THE HISTORY OF THE

DECLINE AND FALL

OF THE
ROMAN EMPIRE
VOLUME I

EDWARD GIBBON
ELECBOOK CLASSICS

Decline and Fall of

the Roman Empire
Volume I

Edward Gibbon
ISBN 1 84327 138 9

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The History of the Decline and Fall

of the Roman Empire
By Edward Gibbon Esq

VOLUME THE FIRST

First published by W. Strahan and T. Cadell, London 1776
This edition published by ElecBook, London 1999

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Contents
Click on number to go to page
Preface ....................................................................................................13
Advertisement .......................................................................................17
Chapter I. The Extent and Military Force of the
Empire in the Age of the Antonines...................................................18
Augustus and his successors ...........................................................18
Conquests of Trajan in the East......................................................23
Hadrian and the two Antonines......................................................26
Military establishment of the empire .............................................27
Provinces of Rome ............................................................................38
Chapter II. Of the Union and internal Prosperity of
the Roman Empire, in the Age of the Antonines. ............................49
Toleration of Rome ...........................................................................49
Freedom of Rome..............................................................................55
Use of Latin and Greek ....................................................................59
Slavery ................................................................................................62
Population ..........................................................................................65
Roman monuments...........................................................................66
Cities of the empire ...........................................................................72
Roman roads ......................................................................................74
Improvements in agriculture ..........................................................76
Foreign trade .....................................................................................79
Chapter III. Of the Constitution of the Roman Empire,
in the Age of the Antonines. ................................................................85
Augustus reforms the Senate ..........................................................86
Becomes Imperator ..........................................................................87
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Divides rule of the provinces ...........................................................90

The Senate .........................................................................................94
Deification ..........................................................................................96
Titles of Augustus and Cæsar..........................................................98
The Cæsars and the Flavian family..............................................102
Hadrian, A.D. 117 ............................................................................104
The Two Antonines.........................................................................105
Marcus Aurelius ..............................................................................107
Chapter IV. The Cruelty, Follies, and Murder of
Commodus.—Election of Pertinax.—His Attempts to
Reform the State.—His Assassination by the Prætorian
Guards. .................................................................................................114
Accession of Commodus.................................................................116
Pertinax succeeds to the throne ...................................................129
Pertinax attempts reform of the state ..........................................133
Murder of Pertinax .........................................................................136
Chapter V. Public Sale of the Empire to Didius
Julianus by the Prætorian Guards.—Clodius Albinus in
Britain, Pescennius Niger in Syria, and Septimius
Severus in Pannonia, Declare against the Murderers of
Pertinax.—Civil Wars and Victory of Severus over his
Three Rivals.—Relaxation of Discipline.—New Maxims
of Government.....................................................................................137
The Prætorian guards ....................................................................138
Julian “buys” the empire................................................................141
The provinces declare against Julian...........................................143
Septimus Severus............................................................................147
Civil wars of Severus ......................................................................152

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The government of Severus...........................................................158

Office of Prætorian Præfect...........................................................161
Chapter VI. The Death of Severus.—Tyranny of
Caracalla.—Usurpation of Macrinus.—Follies of
Elagabalus.—Virtues of Alexander Severus.—
Licentiousness of the Army.—General State of the
Roman Finances..................................................................................164
The Caledonian war, A.D. 208 .......................................................166
Death of Severus; two emperors...................................................168
Murder of Geta ................................................................................171
Tyranny of Caracalla ......................................................................173
Usurpation of Macrinus .................................................................178
Elagabalus, A.D. 218 .......................................................................181
Assession of Alexander Severus, his reign..................................190
Finances of the Empire ..................................................................200
Chapter VII. The Elevation and Tyranny of
Maximin.—Rebellion in Africa and Italy, under the
Authority of the Senate.—Civil Wars and Seditions.—
Violent Deaths of Maximin and his Son, of Maximus
and Balbinus, and of the Three Gordians.—Usurpation
and Secular Games of Philip. ............................................................211
Tyranny of Maximin .......................................................................217
Revolt in Africa, A.D. 237 ...............................................................219
The two Gordians............................................................................220
Election of Maximus and Balbinus...............................................226
Civil war............................................................................................229
The third Gordian becomes emperor...........................................237
Reign of Philip; Secular games .....................................................241

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Chapter VIII. Of the State of Persia after the

Restoration of the Monarchy by Artaxerxes. ..................................244
Artaxerxes’ rule in Persia ..............................................................253
Artaxerxes declares war on Rome................................................258
Victory over Artaxerxes, A.D. 233.................................................260
Chapter IX. The State of Germany till the Invasion of
the Barbarians in the Time of the Emperor Decius. .....................264
Origin of the Germans ....................................................................267
Assemblies of the people................................................................276
Princes and magistrates.................................................................278
German religion...............................................................................282
Limited progress of the Germans .................................................285
Civil dissensions of Germany ........................................................288
Union against Rome .......................................................................290
German tribes ..................................................................................291
Chapter X. The Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus,
Valerian, and Gallienus.—The general Irruption of the
Barbarians.—The thirty Tyrants. .....................................................293
The emperor Decius, A.D. 249.......................................................293
First invasion of the Goths.............................................................295
Origin of the Goths..........................................................................296
The Gothic war, A.D. 250 ...............................................................303
Decius revives office of censor ......................................................304
Election of Gallus; retreat of Goths ..............................................308
The emperor Valerian ....................................................................311
Gallienus, A.D. 253-268 ...................................................................311
The Franks .......................................................................................313
The Alemanii....................................................................................316

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Further inroads of the Goths.........................................................319

First naval expedition of the Goths ..............................................321
Goths threaten Italy; but retreat...................................................326
Persians conquer Armenia ............................................................329
Victories of Sapor in the East........................................................331
Rule of Gallienus .............................................................................334
The thirty tyrants ............................................................................336
Famine and pestilence ...................................................................343
Chapter XI. Reign of Claudius.—Defeat of the
Goths.—Victories, Triumph, and Death of Aurelian. ....................345
Elevation of the emperor Claudius...............................................347
Claudius reforms the army ............................................................350
Claudius defeats the Goths ............................................................353
Death of Claudius, A.D. 270 ...........................................................355
Aurelian’s successful reign............................................................356
The Alemannic war.........................................................................360
Usurpers of Gaul .............................................................................365
Zenobia and her reign in the East ................................................367
Aurelian’s expedition .....................................................................371
Zenobia’s submission to Aurelian ................................................375
Triumph of Aurelian, A.D. 274 ......................................................377
Aurelian assassinated in the East .................................................383
Chapter XII. Conduct of the Army and Senate after
the Death of Aurelian.—Reigns of Tacitus, Probus,
Carus, and his Sons. ...........................................................................385
A peaceful interregnum, A.D. 275.................................................386
Tacitus elected emperor.................................................................389
The Alani invade Asia.....................................................................393

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Death of Tacitus ..............................................................................394

Elevation of the emperor Probus..................................................396
Victories of Probus over the barbarians ......................................398
Triumph of Probus, A.D. 281 .........................................................407
Murder of Probus ............................................................................409
Elevation of Carus ...........................................................................410
Decline of the senate.......................................................................411
Victory of Carus in the East; his death ........................................413
Numerian and Carinus declared emperors.................................414
Carinus celebrates the Roman games..........................................417
Election of the emperor Diocletian, A.D. 284..............................422
Chapter XIII. The Reign of Diocletian and his three
Associates, Maximian, Galerius, And Constantius.—
General Re-establishment of Order and Tranquillity.—
The Persian War, Victory, and Triumph.—The New
Form of Administration.—Abdication and Retirement
of Diocletian and Maximian. .............................................................425
Association of Maximian ................................................................427
Association of two Cæsars, Galerius ............................................429
and Constantius, A.D. 292 ..............................................................429
Peasant revolt in Gaul ....................................................................431
Revolt of Carausius in Britain .......................................................433
Constantius recovers Britain, A.D. 296 ........................................435
Wars of Africa and Egypt ...............................................................440
The Persian war ..............................................................................443
Galerius defeats the Persians, A.D. 297 .......................................449
Border treaties established............................................................453
Triumph of Diocletian and Maximian, A.D. 303 .........................455
Emperors residence at Milan and Nicomedia ............................456
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Jovians and Herculians established .............................................458

Diocletian introduces the diadem.................................................462
Abdication of Diocletian and Maximian ......................................466
Diocletian at Salona ........................................................................469
The new Platonists..........................................................................474
Chapter XIV. Troubles after the Abdication of
Diocletian.—Death of Constantius.—Elevation of
Constantine and Maxentius.—Six Emperors at the
same time.—Death of Maximian and Galerius.—
Victories of Constantine over Maxentius and Licinus.—
Reunion of the Empire under the Authority of
Constantine. .........................................................................................476
Civil wars, A.D. 305-323 ..................................................................476
Character of Constantius ...............................................................476
Birth of Constantine .......................................................................479
Death of Constantius, .....................................................................481
elevation of Constantine to Cæsar, A.D. 306 ...............................481
Maximian gives his daughter Fausta, ..........................................488
and the title of Augustus, to Constantine, A.D. 307....................488
Six emperors ....................................................................................491
Constantine in Gaul ........................................................................496
Civil war between Constantine and Maxentius..........................500
Victory of Constantine near Rome, A.D. 312...............................507
First civil war between Constantine and Licinius .....................518
Peace and laws of Constantine, A.D. 315-323..............................521
The Gothic war, A.D. 322 ...............................................................523
Second civil war ..............................................................................525
Siege of Byzantium .........................................................................528
Submission and death of Licinius; ...............................................529
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re-union of the empire, A.D. 324 ...................................................529

Chapter XV. The Progress of the Christian Religion,
and the Sentiments, Manners, Numbers, and Condition
of the primitive Christians. ................................................................532
Five causes of the growth of Christianity ....................................533
I. Zeal of the Jews............................................................................534
The Nazarene church of Jerusalem .............................................540
The Ebionites...................................................................................542
The Gnostics ....................................................................................544
II. The doctrine of the immortality of the soul............................552
Doctrine of the Millennium ...........................................................557
III. Miraculous powers of the early church .................................561
IV. Virtue of the early Christians ..................................................566
Principles..........................................................................................569
Pleasure and luxury condemned ..................................................570
Marriage and chastity.....................................................................572
Aversion to temporal matters........................................................574
V. The government of the church .................................................575
Episcopal authority.........................................................................580
Metropolitan churches; Roman pontiff........................................582
Oblations and revenue ...................................................................585
Excommunication ...........................................................................589
The church of Antioch....................................................................598
Christianity outside the empire ....................................................603
Attraction to the poor and simple.................................................608
Chapter XVI. The Conduct of the Roman Government
towards the Christians, from the Reign of Nero to that
of Constantine......................................................................................612

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Persecution by the emperors ........................................................612

Rebelliousness of the Jews ............................................................614
Toleration of Jewish religion.........................................................615
Christianity as a dangerous conspiracy .......................................620
Infancy disguised as a sect of the Jews ........................................626
The fire of Rome under Nero, Christians blamed......................628
Domitian oppresses Jews and Christians....................................634
Trajan establishes a legal framework ..........................................637
Trials .................................................................................................640
Humanity of the Roman magistrates ...........................................642
Cyprian, bishop of Carthage..........................................................644
Martyrdom .......................................................................................649
The ten persecutions ......................................................................654
State of the Christians under Commodus, Severus.........................
and their successsors, A.D. 180-249 ..............................................656
Under Maximin, Philip and Decius ..............................................659
Under Valerian, Gallienus and successors..................................661
Paul of Samosata.............................................................................661
Peace and prosperity under Diocletian, A.D. 284-303 ...............664
Diocletian begins a general persecution......................................668
First edict against the Christians, A.D. 303 .................................670
Demolition of churches ..................................................................675
The persecution...............................................................................677
Galerius’ edict of toleration ...........................................................681
End of the persecutions..................................................................685

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Preface Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: Vol. I 13

Preface

t is not my intention to detain the reader by expatiating on the

I variety or the importance of the subject, which I have

undertaken to treat; since the merit of the choice would serve
to render the weakness of the execution still more apparent, and
still less excusable. But as I have presumed to lay before the public
a first volume only of the History of the Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire, it will, perhaps, be expected that I should explain,
in a few words, the nature and limits of my general plan.
The memorable series of revolutions, which in the course of
about thirteen centuries gradually undermined, and at length
destroyed, the solid fabric of human greatness, may, with some
propriety, be divided into the three following periods:
I. The first of these periods may be traced from the age of
Trajan and the Antonines, when the Roman monarchy, having
attained its full strength and maturity, began to verge towards its
decline; and will extend to the subversion of the Western Empire,
by the barbarians of Germany and Scythia, the rude ancestors of
the most polished nations of modern Europe. This extraordinary
revolution, which subjected Rome to the power of a Gothic
conqueror, was completed about the beginning of the sixth
century.
II. The second period of the Decline and Fall of Rome may be
supposed to commence with the reign of Justinian, who, by his
laws, as well as by his victories, restored a transient splendour to
the Eastern Empire. It will comprehend the invasion of Italy by

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Preface Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: Vol. I 14

the Lombards; the conquest of the Asiatic and African provinces

by the Arabs, who embraced the religion of Mahomet; the revolt of
the Roman people against the feeble princes of Constantinople;
and the elevation of Charlemagne, who, in the year eight hundred,
established the second, or German Empire of the West
III. The last and longest of these periods includes about six
centuries and a half; from the revival of the Western Empire, till
the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, and the extinction of a
degenerate race of princes, who continued to assume the titles of
Cæsar and Augustus, after their dominions were contracted to the
limits of a single city; in which the language, as well as manners, of
the ancient Romans, had been long since forgotten. The writer
who should undertake to relate the events of this period, would
find himself obliged to enter into the general history of the
Crusades, as far as they contributed to the ruin of the Greek
Empire; and he would scarcely be able to restrain his curiosity
from making some inquiry into the state of the city of Rome,
during the darkness and confusion of the middle ages.
As I have ventured, perhaps too hastily, to commit to the press
a work which in every sense of the word, deserves the epithet of
imperfect. I consider myself as contracting an engagement to
finish, most probably in a second volume, the first of these
memorable periods; and to deliver to the Public the complete
History of the Decline and Fall of Rome, from the age of the
Antonines to the subversion of the Western Empire. With regard
to the subsequent periods, though I may entertain some hopes, I
dare not presume to give any assurances. The execution of the
extensive plan which I have described, would connect the ancient
and modern history of the world; but it would require many years
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Preface Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: Vol. I 15

of health, of leisure, and of perseverance.

Bentinck Street,
February 1, 1776.

P. S. The entire History, which is now published, of the Decline

and Fall of the Roman Empire in the West, abundantly discharges
my engagements with the Public. Perhaps their favourable
opinion may encourage me to prosecute a work, which, however
laborious it may seem, is the most agreeable occupation of my
leisure hours.

Bentinck Street,
March 1, 1781.

An Author easily persuades himself that the public opinion is still

favourable to his labours; and I have now embraced the serious
resolution of proceeding to the last period of my original design,
and of the Roman Empire, the taking of Constantinople by the
Turks, in the year one thousand four hundred and fifty-three. The
most patient Reader, who computes that three ponderous volumes
have been already employed on the events of four centuries, may,
perhaps, be alarmed at the long prospect of nine hundred years.
But it is not my intention to expatiate with the same minuteness
on the whole series of the Byzantine history. At our entrance into
this period, the reign of Justinian, and the conquests of the
Mahometans, will deserve and detain our attention, and the last
age of Constantinople (the Crusades and the Turks) is connected
with the revolutions of Modern Europe. From the seventh to the
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Preface Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: Vol. I 16

eleventh century, the obscure interval will be supplied by a

concise narrative of such facts as may still appear either
interesting or important.
Bentinck Street,
March 1, 1782.

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Preface Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: Vol. I 17

Advertisement

Diligence and accuracy are the only merits which an historical

writer may ascribe to himself; if any merit, indeed, can be
assumed from the performance of an indispensable duty. I may
therefore be allowed to say, that I have carefully examined all the
original materials that could illustrate the subject which I had
undertaken to treat. Should I ever complete the extensive design
which has been sketched out in the Preface, I might perhaps
conclude it with a critical account of the authors consulted during
the progress of the whole work; and however such an attempt
might incur the censure of ostentation, I am persuaded that it
would be susceptible of entertainment, as well as information.
At present I shall content myself with a single observation. The
biographers, who, under the reigns of Diocletian and Constantine,
composed, or rather compiled, the lives of the Emperors, from
Hadrian to the sons of Carus, are usually mentioned under the
names of Ælius Spartianus, Julius Capitolinus, Ælius Lampridius,
Vulcatius Gallicanus, Trebellius Pollio and Flavius Vopiscus. But
there is so much perplexity in the titles of the MSS., and so many
disputes have arisen among the critics (see Fabricius, Biblioth.
Latin. l. iii. c. 6) concerning their number, their names, and their
respective property, that for the most part I have quoted them
without distinction, under the general and well-known title of the
Augustan History.

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Chapter I

The Extent and Military Force of the Empire in the

Age of the Antonines.

n the second century of the Christian Æra, the empire of

I Rome comprehended the fairest part of the earth, and the

most civilized portion of mankind. The frontiers of that
extensive monarchy were guarded by ancient renown and
disciplined valour. The gentle but powerful influence of laws and
manners had gradually cemented the union of the provinces.
Their peaceful inhabitants enjoyed and abused the advantages of
wealth and luxury. The image of a free constitution was preserved
with decent reverence: the Roman senate appeared to possess the
sovereign authority, and devolved on the emperors all the
executive powers of government. During a happy period of more
than fourscore years, the public administration was conducted by
the virtue and abilities of Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the two
Antonines. It is the design of this, and of the two succeeding
chapters, to describe the prosperous condition of their empire;
and afterwards, from the death of Marcus Antoninus, to deduce
the most important circumstances of its decline and fall; a
revolution which will ever be remembered, and is still felt by the
nations of the earth.

Augustus and his successors

The principal conquests of the Romans were achieved under
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Chap. I Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: Vol. I 19

the republic; and the emperors, for the most part, were satisfied
with preserving those dominions which had been acquired by the
policy of the senate, the active emulations of the consuls, and the
martial enthusiasm of the people. The seven first centuries were
filled with a rapid succession of triumphs; but it was reserved for
Augustus to relinquish the ambitious design of subduing the
whole earth, and to introduce a spirit of moderation into the public
councils. Inclined to peace by his temper and situation, it was easy
for him to discover that Rome, in her present exalted situation,
had much less to hope than to fear from the chance of arms; and
that, in the prosecution of remote wars, the undertaking became
every day more difficult, the event more doubtful, and the
possession more precarious, and less beneficial. The experience of
Augustus added weight to these salutary reflections, and
effectually convinced him that, by the prudent vigour of his
counsels, it would be easy to secure every concession which the
safety or the dignity of Rome might require from the most
formidable barbarians. Instead of exposing his person and his
legions to the arrows of the Parthians, he obtained, by an
honourable treaty, the restitution of the standards and prisoners
which had been taken in the defeat of Crassus.1
His generals, in the early part of his reign, attempted the
reduction of Ethiopia and Arabia Felix. They marched near a
thousand miles to the south of the tropic; but the heat of the
climate soon repelled the invaders, and protected the unwarlike
natives of those sequestered regions.2 The northern countries of
Europe scarcely deserved the expense and labour of conquest.
The forests and morasses of Germany were filled with a hardy
race of barbarians, who despised life when it was separated from
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Chap. I Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire: Vol. I 20

freedom; and though, on the first attack, they seemed to yield to

the weight of the Roman power, they soon, by a signal act of
despair, regained their independence, and reminded Augustus of
the vicissitude of fortune.3 On the death of that emperor, his
testament was publicly read in the senate. He bequeathed, as a
valuable legacy to his successors, the advice of confining the
empire within those limits which nature seemed to have placed as
its permanent bulwarks and boundaries: on the west, the Atlantic
Ocean; the Rhine and Danube on the north; the Euphrates on the
east; and towards the south, the sandy deserts of Arabia and
Africa.4
Happily for the repose of mankind, the moderate system
recommended by the wisdom of Augustus, was adopted by the
fears and vices of his immediate successors. Engaged in the
pursuit of pleasure, or in the exercise of tyranny, the first Cæsars
seldom showed themselves to the armies, or to the provinces; nor
were they disposed to suffer, that those triumphs which their
indolence neglected, should be usurped by the conduct and valour
of their lieutenants. The military fame of a subject was considered
as an insolent invasion of the Imperial prerogative; and it became
the duty, as well as interest, of every Roman general, to guard the
frontiers entrusted to his care, without aspiring to conquests
which might have proved no less fatal to himself than to the
vanquished barbarians.5
The only accession which the Roman empire received, during
the first century of the Christian Æra, was the province of Britain.
In this single instance, the successors of Cæsar and Augustus were
persuaded to follow the example of the former, rather than the
precept of the latter. The proximity of its situation to the coast of
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