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

2.6.1 Activity: list all the attributes that you believe show professionalism. 51 2.6.2 Activity: which of those professional attributes do you already possess?.51 2.6.3 Improving your professionalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

3.4.8 Credible communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

2.7 Devising a personal and professional development plan .. . . . 53

2.7.1 The aims and objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 2.7.2 Achievement dates, review dates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 2.7.3 Learning programme/activities, action plans.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 2.7.4 Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

3.5 Face-to-face communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

3.5.1 Dress and present yourself appropriately.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.5.2 Attitude, attitude, attitude! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 3.5.3 Learn how to make small talk.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

3.6 Communication - writing skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

3.6.1 Audience and format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 3.6.2 Composition and style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 3.6.3 Structure of your written communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 3.6.4 Grammatical errors .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

3.15 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Unit 4: Understanding the dynamics of working with others 103

4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 4.2 Interpersonal skills: understand the dynamics of working for and with others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.2.1 The roles people play in a team and how they can work together to achieve shared goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 4.2.2 Team identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 4.2.3 Activity: being part of the team .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 4.2.4 Teams in private life .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 4.2.5 Activity group work: form teams in your class .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 4.2.6 Dynamics in the working environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 4.2.7 Delegating effectively .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 4.2.8 Employer expectations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 4.2.9 Role play activity: employers/managers and employees. . . . . . . . . . 116 4.2.10 Informal and formal setting .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

3.7 Non-verbal communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

3.7.1 Understanding non-verbal communication .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 3.7.2 Confidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 3.7.3 Defensiveness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 3.7.4 Lying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 3.7.5 Interviews, negotiations and reflection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

3.8 It as an effective communication medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 3.9 Interpersonal skills/communication in meetings . . . . . . . . . . 83 3.10 Personal effectiveness through communication . . . . . . . . . 3.11 Negotiating skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 84

3.12 Assertiveness skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

3.12.1 Value yourself and your rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 3.12.2 Assertive communication techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

3.13 Good time management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

3.13.1 Keep a to-do list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.13.2 Prioritise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.13.3 Set personal goals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.13.4 Manage distractions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.13.6 Learn to say no. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.13.7 Distinguish between being effective and being busy. . . . . . . . . . . . 3.13.8 Focus rather than multitask .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 91 92 92 93 93 93

4.3 Teams and team building. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

4.3.1 Activity: alternative ways to complete tasks and achieve team goals.122

4.4 Effective leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

4.4.1 Leadership: true and false . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 4.4.2 Activity: identify 5 major characteristics an effective leader must possess 128

3.13.5 Do not procrastinate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

4.5 Which leadership styles can we identify? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

4.5.1 Activity: own leadership style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 4.5.2 Self-leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 4.5.3 Leader or manager? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 4.5.4 Activity: are you a current/potential leader?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

3.13.9 Taking a break . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 3.13.10 Effective task scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 3.13.11 Time management leading to better productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 3.13.12 Improve your attitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 3.13.13 Integrate your information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 3.13.14 Start to record your activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 3.13.15 Activity: the action plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.13.16 Making and keeping appointments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 97

4.6 Motivation and performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

4.6.1 Flexible working hours and working from home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 4.6.2 Medical aid, health and wellness programmes. . . . . . . . . . . . 136 4.6.3 Separate group and individual incentives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 4.6.4 Travel allowance, paid holidays and relaxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 4.6.5 Production-based bonuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 4.6.6 Social and networking events. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 4.6.7 Extra training or adult education.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

3.13.17 Reliable estimates of task time .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

3.14 Review of the personal and professional development plan.. 99

3.14.1 Activity: revision of development plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 3.14.2 Activity: assessing areas that have been achieved . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 3.14.3 Activity: assessing areas that need further corrective action, time lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

4.7 Promotion, rewards and assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

4.7.1 Dishonesty and cover-up .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 4.7.2 Bluffing on expertise/experience/knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 4.7.3 Negative comments about your superior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

4.7.4 Excuses, excuses, excuses - and the blaming culture . . . . . . 141 4.7.5 Appearances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 4.7.6 Going beyond the expected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Unit 6: Employability and professional development monitoring and controlling

6.1 Introduction.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 6.2 Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.2.1 Definitions of control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 6.2.2 Exercising control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 6.2.3 Control challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 6.2.4 Setting standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 6.2.5 Self-control .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 6.2.6 Activity: assessing control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

4.8 Review of own development against original aims and objectives 143
4.8.1 Activity: revision of development plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 4.8.2 Activity: assessing areas that have been achieved . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 4.8.3 Activity: assessing areas that need further corrective action, time lines.144

4.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Unit 5: Professional development strategy formulation and problem solving

5.1 Introduction.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 5.2 What are problems? What is problem solving? .. . . . . . . . . . 148
5.2.1 What is a problem? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 5.2.2 Problem solving .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 5.2.3 Activity: identifying cause and effect of problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

6.3 Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

6.3.1 Definition .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 6.3.2 Limitations and effectiveness of monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 6.3.3 Monitoring and evaluating .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 6.3.4 Setting parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 6.3.5 Recording monitored and evaluated data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 6.3.6 Applying established data to change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 6.3.7 Activity: monitoring and evaluating .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 6.3.8 Reporting on progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

5.3 The process of and steps in problem solving . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 5.4 A seven-step problem solving cycle (University of South Australia) .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.4.1 Identifying or recognising the problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 5.4.2 Defining the problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 5.4.3 Activity: online research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 5.4.4 Examining the problem from all sides and in depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 5.4.5 Forming a problem-solving strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 5.4.6 Collecting and organising facts and information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 5.4.7 Allocating resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 5.4.8 Implementing solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 5.4.9 Monitoring progress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 5.4.10 Evaluating the results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

6.4 Setting comprehensive performance objectives . . . . . . . . . 190

6.4.1 Activity: setting written performance goals .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 6.4.2 Activity: current performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 6.4.3 Activity: future performance needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 6.4.4 Opportunities and threats to career progression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

6.5 Gap in development and skills .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 6.6 Problem analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.6.1 Activity: problem-solving skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

6.7 Development plan, revision of aims and objectives, achievement dates, action plan, activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.7.1 Activity: planning own performance enhancement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

5.5 Other processes used to solve problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 5.6 Assessment of personal problem-solving skills . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.6.1 Activity: take the quiz - how good are you at solving problems? . . . . 168 5.6.2 Becoming proactive to avoid problems from occurring. . . . . . . . . . . 170

6.8 Monitoring performance development, review date achievements and shortcomings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
6.8.1 Activity: monitoring personal performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

5.7 Review of own development against original aims and objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.7.1 Activity: revision of development plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 5.7.2 Activity: assessing areas that have been achieved . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 5.7.3 Activity: assessing areas that need further corrective action, time lines.173

6.9 Actual outcomes compared with desired solutions. . . . . . . . 193

6.9.1 Activity: goal setting and achievements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

6.10 Interpersonal and transferable skills and sustainability. . . . 194 6.11 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

5.8 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Unit 7: Employability and professional development conclusions

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 7.2 Parameters, goals and achievements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
7.2.1 Activity: parameters and confirmation of your goals .. . . . . . . . . . . . 197 7.2.2 Monitoring and measuring .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 7.2.3 Own progress assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 7.2.4 Interpersonal and transferable skills and sustainability. . . . . . . . . . . 199 7.2.5 Reporting on progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Background information
Welcome to the course in employability and professional development. The world around us has changed dramatically. In the past, proof of successful tertiary education was good enough for a graduate to be offered attractive permanent employment - particularly if such qualification was obtained in the ict field. This is no longer the case. Over and above achieving an outstanding tertiary education pass mark, students now have to compete with job applicants from all over the world. These job competitors may have specific skills that make them more attractive to potential employers. Graduates are expected to show that they are job-ready, rounded personalities, socially well adjusted, capable and willing to find and keep a job. They are expected to be productive soon after appointment and to meet employers high standards. For this reason, we are offering this course, which will develop your skills and professionalism and your ability to conceptualise your own career planning. It will help to define your current personal employability and professional development profile. Thereafter, you will determine the goals you need to achieve. This course will teach you to take responsibility for your own future by setting your own performance objectives and by applying selfmotivation and self-discipline. The course employability and professional development will teach you to communicate in a clear and understandable manner with potential employers and co-workers. This ability must be enhanced further by efficient teamwork or as an individual, when so required. In this course you will be introduced to these enabling techniques to perform these activities.

7.3 Additional skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

7.3.1 Efficient speaking .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 7.3.2 Self-management skills .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 7.3.3 Activity: command of basic facts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 7.3.4 Activity: relevant professional knowledge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 7.3.5 Activity: continuing sensitivity to events. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 7.3.6 Activity: problem solving, analytical and decision-/judgement-making skills 202 7.3.7 Activity: social skills and abilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 7.3.8 Activity: emotional resilience .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 7.3.9 Activity: proactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 7.3.10 Activity: creativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 7.3.11 Activity: mental agility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 7.3.12 Activity: balanced learning habits and skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 7.3.13 Activity: self-knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 7.3.14 Summary of self-assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

7.4 Alternative options to employment .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 7.5 The way ahead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 7.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

Bibliography Author Biography

Aim of the course

The aim of this course is to provide students with the basic knowledge and skills to assess, develop and implement their own employability and personal professional development plan to be ready for an eventual career choice. During the course of this planning, students will analyse their current status, and be able to define the gap or difference between their current status and their future employability and professional development status. The course will help students understand methods through which they can take corrective action and measure their success rate. This will include the ability to determine strategies and strategic planning methods, team management and teamwork. Students will be taught methods to achieve 1

time line management. The course will also lead them to understand why they need to monitor and control their progress in achieving the implemented goals associated with their employability and professional development plan.

Learning outcomes and assessment criteria

Learning outcomes
On successful completion of this course, the student will: 1. Be able to take responsibility for own personal and professional development

Assessment criteria for pass

To achieve each outcome the student must demonstrate the ability to: 1.1 Assess own current skills and competencies against professional standards and organisational objectives 1.2 Evaluate own development needs and the activities required to meet them 1.3 Devise a personal and professional development plan based on identified needs 1.4 Reflect on own development against original aims and objectives set in the personal and professional development plan

Learning outcomes and assessment criteria

The course is designed to cover four learning outcomes. After completion of this course, you will be able to achieve the learning outcomes by demonstrating the ability to meet the assessment criteria applicable to each outcome as listed in table 1. It is important that you pay careful attention to the learning outcomes and assessment criteria as all your assessments are designed to demonstrate that you have mastered the theory and skills associated with these outcomes. Based on the specific learning outcomes, you will: Be able to take responsibility for your own personal and professional development Be able to demonstrate acquired interpersonal and transferable skills Understand the dynamics of working with others Be able to develop strategies for problem solving The following table outlines the assessment criteria that are aligned with the learning outcomes:

2. Be able to demonstrate acquired interpersonal and transferable skills 3. Understand the dynamics of working for and with others

2.1 Communicate in a variety of styles and appropriate manner at various levels 2.2 Demonstrate effective time management strategies 3.1 Analyse team dynamics, discussing the roles people play in a team and how they can work together to achieve shared goals 3.2 Discuss alternative ways to complete tasks and achieve team goals

4. Be able to develop 4.1 Review tools and methods for developing strategies for problem solving solutions to problems 4.2 Develop an appropriate strategy for resolving a particular problem 4.3 Evaluate the potential impact on the business of implementing the problem-solving strategy

course content
1. Be able to take responsibility for own personal and professional development
Responsibilities: own responsibilities, e.G. Personal responsibility, direct and indirect relationships, decision-making processes and skills, ability to learn and develop within the work role, e.G. Employment legislation, ethics, employment rights and responsibilities Performance objectives: setting and monitoring performance objectives Individual appraisal systems: uses of performance appraisals, e.G. Salary levels and bonus payments, promotion, strengths and weaknesses, training needs; communication; appraisal criteria, e.G. Production data, personnel data, judgemental data; rating methods, e.G. Ranking, checklist, management by objectives; skills audit (personal profile using appropriate self-assessment tools); evaluating self-management; personal and interpersonal skills; leadership skills Motivation and performance: application and appraisal of motivational theories and techniques, rewards and incentives; managers role; selfmotivational factors. Development plan: current performance; future needs; opportunities and threats to career progression; aims and objectives; achievement dates; review dates; learning programme/activities; action plans; personal development plan. Portfolio building: developing and maintaining a personal portfolio Transcripts: maintaining and presenting transcripts including curriculum vitae

3.Understand the dynamics of working for and with others

Working with others: nature and dynamics of team and group work; informal and formal settings; purpose of teams and groups; problem solving; flexibility/adaptability; team player Teams and team building: specialist roles, skill and style/approach mixes; identification of team/work group roles; stages in team development, e.G. Team building, identity, loyalty, commitment to shared beliefs; action planning; monitoring and feedback; ethics; effective leadership skills, e.G. Setting direction, setting standards, motivating, innovative, responsive, effective communicator, reliability, consistency

4. Be able to develop strategies for problem solving

Specification of the problem: definition of the problem; analysis and clarification; identification of possible outcomes: identification and assessment of various alternative outcomes Tools and methods: problem-solving methods and tools Plan and implement: sources of information; solution methodologies; selection and implementation of the best corrective action, e.G. Stages, resources, critical path analysis Evaluation: evaluation of whether the problem was solved or not; measurement of solution against specification and desired outcomes; sustainability

2. Be able to demonstrate acquired interpersonal and transferable skills

Effective communication: verbal and non-verbal, e.G. Awareness and use of body language, openness and responsiveness, formal and informal feedback to and from colleagues; it as an effective communication medium; team meetings Interpersonal skills: soft skills, e.G. Personal effectiveness, working with others, use of initiative, negotiating skills, assertiveness skills, social skills Time management: prioritising workloads; using time effectively; making and keeping appointments; reliable estimates of task time 4 5

Using the coursebook

The coursebook is your main source of information for the course in employability and professional development.

Glossary
We provide you with a glossary of subject terminology that is used in the coursebook. Please refer to the glossary (at the end of the coursebook) to familiarise yourself with the meaning of the concepts and terms used in this subject field, and become proficient with these terms.

Purpose
This coursebook will help you to master the expectations and demands made by employers and help you build a successful career. The coursebook contains readings, activities and application aids that will assist you in developing the knowledge and skills stipulated in the specific outcomes and assessment criteria. The coursebook has been designed to optimise study time and maximise learning. It is important for you to work through the coursebook attentively and follow all the instructions. In this way, you should be able to deepen your learning and enhance your chances of success. It is essential that the exercises and other learning activities in the coursebook are completed. The course assessments (examination, tests and assignments) are based on the assumption that these learning activities have been completed.

Design and structure

The subject content in the coursebook is structured as follows:
Unit Unit Unit Unit Unit Unit Assessing your employability and professional development profile Performance assessment, professionalism and development plan Effective communication and time management Understanding the dynamics of working with others Professional development strategy formulation and problem solving Employability and professional development - monitoring and controlling Unit 7 Employability and professional development - conclusion GLOSSARY BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 2 3 4 5 6

Individual units
The units in the coursebook are structured in the same way, and each unit contains the following features to enhance the learning process:
Unit title: Each unit title is based on the title and content of the specific outcome or the assessment criterion that is being discussed in the unit. The unit title is followed by an outline of the learning outcomes and assessment criteria, which guide the learning process. They show what you should be able to do once the unit has been studied. The learning outcomes represent the end product of what you should have learned in the unit. The learning outcomes are followed by an introduction that identifies the key concepts of the unit. The content of each unit contains the theoretical foundation of the course and is based on the work of experts in this field. The theory is illustrated by means of relevant examples. The concluding remarks at the end of each unit provide a brief summary of the unit and an indication of what you can expect in the following unit. The content is followed by a number of self-assessment questions to test your knowledge of the content of a particular unit. The self-assessment questions also give you an indication of questions that you may expect in the tests and in the final examination.

The use of icons

The following icons are used to highlight particular sections or points in the coursebook:

Learning outcome alignment

Additional reading

Learning outcomes:

Introduction: Content:

This icon is used to indicate how individual units in the Coursebook are aligned with a learning outcome and its assessment criteria.

This icon indicates that you are expected to do some additional reading i.e. you should obtain additional information by consulting relevant, external information sources.

Example

Notes

Concluding remarks:

Self-assessment:

This icon points to a section in the text where relevant examples for a particular topic (theme) or concept are provided.

This icon indicates space provided for your personal notes.

Legislation

Useful website

Learning activities and the assessment toolbox

The assessment toolbox contains the learning activities that you should complete. The purpose of these learning activities is to test your knowledge and understanding of the course content and, therefore, it is essential for you to complete all these activities. The activities vary, from individual tasks (such as case studies) to group activities and discussions. While you are busy with the activities, you should make notes of all the important points that arise. After completing a group activity, a representative of the group has to report back to the rest of the class and further discussion may follow. Your lecturer will summarise the most important aspects. Participate actively in the skills practice activities, as they will give you an opportunity to gain insights from other peoples experiences and to practise the skills. By sharing your own experiences, others can learn from you too. 8
This icon refers you to legislation that is applicable to a topic or theme. This icon is a reference to a particular website that you should consult for more information.

Definitions

Test Your Knowledge

This icon appears when definitions of a particular term or concept are given in the text.

This icon appears at the end of each unit in the coursebook, indicating that you are required to answer self-assessment questions to test your knowledge of the content of the foregoing unit.

Glossary
To give up responsibility Adjourning is typically related to the end of a project team. It is also relevant when the purpose and structure of the team change substantially due to a sale, merger or restructuring process. Termination is when the project is permanently ended. Advocacy teams The teams who defend the proposed definition or action, i.e. are in favour of it, and those who believe it is not a good idea or not the correct reason and have to defend that view. Affiliative leaders They promote emotional bonds and organisational harmony around them. Allocating resources Assigning money and people to a project. Alternatives Other options, other ways of doing things. Ambiguity Sentences or words that sound the same but have different meanings for different people. Ambitious Wanting to achieve something better, sooner, before others. The Appreciative Examines what works well in the areas surrounding the Inquiry problems. Arbitration Settlement of a dispute by an independent person acting as an arbitrator. Assumptions Something taken for granted, taken as true or sure to happen before there is proof. Audio-visual Communication through TV, DVD, etc. - both via sight and communication sound. Autocratic, Demand immediate compliance, believe everything must authoritarian or be done their way. Do not tolerate other peoples opinions commanding leaders easily. Barriers to The intended communication does not take place, it is successful blocked. communication Basic Conditions of The laws that were put in place to protect workers. These Employment Act, labour laws were recently amended to remain relevant to 1997 (BCEA) the changes in South Africa. Belbin Team Roles The team personalities are described as Plant, Resource Investigator, Coordinator, Shaper, Monitor, Evaluator, Team worker Implementer, Completer Finisher, Specialist Biorhythms Any recurring cycles of physical, emotional and intellectual activity in peoples lives. Blaming culture Not accepting own responsibilities - always seeing the fault in others, and seeing others as the cause of problems. Body language Also called non-verbal communication. We communicate through gestures, postures, facial expressions. Boundaries Limits between what people can do. Your boundaries start where other peoples boundaries end, and vice versa. Braille Tactile communication used by people who cannot see. Abdicate Adjourn and terminate

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A spontaneous discussion in search of new ideas. Encouraging others to look for other options, new solutions. Capabilities Skills people possess, things they are able to do. Capacity to perform in a certain area. Car/petrol Special amounts of money paid by an employer to allowances employees together with their salaries or wages. These are taxed. Cause-and-effect Looking at the interrelationships between what caused analysis which results. CCMA The Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration. Workers can apply to this body if they feel they have been unfairly treated by their employer. CEO Chief Executive Officer in a company. Ranked below the Chairperson. May be a senior director of a company. Coaching leaders Develop people, establish relationships and trust with and among people. Their goal is to help people improve themselves. Coherent It is logical, has all concepts/points connected, is relevant communication to the main topic, and the tone and flow of the message is consistent. Commanding or Gets results (telling everybody exactly what to do, at that autocratic leadership moment). Remains in charge at all times. style Commissioner of A person (lawyer, police officer) before whom oaths may Oaths be sworn by people making affidavits or who certify true copies of transcripts. Commission Payment to a person for selling goods or services, often calculated in proportion to/as a percentage of the goods sold. Commitment Bind oneself with an obligation or pledge to do something. Communication There is interference with the decoding of messages sent noise over a channel by an encoder. The message cannot be received properly. Companys hierarchy The authority ranking in a company. Competence/ Skills or abilities. Can be generic or job-specific. competencies Complete Includes all relevant information, no information left out. communication Comprehensive Listing all objectives which will be measured on achieved performance performance. objectives Concise Sticks to the point and keeps it brief. No extra explanations. communication Concrete Gives the audience a clear picture of what you are telling communication them. Consequences Result produced by some action or lack of necessary action. Constructive Tests a proposed solution by subjecting it to the clash of controversy cycle ideas, showing it to be wrong, proving it, or disproving or improving it.

Brainstorm

Contingent or situational leadership Continuous selfimprovement Control

Leaders adapt their style to suit a situation, they do not remain limited by one specific leadership style. Ongoing learning, honing of skills and abilities. Assumes some power being exercised over something or somebody. Direct influence over some action or measurement. Suitable and targeted to its audience. It is also free of grammatical or spelling errors. To fix previous errors or omissions. To take steps so that problems are resolved. Is polite, friendly and open. Evokes vivid images of what you are trying to say, breaks through the clutter often present in media environments. Message is straightforward, honest, to the point and truly believable. Stereotypical assumptions can cause misunderstandings, different cultures interpreting messages differently. A commonly used format for a document that provides personal, academic and work history information. Used in providing background when applying for work or membership of an association, or for assisting an employer in determining the skills and experiences of the applicant. To entrust a task or responsibility to somebody else for the duration of the task but to retain accountability. Gets everybodys input and opinion, reaches consensus before acting. A formal process followed by an employer following misbehaviour or poor performance by an employee, to bring on corrective behaviour that may result in dismissal. Altered or changed message, making it inaccurate. Matter in motion, also the interactions in a team. The activity of conveying the correct information through the exchange of thoughts, messages or information, via speech, visuals, signals, writing or behaviour. Good speaking skills, speaking clearly with correct pronunciation. Serious happening or situation needing prompt action. Does not have the title (e.g. CEO, manager or director) but has lots of influence with people. The ability to understand and manage ones emotions and control ones actions. Also the ability to understand and contextualise the emotions and reactions of others. The ability to cope with feelings of stress, tension, anxiety, fatigue. The ability to identify oneself mentally with a person or thing, and so to understand his or her feelings or its meaning.

Correct communication Corrective action Courteous communication Creative communication Credible communication Cultural noise Curriculum vitae (CV)

Delegating Democratic leadership Disciplinary action

Distorted Dynamics Effective communication Efficient speaking Emergencies Emergent leader Emotional intelligence Emotional resilience Empathy and compassion

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A person who works for a company in return for wages. The requirements of an employer of his/her employees in terms of performance and behaviour, the skills they must possess and the attitude they must show. Employability The job applicant has the character traits, competencies and skills to make the prospective employer keen to offer him/her the vacant job. Employment The official document between employer and employee contract stating the terms and conditions of employment. Engaging leaders Engage employees in understanding the existing conditions and how they can collectively assist in addressing them. Ethics Moral principles in all dealings. Etiquette The rules of correct behaviour in society or among the members of a profession. Evaluation Evaluating results - shows what works and does not work and why. Evaluation is an act or several acts of judgement by managers (or by yourself if it is a personal evaluation). Extraversion Driven by interaction with others, oriented to and motivated by the world outside oneself. Facial expression Conveys the message via the way the face moves: raised eyebrows, grimacing, smiling, sad expressions, angry frown, etc. Feedback The return of information about an action, product or service, response from others. Feeling style Information/situations are assessed subjectively, judgements based on worth/values. Flexible working Employees can start and finish work at varying hours, have hours to be present within core hours. Gaps Also called delta in behaviour or skills. Gap between current, actual and ideal level. Go or no-go decision Decision to be taken whether to proceed with action or whether to abandon action based on evaluation. Individual appraisal Assessing the individual employees performance according systems to predetermined parameters and a set time period. Induction manual Document that tells the new employee about the company history, its rules, behaviour codes, and who does what in the company. Infringing rights Breaking somebodys rights or boundaries. Interpersonal skills Interactive skills, teamwork, management and leadership skills. Intonation The way in which your voice rises and falls, the way it becomes louder or softer. Introversion Driven by solitary activities, oriented to and motivated by the world inside oneself. Intuition Abstract, symbolic, conceptual awareness. Knowing or understanding something without reasoning or being taught. Job competitors Others who have similar skills and experience who want the same job as you.

Employee Employer expectations

Judging style

Labour legislation

Leadership Leadership style

Learning styles Linguistic ability

Managers

Management functions Manners Mobility Momentum Monitoring progress

Motivation Multimedia Narcissistic leaders

Non-verbal communication Obstacles Opportunities and threats Oral communication

Plan ahead and/or follow the plan, live ones outer life with closure and structure, using the preferred judging process of either thinking or feeling. Laws designed to regulate the relationship between employer and employee. Usually there to protect the employee. The ability to lead others who follow willingly, motivating others by example. Various styles managers or leaders use naturally to be in charge of others, leading, commanding or motivating others. The way in which a person best receives information, processes it, and remembers and expresses it. Avoiding the use of industry-specific jargon or inappropriate words in communication. Ability to express a concept or idea clearly. May speak more than one language. Supervising employees. Are comfortable with tangible products and systems, anything they can control hands-on, with the present known environment, safer choices. They are often pragmatic, like to deal with matters which they can sort out and avoid risk. Managers are good at accepting and issuing orders, enforcing rules, making sure that everything works. Planning, organising, leading and controlling. The generic functions of a manager in any type of organisation. Polite social behaviour, a persons bearing or way of behaving towards others. Readily changing circumstances, place of work or residence. Impetus gained by movement, action causing further action. Ongoing monitoring involves regular feedback from people, systems, mechanisms, etc. Monitoring provides indicators of efficiency, effectiveness and impact; it collects and records ongoing information (benchmarking). Stimulating the interest of others, inspiring others to do something. Across several media types, e.g. on TV, online and in print. Self-centred style, concerned with their image, how employees perceive them, whether they are admired, copied, how much publicity they receive. Embarrassed by failures or being seen in the wrong outfit, with the wrong people. They need to feel important. Communication that does not use words. It includes sensory and expressive communication, body language, sign language, dress, etc. Something obstructs or hinders progress. Part of a SWOT analysis. Looks at possibilities and options for positive career progression and possible threats or hurdles to such career progression. Spoken communication.

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Organisational noise

Organogram Pace setting leaders

Paramount importance Paraphrasing Perceiving style

Poor communication in a company can prevent accurate interpretation, usually caused by poor systems or structures in a company. A graph showing all people in management and their position/role in the company. Set challenging and exciting standards and expect excellence. They believe that employees can do a lot better, faster than they do. The bar is raised on a regular basis they may be firm believers of Total Quality Management and continuous higher achievements. Chief importance, top ranking importance. Expressing the meaning of something in other words, rewording something. Keep options open to adapt, live ones outer life in a more emergent manner using the preferred perceiving process of sensing and intuition. Specific purpose or goals set for performance, usually agreed between employee and manager. Extras offered over and above wages or salary (e.g. medical aid, car allowance) Puts together personal skills development, the extension of ones abilities. It entails advancing ones current skills, abilities and knowledge. Different styles in which people act, react or function. Personality characteristics, the way a person tends to act or react. Limitations caused by tangible distances/obstacles, e.g. a different building, no cellphone signal reception possible. These barriers to effective communication may be the result of individuals ill health, poor eyesight or hearing difficulties. Developing a personal portfolio showing items/records of achievement or skills. Acting to avoid problems from happening. Precedence in importance, something to be done first. This cycle is portrayed in a logical, sequential manner. There are several models available that illustrate the problem-solving cycle. Postponing action, not getting things done when they should be done. Setting a proper career development plan, how to improve ones skills for better career advancement. Being given a better title at work or a better salary, or both. Usually only given if well-deserved through performance. Correct pronunciation means that your words will be correctly heard and understood. Close to others, e.g. desks close together, people sharing offices.

Psychological contract

Psychological noise Reflection Remuneration Resourceful Responsibilities Resum Role play Segmented Self-assessment Self-control Self-discipline Sensing Self-evaluation

Performance objectives Perks Personal development plan Personality styles Personality traits Physical boundaries Physiological barriers Portfolio building Preventative action Priorities Problem-solving cycle Procrastination Professional development plan Promotion Pronunciation Proximity to others

Servant leader Setting parameters Seven Cs Simplex process

Soft Systems methodology

Standards SWOT analysis

An informal exchange agreement between an employer and the employee, which specifies mutual expectations in terms of the way in which the employer treats the employee and the employees output and contribution to the organisation. Where prejudices and attitudes can make communication difficult. To think deeply, consider, remind oneself of past actions, events, behaviour. Salaries and wages paid for services rendered by the employee. To find solutions to problems, coming up with ideas and ways to do something. Legally or morally obliged to take care of something or to carry out a duty, liable to be blamed for loss or failure. More commonly used in the USA, a shortened version of a CV, similar to a summary of a CV. Acting out a specific scenario or concept to understand it better. Split into smaller parts, each part representing something. Taking stock of ones skills and abilities, looking at strengths and weaknesses. Being in control of ones emotions, ones responses and managing oneself. Taking control of your actions, reactions, emotions. Sticking to goals, tasks, commitments, promises. Tangible, experiential awareness. When it is left up to the individual to dig deep and find the reasons for great or poor performance, efficiencies that need to be addressed. Also so-called level 5 leader, who focuses strongly on giving staff the credit and working from behind the scenes. Specifications or attributes used as a basis for measurement. Communication which is Clear, Concise, Concrete, Correct, Coherent, Complete, Courteous. Involves eight stages: problem finding, fact finding, defining the problem, idea finding, selecting and evaluating, planning, selling the idea, and acting. These steps create a cycle of problem finding and solving that should continually be improved to enable the efficient functioning of the company concerned. Helps the business decision maker understand complex problems so that he/she can start the actual problemsolving process. Four stages help to uncover more details about what is creating the problem, and what actions will improve the situation or solve the problem. Levels of behaviour or performance set for quality assessment. Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats. Used to assess performance and the characteristics of an organisation.

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Syntactical noise Team

Team dynamics

Team identity

Tempo of your speech Tenacity Thinking style Time management Toxic leader

Tone of voice

Traits Transcripts Urgencies Verbal communication Visionary leaders

Mistakes in vocabulary and grammar. Making the message difficult to understand. A group of people with a full set of complementary skills required to complete a task, job or project. Work together to achieve the common goals. Team interaction and relationships. All team members bring their own unique talents, perspectives, values and experiences to the work of the team. The better all team members know each other as to their talents and expertise, the better they can utilise each relevant talent for better team performance. All teams have an identity of their own. This identity stems from the interrelationship with the larger organisational culture, the purpose of the team, the personalities of the various team members and what they each bring to the team. Each team has a specific role to play according to its short-term or long-term purpose. The speed of your speech. Could be too fast and no-one can catch what you are saying, or too slow and listeners get bored. Sticking firmly to ones goals, carrying on and not giving up. Information/situations assessed objectively or based on criteria or principles. Assessing how long something takes realistically, planning appropriately to be punctual and to do everything on time. Someone who abuses the leaderfollower relationship by leaving the group or organisation in a worse-off condition than when he/she joined it. They take out as much money as possible; they fire and hire the wrong people, make decisions that harm the company. They usually also quickly resign at one point, just before they would be fired or arrested, or just before the company goes into liquidation. Communicates to others what one truly wants to say. We can use a soft tone of voice or a hard/unfriendly tone of voice. Characteristics, something inherent to a person. Written records of achievements, documents proving experience and achievements. Activities that are linked to short-term actions needed actions that are needed immediately. Communicating with words (can be spoken = oral communication or written communication). Mobilise people toward a shared vision. They are seldom practical or hands-on. They are highly enthusiastic about new ideas and innovations. They expect others to become as enthusiastic about these ideas which they then are expected to implement.

Unit 1: Assessing your employability and professional development (epd) profile

Unit 1 is aligned with Learning Outcome 1 and Assessment Criteria 1.2 and 1.3: Learning Outcome 1: Be able to take responsibility for own personal and professional development Assessment Criterion 1.2: Assess own current skills and competencies against professional standards Assessment Criterion 1.3: Evaluate own development needs and the activities required to meet them. By the end of this unit, you should be able to define: your current level of development, also as seen by others your need for self-assessment different personality types your own development needs a personal competency and enhancement plan

1.1 Introduction
Whether at we are at university, home, work or among friends, we do not live in isolation. The way we behave is a reflection of the way we think of ourselves, of others, about circumstances and situations. We often act and react in a specific manner, not always conscious of the consequences of our behaviour. In order to become a valued member of society, a responsible adult, we are expected to take on responsibilities in our lives, to be aware of how we act and react in different environments; how our actions impact on direct and indirect relationships; our decision-making processes and skills; 19

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and how to make ourselves marketable for both private and business environments. This necessitates an honest look at how you appear, act and manage yourself and your relationship with others. Do you know your strengths and weaknesses? Do you know how to communicate effectively via verbal and non-verbal means and consciously use body language? Are your interpersonal skills effective when working with others? How good is your time management? Are you trustworthy, reliable? Have you developed your emotional intelligence? How do you actually judge such strengths and weaknesses - do you rely on your own perceptions or are they based on feedback from others? Have these strengths and weaknesses changed since you left high school and started your tertiary studies? This unit will help you to assess yourself in an unbiased manner, taking stock of where you are now regarding your personal and professional development and where you should be - to become a highly sought-after individual within your chosen career field.

http://www.humanmetrics.comi/cgi-win/JTypes2.asp Self-Control Questionnaire, available from Cybernetics at http://www.e-trainme.com/questionnaire2.html Different learning styles, available at http://www.engr.ncsu.edu/learningstyles/ilsweb.html http://www.vark-learn.com/english/page.asp?p=questionnaire. All of these are cost-free. Some sites need you to log on and pay for information. According to Prof Richard M. Felder, there are active and reflective learners; sensing and intuitive learners; visual and verbal learners; sequential and global learners.

1.2 Assessment of personal behaviour and competence

There are many tests available that allow you to assess your personality type, how you learn best, i.e. your learning style, your strengths and weaknesses, and what motivates you. The better you know and understand your own behaviour, the easier it is to check whether such strengths and weaknesses will work in your favour in later life and in the workplace - or if they will hinder your optimal performance. The first question you have to ask yourself is whether you actually want to know your strengths and weaknesses. Then you have to ask yourself whether you want to succeed in life, making yourself employable, finding and keeping a meaningful job, and building your career.

http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/ILSdir/ styles.htm

Depending on your personality type and learning style, you may find university or college a challenge, where there is too little visual stimulation, no chance to move around during class, or too sequential an approach for you to take all material in. Therefore, finding out what works best for you while learning as a student is important. Your personality style will also influence how you approach problems or challenges in life, and may even influence your final career choice and how you perform in such a career.

1.3 Assessing your learning and personality styles

Once you know your personality and learning style, it becomes easier to understand why you behave in certain ways. It also then becomes easier to do something about those character traits that currently result in problems for you or when you come into contact with others, problems with potential employers and your employability, e.g. behaviour such as impatience, moodiness, loudness and aggressiveness. 21

1.2.1 Activity: personality and learning styles

Complete the following tests online and then compare the different personality and learning styles:

Jung Personality Typology Test, available from Human Metrics at 20

Read the table below and check again which personality styles you recognise as your own. We all sometimes show signs of more than one style, depending on the circumstances we find ourselves in, the stress we may be under, and the mood we wake up in. However, you will find that you more often think or act in a specific way. Check in this table which style describes you better by checking the part that describes how such person acts/thinks.

Visual Verbal Sequential Global

Colour code your notes; keep visual reminders/pictures. Write summaries in your own words; explain text to others. Take time to do things in a logical order; relate information to other topics. First skim through all text, then move to individual units/parts. Find more information on the Internet on how you can correct limitations in a specific learning style.

Style
Active Reflective Sensing Intuitive Visual Verbal Sequential Global

Acts/Thinks
Lets try and see if it works; lets work it out together in a group. Let me think about it; Ill work it out on my own. I look for facts and figures, proven methods, repetition; I am patient. I look for possibilities, innovation, fast solutions; I make a plan. I remember what I see/pictures. I remember what I read or hear. I understand things if they happen in linear steps; logical steps to get to solutions. I absorb information randomly; I can solve complex problems once I understand/get the big picture.

1.4 Expected attitudes and behaviour, current skills and competencies

In any interpersonal relationship, both sides have expectations of each other. Apart from these expectations, there are also firmly entrenched rights and responsibilities for every person guaranteed by the South African Constitution. It is then the responsibility of everyone to make sure that they respect the rights of others, and they have the right to be granted the same rights. We have to recognise clear boundaries: our rights stop where the rights of other people start. This is particularly important when we are in close proximity to others (families, friends, study environment, working environment). Besides these rights and responsibilities, there are, however, many other social skills and competencies that rule and guide interpersonal relationships.
Employability is defined as a job applicant who has the character traits, competencies and skills to make the prospective employer keen to offer him/her the vacant job.

Every style has some inherent strengths but also some inherent challenges. Remember, there are solutions to challenges, steps to take to cope with negative impacts. So while a certain style may sound very positive, particularly if we are comfortable with such style, there are those challenges. For example, somebody who is patient and uses lots of facts and figures before making a decision may be far too slow for situations where instant decisions have to be taken and no facts and figures are available. Somebody who best learns via pictures/visuals may be faced at college or university (or work) with written text only, or worse, only spoken words by the lecturer/manager. How do such people then cope and learn? Every problem also has a solution available. You can hardly change your personality or learning style, yet there are strategies to manage the challenges that these present. How can you compensate for potential challenges occurring with each learning style? Look at the table below and see possible solutions.

Style
Active Reflective Sensing Intuitive

Possible solution
Try to think twice before you act to avoid potential trouble. Do not spend too much time reflecting; you also need to get things done. Set deadlines. Accept that facts and figures are not always available. Learn to improvise. Studying and work contain memorisation and routine as well; check for careless mistakes.

Employability also assumes that the prospective employer will see further positive potential for development and promotion/career enhancement in such potential employee. Besides the obvious and less obvious skills, employers will also be looking for employees who are willing to work (hard and smart), have the ability to do the job and fit into the company s culture, rules and regulations. They must also show their willingness to stay at this place of work for longer than just a few months. What are the interpersonal relationship demands and expectations required by potential employers? Work through each of these basic competencies which you should be able to demonstrate/achieve for optimum employability.

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1.4.1 Punctuality
Whether it is a question of being punctual for university class, arriving at work or being on time for a family function, punctuality is a sign that you respect the other person and his/her time. Wasted time - through meetings starting late, topic items having to be repeated, or food becoming spoilt at home - costs the economy money, angers the aggrieved party, and shows him/her that you do not have respect or concern for others, that you only care for yourself. There can be valid and serious reasons for being late - once - but there are people who believe that it is their right to arrive whenever it suits them. The penalty? You will no longer be trusted or taken seriously, and you may miss out on important matters that get decided without you and could impact negatively on you. You will not be chosen for any task that demands punctuality or trustworthiness, and this could cost you future promotions where such trust and punctuality are essential.

1.4.4 Honesty
Lies need a good memory and continuous innovation of further lies - sooner or later, they will come out as lies. Honesty is essential in any professional environment, in every work place and in personal relationships. Why would you regard it as necessary to tell lies in the first place - would it not have been easier to be honest? What is going to happen when the truth comes out at a later stage? Are you proud of yourself that you got away with lies, with dishonesty? Do you believe that this is not serious, as it was not a real crime? Honesty obviously includes that you will never take anything that belongs to others - taking business items home is theft, no matter how small the monetary amount. You also do not illegally copy information, programs, data, music or other students work. If you get used to small lies or the odd act of dishonesty, you will get used to a dishonest mindset which can lead to proper criminal action in future.

1.4.2 Reliability
In line with punctuality, a lack of reliability can cost you future promotions and trust. If you have been asked to complete a task and you do not complete this in the specified manner and time, you will be labelled unreliable and therefore not suitable for important tasks or jobs. Ask yourself how you feel about other students, friends or family members if they let you down, or do not help you when they promised. This is exactly how others feel about you if you are unreliable. They no longer trust you. Can a team rely on you to be there for them when you have promised? Are you a team player or are your selfish interests more important? Are you sometimes reliable but not consistently so?

1.4.5 Politeness/courtesy
Politeness and courtesy are signs of good upbringing. It proves that you respect others, be they superiors at work, lecturers and staff at college/ university, older people, and people in positions of trust/respect/leadership. By practising polite behaviour towards everybody you deal with - even family members and close friends - you turn into a polite/courteous person. It also shows a good level of confidence and self-respect. You will also find that politeness is reciprocated.

1.4.6 Respect
Very closely linked to politeness, respect goes beyond your show of courtesy towards others. It implies that you recognise somebody elses achievements, position in society and his/her constitutional right to respect. As we already explained regarding rights and responsibilities, your boundaries stop where other peoples boundaries start, and you have to respect such boundaries. Over-stepping physical boundaries includes getting too close to somebody (without being asked to do so), touching without permission, or breaking emotional boundaries with bullying, harassing or threatening actions. It also includes creating excessive noise levels, smoking where it is not allowed, and infringing rights to privacy. If you want others to respect you and your rights, you have to start by showing others that you respect their rights. 25

1.4.3 Trustworthiness
Trust can be earned by being reliable and punctual. It can also be earned through your actions - beyond your words. If you are requested to keep confidential information to yourself, can you be trusted to keep this information to yourself? Or do you use this information to spread gossip and rumours, and actually damage the other person or the company/institution through your action? Would others typically describe you as trustworthy, maybe even in preference to others?

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This means that respect goes back to basic human rights. It then also includes respect for achievements, for age and for positions. You will want to be respected once you achieve certain results in your studies and in your career. Show it to those who have already achieved these results.

1.4.9 Being organised and able to plan

The better you can set priorities, and organise your days and weeks with certain goals in mind, the quicker you will achieve those goals and priorities. These traits are essential in business and are a sign of a professional employee. An employee who cannot draw up a plan of action and cannot get organised within the companys framework, will never be promoted as he/she will need constant supervision and to be told which task has to be done by when and how. An organised person, with efficient plans of action and planned resources, will be an efficient person, too - an ideal employee. This is equally applicable during study years and in private life. Again, it shows that you are in control of your life, that you know what you want to achieve by when and with which resources.

1.4.7 Self-discipline
One of the basic character traits that can lead to success in life is selfdiscipline. It assumes that you know what is expected of you. If you set yourself goals (or accept goals set by others for you and make them your own), you make sure that you achieve those goals or what is expected of you, without having to be reminded to do so, without having to be told. You plan your time and your efforts, and do not leave tasks incomplete. Self-discipline also includes controlling your emotions, whether it is anger, frustration or disagreement with instructions by others, parents or managers. You have to know when and how you are allowed to speak, react and act, and when/how not. Self-discipline means that you take control of your actions, reactions and emotions, and go towards a clear outcome. It also means that you know how to keep private life and working life separate. You do not arrange your private life during class at college/ university or work, nor do you bring work home to the dinner table (except if asked to!). Private life has to stay at home and has no place at work. Are you self-disciplined enough to keep your cellphone in your bag/pack?

1.4.10 Good time management

The best plans do not come to fruition if the person who has to execute them is incapable of good time management. Time management assumes that the person is capable of knowing how long each task, trip or project takes under normal circumstances. He/she is capable of good judgement of how long something takes or should take. The most important basis for good time management is the ability to prioritise. This starts with making complete lists of everything that needs to be done and then assigning urgent items/priorities to these. Time management will be discussed in full in a later unit in this Coursebook. People with good time management skills add extra time for emergencies, unforeseen circumstances (gridlocked traffic, power outages, staff illnesses, electronic equipment not working, etc.) to their time management, so that the extra time is available if needed. They do not leave things to the last minute, and do not assume that everything will always work out and that nothing can ever go wrong. Good time management during study years and at work ensures that assignments, projects and tasks are on time, resulting in satisfied customers, managers and the company/institution leadership, creating extra trust and a better chance for promotion - and for passing exams!

1.4.8 Tidiness
People often regard tidiness as something that is not necessary in their lives. They either delegate it to somebody else, or live and work in organised chaos. They claim that they know where everything is. However, while this may still be tolerated as a sign of rebellious youth while you are a student, it is regarded as a sign of an immature and unprofessional person once you are entering the working environment. Lack of tidiness can cause accidents, loss of important documents or items, and perils such as fire or spillages; it can be the cause of lost business opportunities. Many a laptop has been destroyed by spilled liquid; many sensitive documents have landed in a dustbin or worse have been handed out together with other paperwork. In a working environment, files need to be found instantly upon request. Tidiness even applies to electronic data has it been stored in an efficient manner so that it can be found instantly, if needed? 26

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1.4.11 Commitment and tenacity

Trust in, and respect for, yourself are also created through being committed to everything you have been given to complete or have decided that you want to do. Do you quit before you even fully start a project? Do you feel half-way through a project that it is too much trouble and you give up? Have you been a start-stop person so far or do you see things through to their completion, all the time? Being committed or tenacious means that you overcome obstacles, and you see projects through to their conclusion despite and against all odds. This necessitates that you are driven by the feeling that giving up would be admitting failure; therefore, you will make plans, and find solutions and alternatives until you succeed. Being committed also means that you complete your studies to the best of your ability, that you study during the year and not only just before an exam; it means that you will honour contracts, and will be willing to stay at the same company for more than just a few months and will not leave at the first sign of being offered a few rands more at another place.

1.4.13 Looking for continuous self-improvement

People who assume that they already know everything, can do everything and no longer need any further education, have reached their own limit. They no longer grow and then actually fall behind those who are still learning and feel that there is still much to learn and improve in their own skills. People who are resistant to continuous learning and skills improvement will not keep up with new developments, new technology or new laws, and then have less to offer than others who have improved on their skills. Continuous learning, including conducting critical reviews of ones own skills and capabilities, is essential, particularly in fields that develop rapidly, such as ICT. **How keen are you to actually work hard and smart in the career of your choice? Do you dream of a high income, easy working hours, pleasant people around you, flexible deadlines, and being promoted within the first year to an easy management position with all the fringe benefits? Such a job does not exist. You will probably start work equipped with good theoretical skills, and will be up-to-date with the latest ICT programs and know-how. However, at the date of your joining the company, you will know little or nothing about the business and the way in which things are done. You will have to accept that you will have lots to learn. Will you take the initiative prior to employment to learn as much as possible about the market, the products and the services in this field? Will you be well prepared and able to offer extra skills - something other job applicants will not be able to offer? Have you searched online for as much information as possible on latest developments?

1.4.12 Being resourceful

Employers are impressed by resourceful employees. Being resourceful means that you find solutions to problems, similar to a person who is tenacious. However, you can bring solutions to problems without having to see the project through yourself. It is more about being innovative, pragmatic, making plans to find solutions, producing more cost efficiency, solving software problems, and overcoming technical hitches, staffing problems and skills shortages - often finding solutions that make it possible to avoid problems before they occur. The resourceful person sees every problem as an opportunity, as a challenge to overcome. He/she then goes out of his/her way to find solutions. This could be in the form of looking online for information, finding references and information in books/libraries or through other experts (or colleagues, friends or family), or via trial and error trying to fix something by himself/ herself. It can apply to physical, to mental or even emotional challenges. Resourceful people are great to have around in times when problems occur!

1.4.14 Ability to communicate clearly and appropriately

With the advent of electronic media, people have changed the manner and speed of communication. Business communication has become extremely informal due to the speed and ease of emails. SMS, MMS and BBM messages are abbreviated and no longer resemble formal correspondence. Some of these messages are based on insider knowledge, where abbreviations cannot be understood by anybody who is not part of a specific group.

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The more people get used to such casual communication levels, the less skilled they become in formal business communication. The general trend is that business writing skills are seriously lacking among new employees. New employees then come up against old generation expectations of perfect grammar and spelling by management and clients. They all expect knowledge of formal business writing as well as perfect manners/etiquette, dress sense and behaviour in business meetings and client meetings, and in the total business environment. There are rules to be followed. Some businesses allow casual wear, chewing of gum, casual address of superiors - others have strict rules against such practices. Every employee who wants to enjoy a successful career will have to make doubly sure that he/ she knows and adheres to all rules in the business that he/she has joined. Do you know how to write the perfect formal business letter or document, are you able to hold a professional business conversation on the telephone, and can you address clients and superiors in person in the proper manner, using appropriate verbal and non-verbal communication?

Competency
1.3.5 Polite/Courteous 1.3.6 Respectful 1.3.7 Self-disciplined 1.3.8 Tidy 1.3.9 Organised/able to plan 1.3.10 Good time management 1.3.11 Committed/tenacious 1.3.12 Resourceful 1.3.13 Looking for continuous self-improvement 1.3.14 Willing to learn all skills needed for your planned career 1.3.15 Able to communicate clearly and professionally in (business) writing, telephonically and in person

As you see As others yourself see you

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No No No No No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No No No No No No No No

1.5 Comparing demands and current self-assessment

You should know yourself best - as long as you are honest with yourself. Others will also have a specific opinion of your competencies.

1.5.1 Activity: identify gaps

Complete the following table and then write a short essay where you see the biggest gaps between what you currently do/are like and what you should be doing, keeping in mind the points we covered in section . Current level of self-assessment and as seen by others

1.6 Identification of own development needs

Now that you have looked at all the above factors that you - or other people - have rated no, i.e. capabilities that you do not yet manage properly, you need to assess in full how you can improve on such capabilities. Look again at all the definitions and explanations of the capabilities in section . This explains which personal competencies you have to acquire and practise to make you more attractive to potential employers, namely, making you more employable and making you appear more professional at the same time.

Competency
1.3.1 Punctual 1.3.2 Reliable 1.3.3 Trustworthy 1.3.4 Honest

As you see As others yourself see you

Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No

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1.6.1 Activity: strengths and weaknesses

Written assessment of current strengths and weaknesses Write a formal letter to a potential employer, outlining your qualifications, practical experience and personal strengths - those identified under unit (your yes answers). Then write a casual letter to a friend, explaining why you believe your strengths hold true and how you intend to overcome your weaknesses. Give examples of what you plan to do, how you plan to do it and by when.

1.7 Conclusion
In this unit we covered various methods to assess your own current state and performance, such as attitude and behaviour. We also looked at the gaps between where you are and where you should be. We concluded this unit with your self-assessment and action plans. After having worked through this unit, you should now have a clear picture of your current situation regarding personality traits, learning styles, employability and readiness for employment. You have also identified gaps between where you are and where you should ideally be.

Test your knowledge

Students should do the following self-assessment: In two sentences, please state and describe your personality and learning style. Please also state how you can compensate for any challenges in these styles (see and ). In two sentences, please state where you fall short on expected/demanded/ ideal behaviour and attitudes. In two sentences, now please state how you plan to correct this gap in behaviour or attitudes. What do you plan to do so that you improve your employability or professional behaviour? By when do you plan to have achieved this corrective action? And how will you measure this achievement

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Unit 2: Performance assessment, professionalism and development plan

Unit 2 is aligned with Learning Outcome 1 and Assessment Criteria 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3: Learning Outcome 1 Be able to take responsibility for own personal and professional development Assessment Criterion 1.1: Assess own current skills and competencies against professional standards and organisational objectives Assessment Criterion 1.2: Evaluate own development needs and the activities required to meet them Assessment Criterion 1.3: Devise a personal and professional development plan based on identified needs. By the end of this unit, you should be able to: Select various methods to assess and monitor own performance, such as attitude, behaviour, goal setting and achievements, communication skills, time management and other essential skills Evaluate own development needs and the activities needed to meet them Understand professionalism in the workplace Devise a personal and professional development plan Complete your curriculum vitae (CV), a cover letter and various documents needed at the job interview and the workplace Maintain transcripts, including a curriculum vitae Develop and maintain a personal portfolio

2.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, we covered various personality and learning style tests, which you completed online. We looked at personal character traits and competencies which have a strong influence on whether a person will be employed, will be allowed to stay employed, and will be considered for promotion and career advancement. We concluded the previous unit with assessments of your current competencies. You are now learning to look at yourself more critically, assessing how others could possibly see you, judge you and form opinions of you, either as a mature, responsible and professional person who is ready to be employed and who promises to have a great career ahead of him/her, or as somebody to avoid having in their team. If you are a student of this course, you must want to develop yourself. In this unit, we take the next step in your self-assessment, including professionalism. We will also look at methods to measure where you are now, how to design a development plan and how to measure your progress. As a CV and the job interview often form the gateway to your new employment, we will study some documents which will form part of your portfolio.

2.2 Performance measurement/ monitoring methods

It is obviously not good enough only to identify a number of character traits or competencies that need corrective action. Students also have to be able to set performance goals and then put measurements in place, with time lines, to assess how far they have developed and how close they are to their ultimate goals. Measurements should include communication skills, time management, and a host of the other essential social and business skills.

2.2.1 Self-assessment requires honesty and deep reflection

The hardest part of any task is to get started. Procrastination avoids having to confront the task - there is always an easy excuse to be found. Where a task could possibly result in criticism, procrastination then avoids having to face up to negative feedback and corrective action.

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Self-assessment or self-reflection is no exception. The self-reflection that self-assessment requires can be more difficult than any other task because it needs total honesty. The person undertaking such assessment has to try to avoid bias. In the same way that a marketing executive has to regularly conduct a SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) on his/ her brand, so you have to conduct a SWOT analysis on yourself - you are the brand! You have to be extremely honest with yourself, and keep in mind that the more honest you are at the assessment or reflection stage, the closer you will move toward your goal. If you pretend/lie to yourself, the outcomes will be distorted and you waste whatever effort you then put into the further programme. The same honesty has to be applied throughout, from assessment to the monitoring stages, to check whether you are progressing or not. The reward comes when you see that you are achieving successes - and ultimately when a potential employer finds you highly employable and professional, and hires you - you are then on your way to a successful career.

2.2.3 Activity: list all your personal drawbacks/ weaknesses

Nobody is perfect, so it is unrealistic to think that you have nothing to work on. Now list all your undesirable or less desirable personality traits which you hope to overcome or those you feel do not yet measure up to your ideal. Point out the skills that you need to work on so that you will improve your overall performance. List those traits or competencies that you find a challenge. Also list everything that you feel you have failed at in the past; things you started and did not finish, including failed relationships or clashes with people that were not positively resolved.

2.2.4 Activity: group work

What did your parents, friends or acquaintances, teachers or others criticise in your behaviour, your performance or skills? What do they believe about you, what did they tell you to improve upon, change, drop or learn? Get input from other students in your class; ask them about the impressions you create, the skills they think you have or lack. They will have opinions about you and the things you do/did or did not do that you may not be aware of. Note all those comments so that you can add them to your selfassessment. If you see a big difference between how you see yourself and how others see you, please make a special note of such gaps. Try to assess what could cause such gaps and how you could improve the perceptions others have of you.

2.2.2 Activity: list all your achievements/strengths

Let us start with your strengths, your achievements in life. Gather proof of all your achievements so far. This must include your Matric results, and it can include sporting achievements or other extramural leadership positions, courses you have taken/passed, interest groups you have been/ are part of, a drivers licence, some work experience, computer skills and other work skills. Also include the subjects you are studying. Now make a list of the criteria you will use for your personal assessment. If you already have a clear idea what it is you need to be able to do, the skills you need to have in your potential career, include all those skills that you already have for such career. Also list all the positive personality traits you already possess (see Unit 1 section ). Include all possible positive ratings you may have received by teachers, co-students, lecturers, friends, your family and other people you come into contact with.

2.2.5 Activity: short-term and medium-term goals

Now list all those areas that you need to work on or want to improve. Which of the weakness areas can you improve on over the next week? Month? Next three months? In six months? Over a period of a year? To be realistic, check for how long you have had a poor habit, or not acquired certain skills - so how long would it realistically take you to correct such poor/bad habit or acquire such new and corrected skill?

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At the same time, remember that you have to be ready, truly employable and professional by the time you graduate and want to enter the job market - so the sooner you are on track with your desired results, the better. Develop an action plan. Take each one of the areas that need improvement and then write a list of what practical steps you will take to address those issues. This will show that you not only recognise your problems and have analysed them, but that you are capable of finding solutions to each of these challenges. Do not be overly ambitious; rather set realistic targets and achievable dates. Brainstorm with peers, class mates, friends and family if you need suggestions. Do this for every weak area where you lack a skill or competency. Set a time line for each of these. Some will be easier to fix and should thus take less time. Others may be more significant and may take up to a year to turn around. Very strongly entrenched habits can be changed within 21 days as long as you are committed to such change for every one of those 21 days. At the end of those three weeks, your habit should normally have changed - as long as you were consistent and adhered to the change plan. Once youve completed your assessment, stated your problem areas and set your short-term and medium-term goals, review the process and sleep on it. The next day, go through everything you wrote again with a fresh perspective, and make adjustments or changes where necessary. Then finalise your draft development programme. Use the grid provided below to help you draw up your own draft development programme. How to Write an Effective and Powerful Self-Evaluation for a Performance Review | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/ how_2181299_effective-powerful-selfevaluationperformance-review.html#ixzz27tdCkLA9

Self-assessment table
Attribute/Trait Possess very strongly Possess somewhat Possess a little Lack a little Lack somewhat Lack very strongly

Punctual

Reliable

Trustworthy

Honest

Polite/courteous

Respectful

Self-disciplined

Tidy

Organised/able to plan

Good time management Committed/tenacious

Resourceful

Looks for continuous self-improvement Looks to learn all skills for planned career Communicates clearly in business writing Communicates clearly telephonically Communicates clearly in person Ethical, top integrity

Professional

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Attribute/Trait

Possess very strongly

Possess somewhat

Possess a little

Lack a little

Lack somewhat

Lack very strongly

so that you are understood the way you intend, you need to develop an action plan and set target dates for achieving this action plan.

Good manners

2.3.2 Time management goals

You remember that we referred to efficient time management as being an essential skill (Unit 1 section ). How good is your time management? Can you judge accurately how long a task or project takes you? Do you allow for extra time in case of potential problems occurring? Are you always punctual or do you usually arrive late? Do you often fail to show up because you are running so late, forgot about an appointment/date, or misjudged the time it would take you to get ready and get to the appointment? Then you urgently need to set a new time management goal. Start by writing down your plans for the week, plus all tasks you are expected to do at college, at home, and for family and friends. After this, write the date and time next to each appointment when it is supposed to take place. Write down the date and time when each project or task is due to be completed/handed in. Look at your total list. Did you note down everything? Your hours at college/university, your time with family/ friends? Keep in mind that you also need time to eat, sleep and get ready in the morning. Can you actually manage everything on your list? Did you consider any urgent projects/tasks? Did you apply any priority ranking? What do you need to shift to another date/time? How are you going to improve your time management? Do you have to start earlier to arrive on time or to meet task deadlines? Look up Internet sites on effective time management so that you can develop appropriate goals.

Emotionally mature

Good self-control

Self-disciplined

Driven to succeed

Confident/self-assured

Appropriate dress sense Tolerant

Adapts to different circumstances/ cultures

2.3 Goal setting

In the table on the previous page, you listed the range of problem areas you identified - or those that were identified during group work. In the following paragraphs, we look at specific skills that you will need to master for efficiency in your future business career. One of the most important ones is appropriate, effective communication.

2.3.1 Communication goals

Take stock: Do you know how to communicate effectively verbally through the spoken word, and non-verbally through the use of body language? Do people mostly understand what you are trying to communicate? Are your interpersonal skills effective when working with others or do you need to work on these skills? Look up Internet sites on effective communication to see how you can improve your interpersonal skills and how to use non-verbal communication. To be able to communicate better

2.3.3 Activity: identification of specific goals

Now that you have identified various problem areas, rank their priority according to which problems you need to or intend to fix/change first, second, third, etc. This may be influenced by the speed at which you believe you can change this aspect, e.g. the items that you can change within a week could rank first, and you start on them immediately. However, you can also start to work on the

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most serious problems first, those that may take the longest to fix. Or you might rather want to progress from minor to more important changes/goals. So that it becomes clearer and easier to manage, break the list of problem areas into sections that go together, e.g. honesty, trustworthiness, reliability and integrity can go together. Then consider the main change goal for each. You may have identified some self-defeating, conflicting habits you want to change. See which aspects can form logical groups that you could see as a working unit, something you will tackle together as one. You then set up two main sections with related subheadings in each. Choose the best, most logical grouping that works for your purposes. You will measure your progress towards such goals over the next few months. To conclude, reflect on why reaching the goals you have listed is important to you.

learn and apply what they are shown and expected to do understand their responsibilities understand the limitations to their rights fit into the corporate culture understand and adhere to the companys dress code understand hygiene in the workplace show good manners (demonstrate correct behaviour at all times, do not shout, respect other peoples space and dignity, and treat them with respect) become capable team workers become efficient, self-motivated individuals. Characteristics of the ideal/model employee: arrives at work on time every day leaves a few minutes later than closing time (not a clock watcher) is prepared to handle extra tasks beyond the strict job description agrees to work overtime when needed without expecting extra pay all the time willingly helps others if asked to do so (also offers help without neglecting his/her own tasks) is pleasant and respectful in all dealings with superiors and equally so with colleagues, customers and suppliers gets through all tasks that are expected of him/her in the set time does not expect a promotion or an increase after having been with the company for only a few months.

2.4 Evaluation of own development needs and the activities to meet them
The previous section dealt with the necessary personal improvements with regard to bad habits, unacceptable personality traits and a lack of some essential behavioural competencies. In this section, we will focus on professional or business skills that need to be acquired to make you truly employable.

2.4.1 Expectations by the employer

Employers have clear expectations when employing a new staff member. Similar expectations also exist at educational institutions. Students and new employees have to prove that they are able to: listen properly when instructed ask relevant questions that lead to increased skills/knowledge concentrate on the task/job at hand show that they are resourceful and able to find solutions find innovative/new methods to solve problems/avoid problems complete tasks as and when asked to do so complete them to the best of their knowledge/ability complete them timeously read up (online, in relevant trade magazines or books) on the industry, the company and the job requirements 42

2.4.2 Activity: the most important employer expectations

To show that you fully appreciate what will be expected of you at your new place of work, focus on the type of organisation and post/position you would like to be employed for. List the top ten employers expectations. Give reasons for your choice. Which employers expectations are you not sure of? Which employers expectations do you not yet meet? Where do you still have a gap/weakness? What do you plan to do to address this gap/weakness? Explain in full. 43

2.5 Know your employment contract

Labour legislation states the basic rights of every employee and every employer. Beyond these general laws, every company also sets its own rules or codes of conduct - which are usually aligned with labour laws. The amended Basic Conditions of Employment Act, 1997 (BCEA) has to be honoured by all employers. The Act applies to all employees and employers except members of the National Defence Force, National Intelligence Agency, South African Secret Service, and unpaid volunteers working for an organisation with a charitable purpose (http://www.ils.co.za/act.pdf).

Ordinary hours of work and days of work Wage or the rate and method of calculating such wage Rate for overtime work Any other cash payments Any payment in kind and the value thereof Frequency of remuneration Any deductions Leave entitlement Period of notice or period of contract Description of any council or sectoral determination which covers the employers business Period of employment with a previous employer that counts towards the period of employment List of any other documents that form part of the contract, indicating a place where a copy of each may be obtained. Particulars must be revised if the terms of employment change. A statement of employees rights must be displayed at the workplace in the official languages used at the workplace. There is a tendency among many companies to hire staff on fixed term contracts (e.g. six months) instead of the previous norm of permanent employment. Permanent employment contracts usually had a three months trial period attached to them, during which time the employer and employee could both consider whether they were suitable for each other, and whether the new employee fitted in with the culture of the organisation. If not, the employment would be terminated after the three months. The fixed term contract is more complicated in that the contractee (the person being hired for the work) has to receive a new fixed term contract after every completed six-month period. This does not allow for a sense of true belonging, loyalty towards the company or a sense of security. It also gives the company freedom to change employees without lengthy and protracted dismissal procedures. It does give the employee the chance to remain mobile, finding new projects or companies to work for, but this is at the cost of continuity and job security. It is up to the incumbent employees to make sure that they read their employment contract in all its detail, and to get professional assistance 45

Basic Conditions of Employment Act, 1997 (BCEA)

Section 83A of the Act defines who is an employee. An employee is a person who works for, or provides services to, another person if: his or her manner or hours of work are subject to control or direction he/she forms part of the employers organisation he/she has worked for the other person for at least 40 hours per month over the previous three months he/she is economically dependent on the other person he/she is provided with his or her tools or work equipment he/she only works for, or renders service to, one person. If one of these factors is present, the person is presumed to be an employee until the employer proves that he/she is not.

2.5.1 The actual employment contract

When the employee commences employment, an employer must supply an employee with the following particulars in writing: Full name and address of the employer Name and occupation of the employee, or a brief description of the work Various places of work Date of employment 44

to check the contract before they sign and bind themselves to it. Rights and responsibilities will be spelled out in this contract but there may be additional documents such as job descriptions or duty sheets to explain the job content. New employees should make sure they receive a copy of the signed contract for their records and reference.

An employee who ordinarily works on a Sunday must be paid at times the normal wage. Paid time off in return for working on a Sunday may be agreed upon. Employees who work at night between 18:00 and 06:00 must be compensated by payment of an allowance or by a reduction of working hours. Employees who work regularly after 23:00 and before 06:00 the next day must be informed of (a) any health and safety hazards, and (b) the right to undergo a medical examination. Employees must be paid their ordinary pay for any public holiday that falls on a working day. Work on a public holiday is by agreement and paid at double the rate. A public holiday may be exchanged for another day by agreement.

2.5.2 Regulation of working time

This regulation does not apply to senior managerial employees, employees engaged as sales staff who travel, and employees who work less than 24 hours a month. What are the main points regulating working hours? No employer shall require or permit an employee to work more than (a) 45 hours in any week; (b) nine hours in any day if an employee works for five days or less in a week; or (c) eight hours in any day if an employee works for more than five days in a week. An employer may not require or permit an employee to work overtime (i.e. no more than ten hours per week) except by an agreement. An agreement may not require or permit an employee to work more than 12 hours on any day. A collective agreement may increase overtime to 15 hours per week for up to two months in any period of 12 months. Overtime must be paid at times the employees normal wage or an employee may agree to receive paid time off. An employee may agree in writing to work up to 12 hours in a day without receiving overtime pay. A collective agreement may permit the hours of work to be averaged over a period of up to four months. An employee must have a meal interval of 60 minutes after five hours work. A written agreement may (a) reduce the meal interval to 30 minutes; (b) dispense with the meal interval for employees who work fewer than six hours on a day. An employee must have a daily rest period of 12 consecutive hours and a weekly rest period of 36 consecutive hours which, unless otherwise agreed, must include Sunday. An employee who occasionally works on a Sunday must receive double pay. 46

2.5.3 Leave (annual and sick leave)

The rules differ from industry sector to industry sector but usually stipulate the number of annual paid leave days an employee is allowed to take. The employee has to apply for annual leave in writing (some firms have special forms for this) to his/her direct supervisor. Only once such leave has been granted is the employee allowed to take leave. This leave may have to be taken over the year end weeks, is usually 15 working days in duration and does not include sick leave. However, in critical sectors, such as health care, airports and electricity generation, the employee may be required to work during some official holidays. The BCEA ruling on leave does not apply to an employee who works less than 24 hours a month for an employer or to leave granted in excess of the leave entitlement under this chapter. Employees are entitled to 21 consecutive days annual leave or, by agreement, one day for every 17 days worked or one hour for every 17 hours worked. Leave must be granted not later than six months after the end of the annual leave cycle. An employer must not pay an employee instead of granting leave except on termination of employment. Full-time employees are entitled to three days paid family responsibility leave per year, on request, when the employees child is born or sick, or in the event of the death of the employees spouse or life partner, or the employees parent, adoptive parent, grandparent, child, adopted child, grandchild or sibling. An employer may require reasonable proof. 47

Unpaid leave is usually granted at the discretion of the company after annual leave credit has been exhausted. Sick leave is calculated over a three-year period. According to the BCEA, an employee is entitled to six weeks paid sick leave in a period of 36 months. During the first six months, an employee is entitled to one days paid sick leave for every 26 days worked. An employer may require a medical certificate before paying an employee who is absent for more than two consecutive days or who is frequently absent. A pregnant employee is entitled to four consecutive months maternity leave.

2.5.5 Induction
Most established companies give new employees an induction manual and also offer an induction day/tour to introduce the new staff member to colleagues, explaining the way the business is run, where to find everything, and what the rules are that need to be adhered to. If no induction takes place, the new staff member would need to consult his/her supervisor and colleagues. Expectations from management will be that every employee will be aware of all rules and will adhere to them.

2.5.4 Remuneration (salaries and wages)

Levels of remuneration are set by industry norms. Payments depend on the employment contract and can be commission-based (e.g. on sales achieved) or include a monthly salary, bonuses, profit sharing, fringe benefits such as medical aid, pension or endowment fund, group life cover, car/petrol allowances (which are taxed), and other benefits which some larger companies may offer. Small companies may offer more flexible working hours instead of higher salaries. Wages are calculated by the number of hours ordinarily worked. Monthly remuneration or wage is four and one-third times the weekly wage. If calculated on a basis other than time, or if the employees remuneration or wage fluctuates significantly from period to period, any payment must be calculated by reference to remuneration or wage during the preceding 13 weeks or, if employed for a shorter period, for that period. An employer may not deduct money from an employees remuneration unless: The employee agrees in writing to the deduction of a specific debt The deduction is made in terms of a collective agreement, law, court order or arbitration award A deduction in respect of damage or loss caused by the employee may only be made by agreement and after the employer has followed a fair procedure. Employers must pay deductions and employer contributions to benefit funds (e.g. medical aid, pension fund, group life, etc.) within seven days.

2.5.6 Behaviour at work

You will be expected to be ethical in all your dealings at work, as well as with customers, suppliers and other business partners, and to show integrity under all circumstances. This includes displaying honesty and adhering to the company rules. It also means that you will not commit any crime (e.g. fraud, theft, accepting or offering bribes, using/dealing in drugs, displaying violent behaviour) or consume alcohol before/during working hours, smoke at your place of work, except in specially designated areas, or make yourself guilty of sexual harassment. While not a crime, using inappropriate language such as swearing, insulting and bullying are also prohibited and can lead to disciplinary action.

2.5.7 Employment rights and responsibilities

While some of these rights are guaranteed under current labour law (see the BCEA), most will be spelled out in the employment contract, e.g. the notice period, rules for termination of the contract, hours to be worked, remuneration, etc. Should you break these or any other company rules, the employer will call for a disciplinary meeting, which can be followed by a first written warning and possible dismissal after a second written warning for the same offence. The employee has the right to arbitration or can take the matter to the CCMA, the Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration. The CCMA is a dispute resolution body established in terms of the Labour Relations Act,66 of 1995 (LRA). It is an independent body that neither belongs to nor is controlled by any political party, trade union or business. The employee can also report the case to the Department of Labour should he/she feel that the dismissal was not in accordance with the contract, was 49

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constructive, i.e. that the employee was unfairly forced to resign, or the actual dismissal was unfair or discriminatory. A contract of employment may be terminated on notice of not less than (a) one week, if the employee has been employed for six months or less; (b) two weeks, if the employee has been employed for more than six months but not more than one year; (c) four weeks, if the employee has been employed for one year or more. Notice must be given in writing. The notice on termination of employment by an employer in terms of the Act does not prevent the employee challenging the fairness or lawfulness of the dismissal in terms of the Labour Relations Act, 1995 or any other law. On termination of employment, an employee is entitled to a certificate of service. Apart from the formal contract between employer and employee, there is also an informal understanding between the two parties. The informal understanding, closely linked to mutual expectations, can be a source of disappointment or of security and job satisfaction.
A psychological contract can be defined as an informal exchange agreement between an employer and its employee, which specifies mutual expectations in terms of the way in which the employer treats the employer and the employees output and contribution to the organisation.

You are also expected to show an awareness and understanding of appropriate business etiquette/manners and behaviour in different circumstances and cultures. This requires the right attitude and sound judgement. Groups of professions, such as medical doctors, lawyers, auditors, researchers and engineers, subscribe to a professional code of conduct that guides their professional conduct. Employers expect their management and staff to be professional in all their dealings. Not only does professionalism aid in productivity, efficiency and a better working climate, it also enhances the companys image, particularly when clients and suppliers are dealt with in a professional manner. The challenge is that new employees - and often even those who have already worked for a company for quite some time - do not know or understand all the rules and what it means to be professional. Western customs and cultures are not the same as those in Eastern countries or those in Africa - etiquette is a learned behaviour that has to be appropriate to its environment. This starts with table manners, the way we talk to each other, greet each other and follow proper business etiquette/rules. However, integrity, ethical behaviour, courtesy and respect should be ingrained in everybody, especially in those who want to succeed in life and in their chosen career.

2.6.1 Activity: list all the attributes that you believe show professionalism
Discuss your list with your fellow students. Did you all include the same attributes? Are there any attributes which led to discussion/conflict/disagreement?

2.6 Professionalism in the workplace

What is professionalism? In the workplace, these expectations are of conduct and levels of competence according to standards set by society, management, colleagues, customers or suppliers. In private life, these expectations are set by our families, friends and ourselves. Being professional means that your conduct will remain within or above those expectations - above reproach - at all times. Your conduct must be appropriate to all the circumstances and situations in which you find yourself. You must comply with the highest ethical standards (e.g. honesty, truthfulness, integrity, reliability and respectfulness) at all times. 50

2.6.2 Activity: which of those professional attributes do you already possess?

And which of those attributes do you not yet possess? Do others in your class seem to possess them?

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2.6.3 Improving your professionalism

If you analyse the professional attributes that you should possess and compare them with those you claim you do have now, which attributes do you still need to master? If you manage to improve your conduct and to be seen to be truly professional in all your dealings with other people, you will gain others respect and gain sustainable credibility which, in turn, will serve you well in your private life and in business. It also builds trust and creates loyalty in others. Such professional conduct does not always come without challenges. If peers and less mature people judge you as stuck-up or old-fashioned for being professional, having integrity and acting accordingly there may be pressure on new employees (you) not to conform, i.e. to be a rebel. People who live and work in a different environment may have different opinions. However, your success in life will depend on your conduct and professionalism. Your professionalism will be measured in business by the extent to which managers, colleagues, staff, suppliers and customers trust you and can rely on you. As a professional person, you will honour all commitments, avoid conflicts of interest and meet expectations in the workplace. In earlier sections, we discussed the competencies you should strive to master. Professionalism combines the most prominent traits. Professionalism also includes the following: Good business etiquette Competence and confidence Emotional maturity/self-control Empathy and compassion Good manners (table, human interaction, greeting, voice level) Quality of your business/college/university relationships Quality of your personal relationships Respect for others and their property Responsibility/accountability Telephone etiquette Trustworthiness/honesty/reliability/integrity Good verbal and non-verbal communication 52

Competent business writing and email communication Appropriate dress/grooming Refer back to Activities and - did you include these attributes in your own list of what you regard as professional behaviour, and what you believe you have already mastered? Which attributes of the above list have you not included? Do you possess these skills? Remember, we do not live in isolation. The way we behave is a reflection of the way we think of ourselves and others, and how we judge circumstances and situations. Often, we become used to acting and reacting in a specific manner, not always conscious of the consequences of our behaviour. Being professional requires us to adapt our behaviour to develop our competencies continuously.

2.7 Devising a personal and professional development plan

We have worked through employer expectations, your rights and responsibilities, your current strengths and weaknesses, personality traits, habits and competencies. You have also identified to what extent you already act in a professional manner, or where you still lack professionalism. The assessment of your current performance also leads us to your future needs. These, in turn, will either become opportunities or threats to your career progression.

2.7.1 The aims and objectives

The aims and objectives of a personal and professional development plan are to allow you to become a sought-after, employable and professional employee, which will form the basis of a successful and rewarding career. The development plan will allow you to move successfully from the current status to the enriched and developed status, closing the gap between desired outcome and actual outcome.

2.7.2 Achievement dates, review dates

The sooner you have a list of all gaps, i.e. those problem areas where you need improvement, the sooner you will be able to start appropriate corrective action which will bring the desired results. 53

There will be a monthly review in class to compare progress made against the planned steps and commitments you had made. Some steps will be easy to measure (e.g. how often have you been late or punctual, and have you completed tasks on time?), while others will be difficult to assess by yourself - you need others to confirm whether you have improved, e.g. are more polite, do not shout, and act professionally at all times. Particular emphasis will be placed on those dates that you set at the outset, by when you wanted to have finally achieved the particular improvements. If you set these dates too far in the future, your challenge will be that the change may come too late to have any impact on your intended improved employability. You may already have had some job interviews - and not made a wonderful impression. Your gaps may have had a negative impact on your final years at college or university if you were not yet truly professional in your behaviour. So, set your personal goal dates reasonably soon, and be realistic yet ambitious. Then check on your progress so that you can see if you need to speed up your personal development or if you are ahead of your goal. Review dates will help you in this assessment.

2.7.4 Responsibilities
As a responsible adult, we are expected to: be responsible for all our actions be aware of how we act and react in different environments be aware of how our actions impact on direct and indirect relationships have learned our decision-making processes and skills know how to make ourselves marketable for both private and business environments. You are responsible for achieving your goals, and remaining committed to closing the gaps between current undesirable behaviour and improved employability and professionalism. The same applies to what you make of your studies, your career and your life. Your personal goals will obviously be influenced by what you decide you want to become - as long as you keep in mind what your potential employers will be looking for. Remember the tough economic environment and the fact that you are competing against global competitors for your potential job! It is your personal responsibility to make yourself as marketable as possible. Besides improving your personal and professional or business skills, you have to network with people who may help you to build these skills. Both direct and indirect relationships will influence your life, and they may test your personal and professional behaviours.

2.7.3 Learning programme/activities, action plans

During the next five units of this course, we will revisit your personal and professional SWOT analysis, re-look at your growth areas, and verify how far you are still from the ideal status of your goal and goal achievement date. Make sure that you still retain your current strengths. There is no point in improving some personal traits if this is at the expense of other positive traits. We will also include role play to see how you react under different circumstances, and how much you have learned about professional behaviour, the job interview and employer demands. You will be asked to submit your own opinion about some of the Internet sites you were asked to visit. Your action towards achievement of these goals starts when you read this.

2.7.5 Decision-making processes and skills

Part of learning how to set goals is the decision-making process and the skills needed to make successful decisions. We are used to making daily decisions: when and if to get up; what to eat for breakfast, lunch and dinner; what to do during the day; when and if to study; when to go out at night or over the weekend; whom to date. Most of these decisions are taken without our being too conscious that we make them. To make a decision assumes that we have a choice and can select one of the two or more options. Sometimes it is difficult to make a decision, i.e. when the risk of making a mistake is so great that we are scared to make the wrong choice because the consequences could be serious.

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What are the skills needed in effective decision making? The following steps help to make effective decisions: List the options open to you. For each option, list the potential positive outcome if you were to select this option - the best that could happen. Then list the potential drawbacks or negative consequences of selecting this option - the worst that could happen. Now compare the positive outcomes of these options with each other - which sound more convincing? Which come closer to what you are really looking or hoping for? How realistic are these positive outcomes? Then compare the negative consequences of these options with each other - which of them will potentially cause more serious consequences? How realistic are these negative consequences? At this stage, you should be able to make your decision based on the results of your comparison and which of your options may have fewer potential negative consequences and more realistic positive consequences. Once you have made your decision, commit to it - do not leave a back door open! People who are undecided, who jump from one decision to another, or who do not see things through to their conclusion will never know whether the first decision would not have been the better one, after all. Indecisiveness is a negative reflection on a persons character as it implies that the person lacks decision-making skills.

2.8 Completing a cv and forms needed in the work place and job interview
An effective curriculum vitae (CV) accompanies you all your life and should be kept up-to-date. New achievements (e.g. Matric, drivers licence, degree/ diploma, extra courses, working experience, new skills) need to be added, as well as new contact details and new references. A CV is more comprehensive than a resum, which is more commonly used in the USA and is a shortened version of a CV. Please consult examples on websites, such as the site given below. A complete and up-to-date CV, together with a tailor-made cover letter written for the specific job and the specific company you want to work for, can open many doors. A CV that is full of spelling and grammatical errors, is incomplete, has not been updated, and does not contain contact details will not go beyond the first level screening process. The trend is also to have a CV no longer than three pages. Work experience and qualifications must therefore be given priority in your compiling of a CV. A curriculum vitae typically includes the following: Name Date of birth Nationality Identity number Home address Postal address Telephone number Cellphone number Fax number Email address Drivers licence Languages able to speak/read/write Work experience Qualifications Education Leadership positions References 57

2.7.6 Activity: decision making

Making a decision is a process, as we discussed. Make a decision regarding your potential employment. Would you rather work in the IT software field, in programming, in IT hardware solutions/installations or another ICT field? Or any other job, not linked to ICT? Do you need more information? Go to the Internet and find such information and then apply it to the process. Follow the steps we outlined and come to a decision. This decision may also be a totally different option (e.g. that you want to become an entrepreneur in one of these fields and are not looking to find employment; it may even be that you want to work in a totally different field). Give full detail as to why you made such decision in the end.

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2.8.1 Activity: writing an up-to-date curriculum vitae

bit.ly/WJymHS Google South Africa - CV writing skills
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2.10 Portfolio building: developing and maintaining a personal portfolio

While your transcripts consist of the official papers, such as certificates, degrees, diplomas and licences, your portfolio should contain examples of your skills, of work you have done and want to prove that you can do. This can include being able to write specific programs or software, or it can include letters from people who were satisfied with your work/references. The ideal is to ask for a written reference letter every time you have worked somewhere or have dealt with a company that can vouch for your skills. An artist would collect examples of his artwork; a model would include photographs showing her in different settings/poses; an author would include the executive summaries of his books; a publisher a number of the published magazines. You will have to decide what you will include in your portfolio. It should give a prospective employer a good idea of your abilities and skills. Similar to the transcripts, you have to keep your portfolio updated regularly, and keep it safe and accessible when you need it. This also proves you are organised, tidy and professional. It is not a good idea to have parts of your portfolio packed away all over your home, difficult to find when you suddenly need everything for a job interview.

Download three different CV templates from the Internet. Select the one that you feel is the most appropriate for your needs. Complete it to the best of your ability. Check all your facts. Now write a cover letter that accompanies your CV. You are applying for a job at Microsoft. Specify what job it is you are applying for at the company. State why you should be chosen for the vacancy. Spell check and grammar check your work. Discuss your drafts with your lecturer.

2.9 Maintaining transcripts and a cv

When you received your Matric certificate, it represented a fantastic achievement and freedom (from high school) for you. After you were accepted at college or university, the Matric certificate lost its perceived glory/value for you. On the other hand, it was essential for your acceptance at college/university. You need to have a written and certified record of every single achievement you master, or of a new course passed or attended. All these documents are referred to as transcripts. They will form a very important part of your career planning, your business and your private life. You may need them to get funding from a financial institution. You will definitely need them when you apply for a job, when you want to study further, and when you need an up-to-date biography. The safest way to keep your transcripts is to make a number of colour photocopies, have all of them certified by a Commissioner of Oaths, and then keep the original documents separate from the photocopies, safe against water/damp, fire or other destructive influences. A fire-proof steel box, a safe or even a bank deposit box are all options. In addition, scan your certificates and keep them backed up electronically. The certified photocopies should be filed at a place where these can be easily retrieved. Include an up-to-date copy of your CV.

2.11 The job interview

You have prepared your CV and have a perfect file containing your transcripts and your portfolio. You have applied for a vacancy and have been asked to present yourself to the potential employer for an interview. What do you have to do now? The most important steps towards a successful job interview are: Be well organised Confirm your interview before you leave home Know everything there is to know about the company beforehand Make sure you have the correct interview address and know who to ask for at reception 59

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 Have all the relevant documents (including your up-to-date CV, transcripts and portfolio) put together neatly in a folder which you leave behind after the interview (do not leave any originals behind) Arrive there early Be appropriately dressed for the job Be confident but not too assertive Listen to the person interviewing you and answer appropriately Be conscious of your own language and body language Apply what you have learned about employability and professionalism Ask questions about the company, the job, what it entails, working hours, the work place, who the team consists of and who it reports to Be careful that you do not come across as being only money-orientated, a clock watcher or argumentative Show energy and enthusiasm for the job and the company, and a career there.

2.12 Conclusion
In this unit, we covered various methods to assess and monitor own performance, such as attitude, behaviour, goal setting and achievements, communication skills, time management, and a number of other essential personal and professional skills. We also looked at completing a CV, your transcripts and your portfolio. We concluded this unit with the job interview.

Test your knowledge

Answer the following questions by giving full explanations: State what a potential employer will expect of you - give the 10 most important attributes. Define professionalism in business. Which professional attributes do you possess and which do you need to develop? What do you need to remember when going for a job interview? What must be included in your CV? What are transcripts? How must you keep them and what must you do with them? Define what a portfolio consists of. Do you have a portfolio? What does your portfolio include?

2.11.1 Activity: the job interview role play

Divide the class into sets of three students: one job applicant and two HR representatives per set. Arrange for two students in your class to interview as if they were the HR representatives from Microsoft. The students who represent Microsoft must get all the relevant information about Microsoft and its HR policies via the Internet. The student who takes the role of the applicant has to prepare himself/ herself for a job interview at Microsoft. Which documents would you take with you? Include your up-to-date CV. After the interview, discuss how you came across to your co-students; would they hire you? Why or why not? Would you want to work for the company (Microsoft) based on the information they provided you with?

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Unit 3: Effective communication and time management

Unit 3 is aligned with Learning Outcome 2 and Assessment Criteria 2.1, 2.2 and 1.4: Learning Outcome 2: Be able to demonstrate acquired interpersonal and transferable skills Assessment Criterion 2.1: Communicate in a variety of styles and an appropriate manner at various levels Assessment Criterion 2.2: Demonstrate effective time management Assessment Criterion 1.4: Reflect on own development against original aims and objectives set in the personal and professional development plan By the end of this unit, you should be able to: Communicate effectively via verbal and non-verbal communication Apply awareness and use of body language, openness and responsiveness, and formal and informal feedback to and from colleagues Use IT as an effective communication medium Conduct team meetings Be aware of good interpersonal skills: soft skills, e.g. personal effectiveness, working with others, use of initiative, negotiating skills, assertiveness skills and social skills Apply good time management: prioritising workloads, using time effectively, making and keeping appointments, and keeping reliable estimates of task time Implement your corrective employability and professional development plan (your EPD targets, time lines and outcomes)

3.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, we covered how to assess yourself and compare that image with how others could possibly see you, judge you and form their opinions of you. This image could be that of a mature, responsible, professional person who is ready to be employed and promises to have a great career. Or it could be that of a person whom employers and other people around you would avoid having in their team. We covered professionalism, how it is defined and achieved, how to complete a CV, how to prepare for a job interview, and how to keep transcripts and a portfolio. In this unit, we will examine appropriate communication in detail, as well as good time management. We will conclude with a progress review of your personal and professional goals for improvement. Communication starts very soon after birth, when a baby cries to indicate hunger, discomfort or pain. Later on as children and adults, we communicate with others around us. Telephones, cellphones, letters and all electronic media allow us to communicate across the globe, sometimes in an instant. This ease of communication has its own challenges. This unit will show the student how to communicate more effectively in different circumstances, with various audiences and target groups. We will also analyse good time management, an important contributor to an all-round, professional image and better performance. Proven time management skills - and good communication - make a graduate more employable.

3.2 Effective communication

Communication (from Latin communis, meaning to share) is the activity of conveying information through the exchange of thoughts, messages or information, via speech, visuals, signals, writing or behaviour.

Communication requires a sender, a message and a recipient. The receiver need not be present or aware of the senders intent to communicate at the time of communication. Communication can occur across vast distances in time and space. The communication process is only complete once the receiver has received and understood the message of the sender. Communication is the flow or exchange of information among people or groups of people. Some communication has its own momentum, e.g. the 63

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so-called grapevine where rumours, gossip, truth mixed with half-truths, facts or news that was supposed to be formally announced at a later stage has already spread throughout the company or among friends. It is part of informal communication. Besides communication through the use of words (verbal), non-verbal communication exists in the form of body language, eye contact, sign language, pictures, graphics, sound and writing. Tyler, Kossen & Ryan sum communication up as the process of information exchange by and among people (2005: 9). The South African Constitution also includes communication to/with people with disabilities (the display of text, Braille, tactile communication, large print, accessible multimedia, etc.).

(including various art forms) progressed to other surfaces, materials and structures, e.g. to primitive writing on papyrus, clay, wax and paper. Originally, tribes and other groups of people developed their own basic types of languages and alphabets or picture forms to communicate their messages, but the introduction of the Roman alphabet served as the foundation of most modern Western languages. Once the printing press was invented, it was easier and quicker to communicate with thousands of people at a time, instead of the handmade, hand-written and individually drawn/coloured copies of books. Centuries later, communication exploded, when the printed messages were first complemented by simpler electronic media, such as the radio, telex, fax, telephone and television in modern societies. These were later partially replaced by computers, laptops, tablets, cellphones, Skype, etc. Literally millions of people in South Africa do not write letters anymore; they use tools such as SMS, BBM, MMS and email. There is a risk of potential misunderstanding with any communication. The most carefully worded sentence, speech and presentation can be misinterpreted by somebody who has a different agenda, viewpoint, bias, cultural upbringing or language skills. While we assume that careful formulation of questions and answers, paraphrasing, examples and stories make communication clearer and easier, this is no guarantee that the message actually will be understood. To make sure that your written communication has been understood in the way you intended, you should follow it up with a phone call, especially if the written communication was very important. Even with electronic media, we cannot assume that the email was delivered/read, that it was understood in the way it was intended, and that it will elicit the desired effect/action as we are not present when it is received. This is problematic because we cannot explain ourselves, and add meaning with gestures, facial expressions or body language. There are various methods to make sure that both parties in a conversation understand each other, e.g. paraphrasing or asking the other person to repeat in their own words what was said.

3.2.1 Oral communication

Oral communication refers to spoken and verbal communication, such as conversations, arguments, debates, speeches, presentations and discussions. In most cases, such communication looks for or receives immediate feedback. Speeches and presentations can also exist without instant feedback but are usually followed up with question-and-answer sessions to establish comprehension of the messages and opinions, or to receive a vote.

3.2.2 Business/professional communication

Business communication is official communication, such as that between people working in a company, or that with customers/clients and suppliers during the course of business. Professional communication normally takes place between doctor and patient, lawyer and client, and other professionals and their clients. It is usually advisory and often more formal in nature, usually full of technical terms and jargon.

3.2.3 Written communication

Written/drawn communication by humans started long before the written word: it can be seen in cave drawings, on stone tablets, on rock paintings and in carvings in ancient civilisations. From there, human communication 64

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3.2.4 Effective communication

All communication (face-to-face, oral, written or in pictures) has some effect, whether such effect is what the communicator wanted or wished for, or not. Some communication may also have an indirect effect. For example, when respondents are asked questions about certain actions, they become more conscious of possible choices of such actions than they would normally have been. This causes a change in their normal behaviour. Under ideal circumstances, effective communication achieves the desired effect or result. It creates, maintains and increases the effect (think of advertising and changed buying behaviour). It serves the purpose for which it was designed, e.g. to cause some action, to inform, to create awareness and understanding, or to communicate a certain idea. Effective communication ensures, as far as possible, that the message is not distorted during the communication process. This is often difficult. For example, advertising can be distorted by the medium where it appears. An advert for a new car might be shown on TV seconds after a news flash where that car model was involved in a major accident which will discredit the perception of safety of the brand. In the same way, it would be difficult to convince a manager that you are a trustworthy person, reliable and ready for promotion after you have arrived late for work for the third time that week. Even the most convincing speech would then not be credible or effective.

Sender

Encoding

Message Media

Decoding

Receiver

NOISE

Feedback

Response

Figure 1 Communication process

3.3.1 Physical barriers

Physical barriers to effective communication include physical distances between two parties wanting to communicate (separate countries, cities or buildings) or communication equipment that does not function properly (telephone/cellphone problems, no signal, power outages and broken equipment). Sometimes, different software programs cause incompatibility and lack of effective communication. Different versions of the same software program, earlier and later versions/updates, and those suitable exclusively for one make of laptop or tablet/PC and not others, all contribute to communication problems.

3.3 Barriers to effective human communication

Barriers to successful communication mean that the intended communication does not take place, it is distorted or it cannot be understood as it is too difficult for its intended target group. It can also mean that it includes too many messages at once, or conflicting messages. Too much jargon, and too many complicated words or sentences all hinder effective communication.

3.3.2 Structure
Communication problems can emerge in organisations (business, government or educational institutions) when the reporting structures are undefined, vague, duplicated or non-existent. Communication can, therefore, then also not follow any efficient path. Such problems can be overcome by setting up a proper organogram (a graph showing all people in management and their positions/roles in the company) that clearly outlines channels of communication.

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3.3.3 Attitudinal barriers

Attitudinal barriers can hinder effective communication in families, in learning environments and among friends (when their attitudes clash). It can also exist among staff in organisations. Such poor communication can be caused by poor management, lack of consultation with employees, personality conflicts with staff delaying or refusing to communicate, and staff who are not motivated or satisfied at work, or who are resistant to change.

Organisational noise, where poor communication can prevent accurate interpretation Cultural noise, where misunderstandings stereotypical assumptions can cause

Psychological noise, where prejudices and attitudes can also make communication difficult

3.4 Clarity in communication

In order to communicate effectively with others, communication has to be as clear as possible. If you have good communications skills, you will also be properly understood. A lot of people complain about not being properly understood, e.g. nobody ever understands me, but they do not seek proper feedback or refuse to accept (negative) feedback from those who do not understand them. If nobody understands their message, then maybe the message is not clear in the first place. How do you know whether you communicate properly when you write emails, talk in meetings, participate in conference calls, write reports, create PowerPoint presentations or debate with your colleagues? Audiovisual communication is effective when visual, oral or written messages support each other. Make sure that you communicate in the clearest, simplest and most effective way possible. Check the following list when you are trying to communicate in writing or orally. Effective communication, also thought of as the 7 Cs, is: Clear Concise Concrete Correct Coherent Complete Courteous http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newCS_85.htm

3.3.4 Ambiguity of words and phrases

When sentences or words sound the same but have different meanings to different people, distortion and misunderstandings are often the result. It is up to the person sending the message to make sure that the message is clear and will not be misunderstood.

3.3.5 Individual linguistic ability

The use of industry-specific jargon or inappropriate words in communication usually prevents the recipients from understanding the message correctly. This also applies to South Africas multilingual society, where home languages and the languages spoken/written at primary school are often different from the language used at tertiary institutions.

3.3.6 Physiological barriers

These barriers to effective communication may be the result of individuals ill health, poor eyesight or hearing difficulties.

3.3.7 Communication noise

Communication noise happens when there is interference with the decoding of messages sent over a channel by an encoder. These can be: Environmental or physical noise. Try talking in a disco/club! Physiological impairment, such as deafness or blindness, preventing messages from being received as they were intended Semantic noise, where there are different interpretations of the meanings of certain words, causing distortion Syntactical noise, where mistakes in vocabulary and grammar occur 68

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3.4.1 Clear messages

When you write or speak to someone, be clear about your message. What is your purpose in communicating with this person? If you are not sure, then the other party will not be sure either. To be clear, limit the number of concepts in each sentence. Make sure that it is easy for your listener or reader to understand what you mean. People should not have to read between the lines and guess or make assumptions to understand what you are trying to say.

3.4.6 Complete communication

Complete communication provides the audience with everything they need to know, need to be informed of and what action should be taken. It includes all relevant information such as contact names, dates, times, locations and who needs to be invited, informed, or needs to attend a meeting.

3.4.7 Courteous communication

Courteous communication is polite, friendly and open. There are no hidden insults or passive-aggressive tones. You keep your listeners or readers viewpoint in mind, and you show that you consider their opinions, wishes, needs and concerns. Always use proper address, titles, etc.

3.4.2 Concise messages

Concise communication sticks to the point and keeps it brief. Do not repeat yourself, do not say something such as in other words when you can say it in the original sentence. Delete unnecessary adjectives or waffle. Eliminate words like for instance, you see, definitely, kind of, literally, basically, I mean, in my opinion, I think that, etc., unless the words actually contribute to the meaning of the sentence or the overall message.

3.4.8 Credible communication

Is your message straightforward, honest and to the point, and is it truly credible? Do you have conflicting points in your communication, something that does not make sense or raises doubt about you or your message? Have you verified facts and figures?

3.4.3 Concrete messages

When your message is concrete, then your audience has a clear picture of what you are telling them. There are details (but not too many) and some facts, and clear focus. Your message is solid. The message has to come alive through its details.

3.4.9 Creative communication

Is your communication creative? Does it evoke vivid images of what you are trying to say? Does your communication break through the clutter often present in media environments? Does it stand out and invite a response despite most recipients receiving hundreds of email messages daily?

3.4.4 Correct messages

Correct communication is suitable and targeted to its audience. It is also free of grammatical or spelling errors. It fits your audiences background and level of education or knowledge. It takes into consideration different languages and different cultural backgrounds.

3.5 Face-to-face communication

Face-to-face communication has to be clear and concise to meet the diverse needs and multiple purposes of business and social communication situations. Presentations, interviews, meetings and conferences are an integral part of any professional environment. Well-prepared and wellexecuted presentations leave an indelible impression on superiors, peers and subordinates alike. Ever wondered what people think of you when they meet you, their first impressions? Is it a professional image or a sloppy, couldnt care impression? It takes just a quick glance for others to decide on what you are like when they meet you for the first time. 71

3.4.5 Coherent messages

Coherent communication is logical, has all concepts or points connected and relevant to the main topic, and the tone and flow of the message is consistent.

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First impressions last! Others base their opinion about you on your appearance, your body language, your demeanour, your mannerisms and how you are dressed. Every time you meet somebody new, or even when you see other acquaintances again, they check you out and form an impression of you. First impressions are lasting and very seldom change, making them extremely important. If the people you meet are important to your future success in business or in your private life, then work hard at creating a good first impression. In Unit 1, we discussed a whole range of attributes you should already possess, such as being punctual, polite and honest. Effective communication, which will lead to your being employable and professional, needs you to master all those skills. Which skills aid effective communication? What do you need to do to communicate well? Be on time or punctual to create a good impression. Be yourself, at ease. If you are feeling uncomfortable and on edge, it may also make the other person uncomfortable. To communicate a proper message, you need to come across as calm, confident and professional.

For business and social meetings, appropriate dress also varies between countries and cultures. A clean and tidy appearance is appropriate for all business and social occasions - a good haircut or shave, and no punk hairstyle except if you are applying for a DJ job. Clean and tidy clothes are essential. Neat and tidy make up too; nothing too heavy. Ladies must be aware that there are differences between evening make up and office style. Make sure your grooming is appropriate and helps to make you feel you can belong. Appropriate dressing and grooming make you feel more confident and relaxed, communicate a professional image and create a good first impression. You do not need to sacrifice your individuality but you should retain that for your private life. In any business setting, wear appropriate business attire, e.g. for a formal company evening social event, wear appropriate evening attire.

3.5.2 Attitude, attitude, attitude!

A winning smile goes a long way, so sincere friendliness, politeness, confidence and good manners communicate a lot about a person - beyond their actual business skills. Everybody likes to deal with a positive person; nobody likes a grouch. Your body language communicates more than your words do. It communicates confidence and self-assurance. Stand tall, smile, make eye contact and greet with a firm handshake. Switch off your cellphone! All of this will help you project confidence. Try to keep nervous habits under control, such as biting your nails or fidgeting. Project a positive attitude, even in the face of criticism or in the case of nervousness. Be courteous and listen attentively. Anything less than perfect behaviour and a positive attitude will ruin your chance of making a positive first impression. Be on your best behaviour!

3.5.1 Dress and present yourself appropriately

Physical appearance and a good dress sense matter. The person you are meeting for the first time does not know you and your appearance is usually the first clue they have to form an opinion of you. This does not mean you need to dress in designer clothes, look like a model or arrive in a flashy car to create a positive first impression. You may even give the image that you really do not need that job, that you will not work hard enough as you will only be interested in your appearance. So, make sure you dress appropriately for the situation, the time of day and the environment. It makes no sense to arrive in high heels on a building site, or dressed in overalls or jeans for an interview at a bank. Your appearance will communicate a message about you. What image are you selling, and is that what you want to communicate? Aim to match your attire with that of the organisation you wish to join. What is the appropriate outfit for the meeting or occasion? In a business setting, what is the appropriate business attire? Suit, blazer, casual? What is the person you will be meeting likely to wear so that you can wear a similar level outfit? Never try and out-dress the person who will interview you. 72

3.5.3 Learn how to make small talk

To handle difficult conversations, you should first put the other party at ease. For this, you will need to be able to make some small talk. Prepare some questions before your meeting, ask him/her about his/her company, the office premises (if they are impressive) - anything general and not too personal. You can talk about the traffic and the weather as a last 73

resort - but stay clear of discussions about politics, religion, racial issues or prejudices. Have a look around his/her office. Do you see any photos of him/her being involved in a hobby that you also have; do you have something in common with the person you are meeting? If so, this can be a great way to start the conversation and keep it flowing.

companys official templates, even when communicating with a close friend inside the company.

3.6.2 Composition and style

Once you know what and to whom you are writing, you actually have to start writing. Often, you dont know how to start. Try these tips for composing and styling your document: Start with your reader/s. So far, they know nothing about what you want to tell them. What do they need to know first? Create an outline. It will help you if you are writing a longer document to identify which steps to take and in which order, and to break the letter/ document into manageable pieces of information. Include empathy; why should they care about your message? What is the benefit for them? Remember your readers needs. If you are trying to persuade someone to do something, make sure that you communicate why they should listen to you and do what you want them to do. Pretend that you have only 15 seconds to explain yourself. What do you say? This is probably your main theme. Use simple language. Do not use long and complicated words to impress people, or long sentences where the meaning gets lost.

3.6 Communication - writing skills

While the spoken word can often be forgotten, the written message can last a long time. It is vital to communicate clearly, concisely and effectively when writing letters, messages, documents, submissions, memoranda, assignments, exams or other text. People do not have time to read lengthy emails, nor do they have the patience to re-read mails to try and figure out what you really want to say. The better your writing skills are, the better you communicate. These impressions can help build your career. Lets look at how you can improve your writing skills and avoid common mistakes.

3.6.1 Audience and format

The first step to writing clearly is choosing the appropriate format. Do you need to send an informal SMS or email, or do you need to write a formal report, presentation or formal letter? The format dictates your writing style how formal or informal your tone should be. An email to a client can never have the same tone as an email to a friend. Who will read your message? Is it aimed at senior managers, the ICT team or the HR manager? With everything you write, your readers define your tone as well as the content. Also keep in mind that even if the atmosphere of the company is casual, your written communication should be more structured. Letters will remain on file/on the company email log/record. You may need to keep copies available for yourself should a dispute ever arise as to who had agreed to what and who had raised the topic first. Letters and emails could even be used in a court of law - so do not be tempted to include some snide remarks, or derogatory comments about others or the company. Be very careful about making personal comments in emails that may contain the 74

3.6.3 Structure of your written communication

Make your document as reader friendly as possible. Use headings, subheadings, bullet points and numbering whenever possible to break up the text. A page that is broken up into short paragraphs, with section headings and bullet points, is easier to read. A document that is easy to scan will get read more often, or achieve better results, than a document with long, dense paragraphs of text. Headings must grab the readers attention. Questions must keep the reader engaged and curious. In emails and proposals, use short, factual headings and subheadings. Add graphs, charts and pictures, where applicable. Visual 75

aids can communicate important information much quicker and easier than text.

Companys indicates possession. (Example: The companys trucks had not been maintained properly.) Companies is plural. (Example: The companies in this industry are suffering.) Learn more about commonly misused words, misused apostrophes and other grammatical errors. Many people rush through their documents, but this is how you miss mistakes. Be aware that the automatic spell checker may insert the wrong word, synonym or spelling. Proofread your headings and subheadings, and not just the text. Read the document out loud which forces you to go more slowly, so that you are more likely to notice mistakes. Proofread one sentence at a time, working your way from the end to the beginning. This helps you focus on errors, not on content. The more you write, the more effectively you will write! (http://www.MindTools.com)

3.6.4 Grammatical errors

Errors in any written communication will make you look unprofessional. Avoid mistakes and use the spell checker. Then proofread again to check after having used the spell checker/grammar checker. If you have difficulty writing or do not feel confident about it, ask a friend or colleague, who is a good writer, to read your document before you send it. Here are some examples of commonly misused words: Affect/effect Affect is a verb meaning to influence. (Example: The economic forecast will affect our projected income.) Effect is a noun meaning the result or outcome. (Example: What is the effect of the proposal?) Then/than Then is an adverb indicating a sequence in time. (Example: We went to dinner, then we saw a movie.) Than is a conjunction used for comparison. (Example: The dinner was more expensive than the movie.) Your/youre Your is a possessive. (Example: Is that your file?) Youre is a contraction of you are. (Example: Youre the new manager.) Note: Also watch out for other common homophones (words that sound alike but have different spellings and meanings) such as their/ theyre/there, to/too/two, and so on. Its/its Its is a possessive. (Example: That is its size.) Its is a contraction of It is. (Example: Its raining today.) (Yes, it is this way around!) Companys/companies (and other possessives vs. plurals) 76

3.7 Non-verbal communication

Non-verbal communication conveys meaning in the form of non-word messages. Most of our communication is non-verbal, also known as body language. Non-verbal communication includes gestures, body language, posture, facial expressions, eye contact, communication through clothing, hairstyles, symbols and tone of voice. Speech has non-verbal elements known as para-language. It includes voice quality, emotion and speaking style, rhythm, intonation and stress (emphasis). Written texts include non-verbal elements, such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words and the use of emoticons to convey emotional expressions in pictorial form (http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/ non-verbal-communication).

3.7.1 Understanding non-verbal communication

The difference between what people say and our comprehension of what they are saying is conveyed through non-verbal communication. Develop your awareness of the signs and signals of body language so that you can more easily understand other people, and also communicate more accurately and effectively with them.

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Subtle and less subtle gestures, facial expressions and shifts in our whole bodies indicate what we really feel. The way we talk, walk, sit and stand all say something about us, the way we feel, and what we really mean and would like to express. However, when reading other peoples body language, do not over-react to some signals you believe are there - some body movements may be habit, or caused by physical problems/discomfort and may have nothing to do with the alternative signal. Being able to read body language and understanding what it means allows you to read people more easily. This puts you in a better position to communicate effectively with them. By increasing your understanding of others, you can also become more aware of the messages that you convey to them. Often we say one thing yet our body language reveals something different. This sends mixed messages to other people. What do we really mean to say? For example, if a person is communicating to you calmly, but the posture of his body and the position of his hands indicate that he is tense, you could reply in a calming way to try to put him at ease. When verbal and non-verbal communication is contradictory, the recipient of the message, i.e. the listener, is prone to believe the non-verbal message rather than the spoken words.

3.7.3 Defensiveness
Think of a time in a meeting when the other person was defensive and did not really listen. You ideally wanted him/her to be open and receptive to what you had to say. Some of the common signs that the person you are speaking with may be feeling defensive include: Hand/arm gestures are small and close to his or her body. Facial expressions are minimal. Body is physically turned away from you. Arms are crossed in front of his or her body. Eyes maintain little contact, or are downcast. By picking up these signs, you can change what you say or how you say it to help the other person become more at ease and more receptive to what you are saying. You can also monitor your own body language to ensure that your messages say that you are open and receptive to what is being discussed. Some signs and signals that people are not listening to you and are not really interested in your message include: Heads are down. Eyes are glazed or closing, or staring at something else. Hands may be picking at clothes, or fiddling with pens. People may be writing or doodling. (Note, however, that some researchers suggest that this can help people concentrate more effectively.) They may be sitting slumped in their chairs. Sitting at a computer/with a cellphone, not stopping yet attempting to listen. When someone appears not to be engaged in what is going on, you can ask them a direct question. Or perhaps arrange another more convenient time to talk to them, when they are ready to listen to you.

3.7.2 Confidence
You can identify some common signs and signals that give away whether others are feeling confident or not. Typical things to look for in confident people include: Posture standing tall with shoulders back. Eye contact solid with a smiling face. Gestures with hands and arms purposeful and deliberate. Speech slow and clear. Tone of voice moderate to low. You can use this knowledge to convey feelings that you are not actually experiencing but would like to project, e.g. you can use these confidence signs to project confidence.

3.7.4 Lying
Being able to tell whether a person is being untruthful will stand you in good stead in your future life. Some of the typical signs and signals that a person is not honest or not fully truthful include:

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Eyes keep little or no eye contact, or there may be rapid eye movements, with pupils constricted. Note that down cast eyes in certain cultures are a sign of respect. Hand or fingers are in front of his or her mouth when speaking. His or her body is physically turned away from you, or there are unusual/ unnatural body gestures. His or her breathing rate increases. Complexion changes, such as red in the face or neck area. Perspiration increases. Voice changes, such as change in pitch, stammering or throat clearing. Vague and evasive answers to direct questions, or no answer. Over-explaining trivial issues with irrelevant details. Remember that everyones personal body language is slightly different. If you notice some of the typical non-verbal signs of lying, do not jump to conclusions as these signals can be confused with the signals of nervousness. Probe further, ask more questions and explore the area in more detail to determine whether they are being truthful or not.

and just notice how they act and react to each other. Try to guess what they are saying or get a sense of what is going on between them. In that way, you will be developing your observational skills and become a better communicator. Body language impacts a great deal on how we communicate and can reflect quite accurately what is going on inside us. It includes body movements and gestures (legs, arms, hands, head and torso), posture, muscle tension, eye contact, skin colouring (flushed red), and even peoples breathing rate and perspiration. Additionally, the tone of voice, the rate of speech and the pitch of the voice all add to the actual words that are being used, sometimes replacing the spoken word.

3.8 It as an effective communication medium

In this section, we will discuss IT as a commun ications tool and as a career. With so many challenges in todays business environment, it does not make any sense to invest thousands of rands into developing a career where one cannot guarantee a positive future. The only career that has future guarantees is ICT. There is a huge demand for software developers and forecasts predict a growth in demand for especially Web developers, says Gartner. Gartner maintains that cloud computing is an evolving concept that will take many years to fully mature. He also underlines the fact that the cloud computing model is not simply the next generation of the Internet. Furthermore, the move towards cloud computing and virtualisation has brought about innovative ideas and has become one of the most prominent communication trends in IT today. What does cloud computing and virtualisation mean for the future of IT skills? Cloud computing is driving the change away from individual data access/ storage to a shared offsite data bank. This introduces exciting opportunities and costly challenges. Organisations need to understand these changes to develop realistic cloud sourcing strategies and contracts that can reduce risk.

3.7.5 Interviews, negotiations and reflection

By taking some time to reflect before you answer a question, you indicate to the person asking the questions that they have asked you a good question and it is important enough for you to take time to think before you answer. Showing that you are indeed thinking over your answer is a positive thing. Some typical signs and signals that a person is reflecting on his/her answer include: Eyes look away and return to engage contact only when answering. Finger stroking on chin. Hand to cheek. Head tilted with eyes looking up. To summarise, each person is unique, and their signs and signals can point to a different underlying cause, different past experiences or differences based on/caused by differences in culture. Do not jump to conclusions. Check that your interpretation of someone elses body language is correct. Try to really get to know the person better. Observe people on a bus/ train, on television without the sound, or in a restaurant or coffee shop, 80

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The impending skills shortages in the ICT sector are a major concern for many high level executives worldwide. The same concerns are being echoed in South Africa, and hopefully thousands of graduates will capitalise on this opportunity. There is a huge demand for software developers and a predicted growth in demand for especially Web developers. Employers also want to see that you can solve a business problem with your skills and that you use communication in the IT field in an appropriate manner. In the IT industry, often the emphasis is so much on one specific toolset over another, especially to minimise cross-training costs, that the real human potential is often ignored in favour of the current, hottest software toolset. When it comes to the candidates performance evaluation, accomplishments form the core of the performance profile. A survey titled: The Smart Workplace of the Future, contemplates a vision of 2030 in which organisations retain core business functions but look and behave like social networks, creating corporate communities that attract employees from a global talent pool. The study is based on insights from the third in a series of workshops that have brought together a diverse group of academics and workplace practitioners. The report predicts that Generation Y will trigger new innovative styles of working and management practices that incorporate social connectivity, increased technology use, automation and advanced software. This technological ingenuity will have a significant impact on job availability stock traders, for example, will be replaced by automated trading systems, thereby decreasing the need for human interaction. Employees will expect technologies to intuitively meet their needs and be seamlessly integrated into the remote work environment. The workplace of 2030 will be a sensory place continuously evolving and responding to experiences by constantly adapting the environment and its infrastructure to suit the individual. Agility will be a key priority for the providers of workplace services and infrastructure, and the smart workplace will take advantage of technological innovation to provide the enhanced communication and connectivity necessary to support these changes (http://www.gartner.com/ technology/ contact/contact.africa.jsp).

3.9 Interpersonal skills/ communication in meetings

When a problem occurs in a team or an organisation, a creative solution is sought through brainstorming. Rather than focusing on resolving the issue, meeting participants often end up walking out of a three-hour session blaming each other for not having achieved anything. It does not necessarily matter who missed the deadline or who is responsible for a failed project. Teams and organisations responsibility is to meet their customers needs instead of pointing fingers, to work together to assist the customer and then fix the problem. Follow a simple, inclusive four-step problem solving process during such meetings. Step 1 - Identify the problem:This step involves looking at the symptoms that indicate a problem exists, and defining the problem by developing a clear and concise problem statement. Step 2 - Identify possible causes: Once you have identified that a problem exists, you need to identify possible causes and the primary cause that accounts for most (80%) of the problem. Step 3 - Select the best solution: The best solution is a solution that addresses the primary cause/s. This may be found via brainstorming, an inclusive process that stimulates creative decision making. If time is not critical, the decision may be to implement more than one solution for a test period and to track the results. Step 4 - Implement the solution: Once you have chosen the solution you plan to implement, it is necessary to evaluate resources required to make the change, identify tasks that need to be accomplished, and determine roles and responsibilities. In situations where no one will accept responsibility, remember accountability. When a project fails and the customer is angry and shouting, and the deadline has been missed, the manager is ultimately accountable. Responsibility is delegated, accountability is not! Be honest, if you blame others for your failures, do you credit them with your successes?

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3.10 Personal effectiveness through communication

Community management includes a number of different aspects along with the responsibility for managing social communities such as Facebook, Twitter and LinkedIn. The role consists of: Content creation writing blog posts, social media articles, newsletters, communication materials and material for social media channels. Social media marketing creating, managing and growing the companys presence through blogs, Twitter, Facebook and other strategically relevant online platforms. Customer relations monitoring any questions, feedback and queries through online feedback forums. Online communication strategy the community manager is responsible for developing strategic communication plans to provide direction for the companys public-oriented communication. Analytics - using Google Analytics and other measurement tools to provide reports on metrics, and to continually find ways to improve on those metrics through testing and new initiatives. Bought, owned and earned community management means extending the social platforms so that they link back to other activities, such as paid advertising and owned brand assets such as sponsorships, and leveraging all of this marketing activity to new heights thereby earning even higher levels of awareness and drawing more people into the community. A social media strategy has to be aligned with the overall brand goals and objectives of every communication strategy. The social community is truly a global one and can be very challenging to keep up with. Community management has to be handled by a skilled person in the company who has the knowledge to foresee digital trends and is able to share innovative ideas.

Effective negotiation helps you to resolve situations where your aims conflict with someone elses aims or wants. The aim of win-win negotiation is to find a solution that is acceptable to both parties, and leaves both parties feeling that they have won, in some way. Where you do not expect to deal with people ever again and you do not need their goodwill, then you can be tougher in your negotiations, seeking to win the negotiation round while the other person loses out. This excludes customers and other stakeholders whom you obviously want to retain. Similarly, where there is a great deal at stake in a negotiation, it may be appropriate to prepare in detail to gain advantage. Neither of these approaches is usually much good for resolving disputes with people with whom you have an ongoing relationship. Using tricks and manipulation during a negotiation can undermine trust and damage teamwork. While a manipulative person may not get caught out if negotiation seldom takes place, this is not the case when people work together routinely. Here, honesty and openness are always the best policies. For small disagreements, excessive preparation can be counter-productive because it takes time that is better used elsewhere. If you need to resolve a major disagreement, make sure you prepare thoroughly. Work through the following points before you start negotiating: What do you want to get out of the negotiation? Do you know what the other person wants? What do you and the other person have that you can trade? What are you each comfortable giving away? If you dont reach agreement with the other person, what alternatives do you have? How much does it matter if you do not reach agreement? Does failure to reach an agreement cut you out of future opportunities? And what alternatives might the other person have? What is the history of the relationship? Will there be any hidden issues that may influence the negotiation? How will you handle these? What outcome will people be expecting from this negotiation? What precedents have been set? What are the consequences for you if you win or lose this negotiation? What are the consequences for the other person?

3.11 Negotiating skills

Are people continually taking advantage of you? Do you struggle to get what you want from people whose help you need, but over whom you have little direct authority? If so, you may need to brush up your win-win negotiation skills. 84

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 Who has what power in the relationship? Who controls resources? Who stands to lose the most if agreement is not reached? What power does the other person have to deliver what you hope for? What possible compromises are there? Both parties should feel positive about the negotiations once they are over. This helps people to keep good working relationships afterwards. Be as detached as possible when discussing your own emotions; discuss them as if they belong to someone else. Focus on the issue at hand, not the person. The negotiation itself is a careful exploration of your position and the other persons position, with the goal of finding a mutually acceptable compromise that gives you both as much of what you want as possible. In an ideal situation, you will find that the other person wants what you are prepared to trade and that you are prepared to give what the other person wants. Both sides should feel comfortable with the final solution if the agreement is to be considered win-win. Fundamentally, good, open communications are needed to conclude win-win negotiations successfully (http://www. mindtools.com/CommSkll/NegotiationSkills.htm).

the basis of self-confidence. Assertiveness builds on self-confidence and provides many other benefits for improving your relationships at work and in other areas of your life as well. In general, assertive people: Get to win-win more easily they see the value in their opponent and in his/her position, and can quickly find common ground. Are better problem solvers they feel empowered to do whatever it takes to find the best solution. Are less stressed they know they have personal power and they dont feel threatened or victimised when things dont go as planned or expected. Are doers they get things done because they know they can. When you act assertively, you act fairly and with empathy. You are selfassured and do not intimidate, manipulate or bully. When you treat others with such fairness and respect, it is usually reciprocated. You are well liked, and people see you as a leader and someone they want to work with. If you are either more passive or aggressive, you need to work on the following skills to develop your assertiveness. Good verbal communications and the effective use of language are key skills in being successfully assertive.

3.12 Assertiveness skills

Are you assertive? Does it mean insisting on your rights all the time, every time? Or does it mean knowing when to let someone else or some other cause or outcome take precedence over your rights? It is not always easy to identify truly assertive behaviour because there is a fine line between assertiveness and aggression. So, some definitions are helpful when trying to differentiate between the two: Assertiveness is based on balance - it requires being open about your wants and needs while still considering the rights, needs and wants of others. When you are assertive, you ask for what you want but you dont necessarily get it. Aggressive behaviour is based on winning at all costs - it requires that you do whatever is in your own best interest without regard for the rights, needs, feelings or desires of others. When you are aggressive, you take what you want regardless, and you dont usually ask. Some people are naturally more assertive than others. Yet assertiveness is a skill that can be learned. It starts with a good understanding of who you are and a belief in the value you bring. When you have that, you have 86

3.12.1 Value yourself and your rights

Understand that your rights, thoughts, feelings, needs and desires are just as important as everyone elses - not more so and not less so. Recognise your rights and protect them. Believe you deserve to be treated with respect and dignity at all times. Stop apologising when not necessary. Identify your needs and wants, and ask for them to be satisfied. Do not wait for someone to recognise what you need Understand that to perform to your full potential, your needs must be met. Find ways to get your needs met without sacrificing others needs in the process. Acknowledge that people are responsible for their own behaviour: 87

 Do not make the mistake of accepting responsibility for how people react to your assertive statements (e.g. anger, resentment). You can only control yourself. As long as you are not violating someone elses rights, then you have the right to say or do what you want. Express negative thoughts and feelings in a healthy and positive manner. Allow yourself to be angry, but always be respectful. Do say whats on your mind, but do it in a way that protects the other persons feelings. Control your emotions. Stand up for yourself and confront people who challenge you and/or your rights. Receive criticism and compliments positively. Accept compliments graciously. Allow yourself to make mistakes and ask for help. Accept feedback positively be prepared to say you dont agree but do not get defensive or angry. Learn to say no when you need to. Know your limits and what will cause you to feel taken advantage of. Know that you cant do everything or please everyone, and learn to be satisfied with that. Go with what is right for you. Suggest an alternative for a win-win solution.
Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to identify, assess and control own emotions, and those of other individuals and groups.

performance tests and has stronger relationships with traditional intelligence, whereas EI, also called EQ, is usually measured using selfreport questionnaires and has stronger relationships with personality. Learn to distinguish between appropriate actions and reactions towards outer stimuli. Learn to control your own emotions and be centred in yourself in the knowledge that you will be able to manage emotions.
http://www.mindtools.com & http://www.talentsmart.com You can read more about Goldmans research and writing on: http://www.eiconsortium.org/reports/what_is_emotional_intelligence. html You can do the EQ self-assessment tests on: http://www.queendom.com/tests

3.12.2 Assertive communication techniques

There are a variety of ways to communicate assertively. By understanding how to be assertive, you can quickly adapt these techniques to any situation you are facing. Use I want, I need or I feel to convey basic assertions. First, recognise how the other person views the situation. Then, express what you need. Escalating assertion: This type of assertiveness is necessary when your first attempts are not successful in getting your needs met. It involves getting more and more firm as time goes on. It may end in you presenting an ultimatum if you do not receive satisfaction. Regardless of the consequences, you may not get what you want in the end. There is a fine line between this level of assertiveness and bullying tactics. Ask for more time: Sometimes, you just need to put off saying anything. You might be too emotional or you might really not know what you want. Be honest and tell the person you need a few minutes to compose your thoughts. Change your verbs: Use will not instead of cannot; use want instead of need; use choose to instead of have to; use could instead of should. Broken record: Prepare the message you want to convey in advance. During the conversation, keep repeating your message using the same language over and over again. Eventually the person is likely to realise that you really mean what you are saying. 89

Daniel Goldman was the first author to popularise the use of the concept of emotional intelligence by publishing a book on the topic in 1995. Since then many researchers and authors have defined and described the topic, in the process assisting our understanding of the issue. Develop your emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence (EI) is different from cognitive intelligence (IQ). IQ is usually measured using maximum 88

Another technique is scripting. It involves preparing your responses using a four-pronged approach that describes: The event: tell the other person exactly how you see the situation or problem. Your feelings: describe how you feel about expressing your emotions clearly. Your needs: tell the other person what you need so they dont have to guess. The consequences: describe the positive outcome if your needs are fulfilled. Once you are clear about what you want to say and express, it is much easier to actually do it. Being assertive means knowing where the fine line is between assertion and aggression, and balancing on it. It means having a strong sense of yourself and acknowledging that you deserve to get what you want. And it means standing up for yourself or your organisation, even in the most difficult situations. However, remember it is not at the expense of others, not to their detriment.

80% of results are achieved with only 20% of the effort. (Vilfredo Federico Damaso Pareto was an Italian engineer, sociologist, economist, political scientist and philosopher.) By applying better time management skills, you will achieve optimal results with the limited amount of time available to you. How well do you manage your time? Do you feel overloaded? Do you often have to work late to make deadlines? Maybe you feel that you go from one crisis to another, feeling stressed. We all would like to manage our time more effectively. However, we keep on making mistakes in our time management and often do not know how to improve on these. (Please refer to Unit 2 where we discussed our/your growth areas.) Efficient time management helps us to be more productive, reduces stress and improves performance. The most effective ways of achieving good time management are:

3.13.1 Keep a to-do list

A to-do list is essential to keep on top of things so that you do not forget an important task, meeting, event or completion date. For these lists, you need to prioritise the tasks on your list. You can rank the priorities from 1 (most important) to 10 (least important). This ranking depends on the urgency of the task (e.g. if you want to write a couple of emails but your house is burning, you drop your top priority - writing the emails - and first extinguish the fire!). The list should be brief and exact. Include the steps involved as this may change the order of priority on your to-do list or could influence the time the task will take. Break large tasks or projects down into specific, actionable steps so that you wont overlook something important.

3.13 Good time management

In the previous sections, our focus was on effective communications and the way we can use tools to improve successful communications. In the next section, we will focus on time management skills as another dimension of personal effectiveness and development. Good time management helps you to become highly effective - to work smarter, not harder. Prioritisation of tasks and effective goal setting are exceptionally important to be able to function effectively, even under intense pressure. Good time management needs you to shift your focus to results rather than being busy. Many people do not achieve what they actually want as they do not manage their time properly. They do not concentrate on the right things. The Pareto Principle or the 80:20 Rule argues that typically 80% of unfocused effort generates only 20% of results. The remaining 90

3.13.2 Prioritise
It can be difficult to know how to set priorities when you have a load of tasks ahead of you. However, you have to learn how to set priorities to be able to manage your time better. Firstly, distinguish between urgent and important activities. At the work place, your supervisor could guide you on deadlines. Sometimes you have to attend to urgent matters first (life or death decisions), other times you have to focus on important tasks before you can attend to urgent tasks. If you foresee that you will not be able to 91

meet the deadline, communicate that to the other party and find out if you can move the due date. To achieve good time management, you have to be clear about what is important and what is urgent.

Instead, focus on devoting a small amount of time to just getting started. Break projects down into smaller, manageable chunks. Check what needs to get done in the first few steps. Complete small chunks at a time so that it stops you from feeling that you could not possibly manage everything.

3.13.3 Set personal goals

You cannot have good time management if you do not have a clear goal in mind. Such goal setting is essential to managing your time well, as it gives you a clear vision to work towards. When you know where you want to be and when, you can manage your priorities, time and resources to get there. Goals also help you decide what is worth spending your time on.

3.13.6 Learn to say no

Do you find it difficult to refuse a request? If so, you probably have far too many tasks and commitments on your plate. It will ultimately lead to poor performance, stress and low morale. You will then be doubly punished for not having said no: people will criticise you for not having done the task on time/properly, plus you will have overloaded yourself. If you overload yourself knowingly and willingly because you do not trust others to do the task properly, then you need to learn how to delegate efficiently. This means that you ask others to help you - choose a person who is capable of helping you. Learn how to be positive towards the people who want to load you with extra work but learn to pleasantly refuse the task.

3.13.4 Manage distractions

The average person loses as much as two hours a day to distractions; some lose a whole day or more by being side-tracked to fun things or unimportant matters rather than the essential tasks at hand. These distractions could be emails, chats with friends, a crisis in somebodys life, phone calls, somebody asks you for help or to go out, or something you suddenly remembered you wanted to do, simple procrastination, or not being able to pay attention and to remain focused. All distractions prevent us from achieving a steady flow in our activities. Try to take charge of your plans, goals and time management; control your day and do your best work. Learn how to minimise distractions and manage interruptions effectively. Be disciplined enough to turn off your BBM or MMS chat when you need to focus. Tell your friends and family if you have tasks that require your full attention. They will respect you for your sense of duty. Learn to improve your concentration, even when you are faced with distractions.

3.13.7 Distinguish between being effective and being busy

We all know people who always look busy, who make sure that they are needed to help others. They rush around, and have piles of papers on their desks and too many tasks to complete all at once. They seem to thoroughly enjoy this feeling. It makes them look efficient, in charge and essential to the office or the home. However, as they do not spend the proper time on anything, the proper effort and attention to detail, they are either always stressed or get a reputation of being over-worked, not as efficient as hoped for and also not managing their time very well.

3.13.5 Do not procrastinate

Do you often put off tasks that you should be focusing on? Procrastination will make you feel guilty that you havent started or completed a task; you come to dread doing the task and, eventually, everything catches up with you when you fail to complete the work on time. If procrastination is a major problem in your life, then you need to learn the strategies to eliminate this weakness. Learn to start a project - even if it is only for a quarter of an hour. Procrastinators are often perfectionists who believe that they have to complete a task from start to finish perfectly and this high expectation makes them feel overwhelmed and anxious. 92

3.13.8 Focus rather than multitask

Most women have developed a skill of being able to do a whole lot of things at the same time, e.g. watching television while preparing a meal, driving and painting their nails or applying make up, writing an SMS or BBM and listening to a lecture ... or so they think. However, while people believe that this is a great skill, it can actually endanger the driver and others on the road; it may mean that nothing of the lecture has sunk in; and it can take 20% - 40% longer to finish a list of 93

tasks when you multitask compared with completing the same list of tasks in sequence. The result is also that some of these tasks are not getting the attention they deserve and the results show the lack of concentration at the time. Focus on one task at a time (most men do this anyway!) and produce higher quality work.

3.13.11 Time management leading to better productivity

Do you have to study/work longer hours or shift deadlines in order to manage your tasks? This can easily become a way of life, leading to high levels of stress and eventually, poor productivity if you have not addressed the problem. Productivity is a measure of how much you accomplish within the given time frame. If you learn to work smartly, and to use leverage to achieve more within your limited time, it will increase your productivity and help you find extra time to do other things later. To increase your productivity, you need to get organised. How can you arrange your physical space so that it helps your performance? Messy desks and drawers affect your productivity because you spend valuable time searching through piles of documents instead of concentrating on your studies. Organise your life, your files, your clothes, your emails anything that impacts on your productivity. If it is difficult to find, then you are not organised! Know how you spend your time. When do you waste time? When do you do your best work? Do you file your important emails and delete others regularly? How do you manage your electronic data?

3.13.9 Taking a break

Remember the advertisement for a chocolate bar Have a break, have a Kit Kat? Well, it does not have to be a chocolate bar, but it is healthy to have a break during intense work so that your focus remains sharp, your brain can recharge, and you do not stiffen up. You also have to make sure that you still eat and drink, especially water, get some fresh air and stretch your body. Some people may believe that they are capable of working for eight and more hours without a break, especially when working to a tight and important deadline. Breaks are important and will empower you to think creatively and work effectively. Plan breaks before you get started and set an alarm if you need to. Go for a quick walk, get something to eat or drink, or just sit and relook at what you have done so far. Try to take a five-minute break every hour.

3.13.12 Improve your attitude

If you are a person who is self-motivated, self-disciplined and a go-getter, then you have few problems when it comes to attitude. However, there are many people who are not as positive as they could be. Your attitude influences everything you do. What motivates you to do your best work? Create an environment that allows for your best productivity, where you can focus on your work to achieve the best outcome. Minimise or eliminate disruptions, learn to manage interruptions over which you have no influence (e.g. your cellphone rings), and improve your focus and concentration. Think positively, and believe that you will be able to handle the work, manage the task and take small actions to improve your attitude and the resulting performance. This, in turn, will give you the motivation and inspiration that you need to continue moving forward.

3.13.10 Effective task scheduling

Some years ago, a frequent topic of conversation was biorhythms, referring to different times of day when we feel most productive and energetic. Many people rather prefer to get up late, slowly drift into the day and then become productive after lunch - finally working into the late night or early morning hours. Others believe the early bird catches the worm. They get up at or before sunrise, and are at their sharpest and brightest when others still sleep and they fade in the late afternoon and cannot complete tasks effectively in the evenings. Depending on what type of person you are, you should schedule your most important workload to the time when you are full of energy and your mind is at its best. You cannot influence the times that lectures are presented or when you have to be at work. However, you can schedule your studying time. Schedule important work during your own peak time, and less important, low energy work during your down time. 94

3.13.13 Integrate your information

In order to become fully productive, you also need to learn how to identify and use relevant information quickly. Do not get swamped by emails, BBMs, IM, calls, textbooks, workbooks and more - select those that make you 95

fully productive, that allow you good time management. All others have to fall into the category of later attention. Check that you learn how to cut down on information overload. Keep all information that is essential to your studies and your work. Include information that is essential to your official life, e.g. documents, dates for renewal of licences and payment dates (in and out). What do you really need to know? How will you use this information to improve the way that you work? You may then decide that you can ignore some information, or quickly skim topics and headings of others. When you are more productive, it feels good to be in control of your time and know that you can produce the results that are expected of you. Get organised, have the right attitude and manage information effectively, and your time management will also improve.

3.13.15 Activity: the action plan

We have already discussed to-do lists and their importance in getting organised, improving productivity and managing our time better. Unfortunately, most to-do lists are not well planned action lists. Often, these lists are missing the needed action for the tasks that you have to do. 1. First, make a long list of all the things that you know need to be done. Write down everything you can think of that has not yet been done at all, or is still incomplete or needs to be re-done, re-checked or improved upon. List everything, irrespective of whether it is a huge task, a tiny job, or something for college/university or in your private life. Also list things you still plan to do in future, hope to do one day, or form part of your close and far-away goals and dreams. Everything should be on this list. You can update this list as you go along. 2. Then prioritise every item on that list as to the actions needed. Some will be pushed further down the line, and some which you may have forgotten to do for some time may actually now move to the top of the list. 3. Once your list seems complete, look at each listed item. Should you act on it or does the item or task get deleted? Is it no longer of any value to you although you had planned it for a long time? Then see if you can actually group together some of the individual actions to form part of larger projects, such as moving into own flat/home or achieving diploma/degree. 4. Once you have worked through your whole list, you will easily see how you form some clusters of logical projects. Then you review these clustered projects again to set new priorities. From there, you check that you have an up-to-date action list. 5. If you want to be truly organised, you then add commencement and completion dates to each of your action plans (re-check your current to-do lists too). Learn to monitor your progress as frequently as possible, otherwise your plans will collapse despite looking so efficient. Change/update your todo list and your action plans as you go along - and as new, important tasks emerge or older ones fall away.

3.13.14 Start to record your activities

How much time do you spend during a day doing things that dont contribute to your success? You may be surprised by how much time you waste on unimportant things, activities that hold you back from your actual success. You can check if your time is either well spent or wasted by completing a daily record, or a log, of the way you spend your time and on which activities. Your daily record will show you whether you did the most important tasks during the right time of day. If you are a morning person, youd be better off doing your most important work during this time. You can then focus on lower energy tasks in the afternoon or evening. Activity logs with timesheets are used for reporting on your use of time and for tracking the time you spend on a task or job. Every time you change activities, whether replying to email, working on a report, making coffee or chatting to others, note down what the activity is, the time of the change and how you feel (alert, flat, tired, energetic, and so on). Later, go back through your record, and write down how long each activity took and how you felt doing it. If you have recorded your activities for a few days, you will see how much time you spent on unimportant tasks or where you actually wasted time which you needed for more important tasks. If you record how you felt at that time of day, it will also give you a clear indication of when your energy is at its best or worst. Plan to re-schedule important tasks to times when you are normally at your best. Check if you could group certain activities together, to avoid having to move back and forth. 96

3.13.16 Making and keeping appointments

Time management is highly visible when it comes to appointments - be they in your private or business life. Use your electronic tools to make and confirm appointments! Making an appointment necessitates the following: 97

 Have you checked that both parties (you and the person/s with whom the appointment has been made) are available on the date and at that time? Could there be a clash of previous commitments? Have you confirmed how long the appointment will take? Does that cause problems? Will you be able to get to the place at the set time (have you calculated travelling time, finding the place, parking, traffic jams and late public transport)? Do you know exactly how long it will take you to get there? Have you entered the appointment in your physical or electronic calendar? Never assume that the other party has more time available than set aside for you. Never assume that meetings can just start without you and you can join when it suits you. Being late is seen as being impolite, not respecting the other party. It shows an attitude of I dont care or my time is more important to me than your time is to me. A fatal attitude to have in business or when applying for a job! Confirm your appointment date, time and venue in writing. Ask for a contact number in case you need to call en route. Appointments are commitments - to be honoured and kept at all costs. It is safer to phone ahead of the appointment to confirm that it is still taking place on the date, at the time and at the intended venue. The situation can change within a few days - check and be sure. If you are forced to change the appointment from your side, then let the other party know as soon as possible, render your apologies, give the reason for the cancellation/postponement, and ask to be given an alternative date, time or venue, if applicable.

When you have to complete tasks within a team, this becomes even more difficult as the team may include people who are slow, argumentative (spend more time on discussing the task than actually completing it), have two left hands (where a physical task is involved), may need on-the-job training and mentoring, or have language challenges (where they are not capable of speaking and reading your language, and you do not speak/read theirs). It will be very difficult under those circumstances to give an accurate time estimate of how long a task will need for completion. It may then be wise to overestimate the time you need if it is relatively small, or alternatively, use half a day at the start as an indicator and guideline to project the time you may need to complete the whole task. If you follow all the steps for better time management, you should soon be in better control of your tasks, your studies and your plans to a great career - and your life. Once learned, these skills will remain with you for the rest of your life.

3.14 Review of the personal and professional development plan

Go back to Unit 2 where you assessed your current areas of strengths and weaknesses, and set dates by which you were going to achieve significant improvements.

3.14.1 Activity: revision of development plan

Take each score that you gave yourself on those attributes rated in Unit 2 and activities in sections , and . Then transfer that score into the table below (activity in section ) next to the identified problem area. Problem areas are all those where you ticked a score lower than 4. Next to that score, write the date you had undertaken to improve on that score. Now list what you have done in the past few days and week/s to improve that score. Now that we have examined time management in detail, where do you rate your time management skills? And your communication skills? Go back to the section on communication and rate each one of those areas for yourself. 99

3.13.17 Reliable estimates of task time

Good time management also relies on accurate estimates of how long something takes you from start to finish. First-time tasks are difficult to plan as to how long they will take you. Your only reliable guide is history - how long a similar task has taken you in the past.

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Problem area

Score

Action

Date Aimed for score

State why you have not yet achieved such positive change. What held you back? How are you going to move forward from now on? By doing what?

Problem area not improved so far/ not enough

Score

Action

Date

Aimed score

for

3.14.2 Activity: assessing areas that have been achieved

Now list all those aspects (including time management, communication, professionalism and behaviour) that you have successfully improved on. What did you do to improve those areas? Do you still need to improve them further? How are you going to do that?

3.15 Conclusion
Date Aimed score for
In this unit, we discussed the many dimensions of effective communication, including verbal and written. We looked at strategies you can employ to develop skills for effective communication. The importance of good time management was discussed, and tools to improve your time management skills were explored. You were given activities to complete, to develop improved skills and capacities in both those areas. The more you master these, the more likely you are to make a success of your studies and your working life. You can become a truly employable, professional individual. In the next unit, we will examine the role of teams and effective teamwork, and how to interact with others to ensure personal and organisational goals are met.

Improved aspects

Score Action

3.14.3 Activity: assessing areas that need further corrective action, time lines
Now list all those areas (including time management, communication, professionalism and behaviour) that you have not yet improved upon or not sufficiently improved upon. 100

Test your knowledge

Write an essay of 300 words about the most important aspects of effective communication. What negotiation skills do you need? Explain why you need them. 101

 How do you develop assertiveness? Why is it necessary to be assertive? What do you need to watch out for when striving for effective written communication? How can you use non-verbal communication to help you in an important meeting? Describe the basic steps in effective time management.

Unit 4: Understanding the dynamics of working with others

Unit 4 is aligned with Learning Outcome 3 and Assessment Criteria 3.1, 3.2 and 1.4: Learning Outcome 3: Understand the dynamics of working with others Assessment Criterion 3.1: Analyse team dynamics, discussing the roles people play in a team and how they can work together to achieve shared goals Assessment Criterion 3.2: Discuss alternative ways to complete tasks and achieve team goals Assessment Criterion 1.4: Reflect on own development against original aims and objectives set in the personal and professional development plan. By the end of this unit, you should be able to assess: Interpersonal skills: The dynamics of working for and with others Working with others: The nature and dynamics of team and group work; informal and formal settings; purpose of teams and groups; problem solving; flexibility/adaptability; team player Teams and team building: Specialist roles, skill and style/approach mixes; identification of team and work group roles; stages in team development, e.g. team building, identity, loyalty, commitment to shared beliefs; team meetings; action planning; monitoring and feedback; ethics Effective leadership skills: Setting direction, setting standards, motivating, innovative, responsive, effective communicator, reliability, consistency Motivation and performance: Application and appraisal of motivational theories and techniques, rewards and incentives; managers role; self-motivational factors

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Individual appraisal systems: Uses of performance appraisals, e.g. salary levels and bonus payments, promotion, strengths and weaknesses, training needs; communication; appraisal criteria, e.g. production data, personnel data, judgemental data; rating methods, e.g. ranking, checklist, management by objectives; skills audit; evaluating self-management; personal and interpersonal skills; leadership skills Own development against original aims and objectives set in the personal and professional development plan Acquired interpersonal and transferable skills.

4.2 Interpersonal skills: understand the dynamics of working for and with others
During the course of the past three units, we have already assessed your impact on others and the impact others have on you. Such impact is obvious during negotiations, when working in a team, when you go for a job interview and when meeting somebody for the first time. However, it is when you work in teams or formal work groups that the interaction with peers and superiors tests an employees ability to cooperate and be productive, while maintaining appropriate collegial relations. The word team stems from the Old English tam (as in team of draught animals), which in turn was based on the Germanic Zaum (bridle); also on teem and tow, from an Indo-European root shared by the Latin ducere (to lead) (Oxford Dictionary). Teams often refer to cross-functional members of an organisation who pursue a particular objective, possibly removed from the normal functions, e.g. researching a new performance management system or planning a new building for the organisation.
A team is a group of people with a full set of complementary skills required to complete a task, job or project.

4.1 Introduction
In Unit 3, you learned how to communicate effectively via verbal and faceto-face messages, and via non-verbal communication, body language, openness and responsiveness, and formal and informal feedback to and from colleagues. IT was discussed as an effective communication medium. We covered how to improve interpersonal effectiveness, negotiation skills, assertiveness skills and social skills. You also learned all the skills needed for good time management, such as prioritising workloads, using time effectively, making and keeping appointments, and achieving reliable estimates of task time. You then reviewed your current progress on your EPD plan and which corrective steps you still had to take. It is obviously essential for your own career path that you master all personal skills, such as conducting realistic and honest self-assessments, and developing traits that will assist you on a successful career path. These skills need to be reviewed on a regular basis, re-aligned with your personal goals and developed further. However, it is not enough to know what you are like and how you are progressing. As nobody lives in isolation and careers depend on our interpersonal relationships, we need to examine the dynamics of working with others and for others. We also examine the role of teams for your career, your interaction with others, your potential role within teams and the need for effective leadership skills. Do you know how to motivate others and how to bring out the best in others? This unit will teach you the fundamentals of this, and assist you to develop skills to achieve this.

There are many definitions of teams. The Oxford Dictionary defines a team as: two or more people working together a group of people working or playing together who come together as a team to achieve something a group of people with a full set of complementary skills required to complete a task, job or project The Business Directory refers to teams as: team members who (1) operate with a high degree of interdependence, (2) share authority and responsibility for self-management, (3) are accountable for the collective performance, and (4) work toward a common goal and shared reward(s). A team becomes more than just a collection of people when a strong sense of mutual commitment creates synergy, thus generating performance greater than the sum of the performance of its individual members. 105

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ht tp://w w w.busine s s dic tionar y.c om/def inition/team. html#ixzz29m1J58RU

Thinking (information/situations assessed objectively or based on criteria or principles) Feeling (information/situations assessed subjectively, judgements based on worth/values)

Teams and work groups differ significantly from each other. Work groups can be a conventional structure in an organisation where people of the same training and background work together, e.g. accountants or sales people. Work groups may also be set up for a limited time period on a particular project, e.g. to implement a new IT system and may be short term.

Judging (plan ahead and/or follow the plan, live ones outer life with closure and structure using the preferred judging process of either thinking or feeling) Perceiving (keep options open to adapt, live ones outer life in a more emergent manner using the preferred perceiving process of sensing or intuiting). Individuals who combine sensing and thinking pay attention to tangible realities based on current and past experiences. They focus on objective facts, criteria or principles. They only want the facts. Individuals who combine sensing and feeling pay attention also to tangible realities based on current and past experiences, but they focus on people and the values involved. They have a sensitive and caring approach. Individuals who combine intuiting and thinking pay attention to concepts, meanings, interrelationships and probable or possible future outcomes. They have an abstract, problem-solving approach and look at the principles and criteria involved. Individuals who combine intuiting and feeling also pay attention to concepts, meanings, interrelationships, and probable or possible futures, but they instead focus on the people and values involved. They have a growth-anddevelopment approach. If individuals in a company - and in a team - know their own personality styles, they can also understand the behaviour of others better. They can then either make allowances for them, or they could look for team members who will bring the correct style to the tasks at hand. For example, if you had a team consisting only of the sensing and feeling style, there would be a lot of harmony and care - ideal for a non-governmental organisation (NGO) or charity - but this would not necessarily lead to success if they had to drive sales. Sensing and thinking team members would be great in research, accounts and anything to do with facts and figures, but would not be so suited to a team trying to get a fun event organised for the company.

4.2.1 The roles people play in a team and how they can work together to achieve shared goals
In Unit 1 you looked at various personality types and learning styles. Go back to those websites and read about the different traits. Jung was the original creator of these classifications.

Consult http://www.humanmetrics.com about your personality type

Why is it important to understand different personality types or learning styles when we discuss teams? In every team, many such personalities come together to achieve a common task or fulfil a common purpose. Different personalities bring their own strengths and challenges. Understanding these dynamics makes it easier to include suitable members in a team or to structure the team in an appropriate manner. If we examine the roles people play in a team, we first have to revisit these different personality traits (see Unit 1). Myers-Briggs referred to them as: Extraversion (driven by interaction with others, oriented to and motivated by the world outside oneself) Introversion (driven by solitary activities, oriented to and motivated by the world inside oneself) Sensing (tangible, experiential awareness) Intuition (abstract, symbolic, conceptual awareness) 106

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What dynamics are involved between these different people? What are the roles people play in different settings, e.g. employer and employee supervisor and supervised person colleagues among each other team members employee and suppliers employee and customers/clients employee and other internal and external work contacts In all these relationships, there are hierarchies to observe, rules to follow and behavioural codes to adhere to. If you act in a professional manner at all times, you have little to be concerned about with regard to interpersonal relationships in the work place or within teams. Appropriate respect towards those higher up the ladder, be they employer, supervisor, more senior team member, clients/customers, suppliers, etc. has to be a given. You have to address them politely, accept instructions without argument or follow rules set by them - or you risk disciplinary action and possibly losing your job. This is a topic also closely related to leadership and management styles, your interpersonal skills and the personal development that this course is assisting you with.

Roles in teams may be formal or informal. Where a person is appointed as leader and another as secretary or treasurer, they occupy formal roles/positions. People also assume informal roles based on their own characteristics, strengths and weaknesses. We will discuss this in some more detail later in this unit. Every team member will have to be identified as to their specific role within the total task, e.g. researcher or report drafter. This must preferably be done at the commencement of the actual task. Individual members strongly influence the team dynamics. When the composition of the team changes, the team dynamics change. All team members bring their own unique talents, perspectives, values and experiences to the work of the team. The better all the team members know each other as to their talents and expertise, the better they can utilise each relevant talent for better team performance. This necessitates honesty, trust and excellent communication among the various team members. Different personalities have to fit into the team. There has to be a method of conflict resolution, i.e. a way to manage conflict if it occurs. Every team has to be clear about the common purpose, the time set aside for the task at hand, the resources and the expected outcome of the team work, and who is going to do what by when. At that stage, the different personality types and their preferred approaches to doing the work will have to be taken into consideration in order to achieve the optimal outcomes. Ideally, during the whole teamwork process, the successes/steps achieved will be monitored to ensure that no time is wasted on tasks that are not part of the original team purpose. During that process, individuals may either feel that they are contributing valuable inputs to the whole process, or that they are not allowed to contribute meaningfully. If all team members are properly involved and are able to bring their own best to the team, they will also be more productive and will be more willing to get involved in future teamwork. Informal team roles develop as the work of the team progresses. Some people are good at following up on issues and finishing a job properly. Others are good at provoking thought and coming up with creative ideas, but they are unable to finish a job effectively. Teams need both, the finishers/ implementers and innovators. 109

4.2.2 Team identity

All teams - be they in private life or in business - have an identity of their own. Within a company, civic organisation or government, this identity stems from the interrelationship with the larger organisational culture, the purpose of the team, the personalities of the various team members and what each team member brings to the team. Each team has a specific role to play according to its short-term or long-term purpose. Within each team, there may be specialists who have to contribute to or complete a total task, as well as other staff who may have support functions such as IT or finance. Such roles will obviously influence what other team members will do to assist the specialist. Where a team consists of several specialists, a priority list of tasks will have to be put in place, determining the sequence of events/tasks to be completed by whom. 108

4.2.3 Activity: being part of the team

Consult www.belbin.com about roles of team members.

There are various roles team members play. Research has been conducted to establish which characteristics make a team successful or not. Belbin (1993) called them role labels after his research and identified the following Nine Belbin Team Roles:

Think of teams you have been part of. For the person with no or limited work experience, these are typically sports teams, teams organising events, study assignment teams, friends organising a group holiday, or friends arranging a farewell party for a friend, as discussed in the next section. How was that team experience? Have a look at the nine Belbin roles/styles. Which one describes you best? Are you like that every time you are part of a team? Did you feel that your efforts trying to make the team work were worth it? Would you want to be part of such a team again? What would you do differently now?

Team Role

Contribution
Creative, imaginative, freethinking. Generates ideas and solves difficult problems. Outgoing, enthusiastic, communicative. Explores opportunities and develops contacts. Mature, confident, identifies talent. Clarifies goals. Delegates effectively. Challenging, dynamic, thrives on pressure. Has the drive and courage to overcome obstacles.

Allowable Weaknesses
Ignores incidentals. Too preoccupied to communicate effectively. Overly optimistic. Loses interest once initial enthusiasm has passed. Can be seen as manipulative. Offloads own share of the work. Prone to provocation. Offends peoples feelings.

Plant

Resource Investigator

4.2.4 Teams in private life

Working with others and for others is not restricted to the work environment. It can also include your private life: being part of sport teams, study groups, interest groups (e.g. book club, music group/band/orchestra, chess club or bridge club), and any organisation where a few people work together, interact and try to achieve a common goal or interest. They form a team - sometimes for a short-term purpose until a goal is reached, sometimes lasting over years and even decades. In good teams, the interpersonal relationships are positive and people get to know each other well over time. They tend to be aware of each others strengths and weaknesses, and are more tolerant of each others failings - or try to help each other when needed. The best case scenario is when team members complement each other, bringing their own talents/ strengths to bear on the whole team, making it more efficient, productive and satisfying, and achieving its goal sooner - or in a more comprehensive manner. Members of such voluntary teams typically assume certain roles based on who they are. These can be: a leader, possibly a more dominant person one who can motivate others better a better organiser somebody with more experience 111

Coordinator

Shaper

Monitor Evaluator

Sober, strategic and discerning. Lacks drive and ability Sees all options to inspire others. Can be and judges accurately. overly critical. Co-operative, perceptive and diplomatic. Listens and averts friction. Indecisive in crunch situations. Avoids confrontation.

Teamworker

Implementer

Completer Finisher

Practical, reliable, efficient. Somewhat inflexible. Turns ideas into Slow to respond to new actions and organises work that possibilities. needs to be done. Painstaking, conscientious, anxious. Searches Inclined to worry unduly. out errors. Polishes and Reluctant to delegate. perfects. Single-minded, self-starting, dedicated. Provides knowledge and skills in rare supply. Contributes only on a narrow front. Dwells on technicalities.

Specialist

(RM Belbin cited by McShane & Travaglione, 2007:280)

Figure 2 - Roles in teams

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Then there has to be a willing helper, a person who gladly supports the leader, who needs to be wanted and needed. Usually, there are those who need to belong to anything that will allow them membership, where they qualify. They do not want to lead and they do not want too much work, but they love to be part of something. They like the label of being part of the team. Often, there are also the spectators who only want to watch, do not want to get too deeply involved, do not take part and avoid any responsibility. They are the ones on the side lines; they want to know what is happening but are not active. They may even criticise without contributing. If we refer back to the Belbin roles/social dimension of teams identified earlier, some fit into these roles while others remain undefined, e.g. the spectators and those who need to be needed. As a certain closeness/comfort zone develops among team members (bound by the same interests or goals), it is often difficult for new members to become accepted as part of the team. The intruder has to learn the rules and standards of the team, and learn to enter the team accepting the existing norms and its existing hierarchy. As a new member, it is better to avoid trying to make changes from the onset. These may be necessary but would be more acceptable to old members once you are an accepted member of the team.

What are the challenges of that role? Do others not accept the person in that role; do they want to take over? Do some students feel rejected? How does the leader achieve positive feelings and cohesion in the team? Is there conflict? How does the leader solve the conflict? If your current studies do not require assignments to be done in teams, identify an assignment or research project for which a team can be formed. Teamwork is an increasing reality in the work place and in advanced studies, such as in the MBA (Masters in Business Administration).

4.2.6 Dynamics in the working environment

When working for somebody else, you have to remember that you depend on them. No employee is indispensable, no matter what you believe. Others may have similar skills or qualifications, want to find a job and are willing to work for your salary. So do not believe that you are in a position to make demands. Being aware/knowing that you depend on the company paying your salary and on their acceptance of your work output (and manner of input) should also remind you that there are very strict behavioural codes you should observe, not only to keep your job but also to experience job satisfaction. This does not only apply to the dynamics between employer and employee, or supervisor/manager and the supervised/managed person, but also to the dynamics within teams at work where a team is expected to work well together and be productive. To be truly productive in a work setting, you must rely on your team to help you - you cannot do everything by yourself. At the same time, you are expected to help the team by contributing meaningfully towards its goal. Your reliance on others may not always be obvious to you, especially when you do not have any other immediate team members sharing your office at work, or if you have not been given a task that you have to complete together with somebody else. However, the finance division, HR, other departments and other staff members, switchboard, printing divisions and even the cleaning services are part of the broader team that everybody relies on for efficient functioning within a company or organisation.

4.2.5 Activity group work: form teams in your class

We have discussed the various roles played by team members. Form a number of groups in your class (include all students) and decide what each team will have in common. Does the team share a particular sport or hobby? Does it share subjects studied? What does each team share? Students can change to another team if they feel they do not belong in the first team, for whatever reason. Now decide what role each member of that team seems to have taken on. Is there an obvious leader? Is there a helper/supporter? Who are the bystanders, not active as leader or as helper? Try to explain each students role and why he/she thinks he/she has assumed that role. Give each person a Belbin role label. Check that the person (and the remainder of the group) agrees with that label. 112

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This also applies to top management in the company. Without them, there would not be a company and you would not have a job - so they form part of your ultimate team. In all cases, it is the success of working together as effective and efficient teams that make a company achieve its goals. That is why work teams are the preferred way to reach goals in certain organisations. Together with a team, an employee can achieve much more than on his/her own.

members all help one another as needed. Your productivity levels would probably increase exponentially. Delegation can occur voluntarily within teams, where you exchange your originally assigned task with somebody else while you take on some other task. It can also occur across members in the same department or even in different departments in a company. If delegating across departments, you would have to leave it to the manager of the relevant department to make the decision which person is the most suitable, and whether he/she can accept the task and handle it within his/ her resources and the time line. You will not be allowed to delegate across different departments. You may find that some departments are so competitive (i.e. have underlying conflicts) that they will not accept any delegated tasks - on principle. It will depend on your own level of seniority as to whether or not you have the authority to then insist on acceptance of the delegated task to such department. Where different skills are required, collaboration across departments may be required, e.g. a legal section may verify a sales contract drafted by sales teams, and the finance section then checks and agrees that the contract is according to budget. This is not, strictly speaking, delegation but there are similarities in the process, e.g. handing over part of a task to someone else to complete.

4.2.7 Delegating effectively

To use the power of teamwork, you must know when to accept a task given to you to do and also how to ask others for help where and when appropriate. Delegating or passing on work to others is not the same as abdicating (where you hand over a task and are no longer involved). When you delegate a task you are still responsible and accountable for the outcome of the task. You cannot blame any shortcomings or failures on others: you choose what to ask others to do. If you have chosen well, then delegation ensures that the best i.e. most capable - person performs the task, regardless of who is ultimately responsible for getting it done. Consider the following example: You need some papers photocopied and do not personally have access to a photocopier. You hand your papers in to the printing department. You receive the task back late and badly done. You cannot now blame that department when asked by your superior why the work is late. The responsibility still rests with you to make sure that you get everything back on time and properly done. A supervisor delegates responsibility to a person for completing a task and must empower him/her to do that job, e.g. by allowing him/her to make decisions. Passing on work or delegating should never be done because you do not like a task, or feel it is below your capabilities. Such delegation will raise negative feelings among your colleagues; they will resent the task and you, even if they are willing to help you if you are under extreme time pressure. You will then also not achieve the optimal result - and it will reflect on your performance. Delegating effectively means providing sufficient support and resources so that another person can complete the job well. When you accept tasks that others need help with and also ask them to help you when you are under pressure, you then build a team whose 114

4.2.8 Employer expectations

There are a few standard principles that all employers demand from a new employee, such as a positive attitude and a healthy work ethic. Employers also expect that you fit into the companys culture, that you share its values. Please refer to the note on the psychological contract. When applying for a new position, you can create the correct image by a) finding out about the companys values, b) assessing whether you share this vision, and c) writing a blog along those lines. In your emailed application/ CV and covering letter, you can then include a link to your blog (if you have one) to show that you share such values, interests or vision. Also include applicable skills on your resum. Website building and other computer science knowledge are great assets and are applicable in almost any field.

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Show employers that you are self-motivated, and that you are committed to personal growth and continuous learning. If you are a part-time student, you will need to know how to fit in a whole range of demands: work, life and education. This will be similar in the work place, where you will be expected to arrive on time every day, irrespective of what you did the night or weekend before. You will be expected to leave private issues at home, concentrate on your work and interact in the best manner - even if you had an argument with a colleague during the previous day. As always, being professional in all your dealings should enable you to manage such challenges. One of the most important aspects of a successful business is a healthy working climate among its employees. Every employee has a role to play in this climate by remaining professional, adhering to the company rules and regulations, and contributing meaningfully and efficiently to the goals of the company.

4.2.10 Informal and formal setting

At work, you will find various settings or scenarios, each with their own rules and expectations of certain behaviour. There are formal settings such as: the job interview meetings between management/supervisors and employees meetings with suppliers or calls on customers/clients disciplinary meetings or hearings. These all necessitate more formal language, addressing everybody by his/ her correct title or name, and following processes and procedures laid down in company rules or by labour law. These meetings usually have an agenda and time allocated for agenda items, and normally lead to action, identified responsibilities and allocated resources. Each meeting or call should have a specific outcome. Attendance of these formal settings is compulsory when invited to them. Dress is usually also more formal - particularly when customers/clients are involved. Informal settings at work include a range of interpersonal contacts: meeting in a canteen or at a water/coffee/tea dispenser meeting in a designated smoking area and discussing matters ad hoc discussions in passages, corridors, staff rooms or at a persons desk internal emails/phone conversations between staff (sometimes even from supervisors) meetings and discussions between staff/the team without a formal agenda. There are times when settings and meetings which are normally formal are shifted to an informal setting, to: allow for a more relaxed atmosphere find new strategic direction identify problems and solutions enable people in less senior positions to be able to speak freely. Informal settings are conducive to forming better interpersonal relationships in the company. Such meetings are often used for special team building

4.2.9 Role play activity: employers/managers and employees

Form pairs of students, one representing the employer or manager, the other representing the employee. Now act out the following: The employee has arrived late for work a number of times. The employer wants to start disciplinary action. How can a positive agreement between the two be reached? How does the employer behave (shout, accuse, instruct, insult, plead, berate, attack personal values, etc.) and how does the employee behave - as he/she risks losing the job (negotiate, explain, make alternative suggestions, cry, attack back)? The employer has to remember that the company has responsibilities. It must be productive, achieve goals and prosper. The employee wants to keep the job. Which discussion was the most favourable and why? Which one did not come to a good result for either party and why?

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exercises (including fun events away from the office). They encourage people from different divisions to meet/mix, to exchange ideas, and to find a common vision and goal. In such settings, dress is casual or, at worst, normal officewear, but always clean, neat and tidy. Some companies encourage family members to attend fun days, special occasions and celebration events to ensure that they are supportive of those working for the company (important when overtime work, extra shifts and stress/pressure at work take their toll). It also makes it easier for supervisors or managers to identify and understand the private life dynamics of staff members whose behaviour at work is cause for concern.

present, or senior people instructing exactly how everybody must act or behave. Team members will not open up or contribute freely under such circumstances. There are different skills needed to facilitate the best team building exercises. A facilitator has to encourage the quiet members to talk about their points of view. He/she has to make sure that the natural (or official through rank in the company) leader does not run the show, dominating all input and results. Ideally, the facilitator should use a team building exercise in the way a group moderator uses a group discussion: get as much input from everybody as possible, get reactions to everything that has been said, identify problems and find solutions. The facilitator must not offer his or her own solutions. Successful teams grow in maturity; they blend over time, changing dynamics from the early beginnings when every team member is still assessing his or her role and finding his or her own level of contribution, to the mature team where every member can totally rely on all other members. At the mature stage, the team has shared beliefs and visions, works like clockwork, and has achieved loyalties and trust in each other. Team members have learned to be adaptable and flexible when needed, and are fully committed to their common cause. This process of team development is often described as forming, storming, norming and performing. The following diagram shows the progression in team maturity.

4.3 Teams and team building

As we have already discussed, teams exist in most environments, be it in private life or in business. Business needs highly efficient teams in order to become and remain productive. Team building is, therefore, an essential tool in creating a well-developed and sustainably efficient work environment. Here are a number of team building exercises that have been tried and tested (http://www.jobacle.com). To help new teams to get to know each other, an easy ice breaking exercise is to ask them to be creative. Hand out pens to everyone and ask them to draw a personal logo that they feel reflects themselves; then have the group guess which logo goes with which person. Introduce a number of behavioural codes set by the company. Discuss a few different scenarios and let everybody brainstorm whether these scenarios are part of appropriate or inappropriate behaviour. That way, everybody gets an idea of each others boundaries as well as company policy. Ask the team to describe the characteristics of somebody they admire. Use PowerPoint or other electronic media to make this a visual exercise. How does the team believe they can achieve these attributes for themselves? Would such attributes contribute to better performance at the office? There are many exercises that can bring fun into any team building event, from games, discussions and physical activities to more serious workrelated tasks. The most important aspect of team building must be to get everybody involved. There is no point having only a few members 118

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Team Development

Performing

outcome of the task to which they all contributed. In addition to this, they should have grown positive relationships of trust, being able to rely on each other and to enjoy each others company and working together. The final stages in the life cycle of a team are adjourning and termination. Adjourning is typically related to the end of a project team. However, it is also relevant when the purpose and structure of the team changes substantially due to a sale, merger or restructuring process. This stage can be particularly stressful where the dissolution of the team is unplanned. This stage involves the disbandment of the team, termination of roles and the completion of tasks. This stage is also referred to as mourning, given the sense of loss experienced by some team members.

Norming
Tuckman Model
Storming
Forming Tuckmann, Bruce (1965) Development sequence in small groups Psychological Bulletin, 63, 384-399

The Challenge

The Team Dynamic

Conflicting emotions (sadness, anger, gratitude, happiness) Uncertainty about how to end and their future Grieving; feelings of dislocation and loss (Team members deal with this stage in different ways: avoiding tasks, arguing over minor details, or past arguments resurface; denying: pretending the team will continue; Pollyanna: focusing only on the positive experiences) Acknowledging: facing the good, the bad and the ugly, letting go and saying goodbye

The Questions
What will I do now? What will it be like now? Shall I stay (with the company) or shall I go?

Stage 5 Stage 4 Stage 3 Stage 1

FORMING Team aquaints and establishes ground rules PERFORMING Team members work toward getting the job done ADJOUNING Team may disband after achieving their goals or because members leave

Stage 2
STORMING Members resist control by group leaders and show hostility

NORMING Members work together developing close relationships and feelings of comraderie

Managing relationships and task efforts

Figure 3 Team development

In the ideal team, everybody learns something from everybody else, all members contribute something meaningfully, and all share a common goal. They share purpose and priorities, know their roles, and solve challenges and conflict. Their individual personalities are fully recognised and appreciated, skills are applied within the teams, standards are set and adhered to, and team members share setbacks and find alternative solutions - but they also share in the positive results and successes. They grow from all their experiences within the team. Members in the ideal team know what needs to be done, by when, by whom, with which resources and whom to delegate what tasks to. Team members adhere to set regular meetings, have set agendas and can prove results. The greatest satisfaction to team members will be the successful 120

Reference: Bruce W. Tuckman, Development Sequence in Small Groups, Psychological Bulletin. 1965. Tuckman, 1997 (in collaboration with Mary Ann Jensen), updated the model to include the fifth stage adjourning.

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4.4 Effective leadership

Forming
Leadership is using influence to inspire other people to do what you wish them to do.

Adjourning Tuckmans Stages of Team Development

Storming

What is leadership - what defines an effective leader? It is not as simple as stating anybody in management, top politicians, union leaders, civic organisation leaders, etc. They may be leaders only according to their titles or having been elected. Leadership is more than being in a formal, appointed management position. One definition of leadership comes from Erhard et al who describe leadership as an exercise in language that results in the realisation of a future that wasnt going to happen anyway, which future fulfils (or contributes to fulfilling) the concerns of the relevant parties. This definition links leadership to the future and includes the concerns of the relevant parties (http://www.wernererhard.com and http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers. cfm?abstract_id= 1392406). It differs from other definitions as it does not describe others as followers. It also looks at leadership as that of many people rather than that of an individual. It implies that fundamental concerns of the relevant parties are addressed which may not have been the idea of the leader. This is in direct conflict with the standard definition of leadership which is attributed to an individual possessing such qualities. Leaders are usually found in positions of responsibility in a companys hierarchy, and are expected to have the necessary expertise in adjudicating problems that may arise in the company. A true leader goes beyond the power and authority of the position held by an appointed head or chief. An emergent leader, i.e. one who does not have the title (e.g. CEO, manager or director) but has one element that some people in authority do not actually possess: he/she has informal power/influence over others. He/she has the ability to gain co-operation from others by means of persuasion. Ogbonnia (2007) defines an effective leader as an individual with the capacity to consistently succeed in a given condition and be viewed as meeting the expectations of an organisation or society. An individual who is appointed to a managerial position (e.g. CEO, manager or director) has the right to instruct, command and enforce obedience because of his/her authority in this position. However, besides such title and authority, a manager who is a leader would also possess the right attributes to match this authority and inspire staff to respect and follow 123

Performing

Norming

Dorming
Figure 4 Revised team development stages

4.3.1 Activity: alternative ways to complete tasks and achieve team goals
Well-functioning teams contribute to great productivity and provide efficient paths to success. However, there are times when the full team is not available or when team members leave (resignation, retirement, illness, etc.). Look at the roles and functions of the ideal team and what a team consists of. What could be the various ways for teams to complete tasks and result in satisfactory options to achieve team goals, even when you have a changing team? Justify your solution. Also consider the role of IT/electronic media can play towards such solutions. 122

him because of his/her ideas, standing, direction, dynamism/charisma, and the confidence he/she inspires. Should a manager not be capable of applying such authority in the correct manner, he/she may then be faced with an emergent leader challenging this role in the company, undermining his/her authority and credibility. However, only authority of position has the official backing of formal sanctions in the company. It follows that whoever wields personal influence and power can legitimise this only by gaining a formal position in the hierarchy, with commensurate authority. If there is conflict between the appointed authority (e.g. CEO, manager or director) and the emergent leader, staff loyalties could be challenged, and there may be a split in who listens to whom. Productivity can suffer as a consequence. This happens frequently between management and unions when a proper consultative approach is not followed. According to Pedler et al (2001), who write about managers development, group management competencies - based on research - are segmented into three sections: Foundation Specific skills and attributes Meta qualities They believe that management competencies have to include the following 11 skills: 1. Command of basic facts 2. Relevant professional knowledge 3. Continuing sensitivity to events 4. Analytical, problem-solving and decision-/judgement-making skills 5. Social skills and abilities 6. Emotional resilience 7. Proactive inclination to respond purposefully to events 8. Creativity 9. Mental agility 10. Balanced learning habits and skills 11. Self-knowledge. 124

Skills 3 to 7 are specific skills and attributes. Skills 9 to 11 are meta qualities that help the manager to develop other skills, and to deploy resources and other skills. They point out that many of the skills are interconnected in that possession of the onecontributes to the possession of the other. According to Pedler et al, skills 1 and 2 form the foundation level; they represent two kinds of basic knowledge and information that a manager may need to use in making decisions and taking action. Skills 3 to 7 directly affect behaviour and performance, while skill 3 (sensitivity) allows managers to acquire the basic knowledge and information involved in skills 1 and 2. The final skills 8 to 11 are those that allow a manager to develop and deploy skills and resources in skills 3, 4 and 5. Pedler et al refer to these qualities as meta qualities needed in particular circumstances. Every company or organisation needs leaders at every level. A company without an efficient leader is like a ship without a captain - rudderless and directionless. There is no vision and no driving force towards a specific goal in the company. The company may well have managers or directors - but if they cannot lead efficiently and effectively, the company is doomed to failure. How many times have these so-called leaders let their followers down, having failed to achieve the goals they promised they would achieve? How often have these same people only looked after their own interests and those of their closest family members, friends and allies, filling their own pockets, and exploiting power, position and influence? International news media have frequently described the failed leadership of banking and financial leaders in the last few years of the economic crisis. Where that occurs, there is no effective leadership. Instead it is exploitation and manipulation of others in order to achieve their own selfish gain. True leadership is a carefully developed skill for setting direction and setting standards, motivating others to be and do their best, being innovative when confronted with challenges, being responsive to problems, and trying to find solutions so that problems can be avoided. A true leader is an effective communicator, is reliable and consistent, shows the way, and gets others to follow willingly in his or her vision. A true leader also does not only have a vision but makes sure that this vision becomes a reality, working with and through others. Effective leadership: 125

 Is focused on the destination rather than on the details of getting there Creates and communicates a vision for the company and often for individuals as well Enlists others to work with him/her towards such vision Has certain qualities, some of them natural (character trait) and others developed over time Tolerates and adjusts to circumstances as they unfold Has the ability to take charge Inspires others to follow the lead Has the resolve and determination to do whatever is needed to lead the company/organisation to success Inspires employees to see and relate to such leadership in deed and not only in word Facilitates management and employee understanding of the leaders vision and his/her stand on integrity, customer service and other important issues Makes sure that the values of top-level executives are aligned, and are filtered through the many layers of management and staff Works well with and through people Is well aware of changing markets, demands, competitor activity and trends (through carefully selected and well-appointed management/ staff), and steers the company either with or against those trends, whatever is best for the company or organisation.

the circumstances and the type of challenges we may be confronted with, we may well adopt some characteristics of one or more of the other styles for the specific circumstance or event - and later revert to the style which we are more comfortable with. The natural/born leader is one who already led others during childhood - with others following his/her ideas for games to play, things to plan or hobbies to participate in - without ever having to bully, bribe or entice other children. This ability would then have expanded during adolescence and early adulthood. Very often, natural leaders also volunteer for extra projects or leadership tasks (in youth groups, charitable organisations, etc.), or even start such organisations on their own. In adult life, such natural leadership talent then only needs to be groomed for business, i.e. adapted to the different environments and enhanced through business skills/job skills. Not all leaders are born leaders; many worked very hard to develop this skill to recognise and value the worth of other individuals, to learn to respect others for who they are and what they do, and to learn to show appreciation for their work and for their potential. People who are appointed to management are not automatically leaders for introverts, it may be more difficult to focus on others and their success, and the success of the company/organisation. The self-centred manager will steer the company so that all future success will reflect on him/her getting the credit and being the reason for the success. Failures will be attributed to others. We all know people like this - they are not leaders even if they call themselves that or they occupy positions of authority. True leaders create an innovative environment. They: are open to the ideas of others encourage and support experimentation eliminate unnecessary penalties for failure look for/tap into all talents of employees around them strive to incorporate a positive can do attitude into the whole organisational culture to set the tone of the companys culture.

4.4.1 Leadership: true and false

There is an ongoing debate as to whether leaders are born or can be developed. In recent times, various academics have started converging on the idea that most leadership traits and practices can be developed, especially where there is already some natural inclination towards leadership. Many leadership styles have been identified over the years. There are many descriptions available for different leadership styles, their advantages and their disadvantages. If you are already a natural or born leader, you will recognise your own style in one of the listed styles (refer to Unit 1). Every person who wants to lead others, in private or business life, will feel more comfortable in one style rather than another. However, depending on 126

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Why would anyone want to become a leader? Is it not far simpler to remain below the radar screen of others, not getting bothered with responsibilities or accusations of non-performance, or having to motivate and drive others all the time? Yes, it would be much simpler to sit facing a computer, complete ones daily tasks, go home and face the same again the next day. No major responsibilities, no conflict, and not being responsible or accountable for the successes or failures of others. Some people accept such a mole-like existence all their lives. Others may initially regard this as a good option but eventually become dissatisfied with the work, the salary, their supervisors and life in general. Such lack of ambition means that one would then also have to forego promotions, salary increases, seniority and fringe benefits. They would not have the rewarding experience of being able to lead others, to manage and to grow as a person.

In other circumstances, a democratic approach (getting everybodys input and opinion, reaching consensus before acting) may be far more suitable. The style adopted by a leader (while personally tending more to one style that he/she is more comfortable with) should be the one that most effectively achieves the objectives of the company, the team, the situation and the goal to be achieved. Let us look at the various leadership styles from an emotional intelligence point of view, as described by Daniel Goleman et al: Visionary leaders mobilise people toward a shared vision. They are seldom practical or hands-on. They are highly enthusiastic about new ideas and innovations - others have to become as enthusiastic about these ideas as they are expected to implement the ideas. Coaching leaders develop people, establishing a relationship and trust with and among people. Their goal is to help people improve themselves. They are great believers in continuous training. Affiliative leaders promote emotional bonds and organisational harmony around them. They are more comfortable in an environment where people get on with each other, where problems get solved through discussions and agreement. Democratic or participative leaders build consensus through participation. This leadership style has the leader sharing the decisionmaking abilities with group members by promoting the interests of the group members and by practising social equality. Pacesetting leaders set challenging and exciting standards, and expect excellence. They believe that employees can do a lot better and faster than they do. The bar is raised on a regular basis - they are firm believers of Total Quality Management and continuous higher achievements. Autocratic, authoritarian or commanding leaders demand immediate compliance. Leaders in this style keep all decision-making powers centralised in the leader. This style is obvious in dictators but is also often present among patriarchal companies, the military and para-military, old-world educational institutions, etc. Autocratic or commanding leaders believe everything must be done their way, by the book, 100% according to the rules. They do not entertain any suggestions or initiatives from subordinates; they are not easily convinced that change is needed. If it has worked like that before for me, then it will work for you as well. Autocratic or commanding management is an easy tool for management. It allows easy and quick decision making, as only one

4.4.2 Activity: identify 5 major characteristics an effective leader must possess

You have learned about the differences in characteristics of an inefficient, selfish manager or leader, and those of an efficient leader. What are the major characteristics that an effective and efficient leader must possess in order to reach his/her goals? Explain fully why the leader needs such characteristics.

4.5 Which leadership styles can we identify?

Leadership style is a leaders style of providing direction, implementing plans and motivating people. It is the result of the philosophy/belief, personality and experience of the leader. Harriman and Salazar (2004) also developed models for understanding leadership. According to them, different situations call for different leadership styles. In an emergency, when there is no time to first reach consensus from a large group of people before acting, and where one person has the necessary experience or expertise to lead action in such emergency, that person should apply a commanding or autocratic leadership style to get results (telling everybody exactly what to do, at that moment). 128

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person decides for everybody and keeps each decision to himself until he feels it needs to be communicated to others. Engaging leaders engage employees in understanding the existing conditions and how they can collectively assist in addressing them. The engaging leader reaches out to employees during difficult times to better understand their concerns and interests. He/she openly and honestly explains the full impact of, for example, the economic downturn on them and the company. They also explain what can be done to keep as many employees employed as possible. Laissez-faire or free rein style leaders may be in a leadership position without providing actual leadership, leaving employees in the company to fend for themselves and make their own decisions as to when to act, and how. This type of leader is usually preoccupied with own activities and interests, far too busy to get involved in the day-to-day activities of the company/team that he/she is supposed to lead. These are different characteristics from those of the servant leader or so-called level 5 leader, who focuses strongly on giving staff the credit and working from behind the scenes. Narcissistic leaders show their self-centred style by being concerned with their image, how employees perceive them, whether they are admired or copied, how much publicity they receive, and whether articles are published about them. Embarrassment through failures, or through being seen in the wrong outfit or with the wrong people, are all the worst case scenarios for these leaders. They need to feel they are important. A toxic leader is someone who has responsibility over a group of people or an organisation, and who abuses the leaderfollower relationship by leaving the group or organisation in a worse-off condition than when he/she joined it. He/she milks the company for all it is worth, taking out as much money as possible; they fire and hire the wrong people, and they make decisions that harm the company. They usually also quickly resign at one point, just before they would be fired or arrested, or just before the company goes into liquidation. Contingent or situational leadership styles are those where leaders adapt their style to suit a situation. Leading a group of highly educated engineers may require a different style from leading a large group of manual labourers. This is a modern style that many leaders subscribe to and try to follow.

There are thus many leadership styles that can be identified; who is in charge in theory or who is really in charge. Learn to recognise the people around you for their leadership style. Leaders who demonstrate persistence and tenacity, and who have clear goals and apply efficient communication skills will bring out the best qualities in their subordinates and the best results for their companies.

4.5.1 Activity: own leadership style

You have learned about the various leadership styles. Select the one you personally feel most comfortable with - the style you would naturally adopt if you had to be a leader from tomorrow onwards. Explain why you would adopt/work in that style. Identify and select the leadership style of four well-known leaders. How do you know that this is the style they live by?

4.5.2 Self-leadership
This process occurs within an individual. It is a combination of a number of decisions you make: you decide that you want to be in charge of your own life; be or become self-disciplined and self-motivated; turn from being led to leading - even if it starts only with everything in your own life. You make the decision and then act on this decision.

4.5.3 Leader or manager?

Not everybody wants to be a manager or a leader: these positions demand a lot of responsibility and may open the individual to criticism by staff. However, being a leader or a manager is not the same thing. You can be a manager and a good one at that, without ever being a leader. That would mean that you manage to get tasks completed on time and according to instructions from top management merely through delegation, and no additional input is required from you. Or you may have to push employees to help you get the tasks done - as you lack the necessary leadership qualities that make them want to work for you without having to be pushed. Even an excellent manager can lack vision and inspiration to motivate others. Such a manager may pay excellent attention to detail, to

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deadlines and to perfection but may lack good people skills. He/she may need to manage by fear, using the stick approach. Let us examine the most obvious differences between a leader and a manager as described by McShane and Travaglione (2007). What defines such differences?

and celebrates their successes. Leaders often need managers in their organisation, as they often tend to get bored with detail and are already on to their next vision or their next creative solution. They rely on efficient implementers. Many people admire the concept of being a director, a manager or a leader. Such aspiration is often linked to either the expected earnings attached to such a job/title, the big mansion, the luxury car, designer clothing, or international travel to exotic destinations - or, alternatively, to the perceived power. At the same time, most subordinates love to hate management - for setting up rules, for demanding too much in too little time, for not giving recognition when it is due, and for criticising in public and complimenting in private when nobody else hears or sees. Managers are often portrayed in movies as bullies and incapable back stabbers who are involved in fraud and corruption. Unfortunately also, there are thousands of bad managers around, confirming these prejudices. The same applies to many of todays so-called leaders. There are lots with wonderful charisma and very little ability to deliver on their promises. People recognise them the world over, especially when it is close to election time: politicians often make the wildest promises so that they get elected. Then comes delivery time - and little or nothing happens. Leadership, while satisfying and at times glamorous, is not for the fainthearted. You become very visible, with all your faults and strengths. You will be judged by everybody around you. Could you be a manager? Or could you be a true leader? Do you have what it takes? More importantly, do you want to be a manager or a leader? Changes in company law and auditing make life far more difficult for directors and senior managers. Company law now holds directors and senior managers accountable and liable for any damages, losses or negative impacts on others. This can even extend to their private assets, where they could lose everything they own if they are found to have been corrupt, fraudulent or negligent in their handling of company matters.

manager
Oversees the current process well Must achieve balance Thinks execution Comfortable with control Problems are just that, and needs resolution ASAP Procedure is King Instructs as to technique and process Impersonal, remote

leader
Wants to create the future Needs to make change Thinks ideas Welcomes risks Sees problems as opportunities, is patient Substance trumps the King Your best college Professor High Emotional Intellegence

Figure 5 Leaders and managers

Managers are far more comfortable with tangible products and systems anything they can control hands-on, within the parameters of the present known environment and safer choices. They are often pragmatic, like to deal with matters which they can sort out, and avoid risk. Managers are good at accepting and issuing orders, enforcing rules, and making sure that everything works and there is order. Managers accept senior leaders in their organisation - as long as they do not interfere in the day-to-day running of the business. Leaders are happier with ideas and concepts, are comfortable with and welcome change and the unknown future, and need time to dream, to be innovative and to create new visions. They are also risk takers, love challenges and are willing to break/bend rules. They are confident, have excellent verbal skills and use them to their advantage. The typical leader motivates, teaches and inspires through his/her vision. A leader is willing to accept blame for employee mistakes, gives credit to successful employees 132

4.5.4 Activity: are you a current/potential leader?

Answer these few questions and then compare your answers with the descriptions above of a manager and a leader. See whether you are more suited to the one or the other.

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Answer the following questions truthfully. There are no right or wrong answers. a.) Which are you more comfortable with: a) ideas, or b) products, or c) concepts, or d) systems? b.) Are you more present- or future-oriented? c.) Do you like to bend or break the rules to accomplish your mission? d.) Which do you deal with more successfully: change and innovation or maintaining the status quo? e.) Do you like being in authority, and if so, would you rather issue orders or work to inspire others? f.) Are you willing to take the risks that go along with increased responsibility? g.) Are you willing to invest the time and emotional energy required to lead others? Now compare the answers with the description of managers and leaders in . Once you have identified which of these options you lean towards (manager or leader - or neither?), explain in your own words what you understand your manager, leader or potential role to be.

What percentage increase would you expect? Do you think that all companies offer fringe benefits, e.g. medical aid, pension fund, car allowance and group life insurance? Would these perks be important to you? Smaller companies are usually not able to offer any fringe benefits in monetary terms, but they tend to offer more flexibility in terms of working hours, leave taken, working from home and a more familiar working environment. Could you see yourself working for a smaller company without top level perks? So what motivates you most: being paid well, receiving recognition, being able to work at your own pace, flexibility, or trying new tasks and innovating? Companies have to cost in the full package to employees. Everything that is offered by the company costs the company - be it paid in cash or via other methods. Employee retention is especially important when the economy is in recession because finding, interviewing, hiring and training replacements drain valuable time and other resources from a company. In order to promote employee job satisfaction and retention, organisations focus on making some perks available to employees, as long as the company can afford these.

4.6 Motivation and performance

While leaders inspire others to achieve optimum performance, managers expect formal systems to motivate employees. They are more comfortable with performance reviews and regular employee assessments/appraisals against which they then allocate rewards and incentives. The leader will more often rely on others being self-motivated without having to be controlled on a day-to-day basis. Imagine you are joining the company of your choice for your first permanent job. You know that the economy is tough and there is a scarcity of jobs, and so you are delighted to have found a job and feel you are on your way towards a wonderful career. What kind of perks would you expect (or at least hope for) besides your salary? How soon after joining would you expect a salary increase? 134

4.6.1 Flexible working hours and working from home

A survey of more than 1 500 HR leaders and hiring managers was conducted recently by SuccessFactors in the USA (http://www.mnn.com/ money/sustainable-business-practices/stories/employers-should-offerperks-outside-the-paycheck). It found that employees were more often motivated by flexible working hours and by being able to work from home (at least some of the time). Flexible working hours and working from home offer the employee flexibility and freedom to be able to choose when and where he/she works. There are a number of ways to offer flexible working hours to employees. They can either be allowed to create their own work schedule for a given amount of time, or they might still work the same number of days but get to decide when they start, take breaks and stop. There are also various ways of offering the chance to work from home. It obviously is not suited to every job. For example, a receptionist and a cleaner can only do their job at the premises of the company. However, 135

many other jobs can be done at the home of the employee - at least part of the time, as long as he/she has a designated space where such work can be done in a professional manner, where confidentiality can be guaranteed, where there is an Internet and telephone connection, and the person does not need ongoing, direct supervision. Where others are continuously reliant on the employees work output (e.g. at a conveyor belt or in a laboratory) and where interpersonal actions are the basis of the work (e.g. surgeon and patient, dentist and patient), working from home is not an option. In the case of the dentist, he would have to set up his practice at home! In most other cases, the development in ICT has enabled people to work anywhere and anytime, particularly in sales, software development and consultancy. Even teachers can teach rural classes now via electronic media, and doctors can execute some operations in that way with local assistance and electronic access. Employees now enjoy greater mobility because of a change of mindset in organisations and the technological developments mentioned above. It is also a reaction to traffic congestion, a waste of productive time spent travelling and the rising price of fuel. Working from home promotes quality of life and work satisfaction. It allows employees to avoid the stress of traffic or missing appointments because they work so far from home. These perks are extremely valuable to employees and can assist the company in retaining highly skilled employees who could otherwise be lost to the company (e.g. maternity leave/small children at home, moving to a different suburb/city, difficult private life circumstances, etc.). The employee will also feel extra loyalty towards a company that makes his/her life easier. At the same time, employees do not arrive at the office already tired, in a bad mood (traffic jams, tickets or road rage) and can also find their optimal time of day when they are at their most productive, to complete all tasks. Naturally, it requires employees to be responsible, to work in a disciplined way, and to avoid conflict of interests between private matters and work responsibilities.

are likely to perform better and be absent less often, so this will benefit the company as well.

4.6.3 Separate group and individual incentives

While group incentives help improve teamwork, individual incentives are more motivating and effective, as employees like to be able to control their own destiny. In sales, for example, extra commission levels, bonuses, incentives such as travel, household items and other items selected by employees could involve a reward for the individual with the most sales of a certain product, as well as for the team with the highest overall results.

4.6.4 Travel allowance, paid holidays and relaxation

Whether or not the company offers travel allowances, car allowances and paid holidays, most employees enjoy the opportunity of additional free days.

4.6.5 Production-based bonuses

The ability to earn additional money on top of a salary and salary increases is an incentive that most employees would welcome. One effective way to set up a bonus programme is to measure employee performance and their progress on a daily, weekly or monthly basis in order to continue improving. Individuals will measure their success against the companys targets and the performance of other staff as a whole. Their bonus is based on their personal achievement. This is suitable for employees who are not involved in sales, where a system of commission already exists.

4.6.6 Social and networking events

Offering the opportunity for team functions and events can help build better personal relationships among employees. Social activities boost morale and create stronger bonds between team members, encouraging them to work together and perform better in their work. Whether its a monthly meal, an outing, a reward for meeting goals or sporting events, offsite events will help to create a more cohesive team spirit.

4.6.2 Medical aid, health and wellness programmes

Besides offering medical aid membership (either half or fully paid by the company), there are other health and wellness aspects that can be incorporated into a companys perks to staff. Such perks can be set up in a number of ways a discount to a certain gym, cash reimbursement on fitness-related equipment, a company gym or even exercise classes during lunch time or after hours. Regardless of how it works, healthy employees 136

4.6.7 Extra training or adult education

In a tough economy when jobs are at risk, many employees are willing to improve their knowledge and skills in order to keep their jobs and 137

work toward promotions. However, formal education and training are expensive. It may be difficult for employees to pay for further education, especially for those who have already completed degree and certificate programmes. Tuition reimbursement and ongoing in-company or external, paid-for training opportunities are perks that can really help with employee retention. If an organisation is offering to pay for their education that could lead to an internal promotion, employees will be extremely keen to make use of the opportunity. They will then perform better for the company in the long term. Firms should use individual appraisal systems based on their job description, and then reward outstanding performance accordingly. Such a system must be transparent, well defined and documented to avoid accusations of favouritism.

These reviews are generally structured strictly according to those aspects stated in the job descriptions or performance contracts. Other companies set up complex performance review forms which look at actual task-by-task performance, as well as interpersonal relationships and team performances against set goals and time lines. They assess the strengths and weaknesses of the person, and his/her training needs, and include production data, personnel data, judgemental data and the employees own comments and explanations together with those of immediate supervisors rating their performance. An effective human resources department will then utilise these results to arrive at an overall corporate overview, one per department/division, one per team and one for each individual. These can then be benchmarked per category, with forecasts applied, remedial action taken where necessary, and/or promotions considered. It is common for organisations to pay bonuses or increases when they have achieved measurable profits, but where companies are in financial trouble it is not the obvious step to take. Remedial action will often be needed where employees have not adhered to behavioural codes or have underperformed. In such cases, it is very seldom only the actual job skill missing. The latter can easily be rectified through training. Attitudinal problems are more difficult to correct; the employee has to first realise that he/she actually has a problem. What are some of these potential problems that could hinder promotions or salary increases?

4.7 Promotion, rewards and assessments

Employment brings with it a salary, wages or commission, depending on the type of job. Some employees earn a basic salary plus a commission or bonus for achieving certain performances, sales levels or goals. On the one hand, companies are under pressure due to the economic recession and dropping revenue. For job seekers, there is a scarcity of jobs, while employees who are already employed struggle with the rising cost of living and inflation. Organised labour unions seek to promote the earnings of members and ordinary employees who constantly look for increases just to maintain their standard of living. Many employees work towards an increase or a promotion by delivering consistent or improved services to the company they work for. However, there are some who have a culture of entitlement. They are of the opinion that they are owed an increase, whether they perform or not. This is said to be at the base of poor service delivery in many organisations with a reputation for ineffectiveness and low productivity. Some companies offer annual reviews of such performance and then an annual increase (sometimes the same percentage for the same level of employee; sometimes the same percentage across the board). Other companies only pay an increase based on proven increased performance, often judged on such quarterly, bi-annual or annual performance reviews.

4.7.1 Dishonesty and cover-up

You have angered a major client, you made a major error in calculating a price, or the new computer program erased some important information and you do not know how to recover it. You cover up your problem, even tell a lie while hoping that either nobody notices or that you can fix the problem before others find out. Bad idea! The chances that you can keep these disasters secret are incredibly small. If the information gets to your manager before you can tell him/her, the person will then no longer trust you. Not only could your department, your colleagues or your manager not help you timeously to overcome or solve the problem, they now mistrust you, or think you are incapable of handling your job. A promotion or salary increase becomes a remote prospect.

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4.7.2 Bluffing on expertise/experience/knowledge

You cannot expect to know everything, or have done everything - you cannot have 10 years work experience when you are 23 years old. However, when a manager asks you a question related to your work, ideally you should know the answer. Many times, however, you will not know the answer. Own up; say that you will find out. This does not only apply to speaking to your manager when you do not know the answer but particularly also to speaking to clients/customers, suppliers and other important external contacts. If you guess an answer and get the answer wrong, you make a lasting impression of being dishonest or inefficient. If you state that you will find out the correct information and get back to the customer (or client or manager) by a certain time, they will respect you for your honesty and professional approach. The only exception is if the question concerned your daily job - something you really should have known. If such a situation happens frequently, you should seriously ask yourself if you know your job well enough. You are obviously not yet ready for a promotion and should seek further briefing or on-the-job training.

do something, you are definitely going to harm your career prospects. Naturally, if the supervisor is abusive or blatantly unfair, you should ascertain what company procedure there is to deal with such a situation, and then follow the correct procedure. Again, a professional approach to any such discussions, looking for solutions rather than trying to find excuses for the problems, will always be helpful. However, discussing these problems with other staff members or publishing negative comments online is a death knell to future promotions or an increase. Management may even consider cutting you out of any future development or training plans, and may look for ways to get you out of the company as they see you as being extremely disloyal. Anyway, why are you working for a company where you dislike everything and everybody?

4.7.4 Excuses, excuses, excuses - and the blaming culture

We all make mistakes - some small ones that nobody remembers and sometimes really big ones that we shall never forget. No matter how hard you work, how much you have already learned or how often you have done the specific task, there will be times when you slip up, make incorrect decisions or assume that something has been done when it has not. Accept that you will make mistakes, and learn from them. Do not find excuses, blame others or try to cover up the mistakes. Own up to your mistake, find corrective actions/solutions and learn how to prevent the mistake in future. Blaming others, making circumstances responsible or finding a million other excuses will only make matters worse and remove you from the list of those considered for promotion.

4.7.3 Negative comments about your superior

In an age of social media, the worst thing you can do is to write negative comments about your manager, your company, its products or services, or your team or colleagues and publish them where others can access them, e.g. on the social networks. You do not have to love the company you work for or the people you work for or with. You do not even have to love its products or services, but you should not say or do something to its detriment. That is blatantly disloyal considering that you receive a monthly salary. If you have a real problem with somebody at the company, then try and talk to them one-on-one so that you can find a solution together. It obviously helps and makes it easier to work for a company that you respect and towards which you feel loyal. It is important that you should discuss problems in an appropriate manner with any person with whom you have conflict or disagreements. But it is also important that you must be able to accept criticism of your work or your behaviour from supervisors and peers. If you do not know how to handle such criticism, this can become a major problem. If you get upset or angry when your manager criticises how you 140

4.7.5 Appearances
This important matter was mentioned earlier in this Coursebook. Some companies have a casual dress code which might suit you (as long as your clothes are clean, neat and tidy, and not torn or full of last nights dinner). If you do not come into contact with clients or other important external people, nor have meetings with management, you may be allowed to wear casual clothing. In all other cases, your dress code will be more formal, in line with company policy and suitable for the type of work you do. Technical staff would dress differently from those in marketing.

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Not adhering to the companys dress code (embarrassing if a senior manager or a client complains about you!) may cause a disciplinary meeting to be called. Senior managers will also believe that you are not mature enough for a promotion to a more senior job if you rebel against the companys dress code. Another aspect to watch is how you behave when invited outside of work in a social setting with your manager or clients. Are your table manners up to scratch? Can you handle yourself when alcohol is served? Nobody wants to promote somebody who cannot be allowed to be close to clients, and who is an embarrassment in a restaurant or public place, even when attending a football match with colleagues. Appearance, good table manners and generally good manners are all essential to career advancement, as are social skills. You do need to be able to hold a conversation, as well as know how to make small talk and when not to make small talk. If you are not sure exactly what to do when and your family cannot teach you, go online and find the appropriate hints and tips, and practise, practise, practise!

4.8 Review of own development against original aims and objectives

The first step is to go back to Unit 3 where you assessed your strengths and weaknesses, and where you set new times lines/dates by which you were going to achieve significant improvements.

4.8.1 Activity: revision of development plan

Copy the problem area scores you had noted in Unit 3 (activity ) into the table below. Remember, those were all the areas where you scored below 4. Next to that score, write the date you had undertaken to improve on that score. Now list what you have done in the past few days and week/s to improve that score. How was your time management rated? If below 4, then add it to this list. Since Unit 3, did you make any improvements to your time management? What did you do? What was the result? And your communication skills? How had you rated them and where are your skills now? What do you still need to improve and how are you going to do that?

4.7.6 Going beyond the expected

You want to get an increase. You want to be promoted and you know you can do the job. Have you ever gone out of your way to show that you have initiative, that you can solve problems, and that you are ready to take on extra responsibilities and challenges? If not, then start doing so urgently before somebody else gets promoted ahead of you. Look at ways how you can already learn the skills that will be needed in the new job function. Be careful not to irritate managers by excessive friendliness, offering assistance at all times and suspicious behaviour. Develop a relevant in-house and online network. If you are not yet on LinkedIn or a similar professional grouping, change that right away. (The biggest group of people who make regular use of LinkedIn are recruiters and head hunters looking for job candidates.) Take enough time to write a good profile on LinkedIn, using keywords that describe your desired job. That way, recruiters who need someone like you will be able to find you.

Problem area

Score

Action

Date

Aimed for score

4.8.2 Activity: assessing areas that have been achieved

Now list all those aspects (including time management, communication, professionalism and behaviour) that you have successfully improved on. What did you do to improve those areas? Do you still need to improve them further? How are you going to do that?

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Improved aspects Score

Action

Date

Aimed for score

4.9 Conclusion
In this unit, you learned about various aspects of teams and team formation, what constitutes good team work, and the roles people can play in teams. We discussed leadership, leadership styles and the basics of effective leadership, plus the difference between leadership and management. In the next unit, we will examine strategy formulation, problem definitions, problem-solving techniques and problem-solving strategies. Again, we will review what progress you have made on your own personal development.

4.8.3 Activity: assessing areas that need further corrective action, time lines
Now list all those areas (including time management, communication, professionalism and behaviour) that you have not yet improved upon or have not sufficiently improved upon.

Test your knowledge

Write an essay of 300 words about the most important aspects of team dynamics. What makes a team successful? What could cause serious problems in team work? State the various leadership styles, and give your opinion of the benefits and drawbacks of each style. State the difference between a good leader and a good manager. Give reasons for this. State five ways to motivate staff beyond their salary payments. How do you avoid losing out on a promotion? What do you need to do?

Problem area not improved so far/not enough

Score

Action

Date

Aimed for score

State why you have not yet achieved such positive change, i.e. what held you back? How are you going to move forward from now on? By doing what?

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Unit 5: Professional development strategy formulation and problem solving

Unit 5 is aligned with Learning Outcomes 1 and 4, and Assessment Criteria 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 1.3 and 1.4: Learning Outcome 1: Be able to take responsibility for own personal and professional development Learning Outcome 4: Be able to develop strategies for problem solving Assessment Criterion 4.1: Review tools and methods for developing solutions to problems Assessment Criterion 4.2: Develop an appropriate strategy for resolving a particular problem Assessment Criterion 4.3: Evaluate the potential impact on the business of implementing the problem-solving strategy Assessment Criterion 1.3: Devise a personal and professional development plan based on identified needs Assessment Criterion 1.4: Reflect on own development against original aims and objectives set in the personal and professional development plan By the end of this unit, you should be able to: Specify the problem (discover, identify, analyse and solve problems, including assess the problem and its severity) Devise tools and methods for problem solving Plan and implement problem-solving strategies Review implemented strategies and evaluations

5.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, you learned about various aspects of teams and team formation, what constitutes good team work, what constitutes effective leadership, and what differentiates a manager from a leader. In this unit, we will examine employability and professional development strategy formulation, problem definitions, problem-solving techniques and problem-solving strategies. We will again review your progress on your personal development. Why do you need problem-solving skills? Why do you need to develop a strategy for such skills? Because you will be confronted with many problematic situations in your personal life and your working life. The more your problem-solving skills have been developed and polished, the better you will be able to cope when faced with difficult situations. Ideally, however, you will learn how to: learn from previous problems and not make the same mistakes again (hindsight and learning) recognise current problems and find solutions for them (present problem solving) identify potential problems and take steps to mitigate or avoid them from happening in the first place (future-oriented problem solving) develop strategies to avoid, solve and cope with problems in various scenarios. For every successful career plan, problem solving is an exceptionally important skill. Being recognised as a competent and confident problem solver will create job opportunities for you, and will get you onto a successful road to career development. Superiors/managers like having problem solvers on their team as such skills enhance productivity in a company. Having acquired the appropriate skills, you can then approach every problem you encounter through a systematic process and be comfortable that the decisions you make are sound and reliable. You will know that by following a well-structured plan, you can resolve the problem to the best of your ability. Despite all these skills, you will never be able to avoid all problems from occurring, and you will also not solve all problems you come across. Many may be beyond your range of influence or competence. 147

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For example: the world economy is going through tough times at the moment millions of people are losing their jobs changing South African legislation (e.g. B-BEEE, AA, scarce skills) will determine who will easily find a job and who will not climate change will impact on what we will be able to grow where, or if whole regions will become deserts or will be flooded alternative energy resources will have to be found water scarcity will become a severe problem ageing populations world-wide pose new challenges to economies. You will be unable to influence these factors affecting your life. However, having developed the appropriate problem-solving skills will make it much easier for you to cope with different changing and unknown circumstances. You will be able to adapt to such changing circumstances and reduce the influence of these external problems as far as possible. Consequently, you will then not feel that you are faced with insurmountable challenges in life. You will feel more powerful, more in control of your own destiny. You will be able to apply these skills during your studies, during your working life and even in your private life.

may have been spared such major impact on your life and only had to deal with problems emerging from your own actions or lack thereof (e.g. being blamed for somebody elses doings, not having completed homework in primary school or high school, etc.). With some problems, the only option open to you will be either to adapt to the consequences of these problems or to find new opportunities arising from them, e.g. in the case of a job loss, become an entrepreneur, start your own business and create jobs. With rising petrol prices, use public transport, get a bicycle or walk, and become extremely fit. In response to climate change and an energy crisis, reduce power usage, install solar panels, invent a new heating/cooling device, or recycle). What really are problems? Problems are when things do not go the way we expected them to go, the way we hoped matters would have developed; when we take things for granted and something totally different happens. Problems are when we are faced with an outcome that is different to what we wanted, expected, hoped for or had calculated. Some problems occur because of what we did, or incorrect choices we made, e.g. you drank too much at the party; you drove too fast and received a traffic fine; you studied the wrong material; you sent an email to the incorrect person. You can interpret these problems either way: you did the wrong thing or you can describe it as not having done the right thing. Sometimes problems arise because we lack certain experience, skills or insight. During your school years, did your teachers sometimes give you tests to write and you thought you knew the answers but failed the test as you got the answers wrong? The problem: you were not prepared well enough; you did not study enough. So, some problems occur not because of what we did but because of what we did not do. For example, if you want to pour yourself a cold drink and there is none in the house, this problem was caused because you did not buy one. If you blame the problem on somebody else (e.g. parents, roommates, etc.), you are trying to shift the problem to them. However, did you actually communicate to them that you wanted them to buy the cold drink? Did you check afterwards that it was actually bought? If not, then you abdicated the action or responsibility for it, and did not delegate it. Why did you not buy the cold drink in the first place if it was intended for you? So you really have yourself to blame - own the problem and learn from it. Next time, buy it yourself or ask somebody else in time to buy it on your behalf, and then check afterwards that they bought it. 149

5.2 What are problems? What is problem solving?

5.2.1 What is a problem?
Henry Kaiser, an American industrialist, once said Problems are only opportunities in work clothes. What did he mean by that? Are all problems potential opportunities? Can we actually convert or change problems into something else? Do we really have an influence over global problems, or challenges facing the USA or Syria, the Eurozone or Bangladesh? Probably not as individuals - but these problems definitely have an influence on us and on our lives (e.g. job losses, rising food and petrol prices, etc.). The problems you will face - or have already faced - can be large or small, simple or complex, and easy or difficult to solve. You may have had to face huge problems (such as severe illness or death in the family) or you 148

The same applies to examinations. Do not shift the blame to the college or the professor or lecturer when you do not pass an examination with the mark you wanted, and accuse them that the material had not been covered or not covered well enough. Did you study everything enough in your own time? Did you attend all classes? Did you ask enough questions until you understood the material? Obviously, there are many problems that will be caused by others and you suffer the consequences without any fault of your own, e.g. the economic crises around the world, climate change, energy shortages or water shortages, etc. In those cases, it is still up to you to decide what you do about the consequences. You will still have to act in one way or another: you can either say that these problems are not your problems, the world must sort them out, or others have to find solutions. Or you state that you believe you have the power to contribute your own part towards a solution (such as using less energy or water; making sure you have low debt, if any; and that you learn good financial skills). Depending on how you act or react towards problems, you see yourself either as a person in control of your life, solving problems that already have or potentially have an impact on your life, or you see yourself as a victim, at the mercy of other people solving all problems (or not). There is also another method of approaching problems: the ostrich approach - putting your head in the sand, pretending the problems do not exist or will go away by themselves if you ignore them long enough, i.e. trying to ignore reality. Does this attitude solve problems? Does it put the person in charge of his or her life? No. The person suffers the consequences in the same manner that the victim suffers. Both styles usually live a selffulfilling prophecy - they see the negative results happening which they believed would happen anyway, so they give up on action, bemoan their fate and do not solve the problems impacting on them. Similar challenges will be posed to you at work. Often, you will be expected to know something that you had not been shown by others. Or you break an unwritten company rule and are now facing a reprimand from your managers. It would be easy to blame others for your problems. However, ask yourself: did you try and establish all the necessary information or did you just assume you knew everything? Your lack of preventative action caused your problems. If you now learn from your problems, you will also learn to ask lots of questions and make sure you know what is expected of you. Try and prevent those problems that you have no control over. 150

5.2.2 Problem solving

What is problem solving? Problem solving is a mental process that involves discovering, identifying, analysing and solving problems. The ultimate goal of problem solving is to overcome obstacles and to find a solution that best resolves the issue. As pointed out before, from that stage it develops into identifying potential or future problems so that preventative action can take place. Problem solving is an important skill for every manager and every leader. At work, problem-solving skills are essential in order to guarantee continuous and efficient productivity. Problem-solving skills form the core of many peoples jobs, e.g. fixing a broken machine, solving an IT systems problem, solving a product problem for a customer, patient or other staff members, or discovering new solutions to current challenges (e.g. by research and development, designing new software, or inventing new products and services). The severity and extent of a problem will influence the amount of effort, resources and options we may have to develop to overcome the problem or obstacle. This also means that the best strategy for solving a problem depends largely on the actual situation, the importance of the outcome and the severity of the challenge. Problem solving can take many approaches and forms. Often, people first need to gather factual information before they can solve a problem. In other instances, gut-feel, creativity, outof-the-box thinking and innovation are all that are needed for a person to solve a smaller problem.

5.2.3 Activity: identifying cause and effect of problems

Write a list of ten different problems you personally have encountered during the past year. (Write these down in a table so that you can refer back to it later.) How severe was each of these problems? What was the cause of each problem? What was the effect of each problem? How did you solve each problem? Were you actually able to solve the problem? What did you learn from each problem? 151

5.3 The process of and steps in problem solving

In order to solve a problem, it is important to follow a series of steps. We have already identified a few of these steps in the previous section where we defined the various causes and effects of problems. Some researchers refer to these steps towards solving a problem as the problem-solving cycle. This cycle is portrayed in a logical, sequential manner. There are several models available that illustrate the problem-solving cycle.
Choose a Model or Goal Compare it with Reality

5.4 A seven-step problem solving cycle (university of south australia. Http://www.W3.Unisa.Edu.Au)

However, very few people follow such a formal, sequential or logical order, and take these steps consciously when trying to find solutions. Most react in panic, under time pressure, trying to save face, and trying to reduce or avoid embarrassment when found out to be the cause of a problem. Or they react in an automated, predictable manner; something they always do: they blame others, they shout and become aggressive, or they burst into tears. Some walk away from the problem, expecting it to go away by itself or wait for others to solve it. Many people also skip important steps when trying to solve problems. If the problems are large or severe, skipping steps can cause serious harm. What are these steps that we should be taking?

Concrete

Execute the Solution

Identify Differences (Problems) Reflective Choose a Model or Goal

Active Select a Solution

Abstract

5.4.1 Identifying or recognising the problem

Consider Alternative Solutions

Figure 6 Problem-solving cycle

Evaluate Consequences of Solutions

(Kolb, D.A., Rubin, I & McIntyre, J. (1979) http://www-personal.umich. edu/~cberger/psi76.html) The following is a seven-step problem-solving cycle model that has also been proposed:
1 Evaluate 7 Identify

We often land in a problematic or challenging situation without being aware how we actually got there. At work, a problem suddenly lands on your desk. At home or among friends, a problem arises from nowhere and we have to confront it. Sometimes, we do not even recognise a problem as such, or are not aware that it exists while we are already suffering the consequences. This is particularly true if the problem has been caused by something we did not do or forgot to do and maybe should have done, and where others acted instead of us, in turn causing our problem. This problem could be getting bigger and bigger, without us knowing that it even existed. Consider this example: One of your friends experiences a severe financial crisis. He needs to borrow money from the bank. The bank wants somebody to sign surety for him as your friend has no assets. You trust your friend, are willing to help him, and believe you know him well and that he will get himself out of his situation, so you sign. Months or years later, you have forgotten about your signature - until one day, you establish that your friend never paid back his loan. The bank decided that your friend has no money and no assets and they now hold you liable for the loan as you had signed the surety. Yes, you can sue your friend but it will cost you legal fees upfront. You now have a problem that developed without your knowledge. Or perhaps you suspected it but refused to face up to it 153

Explore

Implement 6

3 Set goals

Select

4 Look at alternatives

Figure 7 Seven-step problem-solving cycle

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earlier. You will gain nothing by blaming your friend. Accept that you were equally at fault and now have a problem. What could or should you have done differently? Firstly, it is unwise to sign a surety unless you are willing and able to actually pay the debt. Secondly, you should have monitored what your friend was doing about payments. Finally, you should have made sure that you were released from your surety as soon as possible with written proof of such release received from the bank. While it seems like an obvious step, identifying or recognising the problem is not always as simple as it sounds. Foresight is better than hindsight. For that we need insight. In some cases, people mistakenly identify the wrong source or cause of a problem, which will make attempts to solve it inefficient, useless or even harmful. So, double check that you are sure what the real problem is - not just the symptoms of the problem but the problem itself. In the example we cited, the real problem is not that the friend was dishonest and disloyal. The problem was that you had signed a surety, had not followed up and were now liable for these payments.

personal problems - their causes and effects could be much wider than originally anticipated. For example, if your test marks are lower than you had planned or expected, you might think the problem is that it was too difficult or that questions did not cover what you had covered in class. However, the real problem is probably that you had not studied enough or had left parts of your textbook out, or that you had left studying too close to the examination, thus not giving yourself enough time to study. The correct problem identification in this example would mean that the real problem was that you did not study earlier and more intensely. Incorrect identification would lead to incorrect action, e.g. only cause the student to blame rather than to solve the problem. In the work environment, this can happen when a machine breaks down because it was not serviced - you blame the operator or the manufacturer, but the real problem was negligence with maintenance perhaps yours if it was part of your responsibilities. Could this be a problem you have had with your car? Now that you know how to reach an understanding of a problem, it needs to be defined clearly and completely. At this stage, it is appropriate to write a problem statement. Writing a clear problem definition forces you to focus on boundaries for the problem or those that define the problem.

5.4.2 Defining the problem

Once the problem has been identified, noticed or recognised, it is important to fully define it. What is the difference between recognising, identifying and defining a problem? When you recognise or identify a problem, you know it is there, you know it needs to be solved - but until you have fully defined it, you do not know its cause; nor do you know its severity, extent or potential impact and you can thus not yet find the correct solution either. This involves making sense of a potentially complex situation where the problem occurs, to pinpoint exactly what the problem is. It is easy to misjudge or to make the wrong assumptions. Make sure you know what the real problem is. Analyse current and potential problems by looking at them from different perspectives, e.g. customers, colleagues and the business processes or systems. Analyse it from the point of view of owners/ directors/shareholders, suppliers and the wider external environment. By looking at a situation from these perspectives, you remove a degree of subjective thinking, opening your mind to other options and coming to a more comprehensive definition of the problem. This also applies to 154

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5.4.3 Activity: online research

Go to http://www.mindtools.com and look up tools such as: 5 Whys Appreciation Root Cause Analysis

You can only strategise towards proper problem solutions if you understand these details - what is really causing the problem. This is an extremely important step. You may need to revisit this step a couple of times. As you work towards solutions, form a strategy, and try to implement and monitor it, you may suddenly find that you made a mistake at the analysis and definition stage. Start again and re-visit the cause-and-effect analysis for the newly discovered theory. Continuously analyse any interrelationships between some of the causes or effects. They may highlight additional causes and additional effects and consequences. Take the example of lower examination marks. Extra causes could have been severe illness (why the student could not study) or family pressures (e.g. financial problems, having to take on extra part-time work to help pay for essentials or looking after a child or sick relative, etc.). There are many other possibilities; to establish them requires thorough analysis. Apart from additional causes/potential causes, there may also be a host of additional effects/impacts resulting from the problem that have not been considered. These could be failing the year-end examinations, or having to repeat the year. Such failure could, in turn, be the reason why the student then wants to change to a different field of study. He/she could drop out altogether and would have to find work without tertiary qualifications, earning less money and having a lower chance of promotion later in his/ her working life and remaining a lowly-paid employee. Problems that occur in the work place can often be analysed via timeand-motion studies, audits of financial records, a review of accountability structures, line-and-staff management structures, work flow charts, as well as interviews with the divisions and people involved. Some problems are merely the tip of the iceberg, particularly if these problems have not been addressed before, have been left unattended and have become part of the corporate culture, e.g. an old, inefficient IT system, slow delivery systems, absenteeism among staff or pilferage in stores. This is usually the case if quality is compromised (to save cost and time), if there is no monitoring of input or output, or if staff members are left to their own devices (see laissez-faire leadership in Unit 4). When the company is finally forced to face up to the problems, maybe because of financial stress, it is often too late to find solutions and the company may be forced to close. 157

Read up how you can work through the layers of a problem. State which of these three approaches you find most helpful. Give reasons why you find this the most helpful method.

5.4.4 Examining the problem from all sides and in depth

At this stage you need to spend time on analysis. You have to be totally honest when you approach this stage, and look at the problem or what you know about it from different perspectives. Would your friends, family or colleagues also see the problem in this manner? Would your manager agree on what you describe as the real problem and its cause? How would they differ in their perspectives? Do not settle for one assumption or problem statement too early. Ask yourself: is this really the problem? Is it part of the eventual solution? When the problem is small and not complex, then the solution is usually also easy and you dont need to move through all the proposed steps. This process of analysing a problem from different and unusual perspectives is also called parallel thinking. You only work through all the steps if you are confronted with a larger problem, one that could/will have serious consequences, cause a lot of additional problems, or involve major loss of money, reputation, and emotional or physical harm. Complex problems will require deep analysis and looking at all interrelated issues. This includes the people and other factors involved, and what the ripple effects were or will be because of the problem/s. Can you clearly identify each part of the problem? What caused it? What was the immediate and longer term effect?

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Where problems have been identified as a whole series of interrelated problems, your most efficient way to get to the root cause of these problems is the drill down technique which allows you to examine each problem in depth, breaking the problems down into each aspect that will have to be addressed (http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_02.htm). The larger the risk involved in actions we have to take, the more people like to consult others before making a decision. Other people have different perspectives and views. Knowing their opinion helps us to become less subjective, and ensures that we consider other options and make decisions once we are better informed. It is always wise (safer) to also draw on other peoples experiences so that the solution we finally choose is the best under the circumstances. The term CAF is also used (i.e. consider all factors), e.g. by consulting other relevant persons who may know of influencing factors in other departments. When we discuss the various points of view with others, it may often result in a heated exchange of ideas. This is called constructive controversy. Its objective is to test a proposed solution by subjecting it to the clash of ideas, i.e. showing it to be wrong or proving it, disproving it or improving it. Some people refer to it as playing devils advocate. By having to defend or attack a specific idea, you clarify your own mind, your confidence in the proposed solution improves, or you now reject the idea as you reach a better understanding of all the factors involved. This problem-solving approach was introduced by David Johnson and Roger Johnson in 1979. It has been thoroughly researched and validated, and is acknowledged as an efficient method for developing robust and creative solutions to problems. It is based on these five assumptions: We adopt an initial perspective towards a problem based on our personal experiences and perceptions. The process of persuading others to agree with us strengthens our belief that we are right. When confronted with competing viewpoints, we begin to doubt our rationale. This doubt causes us to seek more information and build a better perspective, because we want to be confident with our choice. This search for a fuller perspective leads to better overall decision making.

The resulting process is shown in the figure below:

Draw a Conclusion

Search for better understanding

State your case

Feel uncertain

Hear different conclusions

Figure 8 - The constructive controversy cycle

(Johnson, D. & Johnson, R. 1979. http://www.mindtools.com) The more times you go through the cycle, the closer you come to the truth or the right solution. This process forces you to face your right or wrong assumptions. It stops you from drawing conclusions too quickly, and forces you to use clear reasoning to defend or argue against a proposed plan of action or for/against a specific definition of a problem. To apply this technique properly, you must follow a number of prescribed steps: Brainstorm possible definitions and reasons for the problem; then form advocacy teams (those who defend the proposed definition or action and are in favour of it, and those who believe it is not a good idea or not the correct reason). Each team is given a position to take, and then researches it and presents a best-case scenario supporting why that alternative should be chosen. Subsequently the two teams (or more if there are several alternatives) engage in constructive controversy. The teams present their case to the other groups. They have to try to persuade the others. This is followed by each team going through the same processes. The presenting team listens to the counter-arguments and tries to disprove them, and then defends its original position as best it can. Teams have to try and gain a better understanding of all options in order to make the best decision possible. They have to ask for solid data and to defend their conclusions.

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 After all teams have made their presentations, they then reverse their positions and argue for one of the options they originally tried to argue against. Peoples perspectives are now so dramatically changed that everybody gains a lot of understanding. Finally, the entire team has to make a decision. Their final proposal should now be better than the proposals made prior to this work session. While this is still being applied to the problem definition stage, the same process should be applied at the problem-solving strategy stage.

Discourage judgement at this stage or rank ordering of ideas. Get as much input as possible. Once this planning step has taken shape, only then select and evaluate the most obvious or best solution strategies. From the full list of approaches, first determine the criteria for a good solution, e.g. quality or cost, and then decide what elements are needed for a realistic, practical and appropriate solution, as well as the criteria you will use to choose between potential solutions. Once you have set the parameters, it will be much easier to select the best solution options.

5.4.5 Forming a problem-solving strategy

You now know what the problem is (identified) and you have defined extent, severity, cause and anticipated effect. Your next step is to develop a problemsolving strategy based on the extent, severity and anticipated effect of the problem. All a strategy will do is to pose some specific questions: You know the problem - what are possible ways to solve the problem? What could be possible effects of these proposed solutions? How are you going to execute these solutions? Which action steps, by when and through whom? What resources will you need and are they available? If not, where are you going to find those resources? What could be the consequences of various options to solve the problem/s? If you cannot answer any of these questions, you need to review and establish the necessary facts first, and afterwards move back to the strategy stage. At the strategy stage, you also need to develop ideas on how to solve the problem. Be flexible in the way you approach a problem. Again, see it from as many perspectives as possible. Look for patterns, similarities with other issues or common elements in different parts of the problem, and think of solutions based on those patterns, similarities or common elements. Involve the people who are/will be affected by the problem or the solution in a strategic planning meeting, and allow brainstorming and creativity from all involved to find the best possible solution that everybody will support. Finance staff cannot change a budget without talking to those affected, e.g. sales staff.

5.4.6 Collecting and organising facts and information

You cannot try and define the dimensions of a problem or a range of problems, or attempt to find solutions to the problem(s), if you do not have all the facts and figures that will enable you to take further steps. You need information. You want to be able to look at alternative solutions - but for that you need to first get facts on which alternatives there are so that you can evaluate the best option. What factors really contribute to the problem? Do not rush into this stage. If you move too quickly, you risk relying on imperfect information that is based on assumptions and limited facts or perspectives, so research the problem in-depth. Establish answers to each of these questions: Which facts do you already possess? How reliable is this information? What else do you need to establish? Where can you obtain such information? Is it easily available or does it involve major tasks, expense or time to obtain such information? Do you have such money, time or people available? Is it easy to combine any of this information or is it so dispersed that it is difficult to form a solid image of the background to the problem? Where is such information normally collected (if at all)? Will it be available in future, to allow monitoring activities/benchmarking? Who is involved with the problem? What solutions have been tried before? What do others think about the problem?

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 Do you now have enough information to analyse the background to the current problem? Do you have enough information to be able to see which potential problems could occur? What do you not yet know? Have you conducted an impact analysis to establish if the problem solution will have major effects/impacts on many people, the environment or the companys financial situation? Do you know what resistance you can expect from civic society or special interest groups? Only once you can answer all these questions and have all the facts, can you make the final go or no-go decision, supported by the relevant facts and figures or studies. Many decision makers will not proceed if they cannot back up their decisions by significant and substantial data - it removes the sole risk from them, and they can revert to the data when challenged and base it on independent facts rather than a subjective decision. At this stage, you may also again apply the constructive controversy technique as it will force you to obtain additional information. We have already discussed the technique in detail. For it to be fully effective, remember to follow a number of rules: People must work together in a constructive, open and positive frame of mind. They must try to arrive at the best possible solution. Avoid competing with one another. Demonstrate mutual respect at all times. Criticise ideas, not people. Focus on good decision making, not winning. Listen actively and ask for clarification when necessary. Commit to understanding all sides of an issue. Be willing to change positions when the evidence suggests its necessary. Use rational arguments and draw conclusions based on facts, evidence and sound reasoning. If this task form is held in a conducive environment, does not bring any hidden agendas and participants have the necessary skills to manage this type of structured conflict, the results will significantly add to the successful problem-solving process (Johnson & Roger, 1979). 162

5.4.7 Allocating resources

If your problem or that of the company you work for is of an emergency nature, you may have no choice but to act as fast as possible, even if it involves expenses which you would not normally incur. The same applies to the allocation of extra human resources, consulting specialists, legal or auditing experts, reputation specialists/PR, the media, extra production capacity, etc. In private life, we may not generally require specialist or financial resources to solve the more common problems. Using the example of driving too fast and receiving a traffic fine - all that is needed is payment of the fine, plus a learning decision to adhere to the speed limit the next time you drive. If the problem had been more severe, you might have lost your drivers licence and had your car impounded. The consequences of such a problem would then be primarily financial (a major fine), plus the added problem of a permanent record against your name and the inconvenience of having to pass your drivers licence test again, and using public transport or lift clubs until you had obtained the new licence. Money is often a strong determinant when looking at potential solutions. Neither individuals nor companies have unlimited resources (human, financial, time, etc.) available to solve problems. Very urgent or very important problems - those having a major impact on the company or the individual - justify major time or money being spent, or personal attention being given to the problem. Smaller problems usually do not require major resources to arrive at a solution. There should always be a direct correlation between size and severity of the problem, and the resources allocated to solve it. When things go wrong, everybody is wiser with hindsight, We should have known that would happen. However, how could problems have been avoided before or instead of happening? By looking at all the things that could possibly go wrong at the design stage, you can cheaply solve problems that would otherwise take vast effort and expense to correct if left until the solution has been implemented. Systems used for quality control build on risk analysis and cause-and-effect analysis, both of which try to predict potential failures before they happen. They are also effective techniques when used to improve the design of business processes and systems. They look at the proposed solution to identify all of the points where it could fail. 163

Once these potential failures have been identified, the potential consequences of each are rated according to: Severity how critical is the failure? Occurrence how likely is the failure to happen? Detection how easy will it be to detect the failure? They then identify the most serious threats and alter the design to eliminate or minimise the likelihood of the failure identified. So, let us assume that you have now established that you have a problem (you know what the problem is) and have derived a problem statement; have analysed what caused the problem and know what the effect will be if you do not find good solutions; have formulated a strategy of what you could do to solve the problem; have obtained all facts and figures, and all information needed to assess the extent and severity of the problem; have looked at alternative options; and have decided on a solution with full knowledge of what resources you have available for this task.

To implement any process successfully, you need buy-in from everybody involved. If you do not receive good support from management and those affected, the whole implementation process can collapse. This means that during the planning and researching stage, you must convince other stakeholders that your solution is the best one, and can and will work within the set parameters. You will soon find out who will support you and where you will meet with resistance. Get input, listen to what people say and make changes as necessary. Once you know what the final action plan will be, having made the necessary adjustments, and you have convinced your key stakeholders to support your proposed solution, you start the actual implementation stage. An immediate hands-on review will check that everything should happen according to the action plan and will precede major monitoring (that everything is going to have the desired results): Are the people now available who were allocated to the tasks (illness or holidays could prevent this)? Are the funds liquid/ready to be used? Are there any other complications that could interfere with the implementation? What alternatives could be applied? Did the first stage of the implementation go according to plan? If not, which immediate corrective action can be taken? What does such action involve? Is this all readily available? Are decision makers willing and able to allocate these resources?

5.4.8 Implementing solutions

You now have to take the big step of implementing the strategy you have decided on, involve the necessary people, and allocate the funds set aside for solving this problem. Obviously, you cannot just get started - you need a detailed action plan. If your strategic problem-solving plan already spelled out who will do what by when and with which resources, you now have to implement those steps. If the strategy is not yet that specific, then urgently set up an implementation action plan with the necessary details. Implementation involves careful planning and preparation. You should be aware of potential consequences, the risks involved in taking the next step and what you have to be prepared for as you start to implement your action plan. Your planning depends on the size of the problem and the extent of the action plan. Such action plan lists, for example, who will do what, when and how. Larger projects need proper project management plans or change management plans (where human resources (HR) and industrial relations (IR) become involved along with probably - also the unions and other employee bodies).

5.4.9 Monitoring progress

Directly following the implementation (and the immediate hands-on reviews at the implementation stage), any effective problem-solving exercise will need an ongoing monitoring programme. Ongoing monitoring involves regular feedback from people, systems, mechanisms, etc. When resources are set aside during the planning process, resources must also be set aside for the ongoing monitoring process. The monitoring process establishes: Are there early signs that the solutions are starting to work? 165

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 As progress is being made, are the solutions still moving in the right direction? Are there setbacks? How severe are they? What are the consequences? Does the plan need any adjustments? Are these major or not? What will be involved in such adjustments? When are the first visible signs of success apparent? Does this success remain in place? Is the solution sustainable in the long term? What needs to be put in place to prevent the problem recurring? What can be done to prevent it? Will it need special financial or human resources?

5.5 Other processes used to solve problems

Besides the problem-solving process described in section , there are many other formal processes to solve complex business challenges. These processes are sometimes merely refinements of what we have already discussed, all being aimed at providing problem solution processes (http:// www.mindtools.com). The Simplex process involves eight stages: problem finding, fact finding, defining the problem, idea finding, selecting and evaluating, planning, selling the idea and acting. These steps create a cycle of problem finding and solving that should continually be improved to enable the efficient functioning of the company concerned. The Appreciative Inquiry examines what works well in the areas surrounding the problems. The Soft Systems methodology helps the business decision maker understand complex problems so that he/she can start the actual problemsolving process. Four stages help to uncover more details about what is creating the problem, and what actions will improve the situation or solve the problem. All these problem-solving methods and processes help companies become more successful at solving and avoiding problems.

5.4.10 Evaluating the results

Once the initial problem has been solved, a full review is needed to evaluate the results. It is essential to assess how the problem happened in the first place and whether the strategy to solve the problem worked: Was this strategy the best possible solution to the problem, or why was it chosen? Would something else possibly have worked better, been cheaper, faster and more efficient in the end? Why were other options then not chosen? What - if anything - did not work as desired, and why? Was there any overriding management influence that biased this decision? Was the strategy formation process maybe faulty? Or was the implementation not conducted in the correct manner? What caused this and why? Was the final outcome satisfactory? Has it totally eliminated/fixed the original problem? Has it uncovered new problems or potential problems? How will such problems/potential problems now be addressed, considering what was learned from the previous process?

5.6 Assessment of personal problem-solving skills

We have looked at the different steps in identifying, defining, analysing, implementing and reviewing the systematic problem-solving process. In your personal and future business or working life, you need good problem-solving skills to be successful in your career. Nobody wants or likes problems; they complicate our lives, and cause stress and loss of all kinds of things (sleep, money, relationships, etc.). However, we cannot avoid experiencing some problems - and some people seem to be prone to problems. Thus, you need to develop your problem-solving skills to reduce such impact on your life. Approach problems directly, head-on, and assess and confront them with the energy needed to solve them. Remember, with big problems it is not

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a good idea to rush into a decision; it may be the wrong approach to the problem. There are various tools available to check how good you are at this stage in solving problems. Use this quiz to check if you are an effective problem solver, or what you still need to learn to become effective.

Do you systematically search for issues that may become problems in the future? When you decide on a solution, do you make it happen no matter what opposition you may face? Do you find that small problems often become much bigger in scope, and thus very difficult to solve? Do you ask yourself lots of different questions about the nature of the problem? After your solution is implemented, do you then relax and focus again on your regular duties? Do you focus on keeping current operations running smoothly and hope that problems dont appear? Do you evaluate potential solutions as you think of them? When you need to find a solution to a problem, do you usually have all of the information you need to solve it? When evaluating solutions, do you take time to think about how you should choose between options? Is making a decision the end of your problem-solving process? You will receive a score and the score interpretation. Write down your final score interpretation and discuss with your lecturer and fellow students how you fared, and why. How many students scored 16 to 36 points and thus view problems as negatives, instead of seeing them as opportunities to make exciting and necessary change? They may have had some poor problem-solving experiences in the past. With more practice, and by following a more structured approach, they will be able to develop this important skill and start solving problems more effectively right away. How many students scored 37 to 58 points? Their approach to problem solving could be a bit hit-and-miss. Sometimes the solutions work really well and other times they dont. Knowing what to do is not the same as actually doing the right thing. They need to work on being consistent and committed to the process to see significant improvements. How many students scored 59 to 80 points (without having cheated or pretended!)? They should really be the confident problem solvers. They tend to approach problems systematically, take time to understand the problem, understand how to arrive at a good decision, and generate good 169

5.6.1 Activity: take the quiz - how good are you at solving problems?

Go to http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_72.

Now take the test. Instructions: For each statement, click the button in the column that best describes you. Please answer questions honestly and not how you think you should answer. Do not worry if some questions seem to score in the wrong direction. When you are finished, please click the Calculate My Total button at the bottom of the test. The quiz will ask you to state how often (not at all, rarely, sometimes, often or very often) you take any of the stated actions/steps in confronting a problem. Once you choose a solution, do you develop an implementation plan with the sequence of events necessary for completion? After a solution has been implemented, do you immediately look for ways to improve the idea and avoid future problems? To avoid asking the wrong question, do you take care to define each problem carefully before trying to solve it? Do you strive to look at problems from different perspectives and generate multiple solutions? Do you try to address the political issues and other consequences of the change you are proposing so that others will understand and support your solution? Do you evaluate potential solutions carefully and thoroughly against a predefined standard? 168

solution options. Decisions are well thought out, well-planned and wellexecuted. This quiz is based on Min Basadurs Simplex problem-solving model referred to before. The process follows the circular pattern shown below, where current problems are solved and new problems are identified on an ongoing basis.

You need to look actively for problems as part of your daily life and your working life, and as part of any effective problem-solving process. Proactive, preventative problem-solving skills help to reduce the potential incidence of large problems. What can you do to become proactive in this process? How do you actually know what to look out for? Obviously, it is easier to work on historical data: if something went wrong in the past, causing problems, it is then also more likely that this could happen again, except if all the conditions for such recurrence have changed, have been eliminated or have been replaced by efficient systems (http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_07. htm,newTMC_82, newPPM_73.htm, newTED_01htm, newHTE_92htm) Consult the above website to learn more about potential problems in the business environment. There are a number of recognised techniques that can be used to assess potential flaws in the business environment which could cause problems. Some of these techniques are: The PEST Analysis, which looks at changes in trends, your environment, customer needs and market dynamics that you should pay attention to. The Risk Analysis, which identifies significant business risks. The Failure Modes and Effects Analysis, which identifies possible points of failure in your business process, allowing you to correct these before problems arise. The After Action Review, which allows you to scan recent performance to identify aspects and steps that can be improved in the future. The Prioritisation and Pareto Analysis, which helps you to prioritise what actions to take when, and which problems are the more important ones to read up on.

8. Action

1. Problem Finding

7. Sell Idea

2. Fact Finding

Simplex
6. Planning 3. Problem Definition

5. Selection

4. Idea Finding

Figure 9 Simplex problem-solving process (Basadur, M. Eight-step problem solving process, the Simplex Process, The Power of Innovation. The Simplex Process - Problem Solving Training http://www.Mindtools.com) The tools and strategies for each stage of the problem-solving process have been discussed in detail under section . Go back to this section to revise what you have learned so far about the problem-solving process.

5.6.2 Becoming proactive to avoid problems from occurring

While some problems are very obvious, e.g. you crashed your car, other problems are less so, e.g. something does not seem to be working correctly in the IT division, deadlines are not being met, lots of people are sick all the time, there is a lot of down time, some of the new systems seem to duplicate others, etc. What is the real problem?

5.7 Review of own development against original aims and objectives

Go back to Unit 3 where you assessed your retained areas of strengths and weaknesses, and where you set new times lines and when you would achieve significant improvements. 171

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5.7.1 Activity: revision of development plan

Copy the problem area scores you noted in Unit 3 (activity ) into the table below. Remember, those were all the areas where you scored below 4. Next to that score, write the date you set to improve on that score. Now list what you have done in the past few days and week(s) to improve that score. How was your time management rated in Unit 3? If below 4, then add it to this list. Since Unit 3, did you make any improvements to your time management? What did you do? What was the result? And your communication skills? How did you rate them and where are your skills now? What do you still need to improve and how are you going to do that? And your team working skills? And your leadership skills? And finally, your rating of problem-solving skills?

Do you still need to improve them further? How are you going to do that?

Improved Aspects Score

Action

Date

Aimed for score

5.7.3 Activity: assessing areas that need further corrective action, time lines
Now list all those areas that you have not yet improved upon or not sufficiently improved upon. State why you have not yet achieved such positive change. What held you back? How are you going to move forward from now on? By doing what?

Problem area

Score

Action

Date

Aimed for score

Problem area not improved so far/not enough

Score

Action

Date

Aimed for score

5.7.2 Activity: assessing areas that have been achieved

Now list all those aspects (including time management, communication, professionalism, behaviour, teamwork, leadership and problem solving) that you have successfully improved on. What did you do to improve those areas?

5.8 Conclusion
In this unit, we examined EPD strategy formulation, problem definitions, problem-solving techniques, and problem-solving strategies. We reviewed your personal development progress. We have now added the element of problem-solving skills so that you can turn your own personal problems into opportunities!

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In the next unit, we will focus on monitoring and controlling. This will include measuring progress made, milestone setting, achievements, gap management and problem-solving progress.

Unit 6: Employability and professional development monitoring and controlling

Unit 6 is aligned with Learning Outcome 1 and Assessment Criteria 1.3 and 1.4. It also brings together learning in all four learning Outcomes. Learning Outcome 1: Be able to take responsibility for own personal and professional development Assessment Criterion 1.3: Devise a personal and professional development plan based on identified needs Assessment Criterion 1.4: Reflect on own development against original aims and objectives set in the personal and professional development plan By the end of this unit, you should be able to: Measure progress in your personal and professional life Monitor and control progress Measure achievements Assess and measure gaps Set milestones Evaluate if progress was made on problem solving/whether problems were solved or not Solve any remaining problems Measure actual solutions against desired outcomes Ensure the sustainability of solutions

Test your knowledge

Based on the discussion in this unit, prepare a document to focus on the following: Identify your problems (personal, interrelationships, study skills, work, etc.). Rank them in order of importance. Define the problems clearly as to their causes and effects. Describe a strategy for how you will solve each one of these problems. What facts and extra information can you supply for each problem area to enable a better solution? Give a structure and time line by when you will address every problem. What exactly will you do to solve each problem? Justify each process and action. Now set up a specific action plan. How will you monitor and assess each step and the success of your action? What do you hope to achieve with and through such action? What is your long-term goal?

6.1 Introduction
Over the past five units, we examined how to take responsibility for own personal and professional development. That encompasses assessing current personal skills levels and shortcomings, developing and maintaining 174 175

a personal portfolio, and compiling and presenting transcripts. It also includes how to develop professionalism and skills, such as effective communication, negotiation, assertiveness, time management, problem solving and social skills. We also covered decision-making processes and skills, ethics, employment rights and responsibilities, team dynamics, leadership and management styles, incentives and motivation at work, performance measurements and promotion. We will cover in more detail how to apply all the theoretical knowledge to your own personal and professional life. For this, you will have to revisit the following: how to reassess and monitor your own performance objectives; your current performance, future needs, and opportunities and threats to career progression; re-set a clear development plan with aims and objectives, achievement dates, review dates, a learning programme with activities, and set action plans; evaluate whether your problems were solved or not; measure the desired solutions against actual outcomes; demonstrate your acquired interpersonal and transferable skills, and prove that they are sustainable. If you can prove that you have mastered these skills, you will then also be truly employable - a professional person ready to climb the corporate ladder and on the path to a successful career. Part of good management and self-management is to know - at all times - that your tasks are on track against predetermined yardsticks. This ensures productivity, efficient allocation of resources and optimal outcomes. Management achieves such measurements through ongoing control, evaluation and monitoring of all steps involved. The same applies to self-management. If you want to know whether you are making progress, you have to control what you are doing, evaluate where you were and to what extent you have managed to progress towards your goals, and keep on monitoring your actions.

6.2 Control
6.2.1 Definitions of control
What do we understand by the term control? When talking about control as part of self- management, management authors such as Fayol and Weber describe controlling as an integral part of the managerial function because it helps to check for errors, and to take corrective action to minimise deviation from standards and ensure the stated goals of the organisation are achieved in a desired manner. Control in management terms means setting standards and objectives, measuring actual performance, giving feedback and taking corrective action. According to Henri Fayol, control consists of seeing that everything is being carried out in accordance with the plan which has been adopted, the orders which have been given, and the principles which have been laid down. Its object is to point out mistakes in order that they may be rectified and prevented from recurring. EFL Breach describes control as checking current performance against predetermined standards contained in the plans, with a view to ensuring adequate progress and satisfactory performance. Harold Koontz has a similar approach, describing control as the measurement and correction of performance in order to make sure that enterprise objectives and the plans devised to attain them are accomplished. Robert J. Mockler believes that control can be defined as a systematic effort by business management to compare performance to predetermined standards, plans or objectives in order to determine whether performance is in line with these standards, and presumably in order to take any remedial action required to see that human and other corporate resources are being used in the most effective and efficient way possible in achieving corporate objectives (Breach, Koontz, & Mockler, 2009). Management functions are known to be planning, organising, leading and controlling. All these definitions clearly presume that there should be prior clear objectives, standards for efficiency, plans and performance. Control then serves to adjust actions as needed to achieve the plan, or to contain variations of any objectives within allowable limits. If variations are observed 177

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as a result of effective control, remedial action can be initiated before any serious damage or losses are incurred.

and measurements. This reality is not only applicable to the business environment, but also to our personal lives. For every effective method of control, there has to be efficient information. For example, the norms of acceptable behaviour become the standard against which sub-standard (or deviant) behaviour is measured. Therefore, the standard has to be set first, then communicated, and then actions and achievements measured. This again needs to be communicated. Without the correct information flow and communication, standards would not be known, nor met. Parents, for example, cannot expect their children to behave perfectly if they are not briefed and educated about suitable behaviour and standards of conduct. The rules of any game must be clear before the match starts. The most difficult type of control is monitoring the behaviour of individuals, comparing performance with some standard, and providing rewards or penalties. Sometimes, this control relates entirely to their output (such as sales). Other times, it relates nearly exclusively to behaviour (interaction with other people). Individuals levels of motivation and the measurement of their performance frequently become subjective judgements made by the supervisor or manager - especially where there are no clear and objective measurement criteria, such as timeous completion of accounts, meeting sales targets, making a good presentation, or winning a contract for a product or service. To perform such control, objective systems are set up that make judgements easier. These are: Setting performance standards Measuring actual performance Comparing actual performance with standards Analysing deviations/shortfalls Correcting deviations

6.2.2 Exercising control

Accepting the control function also means that the relevant person is no longer an observer but takes charge of the original goals and their effective, ongoing achievement, and becomes accountable for them. Feedback helps to see beyond ones own perceptions and measurements to how others view such progress. Depending on this feedback, certain adjustments in strategy or actions can be made, incorporating own perceptions and measurements, in an attempt to achieve the desired result. There is a direct link between planning and controlling. If the planning stage does not incorporate all essential elements that are supposed to fulfil the originally set objectives and lead to ultimate success, then control cannot include these elements either. The end result can be a disaster. Managers who exercise control have to take into consideration the characteristic or condition to be controlled, what information needs to be transmitted during control, and the language that will best allow accurate communication to reduce the possibility of distortion. Control measures must compare actual against a set standard or the original objectives, and should ideally be expressed in the same terms and language as the original objectives and plan. Before exercising control, it has to be decided how the measurements will take place and how the control function will be executed, plus how remedial or corrective action will be applied. Consider this example: In Unit 1, you were introduced to a range of personal competencies that you rated yourself on. These exact same competencies were then assessed in every subsequent unit. This allowed you proper comparison (as the wording remained identical), and thus also allowed you control over your progress, measured and monitored against those competencies. Some deviation from the objectives and goals is to be expected, but when variations are beyond those considered acceptable, corrective action is required. You should then also look at developing some preventative action 178

6.2.3 Control challenges

Typical problems relating to control include the difficulty of setting specific standards for everything and everybody, finding accurate measurements for performance against those standards, and deciding when to measure and when to apply corrective action.

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No two people are alike, even if they both perform the same tasks or the same job. No two companies operate in exactly the same manner, with identical objectives, time lines, etc. There are even noticeable differences between government departments, between schools and between hospitals, all of which can be expected to operate with clear policies and objectives relating to their functions. Problems will always occur. The best way to control a company is to remain flexible, adjust to changing circumstances, and review goals, standards and measurements on a regular basis. Things change, circumstances change, people change. When personal attributes are set as standards, it becomes equally difficult to quantify whether a positive shift or change has been achieved or not. Subjective inputs have to be transformed into numerical data so that they can be measured instead of only looked at in a qualitative manner. However, there is the danger of there being an incorrect interpretation of the numerical meaning compared with the verbal meaning. Very often, ratings are too limiting or too complicated. They do not take into consideration that circumstances and situations vary, while daily events can influence perceptions, reactions and performance. For example, the behaviour of a young programmer is rated from 1 to 10, with 10 being the perfect behaviour. After determining the ranking for each situation where his behaviour was judged, adding these and dividing by the total number of such measured situations, the average ranking would indicate a particular programmers score on his behaviour. On the basis of this score, judgements might be made about his ability to perform appropriately. One programmer with a ranking of 5 might be considered to perform better than another who had a ranking of 5, and yet the two programmers may have performed correctly under different circumstances and conditions. External factors beyond their control may have influenced their performance, particularly bias and inaccuracies of the assessing manager. Measuring human performance, despite its extreme difficulty, subjectivity and imprecision compared with measuring quantitative factors such as items sold, is one of the most important control tools in large companies. The performance of individuals ultimately dictates the success or failure of every company. Job applicants and their potential to be future leaders and managers are often judged on a subjective basis. Although there may be some guidelines on current performance and behaviour informing such judgements, these are still biased/subjective and may even be unfair.

Control must also be timely. It is unfair to employees to receive information about their rating and suggested corrective action half way through to the next assessment/measurement. The employee then does not have enough time to correct his/her action or attitude to sufficiently influence the next rating.

6.2.4 Setting standards

If objectives or goals and standards are set clearly, then it is relatively easy to also measure achievements against those objectives, goals and standards. In most cases, poorly defined goals are also poorly measured. For example, what kind of performance and behaviour should be expected of students in the classroom? It is easier to define specific attributes and levels that are optimal. Control of measurable results by divisions or individuals, such as production figures, sales and finances, are easier to apply. Forecasts, goals and quantifiable targets and results can be measured and controlled.

6.2.5 Self-control
We looked at the meaning of control and how it is applied in different circumstances in an organisational context. However, can one also apply control to oneself? What is self-control? Self-control means being in control of your emotions, your responses and managing yourself. If you control your emotions, actions and responses, you are then also in charge of your own achievements. If you have no control over your emotions and responses, you are undisciplined and a victim of your own emotions and circumstances. Please also refer to the discussion on emotional intelligence (EQ). If you are in control of yourself, your reactions and responses, it means that you can also apply discipline to whatever you plan to do - your emotions will not control your actions. You will control anger or frustration that you may experience in the work place and in your private life. You remain controlled and professional. Self-control is learned appropriate behaviour, applied to changing circumstances and environments. People with good self-control can evaluate situations and adjust their own behaviour. Often described as keeping a cool head, such people can also evaluate their own performance and take corrective measures as and when required. 181

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As there is a trend towards independent contract work, freelance work and people working from home, it becomes essential for people in these working situations to be able to apply not only self-discipline but also self-control. Only they know what they do each hour of the day, how productive or efficient they are and where they waste time, how they are going to increase output, and how they measure their own achievements or apply corrective action if and where needed. They also have to control their emotions and remain professional even in difficult circumstances (e.g. spouse and children demanding attention, electronic equipment not working, etc.). This is not an easy task. Without control by others, many people lack self-discipline, do not manage to set themselves good working routines (see time management in Unit 3) or settle for low-level, unchallenging outcomes. Comfort zones, distractions and emotional challenges interfere with the necessary self-control.

Control does not necessarily result in an improvement of performance - changes only happen when there are clear goals and achievement is accurately measured, plus corrective action is taken. You can, for example, control how long it takes you to finish a task - that in itself is no assurance of quality. Control should ideally be future-focused so that there is a future improvement, or at least a guarantee of maintained quality or efficient performance. Monitoring is a continuous process put in place to assess quality, ongoing improvement or maintained performance. Monitoring is useful when you test new systems, new production processes and new medication, test acceptance of certain procedures, assess technical performance (e.g. fuel efficiency in cars), assess workflows and efficiencies, and check expenditures against performance and achievements. Monitoring is the systematic collection and analysis of information as a project progresses. It is aimed at improving the efficiency and effectiveness of a project, an organisation, a business unit or an individual. It is based on set targets and activities planned during the planning phases of work. It helps to keep the work on track and serves as an early warning that things are going wrong.

6.2.6 Activity: assessing control

Explain each of the following: What do we understand under the term control in a business? What is self-control? Apply the concept to your class and learning environment. Is your success level a factor of your input or of external factors, such as distractions? Discuss how better self-control could improve your learning and performance. Why is it easier to control production systems than people? What problems can you experience with control of people? Is control the same as managing? Why do you say so? How does control differ from leadership?

6.3.2 Limitations and effectiveness of monitoring

Monitoring is extremely valuable as it is an ongoing process and allows immediate stop-start decisions. However, without proper evaluation, it may not be obvious what is going wrong or why it is going wrong.

Look at the following two examples of monitoring.

6.3 Monitoring
6.3.1 Definition
What is monitoring and how does it differ from control? Control assumes some power is being exercised over something or somebody. When it is self-control, the power then rests with oneself. 182

Example 1: You monitor your diet. You can see if you gain weight and if you lose weight. Monitoring will give you the actual weight - nothing more. At that stage, you make assumptions why you gain or lose weight at certain times. Once you correlate what you ate/drank, and when and how much you exercised with your weight gains or losses, you will get a superficial reason. You then need to evaluate in depth what could be the cause of the weight gain or loss, e.g. by checking the calories consumed, the length and intensity of the exercises, your overall health, stress factors, illness, etc. Once you have established the cause, you can then take corrective action. 183

The same applies to monitoring performance in a company or in your private life when you have set specific goals that you want to achieve. Through monitoring, you try to observe and review progress, and identify the existence of problems. Once the monitored progress has been analysed and evaluated, corrective action can be taken to get closer to the goal. This process is repeated again and again, until a firm, positive pattern has set in. Example 2: Say you monitor the money in your savings account. If you regularly deposit money into the account and earn interest, then you should see a steadily increasing amount of money. Should the monthly amount of money you deposit not increase and if there are no changes to the interest rate, then your savings will increase at a steady pace, with compound interest. Monitoring such savings will be a relaxed exercise as there are no severe disturbances to the pattern. However, if you erratically withdraw differing amounts, and sometimes deposit money but not regularly or on fixed dates, then you have a more challenging task monitoring your savings levels. Forecasting how much money you will have saved in five years time will be near impossible. Goals or plans are essential both in your personal life and in business - but they are not necessarily permanent. If monitoring shows that the plans are not working or if circumstances change, then plans and goals need to change too. Monitoring helps to assess when plans are not working and when circumstances have changed. Monitoring identifies that something is going right or going wrong, and the direction it is moving in. It does not identify the cause or effect of change; it does not prescribe or even suggest what corrective action needs to take place. Evaluation or in-depth assessment can identify problems and their causes; it can find possible solutions to problems, and raise questions about assumptions, previous objectives, goals and plans, or strategy. Monitoring purely identifies direction and that a problem may exist. Evaluation normally only happens when monitoring has shown that there is a problem - or if success has been larger than anticipated and the reason for that must be understood so that it can be repeated. This then combines monitoring and evaluation. Together, they provide the individual or the company with very useful information for further action and possible corrective measures. 184

Monitoring starts with the plan and moves through various steps which include evaluation, learning, reflecting, monitoring, deciding and implementing. Some of these steps interlink. 1. Plan 2. Implement 3. Monitor 4. Reflect/learn 5. Implement 6. Monitor 7. Reflect/learn 8. Decide/adjust 9. Evaluate/learn

6.3.3 Monitoring and evaluating

If properly set up, monitoring provides indicators of efficiency, effectiveness and impact; it collects and records ongoing information (benchmarking). Evaluation, on the other hand, shows what works and does not work, and why. Was there an efficient use of all resources? What are the implications of the current efficiencies or the identified problem areas? Why did they occur? Could they have been avoided? How can corrective action be implemented? One could say that monitoring is a system while evaluation is an act or several acts of judgement by managers (or by yourself if it is personal evaluation). Self-evaluation is when it is left up to the individual to dig deep and find the reasons for great or poor performance, and efficiencies that need to be addressed. This involves an individual virtually holding up a mirror to him/ herself and honestly assessing how he/she is doing, so that he/she can take stock, find problem areas and look for ways of learning and improving personal performance. Self-evaluation helps to assess a range of aspects. The following questions enable proper self-evaluation: State the goals you had started off with. Did you achieve the goals within the set time? Did you achieve them partially or fully? Which parts of your goals did you achieve? How did you do this? 185

 Which parts of your goals did you not achieve? Why did you not achieve those? What held you back? What went wrong? What are you going to do to achieve the remainder of your goals? How do you need to change your approach so that you will achieve the goal this time? By when do you want to achieve this? Do you now want to set new goals? Which ones? By when do you want to achieve those new goals?

It would be more difficult to provide proof that an individual has become more honest ... how do we know if he/she has not been telling lies? How do we know that the person is now more professional? The only proof would be to look at individual parameters that demonstrate being professional, and then assess the behaviour and the performance of the individual under a variety of circumstances, settings and challenges. You need to decide what your proof or indicators are to begin collecting the information through your monitoring activity. This assumes that you measured the starting point and know where you want to be once the goals have been reached.

6.3.4 Setting parameters

There is no value in monitoring an activity that has no bearing on the success or failure of the company, or has little value for the individual. For the same reason, you will only evaluate anything in depth (and spend time and money or effort on such a process) if you are going to use the results or if you regard them as important. You only monitor, control and evaluate those functions in a company, or those aspects in your life, that are of paramount importance to your/the companys future. This necessitates that we set parameters prior to such steps: Is what we are doing and how we are doing it in line with the goals we set? Is the company going to benefit from it? Is the individual benefiting from it? What has the company/the individual learned so far from the activity? Has this been useful or not? Is such activity sustainable? Will it create greater benefit in future? Can such learning be transferred to others? Does it have to be modified to do this? What proof will we need to see that the activity has caused the desired outcome? Such proof is also called an indicator. Indicators are measurable or tangible signs that something has been done or that something has been achieved. For example, in a business setting, the goal could have been to achieve more car units being manufactured. Proof would be easy - daily production figures will be there for all to see. 186

6.3.5 Recording monitored and evaluated data

Think back to your development action plan. Make sure that you build your methods for information collecting already into your action plan. In a company, aim for a steady stream of information received through your monitoring data. The information you collect must mean something to you or the company. Only collect data that you want or need to know, and then make sure that you store the information in such a way that it is easy to access. Look at every planned activity that you need to work on and ask yourself: What do I need to know about this activity, how it is being done, what it is meant to achieve, and what is the easiest way to achieve it? Again, there is little point in setting specific goals and monitoring the progress made if you do not have records of these steps and results. Such a recording system should be as simple as possible, ideally be electronically recorded and stored for easy analysis. The data must also be able to be correlated - that means that the goals, the monitored step-by-step results, and the actual final result all have the same parameters, attributes or whatever measurement that is attached to the monitoring process. This could be, for example, litres of beer sold, number of cars produced, number of visitors to a website, number of events held, and number of people attending. It could also be a weekly ranking or rating on attributes. Once the parameters have been entered into the system, you will have to decide on: How frequently will it be measured? By whom? In which manner? 187

 Who is going to record it? Who will analyse the data at the various stages and at the end of the measuring period? Who will interpret the analysed data? How will the evaluation be handled to lead to corrective action? Who will handle this? How will it be communicated? Rating scales help you to record data where the individual is rating progress on attributes. This technique makes use of a continuum, along which students or employees are expected to place their own feelings, observations, etc. People are asked to say whether they agree strongly, agree, dont know, disagree, or disagree strongly with a statement. It is useful to measure attitudes, opinions and perceptions. You need to test the statements very carefully to make sure that there is no chance of misunderstanding. You can also have scales which rate a statement from 1 (extremely poor) to 10 (extremely good). Or you could use scales where the mid-point would represent neither, with two poles at either side. The use of a scale of 4 eliminates the tendency to select the neutral middle 3 on a traditional scale of 5. Sometimes, it is useful to have scales where agreement/disagreement with statements is measured.

Why do you need to evaluate data which you have monitored? What is the purpose of such evaluation? How can you record evaluated data? How can you record monitored data?

6.3.8 Reporting on progress

The final stage after monitoring and evaluating an activity is to write a full report on the findings. The following format is suggested: Executive summary: The shorter the better, probably one page. While it is at the start of the whole report, it should be written last, after you have completed the full report. Introduction: Background to the project/organisation and background to the evaluation, the methodology, the actual process and any problems that occurred. Main findings: Starting with the original goals set, the starting points, sub-sections dealing with each of the separate questions, ratings, topics, the important areas of findings, strengths and weaknesses, evaluation data, and reasons for each. Conclusions: Conclusions drawn from the findings. Recommendations: Proposals and ideas for future improvements, corrective steps, changes and new goals, and time lines. Appendices: Actual ratings, supporting data and figures. Learning and improving on current performance should be the main reason why an individual or a company monitors and evaluates his/her/its performance. By learning what works and what does not, what you are doing right and what you are doing wrong, you are empowered to improve your future. You can make changes where necessary, identify and build on your strengths where they exist. Many people are comfortable with things the way they are, even if they are not effective. They dislike change and do not want to be pushed out of their comfort zones. Are you one of those people, not prepared to change - for the better? Then try the following: Try to see the bigger picture, where you could be if you acquired these skills. Focus on the key issues you have to do something about this! Acknowledge your insecurity, anger, fear, resistance. Identify those aspects that you actually want to see changed. 189

6.3.6 Applying established data to change

With most monitoring processes, a timeframe has been set with a starting point and an end date. Once the monitoring stage has been completed and evaluation has taken place, the individual or the company has to act on the information received from the analysis of data collected. Once you have the findings, conclusions and recommendations from your monitoring and evaluation process, you need to learn from the process, decide which steps to take, deal with potential resistance and implement corrective action.

6.3.7 Activity: monitoring and evaluating

Explain what you understand about monitoring and evaluating. What is monitoring? How do you monitor something? Why would you monitor something? Are controlling and monitoring the same or are they different? Why? 188

 Recognise that change is exciting; it frees you from doing things that do not work.

Have others commented on any such changes? What were their comments?

6.4 Setting comprehensive performance objectives

(This also refers to the personal assessments discussed in the previous five units.) We looked at various personal performance areas and skills levels where you should excel in order to become an employable, professional individual. During Unit 1, you rated your personality traits and assessed where you had strengths and weaknesses. This was re-assessed during the other units, where we also added self-assessments on professionalism, effective communication, time management, team work and leadership skills, strategy formulation and problem solving. During this unit, we have focused on controlling, monitoring and evaluating your own performance.

6.4.3 Activity: future performance needs

Look at which aspects of your performance and attributes have not yet changed, or did not change enough to be positive. What are you going to do to change them so that they become a positive? Thinking of a future career, what do you think you still need to learn? How, where and when do you think you are going to learn that? Make notes about these activities and discuss them with a close friend or trusted family member. Have you progressed to your satisfaction? Would you be able to give guidance to a younger student or family member about personal development? How? About which aspects?

6.4.4 Opportunities and threats to career progression

Do a full SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) on your personal current state of performance, skills and attributes. You have identified them over the past five units. What are your current strengths? Your current weaknesses? Opportunities open to your career (or study) progression? Threats to your career progression? Have any of these changed over the past few months and weeks? Which, how and why?

6.4.1 Activity: setting written performance goals

Look back at all previous five units. Check what goals you set right at the beginning of this course. Now that you have learned about the different personal performance skills, how would you now state your goals for personal improvement? How do they differ from your original goal(s)? Explain why they are different. How will you achieve your goals? Explain in detail what you plan to do, how you will do it and by when.

6.4.2 Activity: current performance

Again revisit the past five units, and analyse how your ratings changed or did not change. Describe each perceived original strength, and whether you kept that strength or not. Has it changed at all? How have any of your previous weaknesses changed? What changed and how did that happen?

6.5 Gap in development and skills

What do you currently see as your biggest challenge or problem regarding the full range of skills we covered in this course? What do you feel you do not yet know well enough? What needs revision? Let us analyse all students in this class. Are there any common gaps in development of skills? Which ones?

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Are there any common strengths?

6.6 Problem analysis

6.6.1 Activity: problem-solving skills
You learned how to assess problems and how to find solutions. Apply this multi-step process now to assess what problems you face regarding your career progression. Also apply it to your student life if you are a full-time student. Use each one of the prescribed problem-solving steps, and apply them to your own strengths and weaknesses. Use the process to come up with viable solutions for each problem area

6.8 Monitoring performance development, review date achievements and shortcomings

6.8.1 Activity: monitoring personal performance
Explain in detail how monitoring can help you check on your own skills development. What will monitoring not provide you with? How will you achieve insight into the cause of problems in your skills? What happened to the various achievement dates you had set? Did you meet these dates? If not, what happened? What did you learn from that? What did you learn from the whole process of monitoring your skills development?

6.7 Development plan, revision of aims and objectives, achievement dates, action plan, activities
6.7.1 Activity: planning own performance enhancement
So far, you have learned various skills to become more professional and employable. It is now time for you to write a formal development plan for yourself. Describe your aims and objectives. Remember that they have to be very precise as you will have to monitor them. State dates by which you undertake to have achieved these skills. Develop an action plan and the activities this will include so that you will gain the needed skills.

6.9 Actual outcomes compared with desired solutions

In an ideal world, everything we plan or want to do actually takes place and all desired outcomes always happen. In real life, your goals may have been too ambitious or not ambitious enough. Your planned changes or new skills may have proven to be much harder to learn or to apply/implement than you originally thought.

6.9.1 Activity: goal setting and achievements

Explain whether your goals were all achieved, whether they were too timid or too ambitious, and what you learned about goal setting. What did you learn about yourself in the process? Is there a big gap between your goals/desired outcomes and the actual outcome? What is the reason for that? How does that make you feel? Do you believe that you can still achieve these goals? How and when?

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6.10 Interpersonal and transferable skills and sustainability

What are the most important skills you believe you learned during these six units? How are you going to be able to use them in your future career? If you had to teach somebody else any of these skills, which ones would they be? Why would you teach them those skills? What would you not teach anybody else? Why would you not try to teach those skills? Which of these skills do you think you are going to have as a firm part of your skills portfolio? Why? How are you going to make sure that you keep these skills well honed?

interacted in class. You have grown to some extent as a person and as a student. Your family may even notice a difference. Use the example of a monitoring and evaluating report, and write a full formal report on your own personal development process, from the original assessments across all skills taught in the six units. Use the format suggested. Pay particular attention to the conclusions which ask you to show what you have learned from all assessments, and the recommendations where you need to state in full detail what you plan for your future, what goals you are now setting, and how you will monitor progress, evaluate what you assess and correct your actions.

6.11 Conclusion
We covered the basic skills that you should master to become a professional, ready to be employed and to build a successful career. These skills will serve you well in business and in your personal life. They will empower you to be a confident and effective communicator, professional at all times in words and deeds and possessing good time management skills. You know now what is required to be an effective team player as well as a developing manager or leader. You will be able to distinguish between leaders and managers with the knowledge required to play a suitable role, choosing between the two and making the correct choices in life. You have learned how to solve problems, and how to strategise, plan, control, monitor and evaluate. You should be ready to go for your job interview, knowing how to present your CV, supported by a complete range of transcripts and a portfolio. You should also know your basic rights and duties at work.

Test your knowledge

At the end of this unit, you have almost completed the course. You have also studied other courses. You have completed assignments and you have 194 195

Unit 7: Employability and professional development conclusions

Unit 7 cuts across the four Learning Outcomes and brings together learning in all four Learning Outcomes. It is specifically aligned with Learning Outcome 1 and Assessment Criterion 1.4. Learning Outcome 1: Be able to take responsibility for own personal and professional development Assessment Criterion 1.4: Reflect on own development against original aims and objectives set in the personal and professional development plan. By the end of this unit, you should be able to assess how far you have progressed towards: Reaching a comprehensive personal and professional development plan Identifying remaining gaps between current/actual status and desired outcomes/goals Establishing an ongoing monitoring, evaluating and reassessing system towards the ultimate goals Being ready for employment or entrepreneurial activities

Part of good management and self-management is to know - at all times - that you are on track against predetermined yardsticks. This ensures productivity, efficient allocation of resources and optimal outcomes. Management achieves such measurements through ongoing control, evaluation and monitoring of all steps involved. This also applies to self-management. If you want to know whether you are making progress or not, you have to control what you are doing, evaluate where you are and to what extent you have managed to progress towards your goals, and keep on monitoring your actions. During tough economic times, not only will students find and keep work easier if they have acquired the extra employability and professional skills, it will also give them a sound basis for becoming entrepreneurs, should they select to start their own businesses.

7.2 Parameters, goals and achievements

During the previous unit, you learned how to realign your goals. You also considered where you had started off and where you had progressed to, plus what you want to achieve in future. If a goal is worth having, it is then also worth measuring. You only monitor, control and evaluate those aspects in your life that are of paramount importance to your future. You also only set specific goals for those important aspects. As discussed in the previous unit, this necessitated that you had to set parameters against which you then put measurements in place to check whether or not you had achieved your goals.

7.1 Introduction
Over the past six units, we examined how to assess personal strengths and weaknesses, which skills have already been developed, and which still need to be gained regarding employability, professionalism and all factors included in these attributes. The ultimate aim of this course is to lead the student to the stage where he/she can take responsibility for continued personal and professional development. This includes decision-making processes and skills, ethics, leadership and management skills, problem-solving skills and employmentrelated behaviour codes. In Unit 6, we covered the establishment of a comprehensive personal development plan. This unit concludes the course and will focus on review, monitoring and evaluation. 196

7.2.1 Activity: parameters and confirmation of your goals

Answer these questions: Is what you are doing and how you are doing it in line with the parameters and goals you had set? Are you going to benefit from the achievement of those goals? What have you learned so far from the activity? Has that been useful or not? Is such activity sustainable? Will you be able to set further parameters for achievement? 197

 Will this create greater benefits in your future? What proof will you need to see that your activities have caused the desired outcome? Did you ask for/get feedback from others? Did this feedback cause you to take any extra corrective action? What was that? What was the result?

Since completion of the previous unit, did you make any further progress towards achieving your set goals? What progress was there and how did you achieve this?

7.2.4 Interpersonal and transferable skills and sustainability

Besides setting your parameters and goals for personal development, you also had to answer: What were the most important skills you believed you learned during these six units? How are you going to be able to use those skills in/towards your future career? If you had to teach somebody else any of these skills, which ones would they be? Why would you teach them those skills? What would you not teach anybody else? Why would you not try to teach those skills? Which of these skills do you think you are going to have as a firm part of your skills portfolio? Why? How are you going to make sure that you keep these skills well honed?

7.2.2 Monitoring and measuring

As we have discussed, you only set parameters and goals for skills that are worth having - and therefore, also worth measuring. Without measurement, you will not know whether you have actually achieved your goals or not. You will remember that you had to decide on the type and frequency of such measurements. Did you actually measure your progress so far or did you only guess whether you made progress or not? How do you then know that you made progress? Or did you judge this based on feedback from others?

7.2.3 Own progress assessment

Regarding your own personal goals for development of specific skills, i.e. those that get you closer to your employability and professionalism goals, what did you decide regarding: How you are going to measure your starting point and your final achievement? The frequency with which you measure it? Who will measure it and in which manner? How are you going to record it? How will you interpret the data? Let us recap what your goals necessitated. You had to review: Whether your goals were achieved, whether they had been too timid or too ambitious, and what you had learned about goal setting. If there was a gap between your goals/desired outcomes and the actual outcome so far. What was the reason for that? Whether you believe that you will still achieve these goals. How and when? 198

7.2.5 Reporting on progress

The final stage after having monitored all your activities and evaluated them, we concluded Unit 6 with you having to write a full report on your findings. Let us now revisit this report, and your conclusions and recommendations. Did you act on either of these since completion of the last unit? What did you act on? What did you not act on? Why not? What are you going to do about this in future, and why?

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7.3 Additional skills

7.3.1 Efficient speaking
One of the skills we covered in this course was efficient communication. Good communication includes good speaking skills. This means that the way you actually speak when you talk to others can make a big difference to your message getting across. Speak clearly with correct pronunciation. Make sure you can be heard. Your tone of voice communicates to others what you truly want to say. We can use a soft tone of voice or a hard/unfriendly tone of voice. Your correct pronunciation means that your words will be correctly heard and understood. The tempo of your speech could be too fast and no-one can catch what you are saying, or too slow and listeners get bored. Your intonation is the way in which your voice rises and falls when you speak, and the way it becomes louder or softer. Make sure your intonation is not a monotone, and that you match your intonation to your message, i.e. what you want to get across. Try and make eye contact when you speak to others - or they will believe that you are not really interested in the conversation. Keep your posture upright and directed towards your listener, otherwise your body language again indicates that you are not interested. Control your gestures. You can indicate with your hands but do not speak with your hands as it takes away the focus from what you are saying. Rather let your words and facial expression convey the message.

7.3.3 Activity: command of basic facts

Question
How extensive are your contacts that can help you to obtain facts? Think of some recent occasions when you needed to know more basic facts. What did you do? How much do you know about your mediumand long-term plans? What do you do to keep informed about all these things?

Your answer

7.3.4 Activity: relevant professional knowledge

Question
What do you do to keep up-to-date with new techniques and with the latest thinking in your study or work field? How much time do you spend reading specialist journals? How well informed are you about possible legislative, governmental and international changes and the effect these might have on you, your field of study or your future work? Do you belong to any professional organisation? Which?

Your answer

7.3.5 Activity: continuing sensitivity to events

Question
How sensitive are you to the way other people are feeling, or to the way in which they are likely to react? What steps do you take to develop this sensitivity? How perceptive are you? How do you make sure that your assumptions about what is going on are correct? What types of situation do you find hardest to weigh up?

Your answer

7.3.2 Self-management skills

We covered the differences between efficient management and true leadership in one of the previous units. We also analysed what it means to apply self-management, self-discipline, self-control and personal development skills. The book Managers Guide to Self-Development lists a range of selfassessment questions. These include a host of aspects that the efficient manager would have to be able to answer. A number of those questions are, however, equally relevant to your personal skills. Here are a number of those skills (which we listed in Unit 6) and the questions that define whether you have those skills. Please answer each of those questions truthfully.

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7.3.6 Activity: problem solving, analytical and decision-/judgement-making skills

Question
What do you find most difficult about making decisions? How do you feel about having to make judgments in situations in which ideally you would have more information? Can you think of some recent examples of good decisions you made? Can you think of some recent examples of bad decisions you made?

7.3.8 Activity: emotional resilience

Question
How do you cope with feelings of stress, tension, anxiety or fatigue? With whom do you discuss your worries and anxieties? Think of the most tense, stressful situations that you have been in recently. How did you behave? What do you do when you become emotional? How do you behave when do you not know what is going to happen next, when everything seems very uncertain?

Your answer

Your answer

7.3.7 Activity: social skills and abilities

Question
How much difficulty do you have with other people? What types of difficulty do you have? What do you do in situations involving interpersonal conflict? Think of some recent examples of situations in which you needed to use social skills. What happened? How much do you know about what other people think and feel about you? How do you respond to anger, hostility and suspicion? How do you try and ensure that other people understand you when you communicate with them? How do you ensure that you understand others?

Your answer

7.3.9 Activity: proactivity

Question
What steps do you take to ensure that you are in control of your own behaviour, rather than allowing yourself to be controlled or manipulated by others? In which situations do you tend to be independent and proactive as compared to situations in which you tend to be dependent and reactive? How good are you at taking the initiative? To what extent are you active, self-starting rather than sleepy, passive, following?

Your answer

7.3.10 Activity: creativity

Question
How easy do you find it to come up with new ideas? How often do you try out new methods, approaches and solutions to problems? How often do you get seemingly crazy ideas which turn out to be good and useful? What are the most creative things you have done in the past 12 months? What do you do to try and see new ways of doing things?

Your answer

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7.3.11 Activity: mental agility

Question
How good are you at coping with several problems or tasks at the same time? Think of a few situations in which you really needed to think quickly. What happened in each case? How do you feel when faced with the need for rapid thinking? What do you do when faced with contradictory information?

7.4 Alternative options to employment

Your answer
It is obvious to most students that they will be looking to gainful employment once they have graduated - particularly those students who study part-time and are already working. However, in a tough economic environment, even the highest marks achieved, the best skills obtained and the most promising personal behaviour and employability skills do not always guarantee employment. There is also always the chance that a current student would actually prefer to become his/her own boss, to set his/her own standards, achieve his/her own level of income, and to be in charge of his/her own destiny. It is then that students become part of a family business, take over an existing business or become entrepreneurs (start their own new business). Such a step takes courage, determination, passion and tenacity. Plus it takes entrepreneurial and business skills, such as financial management, human resource management/labour relations, marketing skills, knowledge of the product/services to be offered, location and scope of the intended business and how to finance such a venture. It is beyond the scope of this course to teach the full range of skills needed to become a successful entrepreneur. However, many of the skills taught in this course will also apply to you becoming an entrepreneur. You need to be able to apply professional standards. You have to establish clear organisational objectives, evaluate development needs and determine the activities required to meet them (to start your own business). For this, you also have to devise a personal and a business development plan. Time management will be imperative - as time will mean money in your own business, reflecting directly in your earnings. You will have to understand team dynamics - the team will work for you. You will have to set your own goals, as well as those for the team and the whole company. You will have to set parameters and standards, measure performance against them, monitor and evaluate performance, and set corrective plans and action where needed. It will be up to you to identify problems and come up with solutions, after having formulated an appropriate strategy. You will have to gear the business towards stability, growth and professional interpersonal relationships, as success will depend on your personal skills in how you communicate with staff, suppliers, customers and financial institutions. 205

7.3.12 Activity: balanced learning habits and skills

Question
Do you normally rely on the guidance of experts or do you trust your own judgement? When did you trust your own judgement rather than that of an expert?

Your answer

7.3.13 Activity: self-knowledge

Question
What do you do to increase your level of selfknowledge? Are you consciously aware of your own goals? Explain. Are you consciously aware of your own values, feelings and behaviour? Explain. How often do you stop and consider your own behaviour, its causes and effects? Why?

Your answer

7.3.14 Summary of self-assessment

Now that you have answered all questions in the above tables, please summarise what you now see as: your strengths in terms of these demanded skills your growth areas, i.e. where you still need to improve.
There are a number of useful books available which you can refer to for extra information on becoming a highly skilled individual. See Success Tips for Professionalism (2012); Cornerstones for Professionalism (2012); Emotional Intelligence: Achieving Academic and Career Excellence in College and Life (2011).

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7.5 The way ahead

Revert to the six units we have covered and analyse again whether you now believe that you have the skills, the attitude and the conviction that you are highly professional and thus employable, or you have the skills to start your own business. Then reassess where you feel you are still lacking information or specific skills, or have not yet improved your attitude, behaviour or skills enough to be able to offer yourself to the working environment as a highly skilled individual. What do you plan to do about this? Revisit your personal development plan and see what you need to adjust or change. Also remember that learning never stops. Throughout your life you will need to add skills to the skills that you already acquired. You may change jobs, change industry where you work, or decide to study towards a Masters degree or a PhD, or you may just decide to become the most skilled person in your first-and-final job. It will be up to you to make use of all relevant courses, seminars and lectures on offer during your working life.

Summarise the main points taught in each of the six units and in this last unit. What was the major aspect you learned in each of these units? Unit 1 - Introduction to employability and professional development Unit 2 - Performance assessment, professionalism and development plan Unit 3 - Effective communication and time management Unit 4 - Understanding the dynamics of working with others Unit 5 - Strategy formulation and problem solving Unit 6 - Monitoring and controlling Unit 7 Summary and conclusions What did the whole course teach you about yourself?

7.6 Conclusion
We have re-analysed the basic skills that you have to master to become a professional individual, ready to be employed and to build a successful career. We also looked at how these skills can help you in case you decide to become an entrepreneur. You should be able to develop into a successful leader, manager, entrepreneur or problem solver who is able to strategise, plan, control, monitor and evaluate your own performance according to your goals and your personal development plan.

Test your knowledge

You have now completed the course. You have looked at various options, either employment or becoming an entrepreneur. You have grown as a person and as a student. You should now be ready for your final examination in this course.

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Author Biography
Barbara Wood studied psychology and market research. She holds a Masters degree in Business Leadership. She has started and managed her own companies since 1975. They are in market research, media, advertising and consultancy. She is active in SACOB and the Johannesburg and Sandton Chambers of Commerce. She lectures part-time and is CEO of Woodlands Media. Ms Wood is active in promoting the involvement of women in business.

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