National University of Modern Languages (NUML) Islamabad Faculty of Management Sciences Business Research Methods for MB !

rd Semester ug" # $ec %&&' Instructor( $r" shraf li

Importance of the Course( common e)*erience of all organi+ations is that the managers thereof encounter *roblems big and small each day at ,or-. ,hich they have to solve by ma-ing right decisions" /o ma-e right decisions in business the managers should have the ability of thorough investigation or research of the *roblems. analysis of some data. and ma-e *ro*osal for the solution in the light of this analysis" /his course includes basic conce*ts of the research methods for business" /he s*ecific study areas include Introduction to research. -no,ledge about research and managerial effectiveness. scientific investigations. technology and business research. e)*erimental design. data analysis and inter*retation. conclusion of the findings in the ,ritten research re*ort etc" Aims and Objectives( /he goal of this course is to *rovide students sound basic bac-ground of the business research methods. ,hich ,ould enable them to *ursue research studies at higher levels" /he students should be motivated to develo* interest for underta-ing com*le) research *ro0ects" /he students should be trained in such a manner that they should feel com*etent to organi+e e)*eriments and to *rovide consultancy services to researchers in other fields" Learning Objectives( 1" /o ma-e the students learn by conducting e)*eriments. collecting and describing data" %" /o *rovide students ,ith sound -no,ledge of business research methodology and enable them to solve the *roblems confidently" !" /o e)*ose students ,ith *resent day e)*erimental ,or-" 2" /o *romote understanding of the sub0ect for the *ur*ose of analy+ing data and dra,ing valid inferences" 3" /o *re*are the students for *ositions 0obs in research organi+ations" 4" /o motivate students so as to develo* interest for underta-ing research in the higher education" Methodology( /he methods of instructions ,ill include ,ee-ly lectures. grou* discussions in the class room on the to*ics related to the literature and *rofessional e)*erience" Practical( 5ractical be based on the to*ics of the studied material" Students ,ould be as-ed to underta-e small e)*eriments. analy+e on modern com*uting facilities. and ,rite conducting remar-s and the re*orts" Assignments(

% number of assignments should have to be submitted on the current studied to*ics given by the course incharge" Group discussions6 /he class should be divided in to small grou*s including 374 students to discuss the assigned e)*erimental ,or-. to collect the literature. to analy+e the data and to ma-e a final re*ort" Boo s recommended( 1" Se-ran. U" (%&&!) 8Research methods for business9 (2th :dition). National BooFoundation. Islamabad. 5a-istan %" Marilyn ;" 5elosi. /heresa M" Sandifer. Se-ran. U" (%&&1) 8Research and :valuation for Business9 <ohn =iley > Sons Inc" !" $onald R" ?oo*er and 5amela S" Schindler (%&&!) 8Business Research Methods9 ('th :dition). Mc@ra,7AillBIr,in 2" Ran0it ;umar. 8Research Methodolgy9 Sage 5ublications 3" Ingeman rbonor and B0oran Ber-e. 8Methodology for creating Business ;no,ledge9 Sage 5ublications" 4" $am Remenyl. 8$oing Research in Business -no,ledge9 Sage 5ublications" $avid A" Fol+. 8Survey Research for 5ublic dministration9 Sage 5ublications C" ?" =illiam :mory. 8Business Research Methods9 Ir,in Course Outline( !emester "ee 1st =ee%nd =ee!rd =ee2th =ee3th =ee4th =eeCth =ee'th =eeDth =ee1&th =ee11th =ee1%th =ee1!th =ee12th =ee13th =ee14th =ee1Cth =ee1'th =ee1Dth =eeCourse Content Introduction to research Scientific research /echnology and business research Research *rocess Research *rocess (contd") /he broad *roblem area. *reliminary data gathering. *roblem definition. theoretical frame ,or- and hy*othesis develo*ment. elements of research design" :)*erimental design Measurement of variables( o*erational definition and scales Measurement( scaling. reliability. validity Mid /erm :)ams Mid /erm :)ams Sam*ling $ata analysis and inter*retation Research 5ro*osal Research re*ort Management decision ma-ing and research Management decision ma-ing and research (contd") :nd /erm :)ams :nd /erm :)ams Business #esearch Methods

! C$AP%&# ' Introduction( #esearch methods provide the knowledge and skills to solve the problems and meet the challenges of a fast-paced decision- making environment. #esearch is simply the process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough study and analysis of the situation and data. ER #esearch is a systematic inquiry aimed at providing information to solve problems. We define business research as a systematic inquiry that provides information to guide business decisions. ER Business research is an organized, systematic, data-based, critical, objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding answers or solution to it. ER Business research is the process of finding solution to a specific problem encountered in the work setting. 5hysical research is normally conducted under controlled laboratory conditions ,hile business research seldom is" Business research normally deals ,ith such to*ics as human attitude. behavior. and *erformance" %ypes of Business #esearch( Applied research is research done with the intention of applying the results of the findings to solve specific problems being experienced in the organization. For e)am*le. a *articular *roduct may not be selling ,ell and the manager might ,ant to find the reason for this in order to ta-e corrective action" Basic research is research done mainly to increase the understanding of certain problems that commonly occur in organization settings. university *rofessor may be interested in investigating the factor that contributes the absenteeism as a matter of mere academic interest" fter gathering information on this to*ic from several institutions and analy+ing the data. the *rofessor may identify factors such as infle)ible ,or- hours. inadeFuate training of em*loyees. and lo, morale as *rimarily influencing absenteeism" Later on. a manager ,ho encounters absenteeism of em*loyees in his organi+ation may use this information to determine if these factors are relevant to those *articular ,orsettings for *roblem solving" It is also -no,n as pure research"

%he )alue of ac*uiring research s ills

/he -no,ledge of research is im*ortant due to the follo,ing reasons( /o gather more information before selecting a course of action" /o do a high level research study" /o understand research design" /o evaluate and resolve a current management dilemma" /o establish a career as a research s*ecialist" !teps in conducting Business #esearch( 1 5roblem Identification % Statement of $esired @oal or outcome ! Research :vidence and Aard $ata 2 Eutcome 3 Identification of *ossible ?ause 4 5ro*osed Solution t Ste* 1 you identify that a *roblem e)ists or there is an o**ortunity for im*rovement" /he ob0ective of this ste* is to develo* statement that reflects the current situation" 5roblems or o**ortunities for im*rovement can be identified from customer com*laints. em*loyee surveys. focus grou*s. brainstorming sessions. ne, regulations. or a variety of other *laces" For e)am*le. the amount of time it ta-es to get a ne, *roduct may be too long. there may bee too many errors in the billing *rocess. customers may be on hold too long. or there may be too many returns of a *articular *roduct" ll of these situations re*resent *roblems andBor o**ortunities for im*rovement" Identification of a *roblem is an im*ortant ste* in conducting research" It is the reason for collecting and analy+ing data" Ether,ise. data analysis occurs in a vacuum and is not connected to business decision" Research *rovides the needed information that guides managers to ma-e informed decisions to successfully deal ,ith *roblems" /he information *rovided could be the result of a careful analysis of the data gathered firsthand or of data that are already available (in the com*any. industry. archives. etc)" $ata can be Fuantitative (as generally gathered through structured Fuestions) or Fualitative (as generated from the broad ans,ers to s*ecific Fuestions in intervie,s. or from res*onses to o*en7ended Fuestions in a Fuestionnaire. or through observation. or from already available information gathered from various sources)" common e)*erience of all organi+ations is that the manager has to solve big and small *roblems on a daily basis by ma-ing the right decisions" In business. research is usually *rimarily conducted to resolve *roblematic issues in. or interrelated among. the areas of accounting. finance. management. and mar-eting"

problematic issues of research in Business(

Accounting( budget control systems. *ractices. and *rocedures are freFuently e)amined" Inventory costing methods. accelerated de*reciation. time #series behavior of Fuarterly earnings. transfer *ricing. cash recovery rates. and ta)ation methods are some of the other areas that are researched" +inance( the o*erations of financial institutions. o*timum financing. yields on mortgages. the behavior of the stoc- e)change. and the li-e. become the focus of investigation" Management research( could encom*ass the study of em*loyee attitude and behavior. human resources management. the im*act of changing demogra*hics on management *ractices. *roduction o*erations management. strategy formulation. information system. and the li-e" Mar eting research could address issues *ertaining to *roduct image. advertising. sales *romotion. distribution. *ac-aging. *ricing. after7sales service. customer *references. ne, *roduct develo*ment. and other mar-eting as*ects" %ypes of the !tudies used to do research( Re*orting $escri*tive :)*lanatory *redictive Good #esearch( @ood research uses the scientific method, Some of the characteristics of the good research are as fallo,ing( 1" Purpose of the research clearly defined( /he *ur*ose of the research. or the *roblem involved. should be clearly defined and shar*ly delineated in terms as unambiguous as *ossible" /he statement of the research *roblem should include analysis into its sim*lest elements. its sco*e and limitations. and *recise s*ecifications of the meanings of all ,ords significant to the research" %" #esearch procedure described in detail( /he research *rocedures used should be described in sufficient detail to *ermit another researcher to re*eat the research" !" #esearch design thoroughly planned( /he *rocedural design of the research should be carefully *lanned to yield results that are as ob0ective as *ossible" =hen a sam*ling of the *o*ulation is involved. the re*ort should include evidence concerning the degree of re*resentativeness of the sam*le" Fuestionnaire ought not to be used ,hen more reliable evidence is available from documentary sources or by direct observation" Bibliogra*hic searches should be as thorough and com*lete as *ossible" :)*eriments should have satisfactory controls" $irect observations should be recorded in ,riting as soon as *ossible after the events"

4 :fforts should be made to minimi+e the influence of *ersonal bias in selecting and recording data" Limitations fran ly revealed( /he researcher should re*ort. ,ith com*lete fran-ness. fla,s in *rocedural design and estimate their effect u*on the findings" com*etent researcher should be sensitive to the effects of im*erfect design. and his e)*erience in analy+ing the data should give him a basis for estimating their influence" $igh ethical standard applied( /he observance of ethics begins ,ith the *erson instituting the research. ,ho should do so in good faith. *ay attention to ,hat the results indicate. and surrendering the ego. *ursue organi+ational rather than self7 interests" Analysis of the data should be sufficiently ade*uate to reveal its significance. and the methods of analysis used should be a**ro*riate" /he validity and reliability of data should be chec-ed carefully" /he data should be classified in ,ays that assist the researcher to reach *ertinent conclusions" =hen statistical methods are used. the *robability of error should be estimated and the criteria of statistical significance a**lied" +indings presented unambiguously( /hese should be cleared and should be 0ustified ,ith the hel* of literature" Conclusions justified( ?onclusions should be confined to those 0ustified by the data of the research and limited to those for ,hich the data *rovide an adeFuate basis" Greater confidence in the research is -arranted if the researcher is e.perienced/ has good re*utation in research. and is a *erson of integrity"

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Manager and #esearch( Managers ,ith -no,ledge of research have an advantage over those ,ithout" /hough you yourself may not be doing any ma0or research as a manager. you ,ill have to understand. *redict and control events that are dysfunctional to the organi+ation" For e)am*le. a ne, *roduct develo*ed may not be 8ta-ing off9 or a financial investment may not be 8*aying off9 as antici*ated" Such disturbing *henomena have to be understood and e)*lained" Unless this is done. it ,ill not be *ossible to *redict the future of that *roduct or the *ros*ects of that investment. and ho, future catastro*hic outcomes can be controlled" gras* of research methods ,ill enable managers to understand. *redict and control environment" 0no-ledge about research and research methods helps professional manager to( 1" Identify and effectively solve minor *roblems in the ,or- setting" %" Ae must have a -no,ledge. ho, to discriminate good from bad research" !" ,areness of the multi*le effects of the factors im*inging on a situation" 2" /a-e calculated ris-s in decision ma-ing. -no,ing full ,ell the *robabilities associated ,ith the different *ossible outcomes" 3" 5revent *ossible vested interests from e)ercising their influence in a situation" 4" Relate to hired researchers and consultants more effectively" C" ?ombine e)*erience ,ith scientific -no,ledge ,hile ma-ing decisions"

C "hen #esearch should be avoided1 =hen information cannot be a**lied to a critical managerial decision" =hen managerial decision involves little ris-" =hen management has insufficient resources to conduct a study" =hen the cost of the study out,eighs the level of ris- of the decision" %he Manager and the Consultant 2#esearcher( s a manager. you ,ill often need to engage a consultant to study some of the more com*le). time7consuming *roblems that you might encounter" It is thus im*ortant to be -no,ledgeable about ho, to locate and select a researcher. ho, to effectively interact ,ith the consultant (the terms researcher and consultant are used interchangeably)" %he Manager #esearcher #elationship( $uring their career. it often becomes necessary for manager to deal ,ith consultant" =hen the manager is -no,ledgeable about research. then the interactions bet,een the manager and researcher become more meaningful. *ur*oseful. and beneficial both to the organi+ation and the researcher ali-e" /he manager has to inform the researchers ,hat ty*es of information could be *rovided to them. and more im*ortant. ,hich of their records ,ould not be made available to them" Such record might include the *ersonal files of the em*loyees. or the ones ,ith certain trade secrets" Managers ,ho are very -no,ledgeable about research can more easily foresee ,hat information the researchers might reFuire. and if certain documents containing such information cannot be made available. they can inform the research team about this at the outset" It is ve)ing for researchers to discover at a late stage that the com*any ,ill not let them have certain information" If they -no, the constraints right from the beginning. the researchers might be able to identify alternate ,ays of tac-ling the *roblems and to design the research in such a ,ay as to *rovide the needed ans,ers" Manager3s Obligations( S*ecify *roblems" 5rovide adeFuate bac-ground information" ccess to com*any information gate-ee*ers" #esearcher3s Obligations( $evelo* a creative research design 5rovide ans,ers to im*ortant business Fuestions %he Manager #esearcher Conflicts( Managements limited e)*osure to research Manager sees researcher as threat to *ersonal status Researcher has to consider cor*orate culture and *olitical situations ResearcherGs isolation from managers

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Internal Consultants4#esearchers( Some organi+ations have their o,n consulting or research de*artments. ,hich might be called the management services de*artment. the organi+ation and methods de*artment. R > $. or by some other name" Such a unit ,ithin the organi+ation ,ould be useful in several ,ays. and enlisting its hel* might be advantageous under some circumstances. but not in others" /he manager often has to decide ,hether to use internal or e)ternal researchers" /o reach a decision. the manager should be a,are of the strengths and ,ea-nesses of both. and ,eight the advantages and disadvantages of using either. based on the needs of the solution" Advantages( 1" /he internal team ,ould stand a better chance of being readily acce*table by the em*loyees in the subunit of the organi+ation" %" /he team ,ould reFuire much less time to understand the structure. the *hiloso*hy and climate. and the functioning and ,or- systems of the organi+ation" !" /hey ,ould be available for im*lementing their recommendations after the research findings are acce*ted" 2" /he internal team might cost considerably less than an e)ternal team for the de*artment enlisting hel* in *roblem solving. because they ,ill need less time to understand the system due to their continuous involvement ,ith various units of the organi+ation" For *roblems that are of lo, com*le)ity. the internal team ,ould be ideal" 5isadvantages of Internal Consultants4#esearchers( 1" In vie, of their long tenure as internal consultants. the internal team may Fuite *ossibly fall into a stereoty*ed ,ay of loo-ing at the organi+ation and its *roblems" /his ,ould inhibit any fresh ideas and *ers*ectives that might be needed to correct the *roblems" %" /here is sco*e for certain *o,erful coalitions in the organi+ation to influence the internal team to conceal. distort. or misre*resent certain facts" In other ,ords. certain vested interests could dominate. es*ecially in securing a si+able *ortion of the available scant resources" !" /here is also a *ossibility that even the most highly Fualified internal research teams are not *erceived as 8e)*erts9 by the staff and management. and hence their recommendations do not get the considerations and attention they deserve" 2" ?ertain organi+ational biases of the internal research team might in some instances ma-e the findings less ob0ective and conseFuently less scientific" &.ternal Consultant4#esearchers( /he disadvantages of the internal research teams turn out to be the advantages of the e)ternal teams. and the formerGs advantages ,or- out to be the disadvantages of the latter"

Advantages( 1" /he e)ternal team can dra, on a ,ealth of e)*erience from having ,or-ed ,ith different ty*es of organi+ations that have had the same or similar ty*es of *roblems" %" /he e)ternal teams. es*ecially those from established research and consulting firms. might have more -no,ledge of current so*histicated *roblem7solving models through their *eriodic training *rograms. ,hich the teams ,ithin the organi+ation may not have access to" 5isadvantages( 1" /he cost of hiring an e)ternal research team is usually high and is the main deterrent. unless the *roblems are very critical" %" In addition to the considerable time the e)ternal team ta-es to understand the organi+ation to be researched. they seldom get a ,arm ,elcome. nor are readily acce*ted by em*loyees" $e*artments and individuals li-ely to be affected by the research study may *erceive the study team as a threat and resist them" /herefore. soliciting em*loyees hel* and enlisting their coo*eration in the study is a little more difficult and time7consuming for the e)ternal researchers than for the internal teams" !" /he e)ternal team also charges additional fees for their assistance in the im*lementation and evaluation *hases" &thics and Business #esearch( :thic in business research refers to a code of conduct or e)*ected societal norm of behavior ,hile conducting research" :thical conduct a**lies to the organi+ation and the members that s*onsor the research. the researchers ,ho underta-e the research. and the res*ondents ,ho *rovide them ,ith the necessary data" /he observance of ethics begins ,ith the *erson instituting the research. ,ho should do so in good faith. *ay attention to ,hat the results indicate. and surrendering the ego. *ursue organi+ational rather than self7 interests" :thical conduct should also be reflected in the behavior of the researchers ,ho conduct the investigation. the *artici*ants ,ho *rovide the data. the analysts ,ho *rovide the results. and the entire research team that *resents the inter*retation of the results and suggests alternative solution"

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C$AP%&# 6 !cientific #esearch Scientific research focuses on solving problems and pursues a step-by-step logical, organized, and rigorous (exact) method to identify the problems, gather data, analyze them, and draw valid conclusions there from. /he scientific research is not based on hunches. e)*erience. and intuition (though these may *lay a *art in final decision ma-ing). but is *ur*osive and rigorous" Because of the rigorous ,ay in ,hich it is done. scientific research enable all those ,ho are interested in researching and -no,ing about the same or similar issues to come u* ,ith com*arable findings ,hen the data are analy+ed" Scientific research also hel*s researchers to state their findings ,ith accuracy and confidence" /his hel*s various other organi+ations to a**ly those solutions ,hen they encounter similar *roblems" Furthermore. scientific investigation tends to be more ob0ective than sub0ective. and hel*s managers to highlight the most critical factors at the ,or-*lace that need s*ecific attention so as to avoid. minimi+e. or solve *roblems" Scientific investigation and managerial decision ma-ing are integral as*ects of effective *roblem solving" /he term scientific research a**lies to both basic and a**lied research" **lied research may or may not be generali+e able to other organi+ations. de*ending on the e)tent to ,hich differences e)ist in such factors as si+e. nature of ,or-. characteristics of the em*loyees. and structure of the organi+ation" Nevertheless. a**lied research also has to be an organi+ed and systematic *rocess ,here *roblems are carefully identified. data scientifically gathered and analy+ed. and conclusions dra,n in an ob0ective manner for effective *roblem solving" Sometimes the *roblem may be so sim*le that it does not call for elaborate research. and *ast e)*eriences might offer the necessary solution" t other times. e)igencies of time. un,illingness to e)*and the resources needed for doing good research. lac- of -no,ledge. and other factors might *rom*t business to try to solve *roblems based on hunches" Ao,ever. the *robability of ma-ing ,rong decisions in such cases is high" %he $allmar s 7 Characters/ %asdee*/ Mustanid8 of !cientific #esearch( /he hallmar-s or main distinguishing characteristics of scientific research may be as follo,( ', Purposiveness( /he manager has started the research ,ith definite aim or *ur*ose" /he focus is on increasing the commitment of em*loyees to the organi+ation. as this ,ill be beneficial in many ,ays" n increase in em*loyee commitment ,ill translate into less turnover. less absenteeism. and *robably increased *erformance levels. all of ,hich ,ould definitely benefit the organi+ation" /he research thus has a *ur*osive focus" 6, #igor( good theoretical base and a sound methodological design ,ould add rigor to a *ur*osive study" Rigor connotes carefulness. scru*ulousness. and the degree of e)actitude in research investigations"

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9, %estability( If. after tal-ing to a random selection of em*loyees of the organi+ation and study of the *revious research done in the area or organi+ational commitment. the manager or researcher develo*s certain hy*otheses on ho, em*loyee commitment can be enhanced. then these can be tested by a**lying certain statistical tests to the data collected for the *ur*ose (t7test or chi7test)" Scientific research thus lends itself to testing logically develo*ed hy*otheses to see ,hether or not the data su**ort the educated con0ectures or hy*otheses that are develo*ed after a careful study of the *roblem situation" /estability thus becomes another hallmarof scientific research" :, #eplicability( Su**ose that the researcher concludes that *artici*ation in decision ma-ing is one of the most im*ortant factors that influences the commitment of em*loyees to the organi+ation" =e ,ill *lace more faith and credence in these findings and conclusion if similar findings emerge on the basis of data collected by other organi+ations em*loying the same methods" /o *ut it differently. the results of the tests of hy*otheses should be su**orted again and yet again ,hen the same ty*e of research is re*eated in other similar circumstances" /o the e)tent that this does ha**ens (i"e" the results are re*licated or re*eated). ,e ,ill gain confidence in the scientific nature of our research" In other ,ords. our hy*otheses ,ould not have been su**orted merely by chance. but are reflective of the true state of affairs in *o*ulation" Re*licability is thus another hallmar- of scientific research" ;, Precision and confidence( Precision (accuracy) refers to the closeness of the findings to 8reality9 based on a sam*le" For e)am*le. if the number of the *roduction days lost during the year due to absenteeism estimated at bet,een !& and 2&. as against the actual of !3. the *recision of the estimation com*ares more favorably than if there indicated that the loss of *roduction days ,as some,here bet,een %& and 3&" /his term may call as confidence interval in statistics. ,hich is ,hat is referred to here as *recision" Confidence refers to the *robability that our estimations are correct" /hat is. it is not merely enough to be *recise. but it is also im*ortant that ,e can confidently claim that D3H of the time our results ,ould be true and there is only a 3H chance of our being ,rong" /his is also -no,n as confidence level" /he narro,er the limits ,ithin ,hich ,e can estimate the range of our *redictions (i"e" the more *recise our findings) and the greater the confidence ,e have in our research results. the more useful and scientific the findings become" In social science research. a D3H confidence level ,hich im*lies that there is only a 3H *robability that the findings may not be correct is acce*ted as conventional. and is usually referred to as a significance level of "&3 (*I "&3)" /hus *recision and confidence are im*ortant as*ects of research. ,hich are attained through a**ro*riate scientific sam*ling design" /he greater the *recision and confidence ,e aim at in our research. the more scientific is the investigation and the more useful are the results"

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4" Objectivity( /he conclusion dra,n through the inter*retation of the results of data analysis should be ob0ective6 that is. they should be based on the facts of the findings derived from actual data. and not on our o,n sub0ective or emotional values" For instance. if ,e had a hy*othesis that stated that greater *artici*ation in decision ma-ing ,ill increase organi+ational commitment. and this ,as not su**orted by the results. it ma-es no sense if the researcher continues to argue that increased o**ortunities for em*loyee *artici*ation ,ould still hel*J Such an argument ,ould be based. not on the factual. data7 based research findings. but on the sub0ective o*inion of the researcher" If this ,as the researcherGs conviction all along. then there ,as no need to do research in the first *lace" Much damage can be sustained by organi+ations that im*lement non7data7based or misleading conclusion dra,n from research" <, Generali=ability @enerali+ability refers to the sco*e of a**licability of the research findings in one organi+ational setting to other settings" Ebviously. the ,ider the range of a**licability of the solutions generated by research. the more useful the research is to users" For instance. if a researcherKs findings that *artici*ation in decision ma-ing enhances organi+ational commitment are found to be true in a variety of manufacturing. industrial. and service organi+ations. and not merely in the *articular organi+ation studied by the researcher. then the generali+ability of the findings to other organi+ational settings is enhanced" /he more generali+able the research. the greater its usefulness and value" Ao,ever. not many research findings can be generali+ed to all other settings. situations. or organi+ations" >, Parsimony( Sim*licity in e)*laining the *henomena or *roblems that occur. and in generating solutions for the *roblems. is al,ays *referred to com*le) research frame,or-s that consider an unmanageable number of factors" For instance. if t,o or three s*ecific variables in the ,or- situation are identified. ,hich ,hen changed ,ould raise the organi+ational commitment of the em*loyees by 23H. that ,ould be more useful and valuable to the manager than if it ,ere recommended that he should change 1& different variables to increase organi+ational commitment by 2'H" Such an unmanageable number of variables might ,ell be totally beyond the managerGs control" /herefore. the achievement of a meaningful and *arsimonious. rather than an elaborate and cumbersome. model for *roblem solution becomes a critical issue in research" :conomy in research models is achieved ,hen ,e can build into our research frame,ora lesser number of variables that ,ould e)*lain the variance far more efficiently than a com*le) set of variables that ,ould only marginally add to the variance e)*lained" Methods of scientific research( 5eduction( $eduction is the *rocess by ,hich ,e arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logical generali+ation of a -no,n fact" For e)am*le. ,e -no, that all high *erformers are highly *roficient in their 0obs"

1!

Induction( Induction is a *rocess ,here ,e observe certain *henomena and on this basis arrive at conclusions" In other ,ords. in induction ,e logically establish a general *ro*osition based on observed facts" For instance. ,e see that the *roduction *rocesses are the *rime features of factories or manufacturing *lants" =e therefore conclude that factories e)ist for *roduction *ur*oses" Both the deductive and the inductive *rocesses are a**lied in scientific investigations" /heories based on deduction and induction hel* us to understand. e)*lain. andBor *redict business *henomena" 1 % ! 2 Lou *ush the light s,itch and find no light Lou as- the Fuestion. =hy no lightM (induction) Lou infer a conclusion (hy*otheses) to ans,er the Fuestion and e)*lain the fact that the bulb is burned out" (deduction) Lou use this hy*othesis to conclude (deduce) that the light ,ill not go on ,hen ,e *ush the s,itch" =e -no, from e)*erience that burned7out bulb ,ill not light"

$ypothetico?deductive method( =hen research is designed to test some s*ecific hy*othesi+ed outcome. as for instance. to see if controlling aversive noise in the environment increase the *erformance of individuals in solving mental *u++les. the follo,ing ste*s ensue" /he investigator begins ,ith the theory that noise adversely affects mental *roblems solving" /he hy*othesis is then generated that if the noise is controlled. mental *u++les can be solved more Fuic-ly and correctly" Based on this a research *ro0ect is designed to test the hy*othesis" /he results of the study hel* the researcher to deduce or conclude that controlling the aversive noise does indeed hel* the *artici*ants to im*rove their *erformance on mental *u++les" /his method of starting ,ith a theoretical frame,or-. formulating hy*otheses. and logically deducing from the results of the study is -no,n as the hy*othetico7deductive method" /he building bloc-s of scientific inFuiry are de*icted in figure and include the *rocesses of initially observing *henomena. identifying the *roblem. constructing a theory as to ,hat might be ha**ening. develo*ing hy*otheses. determining as*ects of the research design. collecting data. analy+ing the data. and inter*reting the results" %he seven step process in the $ypothetico?deduction method( ', Observation( Ebservation is the first stage. in ,hich one senses that certain changes are occurring. or that some ne, behaviors. attitudes. and feelings are surfacing in oneGs environment (i"e" the ,or-*lace)" /he *eo*le7oriented manager is al,ays sensitive to and a,are of ,hat is ha**ening in and around the ,or-*lace" ?hanges in attitudes. behaviors. communication *atterns and styles. and a score of other verbal and nonverbal cause can be readily *ic-ed u* by managers ,ho are sensitive to the various nuances"

12 =hen there is indeed a *roblem in the situation. the manager may not understand ,hat e)actly is ha**ening. but can definitely sense that things are not ,hat they should be" Li-e,ise. a dro* in sales. freFuent *roduction interru*tions. incorrect accounting results. lo, yielding investments. disinterestedness of em*loyees in their ,or-. and the li-e. could easily attract the attention of the manager. though ,hy they may be occur may be an enigma (*u++le)" 6, Preliminary information gathering( 5reliminary information gathering involves the see-ing of information in de*th. of ,hat is observed" /his could be done by tal-ing informally to several *eo*le in the ,or- setting or to clients. or to other relevant sources. thereby gathering information on ,hat is ha**ening and ,hy" By doing library research. or obtaining information through other sources. the investigator ,ould identify ho, such issues have been tac-led in other situations" /hus a mass of information ,ould have been collected through the intervie,s and library search" /he ne)t ste* is to ma-e sense of the factors that have been identified in the information7gathering stage by *iecing them together in some meaningful fashion" 9, %heory formulation( /heory formation is an attem*t to integrate all the information in a logical manner. so that the factors res*onsible for the *roblem can be conce*tuali+ed and tested" In this ste* the critical variables are e)amined as to their contribution or influence in e)*laining ,hy the *roblem occurs and ho, it can be solved" @nderstanding %heory( Components and Connections( =hen ,e do research. ,e see- to -no, 8=hat is9 in order to understand. e)*lain. and *redict *henomena" =e might ,ant to ans,er the Fuestion. ,hat ,ill be the em*loyee reaction to the ne, fle)ible ,or- scheduleM =hen dealing ,ith such Fuestions. ,e must agree on definitions" =hich em*loyeeM =hat -ind of reactionMM =hat are the ma0or indicatorsMMM /hese Fuestions reFuire the use of conce*ts. constructs. and definitions" If one is to understand and communicate information about ob0ects and events. there must be a common ground on ,hich to do it" ?once*ts are used for this *ur*ose" conce*t is a bundle of meanings or characteristics associated ,ith certain events. ob0ects. conditions. situations. and the li-e" ?once*ts are created by classifying and categori+ing ob0ects or events that have common characteristics beyond the single observation" =e abstract such meanings from reality and use ,ords as labels to designate them" For e)am*le. ,e see a man *assing and thin-. he is running. ,al-ing. s-i**ing. cra,ling. or ho**ing" /hese movements all re*resent conce*ts" Construct is an image or idea s*ecifically invented for a given research and theory building *ur*ose" =e build constructs by combining the sim*ler conce*ts. es*ecially ,hen the idea or image ,e intend to convey is not directly sub0ect to observation" :, $ypothesi=ing( From the theori+ed net,or- of associations among the variables. certain hy*otheses or educated con0ectures can be generated" For instance. at this *oint. one might hy*othesi+e that if a sufficient number of items are stoc-ed on shelves. customer

13 dissatisfaction ,ill be considerably reduced" /his is a hy*othesis that can be tested to determine if the statement ,ould be su**orted" Ay*othesis testing is called deductive research" 3" +urther !cientific 5ata collection( fter the develo*ment of the hy*otheses. data ,ith res*ect to each variable in the hy*otheses need to be obtained" A, 5ata Analysis( In this ste* the $ata gathered are statistically analy+ed to see if the hy*otheses that ,ere generated have been su**orted" <, 5eduction( $eduction is the *rocess of arriving at conclusions by inter*reting the meaning of the results of the data analysis" Based on these deductions. the researcher ,ould ma-e recommendations on ho, the customer dissatisfaction *roblem could be solved" Case !tudies( ?ase Studies involve in7de*th. conte)tual analysis of similar situation in other organi+ations. ,here the nature and definition of the *roblem ha**en to be the same as e)*erienced in the current situation" Action #esearch( ction research is sometimes underta-en by consultants ,ho ,ant to initiate change *rocesses in organi+ations" In other ,ords. action research methodology is most a**ro*riate ,hile effecting *lanned changes" Aere. the researcher begins ,ith a *roblem that is already identified. and gathers relevant data to *rovide a tentative *roblem solution" /his solution is then im*lemented. ,ith the -no,ledge that there may be unintended conseFuences follo,ing such im*lementation" /he effects are then evaluated. defined. and diagnosed. and the research continues on an ongoing basis until the *roblem is fully resolved"

14 C$AP%&# 9 %echnology and Business #esearch Information needs of Business( /o run a business. useful. timely. accurate. reliable. and valid data are needed" =hen data in their ra, form are evaluated. analy+ed. and synthesi+ed. useful information become available to managers that hel*s them ma-e good business decisions" For e)am*le. figures of gross sales. *rofits. and the li-e. are data of a descri*tive nature. ,hich are doubtless informative to the manager" Commonly used technologies in Business research( $igital technology has come in handy for research. es*ecially in collecting. storing. and analy+ing information" /hese include all electronic interactive media such as ?$7REM. the $N$. the bro,ser. the internet and the Intranet. and search engines" ?om*uteri+ed databases on com*act dis-s are available. es*ecially for research in the finance area" %he Internet( /he Internet. ,hich is a vast global net,or- of com*uters connecting *eo*le and information. has o*ened u* tremendous *ossibilities for advancing research and e)*anding the area of business o**ortunities throughout the ,orld" %he Internet connects us -orld-ide( (1) ny needed research data can be collected from any country through the Internet" (%) Ether information regarding *rices. industry or *ublished material on any to*ic of interest can be collected for each country" (!) =e can easily do,nload secondary data and *rint them" (2) =e can also conduct com*uter7 interactive survey very efficiently ,ith large global audience. ,here the com*uter ,ill seFuence and *ersonali+e the Fuestions as ,e ,ould desire (s-i* Fuestions and asa**ro*riate follo,7u* information)" &lectronic Mail( /he Internet also *ermits the e)change of electronic mail (e7mail). ,hich has increasingly become the *rimary mode of business communication both ,ithin and outside the com*any" (1) /he easy global access to the internet has enabled all organi+ations and many individuals to have access to e7mail" :7mail is ine)*ensive. almost instantaneous. and has the added advantage of guaranteed delivery sub0ect only to the correctness of the e7mail address" (%) :7mail is a sim*le and effective ,ay of reFuesting and obtaining data on a variety of to*ics from both ,ithin and outside the organi+ation" (!) Short surveys could also be conducted via e7mail" %he Intranet( /he Intranet is to the internal system of the organi+ation ,hat the Internet is to its e)ternal environment" /hat is. it lin-s internal data net,or-s of the com*any. but *revents

1C access to others outside the com*any" It also facilitates data gathering from ,ithin the com*any6 for e)am*le. surveys can be easily conducted through the intranet to access em*loyee morale or the *o*ularity of benefit *ac-ages" Bro-sers( Bro,ser soft,are (li-e MicrosoftGs :)*lorer and Netsca*e) allo,s even the nontechnical user easy access to and navigation through the ,eb" In a sense. bro,ser ignited the internet revolution" (1) Ergani+ations create ,eb sites to *romote their image. communicate ,ith customers. build relationshi*s. share information. offer attractive inducements to *ros*ective customers. and ensure that they -ee* returning" (%) In some cases they even allo, online *urchases by customers. by*assing the traditional sales channels" (!) /he built7in audit ca*ability and *ush technology (using coo-ies to tracdetail of ,eb sites visited) also *rovides feedbac- on the efficiency of the sites" !ome !oft-are used in Business #esearch( Group-are( is a soft,are that runs on a net,or- so that teams can ,or- on 0oint *ro0ects. and it allo,s *eo*le from different de*artments to access data 0ointly" For e)am*le. if the accounting. finance. sales. and *roduction de*artments have to coordinate their efforts to come u* ,ith a viable *roduct ,ithin a tight budget. they ,ill be served ,ell by grou*,are" Beural Bet-or s( are designed to trace *atterns in a set of data and generali+e therefrom" /his soft,are enables sales forecasts. stoc- mar-et *redictions. detection of ,eather *atterns. and the li-e" CAM4CA5( ?om*uter7aided manufacturing (? M) soft,are hel*s engineers to design the manufacturing com*onents and directs the *roduction of *roducts" ?om*uter aided design (? $) soft,are creates and dis*lays com*le) dra,ing ,ith *recision. enabling e)*erimentation ,ith different designs" ? $B? M soft,are that integrates the t,o has been in use for a long time in manufacturing and *roduction units of organi+ations" &nterprise #esource Planning( :R5 *ac-ages from soft,are com*anies that offer all7 in7one integrated business a**lications have slo,ly re*laced traditional manufacturing. finance. and order entry a**lications. ,hich are usually 8home designed9 and do not lend themselves for easy integration" /he advantage of :R5 *ac-ages is their ca*ability to *rovide com*rehensive solutions to all the needs of an organi+ation in its day7to7day ,or-" 5ata Analytic !oft-are Programs( Some soft,are *rograms are available to obtain. store. and analy+e ra, data collected through surveys. using S5SS. S S. :)cel. and li-e"

1' &merging Applications in %echnology( $andheld 5evices( /he ne, ,ave of com*uter technology re*resented by small. cost7effective. handheld devices li-e the 5alm. assisted by a ne, class of soft,are. eases data gathering and immediate analyses. and has initiated a *rocess change in field ,orInteractive )oice %echnology/ C5?#om/ and #elational 5atabases( Relational databases refer to those that can be lin-ed in any desired manner" 5igital "hiteboard( $igital =hiteboards allo, contents on a board dis*laying intricate diagrams and voluminous notes to be co*ied on to the 5? note*ad and transmitted electronically to others. as needed" Group )ideoconferencing( Re*roduce the face to face meeting effect by large /N monitors or multimedia *ro0ectors" )irtual #eality( ?reates !7$ environments in ,hich to create a *roduct in a com*uter and sho, it to *ros*ective interested grou*s ,ith details regarding *rice. material. and other relevant information" Lin age of PCs to &lectronic 5evices( com*any can *lug a camcorder to a 5? or to a /N set to* bo) for sending video mail over the Internet" Business transactions. communication. and research through this model ,ill be accelerated multifold ,hen the device is *erfected" Information system and managerial decision ma ing( s organi+ations ta-e on e)*ended functions and gro, in si+e. it is im*ortant for them to be eFui**ed ,ith a good information system from ,hich data can be accessed for analysis by e)ecutives and managers at different levels" ?om*uteri+ed information systems enable the efficient o*eration of different subsystems in the organi+ation inasmuch as information for any area such as finance. budget. *lant maintenance. trans*ortation. distribution. mar-eting. or human resources. can be readily dra,n by any de*artment" 5ata "arehousing/ 5ata Mining/ and operations research( $ata ,arehousing and data mining are as*ects of information systems" /he data ,arehouse is usually built from data collected through the different de*artments of the enter*rise and can be accessed through various on7line analytical *rocessing (EL 5) tools to su**ort decision ma-ing" $ata ,arehousing can be described as the *rocess of e)tracting. transferring. and integrating data s*read across multi*le e)ternal databases and even o*erating systems. ,ith a vie, to facilitate analysis and decision ma-ing"

1D International 5imensions of Cyberspace( ?ybers*ace is not free of geogra*hical boundaries or cultural nuances" Foreign governments can use the same fire,all and filtering technology that merican cor*orations use to deter com*uter hac-ers" Some countries ban access to gambling ,eb sites. and fe, other li-e Singa*ore and Saudi rabia censor the ,eb site contents" 5ata !torage and !urveillance( !torage of 5atabases( /here is a need for storing com*any data at more than one site and a,ay from the location of business o*erations" $ata is the lifeblood of com*anies and should be mirrored live in at least t,o other locations. or at least bac-ed u* on ta*e and stored in other remote locations" 5ata !ecurity( /o *rotect information from a variety of threats. digital I$s and fire,alls are a fe, of the security measures used to *revent fraud and unauthori+ed use" Managerial Advantage of %echnological Advancement( Information technology and the develo*ment of soft,are to gather. store. and analy+e information7the result of ,hich facilitate decision ma-ing7are registering advances at an e)*onential rate" It is im*ortant for managers to ta-e full advantage of information technology -ee* abreast of all current advances. and fact. develo* soft,are tailored to the s*ecial needs of the system" /he soft,are technology can be *ut to effective use in the research *rocess for *roblem identification. theory building. and collecting data from res*ondents. analy+ing it. and *resenting the results" &thics in $andling Information %echnology( /he Businesses have to balance their information needs against the individual rights of those they come in contact ,ith. and on ,hom they store data" Second. com*anies also need to ensure that confidential information relating to individuals is *rotected and does not find its ,ay to unscru*ulous vendors and used for nefarious *ur*oses" /hird. care should be ta-en to ensure that incorrect information is not distributed across the many different files of the com*any" Fourth. those ,ho collect data for the com*any should be honest. trust,orthy. and careful in obtaining and recording the data in a timely fashion"

%& C$AP%&# : %he #esearch Process for applied and basic research Scientific inFuiry in the hy*othetico7deductive mode can be discussed relating to its t,o distinct as*ects #the process of develo*ing the conce*tual frame,or- and the hy*otheses for testing. and the design. ,hich involves the *lanning of the actual study. dealing ,ith such as*ects as the location of the study. the selection of the sam*le. and collection and analysis of the data" In figure ca*tures the research *rocess in the first five bo)es" Bo)es 4 and C embody the design as*ects" Bo) ' denotes the final deduction from the hy*otheses are substantiated and the research Fuestion is fully ans,ered. the researcher ,rites u* the re*orts and ma-es a *resentation. and the manager is able to e)amine different ,ays of solving the *roblem and ma-ing a final decision. as re*resented in bo)es D. 1& and 11" if ho,ever. several of the hy*otheses are not substantiated. or are only *artially su**orted. one may go bac- to e)amine the reasons for this" Broad Problem Area( /he broad *roblem area refers to the entire situation ,here one sees a *ossible need for research and *roblem solving" /he s*ecific issues that need to be researched ,ithin this situation may not be identified at this stage" Such issues might *ertain to (1) *roblems currently e)isting in an organi+ational setting that need to be solved. e"g" after com*laints of some issues. (%) areas that a manager believes need to be im*roved in the organi+ation. e"g" already formulated *olicies need to be redefined. (!) a conce*tual or theoretical issue that needs to be tightened u* for the basic researcher to understand certain *henomena. to define that conce*t in *recise terms. and (2) some research Fuestions that a basic researcher ,ants to ans,er empirically (e)*erimentally). the conseFuences for the individuals (e"g". *sychological stress) and organi+ations (*oor *erformance) is e)*lored by gathering data and testing the relationshi*s" /his is a situation ,here some s*ecific ans,ers are sought to a research Fuestion" :)am*les of broad *roblem area that a manager could observe at the ,or-*lace are as follo,s( 1" /raining *rograms are *erha*s not as effective as antici*ated" %" /he sale volume of a *roduct is not *ic-ing u*" !" Minority grou* members in organi+ations are not advancing in their careers" 2" Inventory control is not effective" Preliminary 5ata Collection( Bature of data to be gathered( /he intervie,s and library research ,ould hel* the researcher to define the *roblem more s*ecifically and evolve a theory. delineating *ossible variables that might e)ert an influence on it" /he nature of information needed by the researcher for the *ur*ose could be broadly classified under three headings( 1" Bac-ground information of the organi+ation7that is. the conte)tual factors"

%1 It is im*ortant for the researchers. to be ,ell acFuainted ,ith the bac-ground of the com*any or organi+ation studied. before even conducting the first intervie, ,ith their officials" Such information may be obtained from various *ublished sources such as trade *ublications. the census of business and industry. directory of cor*orations. several other business guides and services. records available ,ithin the organi+ation. and the ,eb" i) /he origin and history of the com*any. ,hen it came into being. business it is in. rate of gro,th. o,nershi* and control. and so on" ii) Si+e in terms of em*loyees. assets. or both" iii) ?harter. *ur*ose and ideology" iv) Location. regional. national. or other" v) Resources. human and others" vi) Interde*endent relationshi*s ,ith other institutions and the e)ternal environment" vii) Financial *osition during the *revious 3 to 1& years. and relevant financial data" Information gathered on the foregoing as*ects ,ill be useful in tal-ing -no,ledgeably ,ith others in the com*any during the intervie, and raising the a**ro*riate issues related to the *roblems" %" Managerial *hiloso*hy. com*any *olicies. and other structural as*ects" Information on com*any *olicies. structure. ,or-flo,. management *hiloso*hy. and the li-e can be obtained by as-ing direct Fuestions of management" Ouestioning about managerial and com*any *hiloso*hy offers an e)cellent idea of the *riorities and values of the com*any. as for e)am*le( (1) ,hether *roduct Fuality is really deemed im*ortant by the com*any or if only li* service is being *aid to the conce*t6 (%) ,hether the com*any has short7term or long7term goals6 (!) ,hether controls are so tight that creativity is stifled. or so loose that nothing gets done. or if they are conductive to good *erformance6 (2) ,hether the com*any al,ays ,ants to *lay it safe or is *re*ared to ta-e calculated ris-s6 and (3) ,hether it is *eo*le7oriented or solely *rofits7oriented" Ouite freFuently. as*ects of structure also influence the *roblem and need to be e)*lored" Belo, are some of the structural factors( (i) Roles and *ositions in the organi+ation and number of em*loyees at each 0ob levels" (ii) :)tent of s*eciali+ation" (iii) ?ommunication channels" (iv) ?ontrol systems" (v) ?oordination and s*an of control" (vi) Re,ard systems (vii) =or-flo, systems and the li-e" !" 5erce*tions. attitudes. and behavioral res*onses of organi+ational members and client systems (as a**licable)" :m*loyeesG *erce*tions of the ,or- and the ,or- environment and their attitudinal and behavioral res*onses can be ta**ed by tal-ing to them. observing them. and see-ing their res*onses through Fuestionnaires" general idea of *eo*leGs *erce*tions of their ,or-. the organi+ational climate. and other as*ects of interest to the researcher can be obtained through both unstructured and structured intervie,s ,ith the res*ondents" ttitudinal factors com*rise *eo*leGs belief about and reactions to the follo,ing(

%% (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (i)) ()) ()i) Nature of ,or=or-flo, interde*endencies Su*eriors in the organi+ation" 5artici*ation in decision ma-ing ?lient systems ?o7,or-ers Re,ards *rovided by the organi+ation. such as *ay raises and fringe benefits E**ortunities for advancement in the organi+ation" Ergani+ationGs attitudes to,ard em*loyees family res*onsibilities ?om*anyGs involvement ,ith community. civic. and other social grou* ?om*anyGs tolerance of em*loyees ta-ing time off from the 0ob"

?ertain ty*es of information such as the bac-ground details of the com*any can be obtained from available *ublished records. the ,eb sites of the com*any. its archives. and other sources" Ether ty*es of ,ritten information such as com*any *olicies. *rocedures. and rules can be obtained from the organi+ationGs records and documents" $ata gathered through such e)isting sources are called secondary data" Some secondary sources of data are statistical bulletins. government *ublications. and information *ublished or un*ublished and available from either ,ithin or outside the organi+ation. data available from *revious research. case studies and library records. online data. ,eb sites. and the internet" ?ertain other ty*es of information such as the *erce*tions and attitudes of em*loyees are best obtained by tal-ing to them6 by observing events. *eo*le. and ob0ects6 or by administering Fuestionnaires to individuals" Such data gathered for research from the actual site of occurrence of events are called primary data, Literature !urvey( /he library is a rich storage base for secondary data. and researchers used to s*end several ,ee-s and sometimes months going through boo-s. 0ournals. ne,s*a*ers. maga+ines. conference *roceedings. doctoral dissertations. mastersKs theses. government *ublications. and financial. mar-eting. and other re*orts. to find information on their research to*ics" #easons for Literature !urvey( /he *ur*ose of the literature revie, is to ensure that no im*ortant variable that has in the *ast been found re*eatedly to have had an im*act on the *roblem is ignored" If there are variables that are not identified during the intervie,s. but influence the *roblem critically. then research done ,ithout considering them ,ould be an e)ercise in futility" In such a case. the true reason for the *roblem ,ould remain unidentified even at the end of the research" good literature survey ensures that( 1" Im*ortant variables that are li-ely to influence the *roblem situation are not left out of the study"

%! % clearer idea emerges as to ,hat variables ,ould be most im*ortant to consider (*arsimony). ,hy they ,ould be considered im*ortant. and ho, they should be investigated to solve the *roblem" /hus. the literature survey hel*s the develo*ment of the theoretical frame,or- and hy*otheses for testing" !" /he *roblem statement can be made ,ith *recision and clarity" 2" /estability and re*licability of the findings of the current research are enhanced" 3" Ene does not run the ris- of 8reinventing the ,heel9 that is. ,asting efforts on trying to rediscover something that is already -no,n" 4" /he *roblem investigated is *erceived by the scientific community as relevant and significant" Conducting the literature survey( Based on the s*ecific issues of concern to the manager and the factors identified during the intervie, *rocess. a literature revie, needs to be done on these variables" /he first ste* in this *rocess involves identifying the various *ublished and un*ublished materials that are available on the to*ics of interest. and gaining access to these" /he second ste* is gathering the relevant information either by going through the necessary materials in a library or by getting access to online sources" /he third ste* is ,riting u* the literature revie," Identifying the relevant sources( Basically. three forms of databases come in handy ,hile revie,ing the literature. as indicated belo,( 1" /he bibliogra*hic database. ,hich dis*lay only the bibliogra*hic citations. that is. the name of the author. the title of the article (or boo-). source of *ublication. year. volume. and *age numbers" %" /he abstract databases. ,hich in addition *rovide an abstract or summary of the articles" !" /he full7te)t database. ,hich *rovide the full te)t of the article" &.tracting the relevant information( ccessing the online system and getting a *rintout of all the *ublished ,or-s in the area of interest from a bibliogra*hical inde) ,ill *rovide a com*rehensive bibliogra*hy on the sub0ect. ,hich ,ill form the basis for the ne)t ste*" /he abstract of such articles that seem to be relevant can then be obtained through the online system" "riting up the literature revie-( /he documentation of the relevant studies citing the author and the year of the study is called literature revie, or literature survey" /he literature survey is a clear and logical *resentation of the relevant research ,or- done thus far in the area of investigation" Problem 5efinition( fter the intervie,s and the literature revie,. the researcher is in *osition to narro, do,n the *roblem from its original broad base and define the issue of concern more clearly"

%2 *roblem does not necessarily mean that something is seriously ,rong ,ith a current situation that needs to be rectified immediately" 85roblem9 could sim*ly indicate an interest in an issue ,here finding the right ans,er might hel* to im*rove an e)isting situation" /hus. it is fruitful to define a problem as any situation where a gap exists between the actual and the desired ideal states. For e)am*le ,e ,ould ideally li-e to see +ero defects. lo, inventory of unsold goods. high share Fuotation in the stoc- mar-et. and son on" /hus *roblem definitions could encom*ass both e)isting *roblems in current setting. as ,ell as the *uest for idealistic states in organi+ations" Problem definition or problem statement( is a clear. *recise. and succinct statement of the Fuestion or issue that is to be investigated ,ith the goal of finding an ans,er or solution" &.amples( 1" /o ,hat e)tent has the ne, advertising cam*aign been successful in creating the high Fuality. customer centered cor*orate image that it ,as intended to *roduceM %" Ao, has the ne, *ac-aging affected the sales of the *roductM !" Aas the ne, advertising message resulted in enhanced recallM 2" Ao, do *rice and Fuality rate on consumersG evaluation of *roductsM 3" $oes e)*ansion of international o*erations result in an enhancement of the firmsG image and valueM 4" =hat are the effects of do,nsi+ing on the long7range gro,th *atterns of com*aniesM C" =hat are the s*ecific factors to be considered in creating a data ,arehouse for a manufacturing com*anyM '" =hat net,or- system is best suited for ; 5harmaceuticalsM &thical issues in the preliminary stages of investigation( Ence a *roblem is sensed and an investigation is decided on. it is necessary to inform all em*loyees. *articularly those ,ho ,ill be intervie,ed for *reliminary data gathering through structured and unstructured intervie-s of the *ro*osed study" /hough it is not necessary to ac*uaint them ,ith actual reasons for the study (because this might bias res*onses). letting them -no, that the research is intended to hel* them in their ,orenvironment ,ill enlist their coo*eration" It is also necessary to assure em*loyees that their res*onses ,ill be -e*t confidential by the intervie,erBs and that individual res*onses ,ill not be divulged to anyone in the organi+ation" /hese t,o ste*s ma-e the em*loyees comfortable ,ith the research underta-en and ensure their coo*eration" @nstructured Intervie-s does not enter the intervie, setting ,ith *lanned seFuence of Fuestions to be as-ed of the res*ondent" /he ob0ective of the unstructured intervie, is to bring some *reliminary issues to the surface so that the researcher can determine ,hat variables need further in7de*th investigation" In the discussion of the 8Broad *roblem area9 the manager might entertain a vague idea of certain changes ta-ing *lace in the situation ,ithout -no,ing ,hat e)actly they are" Such situations call for unstructured intervie,s ,ith the *eo*le concerned" In the initial stages. only broad. o*en7ended

%3 Fuestions ,ould be as-ed. and the re*lies to them ,ould inform the researchers of the perceptions of the individuals" /he ty*e and nature of the Fuestions as-ed of the individuals might vary according to the 0ob level and ty*e of ,or- done by them" For instance. to* and middle7level managers might be as-ed more direct Fuestions about their *erce*tions of the *roblem and the situation" :m*loyees at lo,er levels may have to be a**roached differently" ?lerical and other em*loyees at lo,er levels may be as-ed broad. o*en7ended Fuestions about their 0obs and the ,or- environment during the unstructured intervie,s" Su*ervisors may be as-ed broad Fuestions relating to their de*artment. the em*loyees under their su*ervision. and the organi+ation" /he follo,ing Fuestion may be *ut to them during the unstructured intervie, stage( !ell me something about your unit and department, and perhaps even the organization as a whole, in terms of work, employees, and whatever else you think is important." Structured Intervie,s are those conducted ,hen it is -no,n at the outset ,hat information is needed" /he intervie,er has a list of *redetermined Fuestions to be as-ed of the res*ondants either *ersonally. through the tele*hone. or through the medium of a 5?" /he Fuestions are li-ely to a focus on factors that had surfaced during the unstructured intervie,s and are considered relevant to the *roblem"

%4

C$AP%&# ; %he #esearch Process !teps : and ; %heoretical +rame-or $ypothesis 5evelopment Beed for a theoretical frame-or fter conducting the intervie,s. com*leting a literature survey. and defining the *roblem. one is ready to develo* a theoretical frame,or-" theoretical frame,or- is a conce*tual model of ho, one theori+es or ma-es logical sense of the relationshi*s among the several factors that have been identified as im*ortant to the *roblem" From the theoretical frame,or-. then. testable hy*othesis can be develo*ed to e)amine ,hether the theory formulated is valid or not" /he hy*othesi+ed relationshi*s can thereafter be tested through a**ro*riate statistical analyses" By being able to test and re*licate the findings. ,e ,ill also have stronger conviction in the rigor of our research" /hus. the entire research rests on the basis of the theoretical frame,or-" :ven if testable hy*otheses are not necessarily generated (as in some a**lied research *ro0ects). develo*ing a good theoretical frame,or- is central to e)amining the *roblem under investigation" Since the theoretical frame,or- offers the conce*tual foundation to *roceed ,ith the research. and since a theoretical frame,or- is none other than identifying the net,or- of relationshi*s among the variables considered im*ortant to the study of any given *roblem situation" )ariables( variable is used to re*resent a characteristic of each member of the *o*ulation" variable is any thing that can ta-e on differing or varying values" /he values can differ at various times for the same ob0ect or *erson. or at the same time for different ob0ects or *ersons" :)am*les of variables are *roduction units. absenteeism. and motivation" %ypes of )ariables( 1" /he de*endant variables (also -no,n as the criterion variables) %" /he inde*endent variables (also -no,n as the *redictor variables) !" /he moderating variables 2" /he intervening variables 5ependent variables( /he de*endent variable is the variable of *rimary interest to the researcher" /he researcherGs goal is to understand and describe the de*endent variable. or to e)*lain its variability. or *redict it" /hrough the analysis of the de*endent variable (i"e" finding ,hat

%C variables influence it). it is *ossible to find ans,ers or solutions to the *roblem" For this *ur*ose. the researcher ,ill be interested in Fuantifying and measuring the de*endent variable. as ,ell as the other variables that influence this variable" manager is concerned that the sales of a ne, *roduct introduced after test mar-eting it do not meet ,ith his e)*ectations" /he de*endent variable here is sales" Since the sales of the *roduct can vary7can be lo,. medium or high7 It is a variable6 since sales is the main focus of interest to the manager. it is the de*endent variable" vice *resident is concerned that the em*loyees are not loyal to the organi+ation. and fact. seem to s,itch their loyalty to other institutions" /he de*endent variable in this case ,ould be organi+ational loyalty" Independent variable( n inde*endent variable is one that influences the de*endent variable in either a *ositive or negative ,ay" /hat is. ,hen the inde*endent variable is *resent. the de*endent variable is also *resent. and ,ith each unit of increase in the inde*endent variable. there is an increase or decrease in the de*endent variable also" Research studies indicate that successful ne, *roduct develo*ment has an influence on the stoc- mar-et *rice of the com*any" /hat is. the more successful the ne, *roduct turns out to be. the higher ,ill be the stoc- mar-et *rice of the firm" /herefore. the success of the ne, *roduct is the inde*endent variable. and stoc- mar-et *rice the de*endent variable" /he degree of *erceived success of the ne, *roduct develo*ed ,ill e)*lain the variance in the stoc- mar-et *rice of the com*any" Ne, 5roduct success 777777777777 Stoc- mar-et *rice (Inde*endent Nariable) ($e*endent Nariable) /here is at least one inde*endent variable (IN) and a de*endent variable ($N) in each relationshi*" It is normally hy*othesi+ed that in some ,ay the IN 8causes9 the $N to occur" For sim*le relationshi*. all other variables are considered e)traneous and are ignored" /hus. ,e might be interested in a study of the effect of the four7day ,or-,eeon office *roductivity and hy*othesi+e the follo,ing( !he introduction of the four-day workweek #$%& will lead to increased office productivity per worker-hour #'%&. Moderating variable( moderating variable is a second inde*endent variable that is included because it is believed to have a significant contributory or contingent effect on the originally stated IN7 $N relationshi*" For e)am*le one might hy*othesi+ed that( !he introduction of the four-day workweek #$%& will lead to higher productivity #'%&, especially among younger workers #(%&. =hether a given variable is treated as an inde*endent or a moderating variable de*ends on the hy*othesis" If you are interested in studying the im*act of length of ,or-,ee-.

%' you ,ould ma-e the length of ,ee- the IN" If you ,ere focusing on the relationshi* of age of ,or-er and *roductivity. you might use ,or-,ee- length as a moderating variable" It has been found that there is a relationshi* bet,een the availability of Reference Manuals that manufacturing em*loyees have access to. and the *roduct re0ects" /hat is. ,hen ,or-ers follo, the *rocedures laid do,n in the manual. they are able to manufacture *roducts that are fla,less" lthough this relationshi* can be said to hold true generally for all ,or-ers. it is nevertheless contingent on the inclination or urge of the em*loyees to loo- into the Manual every time a ne, *rocedure is to be ado*ted" In other ,ords. only those ,ho have the interest and urge to refer to the Manual every time a ne, *rocess is ado*ted ,ill *roduce fla,less *roduct" Ethers ,ho do not ,ill. not be benefited and ,ill continue to *roduce defective *roducts" /his influence of the attributes of the ,or-er on the relationshi* bet,een the inde*endent and the de*endent variable can be diagrammed as in Figure( vailability of Reference Manuals (IN) P of Re0ects ($N) Interest > Inclination (MN)

=or-force diversity (IN)

Ergani+ational effectiveness ($N) Manager e)*ertise (MN)

Intervening variable( /he intervening variable may be defined as that factor ,hich theoretically affects the observed *henomenon but cannot be seen. measured. or mani*ulated6 its effect must be inferred from the effects of the inde*endent and moderator variables on the observed *henomenon" In the case of the ,or-,ee- hy*othesis. one might vie, the intervening variable (INN) to be 0ob satisfaction. giving a hy*othesis such as( !he introduction of a four-day workweek will lead to higher productivity by increasing job satisfaction #$%%&. Ether e)am*les illustrating the relationshi* involving inde*endent. moderating. controlled e)traneous and de*endent variables" /he management of a ban- ,ishes to study the effect of *romotion on savings" It might advance the follo,ing hy*othesis( *romotion cam*aign (IN) ,ill increase saving activity ($N). es*ecially ,hen free *ri+es are offered (MN). but chiefly among smaller savers (control)" /he results come from enhancing the motivation to save (INN)" &.traneous )ariables( n almost infinite number of e)traneous variables e)ists that might conceivably affect a given relationshi*"

%D Using the e)am*le of the four7day ,or-,ee-. one ,ould normally thin- the im*osition of a local sales ta). the election of a ne, mayor. a three day rainy s*ell. and thousands of similar events and conditions ,ould have little effect on ,or-,ee- and office *roductivity" Ao,ever. there may be other e)traneous variables to consider as *ossible confounding variables to our hy*othesi+ed IN7$N relationshi* bet,een length of ,or-7,ee- and effective *roductivity" For e)am*le. one might thin- that the -ind of ,or- being done ,ould have an effect on any ,or-,ee- length im*act on office *roductivity" /his might lead to our introducing a control as follo,s( In routine office ,or- (control). the introduction of a four7day ,or-,ee- (IN) ,ill lead to higher *roductivity ($N). es*ecially among younger ,or-ers (MN)" In this e)am*le. ,e attem*t to control for ty*e of ,or- by studying the effects of the four7day ,ee- ,ithin grou*s *erforming different ty*es of ,or-" %heoretical +rame-or Aaving e)amined the different -inds of variables that could o*erate in a situation and ho, the relationshi*s among these can be established. it is no, *ossible to see ho, ,e can develo* the conce*tual model or the theoretical frame,or- for our research" $ypothesis 5evelopment( Ence ,e have identified the im*ortant variables in a situation and established the relationshi*s among them through logical reasoning in the theoretical frame,or-. ,e are in *osition to test ,hether the relationshi* that have been theori+ed do in fact hold true" By testing these relationshi*s scientifically through a**ro*riate statistical analyses. or through negative case analysis in Fualitative research ,e are able to obtain reliable information on ,hat -inds of relationshi* e)ist among the variables o*erating in the *roblem situation" /he results of these tests offer us some clues as to ,hat could be changed in the situation to solve the *roblem" Formulating such testable statements is called hy*otheses develo*ment" hypothesis can be defined as a logically con0ectured relationshi* bet,een t,o or more variables e)*ressed in the form of a testable statement" 5irectional and nondirectional $ypotheses( If. in stating the relationshi* bet,een t,o variables or com*aring t,o grou*s. terms such as *ositive. negative. more than. less than. and li-e are used. then these hy*otheses are directional because the direction of the relationshi* bet,een the variables (*ositiveBnegative) is indicated" :)am*le( /he greater the stress e)*erienced in the 0ob. the lo,er the 0ob satisfaction of em*loyees" =omen are more motivated than men" Nondirectional hy*otheses are those that do *ostulate a relationshi* or difference. but offer no indication of direction of these relationshi*s or differences" In other ,ords. though it may be con0ectured that there ,ould be a significant relationshi* bet,een t,o

!& variables. ,e may not be able to say ,hether the relationshi* ,ould be *ositive or negative" :)am*le( /here is a relationshi* bet,een age and 0ob satisfaction" /here is a difference bet,een the ,or- ethic values of merican and sian em*loyees" Bull and Alternate $ypotheses( /he null hy*othesis (Ao) is used for testing" It is a statement that no difference e)ists bet,een the *arameter and the statistic being com*ared to it" %he alternate hypothesis( /he alternate hy*othesis (A1) ,hich is the o**osite of the null. is a statement e)*ressing a relationshi* bet,een t,o variables or indicating differences bet,een grou*s" %he !teps to be follo-ed in hypothesis testing are( 1" %" !" 2" State the null and the alternate hy*othesis" ?hoose the a**ro*riate statistical test" $etermine the level of significance desired (* I "&3. or more. or less)" See if the out*ut results from com*uter analysis indicate that the significance level is met" 3" =hen the resultant value is larger than the critical value. the null hy*othesis is re0ected. and the alternate acce*ted" If the calculated value is less than the critical value. the null is acce*ted and the alternate re0ected"

!1

C$AP%&# A %he #esearch Process !teps A &lements of #esearch 5esign /he research design constitutes the blue *rint for the collection. measurement. and analysis of data" Research design is the *lan and structure of investigation so conceived as to obtain ans,ers to research Fuestions" /he *lan is the overall scheme or *rogram of the research" It includes an outline of ,hat the investigator ,ill do from ,riting hy*otheses and their o*erational im*lications to the final analysis of data" /he research design involves a series of rational decision7ma-ing choices" /hese are issues relating to decisions regarding( 1" the *ur*ose for the study (1 e)*loratory. % descri*tive. ! hy*othesis testing. 2 ?ase Study nalysis). %" its location (i"e". the study setting). 1) ?ontrived and %) Noncontrived !" ty*e of investigation( 1) ?ausal relationshi*. %) ?orrelation. 2) @rou* differences. ran-s etc 2" the e)tent to ,hich it is mani*ulated and controlled by the researcher (e)tent of researcher interference). Minimal. Moderate and e)cessive Interference 3" its tem*oral as*ects (time hori+on). Ene7Shot (?rosssectional) and Longitudinal 4" and the level at ,hich the data ,ill be analy+ed (unit of analysis). are integral to research design" In addition. decisions have to be made as 1" to the ty*e of sam*le to be used (sam*ling design). %" ho, the data ,ill be collected (data collection method). !" ho, variables ,ill be measured (measurement). 2" and ho, they ,ill be analy+ed to test the hy*otheses (data analyses)" Purpose of the study( &.ploratory/ 5escriptive/ $ypothesis testing 7Analytical and Predictive8/ Case study analysis, &.ploratory !tudy( research study ,here very little -no,ledge or information is available on the sub0ect under investigation" In such cases. e)tensive *reliminary ,or- needs to be done to gain familiarity ,ith the *henomena in the situation. and understand ,hat is occurring. before ,e develo* a model and set u* a rigorous design for com*rehensive investigation" Some Fualitative studies (as o**osed to Fuantitative data gathered through Fuestionnaires. etc) ,here data are collected through observation or intervie,s. are

!% e)*loratory in nature" =hen the data reveal some *attern regarding the *henomena of interest. theories are develo*ed and hy*othesis formulated for subseFuent testing" 5escriptive !tudy( is a research study that describes the variables in a situation of interest to the researcher" For e)am*le. one might ,ant to -no, and be able to describe the characteristics of the organi+ation that im*lement fle)ible manufacturing systems (FMS) or that have a certain debt7to7eFuity ratio" $ypothesis %esting( Studies that engage in hy*otheses testing usually e)*lain the nature of certain relationshi*s. or establish the differences among grou*s or the inde*endence of t,o or more factors in a situation" Ay*othesis testing is underta-en to e)*lain the variance in the de*endent variables or to *redict organi+ational outcomes" &.ample( mar-eting manager ,ants to -no, if the sales of the com*any ,ill increase if he doubles the advertising dollars" Aere. the manager ,ould li-e to -no, the nature of the relationshi* that can be established bet,een advertising and sales by testing the hy*othesis( $f advertising is increased, then sales will also go up. Case !tudy Analysis ?ase Study involve in de*th. conte)tual (bac-ground) analysis of matters relating to similar situations in the organi+ations" ?ase Studies that are Fualitative in nature are useful in a**lying solutions to current *roblems based on *ast *roblem7solving e)*eriences" /hey are also useful in understanding certain *henomena. and generating further theories for em*irical testing" %ype of investigation( Causal versus Correlational( /he Study in ,hich the researcher ,ants to delineate the cause of one or more *roblems is called a casual study" =hen the researcher is interested to delineating the im*ortant variable associated ,ith the *roblem. the study is called a correlational study" casual study Fuestion( $oes smo-ing cause cancerM correlational study Fuestion( re smo-ing and cancer related Er( re smo-ing. drin-ing and che,ing tobacco associated ,ith cancerM If so. ,hich of the these contributes most to the variance in the de*endent variableM &.tent of #esearcher Interference -ith the study( /he e)tent of interference by the researcher ,ith normal flo, of ,or- at the ,or-*lace has a direct bearing on ,hether the study underta-en is casual or correlational" correlational study is conducted in the natural environment of the organi+ation ,ith minimum interference by the researcher ,ith the normal flo, of ,or-" For e)am*le. if a researcher ,ants to study the factors influencing training effectiveness (a correlational study). all that the individual has to do is develo* a theoretical frame,or-. collect the relevant data. and analy+e them to come u* ,ith the findings"

!! /he researcherGs interference in the routine functioning of the system is minimal as com*ared to the caused during causal studies" In studies conducted to establish cause7and7effect relationshi*s. the researcher tries to mani*ulate certain variables so as to study the effects of such mani*ulation on the de*endent variable of interest" For e)am*le. a researcher might ,ant to study the influence of lighting on ,or-er *erformance. and hence mani*ulates the lighting in the ,or- situation to varying intensities" Aere. there is considerable researcher interference ,ith the natural and normal setting" Minimal Interference( hos*ital administrator ,ants to e)amine the relationshi* bet,een the *erceived (su**osed) emotional su**ort in the system and the stress e)*erienced by the nursing staff" In other ,ords. he ,ants to do a correlational study" Aere the researcher ,ill collect the data from nurses (*erha*s through a Fuestionnaire) to indicate ho, much emotional su**ort they get in the hos*ital and to ,hat e)tent they e)*erience stress" By correlating the t,o variables. the Moderate Interference( &.cessive interference( !tudy !etting( Contrived and noncontrived !etting( /he organi+ational research can done in the natural environment ,here ,or- *roceeds normally (that is. noncontrived setting) or in artificial. contrived settings" ?orrelational studies are invariably conducted in noncontrived settings. ,hereas most rigorous causal studies are done in contrived lab settings" ?orrelational studies done in organi+ations are called field studies" Studies conducted to establish cause7and7effect relationshi* using the same natural environment in ,hich em*loyees normally function are called field e.periments" n e)*erimental design set u* in an artificially contrived setting ,here controls and mani*ulations are introduced to establish cause7and7effect relationshi*s among variables of interest to the researcher is called Lab e.periment" @nit of Analysis( /he unit of analysis refers to the level of aggregation of the data collected during the subseFuent data analysis stage" For e)am*le. If the *roblem statement focuses on ho, to raise the motivational levels of em*loyees in general. then ,e are interested in individual em*loyees in the organi+ation and ,ould have to find out ,hat ,e can do to raise their motivation" Aere the unit of analysis is the individual" =e ,ill be loo-ing at the data gathered from each individual and treating each em*loyeeGs res*onse as an individual data source" If the researcher is interested in studying t,o7*erson interactions. then several t,o7*erson grou*s. also -no,n as dyads. ,ill become the unit of analysis"

!2 If the *roblem statement is related to grou* effectiveness. then the unit of analysis ,ould be at the group level" %ime $ori=ons( Cross?sectional !tudies( study can be done in ,hich data are gathered 0ust once. *erha*s over a *eriod of days or ,ee-s or months. in order to ans,er a research Fuestion" Such studies are called one7 shot or cross?sectional studies" In some cases. ho,ever. the researcher might ,ant to study *eo*le or *henomena at more than one *oint in time in order to ans,er the research Fuestion is called Longitudinal Studies" Importance to consider basic design issues before conducting the study( ;no,ledge about research design hel*s the manager to understand ,hat the researcher is attem*ting to do" Ene of the im*ortant decisions a manager has to ma-e before starting a study *ertains to ho, rigorous the study ought to be" ;no,ing that more rigorous research designs consume more resources. the manager is in a *osition to ,eigh the gravity of the *roblem e)*erienced and decide ,hat -ind of design ,ould yield acce*table results in an efficient manner"

!3

C$AP%&# < &.perimental 5esigns Lab &.periments( /he e)*eriments done in an artificial or contrived environment. -no,n as lab e)*eriments. and those done in the natural environment in ,hich activities regularly ta-e *lace. -no,n as the field e.periments" Control( =e have studied already the nature of e)traneous variables and the need for their control" In our sales *resentation e)*eriment. e)traneous variables could a**ear as differences in age. gender. race. dress. communications com*etence. and many other characteristics of the *resenter. the message. or the situation" /hese have *otential for distorting the effect of the treatment on the de*endent variable and must be controlled or eliminated" Manipulation of the independent variable( Mani*ulation sim*ly means that ,e create different levels of the inde*endent variable to access the im*act on the de*endent variable" For e)am*le. ,e may ,ant to test the theory that de*th of -no,ledge of various manufacturing technologies is caused by rotating the em*loyees on all the 0obs on the *roduction line and in the design de*artment. over a 2 ,ee- *eriod" /hen ,e can mani*ulate the inde*endent variable. 8rotation of em*loyees9 by rotating one grou* of *roduction ,or-ers and e)*osing them to all the systems during the 2 ,ee- *eriod. rotating another grou* of ,or-ers only *artially during the 2 ,ee-s (i"e e)*osing them to only half of the manufacturing technologies). and leaving the third grou* to continue to do ,hat they are currently doing. ,ithout any s*ecial rotation" By measuring the de*th of -no,ledge of these grou*s both before and after the mani*ulation (also -no,n as the 8treatment9). it ,ould be *ossible to assess the e)tent to ,hich the treatment caused the effect. after controlling the communicating factors" If dee* -no,ledge is indeed caused by rotation and e)*osure. the results ,ould sho, that the third grou* had the lo,est increase in de*th of -no,ledge. the second grou* had some significant increase. and the first grou* had the greatest gains" Controlling the contaminating &.ogenous or CnuisanceD variables( Matching Groups( Ene ,ay of controlling the contaminating or 8nuisance9 variables is to match the various grou*s by *ic-ing the confounding characteristics and deliberately s*reading them across grou*s" For instance. if there are %& ,omen among the 4& members. then each grou* ,ill assigned 3 ,omen. so that the effects of gender are distributed across the four grou*s"

!4 #andomi=ation( nother ,ay of controlling the contaminating variables is to assign the 4& members randomly (i"e". ,ith no *redetermination) to the four grou*s" /hat is. every member ,ould have a -no,n and eFual chance of being assigned to any of these four grou*s" For instance. ,e might thro, the names of all the 4& members into a hat. and dra, their names" /he first 13 names dra,n may be assigned to the first grou*. the second 13 to the second grou*. and so on. or the first *erson dra,n might be assigned to the first grou*. the second *erson dra,n to the second grou*. and so on" /hus. in randomi+ation. the *rocess by ,hich individuals are dra,n (i"e". everybody has a -no,n and eFual chance of being dra,n) and their assignment to any *articular grou* (each individual could be assigned to any one of the grou*s set u*) are both random" By thus randomly assigning members to the grou*s ,e ,ould be distributing the confounding variables among the grou*s eFually" Advantages of #andomi=ation( /he difference bet,een matching and randomi+ation is that in the former case individuals are deliberately and consciously matched to control the differences among grou* members. ,hereas in the latter case ,e e)*ect that the *rocess of randomi+ation ,ould distribute the ineFualities among the grou*s. based on the la,s of normal distribution" /hus ,e need not be *articularly concerned about any -no,n or un-no,n confounding factors" In sum. com*ared to randomi+ation. matching might be less effective. since ,e may not -no, all the factors that could *ossibly contaminate the cause and effect relationshi* in any given situation. and hence fail to match some critical factors across all grou*s ,hile conducting an e)*eriment" Randomi+ation. ho,ever. ,ill ta-e care of this. since all the contaminating factors ,ill be s*read across all grou*s" Moreover. even if ,e -no, the confounding variables. ,e may not be able to find a match for all such variables" )alidity in &.perimentation( :ven ,hen an e)*eriment is the ideal research design. it is not ,ithout *roblems" /here is al,ays a Fuestion about ,hether the results are true" %alidity is the extent to which differences found with a measuring tool reflect true differences among respondents being tested. Internal )alidity( Refers to the confidence ,e *lace in the cause7and7effect relationshi*" In other ,ords. it addresses the Fuestion. 8/o ,hat e)tent does the research design *ermit us to say that the inde*endent variable causes a change in the de*endent variable BM9 &.ternal validity( /o ,hat e)tent ,ould the results found in the lab setting be transferable or generali+able to the actual organi+ational or field settingM In other ,ords. if ,e do find a cause7and7 effect relationshi* after conducting a lab e)*eriments. can ,e then confidently say that the same cause7and7effect relationshi* ,ill also hold true in the organi+ational settingM

!C !he external validity of research findings refer to their ability to be generalized across persons, settings, and times. +ield &.periment( field e)*eriment. as the name im*lies. is an e)*eriment done in the natural environment in ,hich ,or- goes on as usual. but treatments are given to one or more grou*s" /hus in the field e)*eriments. even though it may not be *ossible to control all the nuisance variables because members can not be either randomly assigned to grou*s. or matched. the treatments can still be mani*ulated" ?ontrol grou*s could also be set u* in the field e)*eriments" /he e)*erimental and control grou* in the field e)*eriment could be made u* of the *eo*le ,or-ing at several *lants ,ithin a certain radius. or form the different shifts in the same *lant. or in some other ,ay" &.ternal )alidity( Refers to the e)tent of generali+ability of results of a casual study to other settings. *eo*le. or events. and internal validity refers to the degree of our confidence in the casual effects (i"e". that variable Q causes variable L)" Field e)*eriments have more e)ternal validity (i"e". the results are more generali+able to other similar organi+ational settings). but less internal validity (i"e". ,e cannot be certain of the e)tent to ,hich variable Q alone causes variable L)" Note that in the lab e)*eriment. the reverse is true" /he internal validity is high but the e)ternal validity is rather lo," In other ,ords. in lab e)*eriments ,e can be sure that variable Q causes variable L because ,e have been able to -ee* the other confounding e)ogenous variables under control. but ,e have so tightly controlled several variables to establish the cause and effect relationshi* that ,e do not -no, to ,hat e)tent the results of our study can be generali+ed. if at all. to field settings" +actor Affecting Internal )alidity( :ven the best designed lab studies could be influenced by factors that might affect the internal validity of the lab e)*eriment" /he seven ma0or threats to internal validity are (1) the effects of history. (%) maturation. (!) testing. (2) instrumentation. (3) selection. (4) statistical regression. (C) mortality" $istory &ffects( $uring the time that an e)*eriment is ta-ing *lace. some events may occur that confuse the relationshi* being studied" In many e)*erimental designs. ,e ta-e a control measurement (E 1) of the de*endent variable before introducing the mani*ulation (Q)" fter the mani*ulation. ta-e an after measurement (E %) of the de*endent variable" /hen the difference bet,een E 1 and E % is the change that the mani*ulation has caused" com*anyGs management may ,ish to find the best ,ay to educate its ,or-ers about the financial condition of the com*any before this yearGs labor negotiations" /o assess the value of such an effort. they give em*loyees a test on their -no,ledge about the com*anyGs finance (E 1)" /hen they *resent the educational cam*aign (Q) to the em*loyees. after ,hich they again measure the -no,ledge level (E %)" /his design. -no,n as a *ree)*eriment because it is not a very strong design. can be diagramed as fallo,s( E1 Q E%

!' 5retest Mani*ulation 5osttest Bet,een E 1 and E %. ho,ever. many events could occur to confound the effects of the education effort" ne,s*a*er article might a**ear about com*anies ,ith financial *roblems. a union meeting might be held at ,hich this to*ic is discussed. or another occurrence could distort the effects of the com*anyGs education test" Maturation( ?hanges may also occur ,ithin the sub0ect that are a function of the *assage of time and are not s*ecific to any *articular events" /hese are of s*ecial concern ,hen the study covers a long time. but may also be factors in test that are as short as one hour or t,o" sub0ect can become hungry. bored. or tired in a short time. and this can affect res*onse result" %esting( /he *rocess of ta-ing a test can affect the scores of a second test" /he mere e)*erience of ta-ing the first test can have a learning effect that influences the results of the second test" Instrumentation( /his is a threat to internal validity that results from changes bet,een observation. in measuring instrument or observer" Using different Fuestions at each measurement is an obvious source of *otential trouble. but using different observers or intervie,ers also threaten validity" /here can even be an instrumentation *roblem if the same observer is used for all measurements" Ebserver boredom. fatigue. e)*erience. or antici*ation of results can all distort the results of se*arate observations" !election( n im*ortant threat to internal validity is the differential selection of sub0ects for e)*erimental and control grou*s" Nalidity considerations reFuire that the grou*s be eFuivalent in every res*ect" If sub0ects are randomly assigned to e)*erimental and control grou*s. this selection *roblem can be largely overcome" dditionally. the eFuivalence of the grou*s can be enhanced by matching the members of the grou*s on -ey factors" !tatistical #egression( /his factor o*erates es*ecially ,hen grou*s have been selected by their e)treme scores" Su**ose ,e measure the out*ut of all ,or-ers in a de*artment for a fe, days before an e)*eriment and then conduct the e)*eriment only ,ith those in the to* %3 *ercent and bottom %3 *ercent of *roductivity scores" No matter ,hat is done bet,een E 1 and E %. there is a strong tendency for the average of the high scores at E 1 to decline at E % and for the lo, scores at E 1 to increase" /his tendency results from im*erfect measurement that. in effect. records some *ersons abnormally high and abnormally lo, at E 1" In the second measurement. members of both grou*s score more closely to their long7run mean scores" &.perimental Mortality( /his occurs ,hen the com*osition of the study grou*s changes during the test" ttrition is es*ecially li-ely in the e)*erimental grou*. and ,ith each dro*out. the grou* changes"

!D Members of the control grou*. because they are not affected by the testing situation. are less li-ely to ,ithdra," In a com*ensation incentive study. some em*loyees might not li-e the change in com*ensation method and ,ithdra, from the test grou*6 this could distort the com*arison ,ith the control grou* that has continued ,or-ing under the established system. *erha*s ,ithout -no,ing a test is under ,ay" ll the threats mentioned to this *oint are generally. but not al,ays. dealt ,ith adeFuately in e)*eriments by random assignment" Ao,ever. five added threats to internal validity are inde*endent of ,hether one randomi+es" /he first three have the effect of eFuali+ing e)*erimental and control grou*s" +actors affecting &.ternal )alidity( Internal validity factors cause confusion about ,hether the e)*erimental treatment (Q) or e)traneous factors are the source of observation differences" In contrast. e)ternal validity is concerned ,ith the interaction of the e)*erimental treatment ,ith other factors and the resulting im*act on abilities to generali+e to (and across) times. settings. or *ersons" Causal !tudy( /he study in ,hich the researcher ,ants to decline the cause of one or more *roblems is called a casual study" Correlational study( =hen the researcher is interested in delineating the im*ortant variables associated ,ith the *roblem. the study is called a correlational study" casual study Fuestion( $oes smo-ing cause cancerM correlational study Fuestion( re smo-ing and cancer related Er( re smo-ing. drin-ing and che,ing tobacco associated ,ith cancerM If so. ,hich of the these contributes most to the variance in the de*endent variableM %ypes of &.perimental 5esign and Internal )alidity( Let us consider some of the commonly used e)*erimental designs and determine the e)tent to ,hich they guard against the seven factors that could contaminate the internal validity of e)*erimental results" /he shorter the time s*an of the e)*eriments. the less the chances are of encountering history. maturation. and mortality effects" :)*eriments lasting an hour or t,o do not usually meet ,ith many of these *roblems" It is only ,hen e)*eriments are s*read over an e)tended *eriod of say. several months. that the *ossibility of encountering more of the confounding factors increases" Euasi?&.perimental 5esign( Some studies e)*ose an e)*erimental grou* to a treatment and measure its effects" Such an e)*erimental design is the ,ea-est of all designs. and it does not measure the true cause7and7effect relationshi*" /his is so because there is no com*arison bet,een grou*s. nor any recording of the status of the de*endant variable as it ,as *rior to the e)*erimental treatment and ho, it changed after the treatment" In the absence of such control. the study is of no scientific value in determining cause7and7effect relationshi*s"

2& Aence. such a design is referred to as a Fuasi7e)*erimental design" /he follo,ing t,o are Fuasi7e)*erimental design" Pretest and posttest &.perimental Group 5esign( n e)*erimental grou* (,ithout a control grou*) may be given a *retest. e)*osed to a treatment. and then given a *osttest to measure the effects of the treatment" @rou* :)*erimental grou* 5retest score /reatment E1 Q /reatment effect I (E1 7 E%) 5osttest score E%

Posttest only -ith &.perimental and control groups( Some e)*erimental designs are set u* ,ith an e)*erimental and a control grou*. the former alone being e)*osed to a treatment and not the latter" /he effects of the treatment are studied by assessing the difference in the outcome. that is. the *osttest scores of the e)*erimental and control grou*s" Aere is a case ,here the testing effects have been avoided because there is no *retest. only a *osttest" ?are has to be ta-en. ho,ever. to ma-e sure that the t,o grou*s are matched for all the *ossible contaminating variables" Ether,ise. the true effects of the treatment cannot be determined by merely loo-ing at the difference in the *osttest scores of the t,o grou*s" Randomi+ation ,ould ta-e care of this *roblem" /here are at least t,o *ossible threats to validity in the design" If the t,o grou*s are not matched or randomly assigned. selection biases could contaminate the results" Mortality (the dro*out of individuals from grou*s) can also confound the results. and thus *ose a threat to internal validity" @rou* :)*erimental grou* /reatment Q /reatment effect I (E1 7 E%) %rue &.perimental 5esigns( :)*erimental $esigns. ,hich include both the treatment and control grou*s and record information both before and after the e)*erimental grou* is e)*osed to the treatment. are -no,n as e) *ost facto e)*erimental designs" 55:N$IQ +urther &.perimental 5esign( Ence ,e have chosen the treatments. ,e must decide ho, the e)*erimental units are to be assigned to the treatments" /he simultaneous effects of t,o or more variables on a de*endent variable may sometimes be desired to be assessed. and this ,ould call for more com*le) designs" mong the many advanced e)*erimental designs that are available. ,e ,ill e)amine here 5osttest score E1 E%

21 the com*letely randomi+ed design. randomi+ed bloc- design. Latin sFuare design. factorial design" It ,ould be useful to understand some terms before describing the various designs" /he term factor is used to denote an inde*endent variable6 for e)am*le *rice" /he term level is used to denote various gradations of the factor6 for e)am*le high *rice. medium *rice. lo, *rice" %reatment refers to the various level of factors" bloc ing factor is a *ree)isting variable in a given situation that might have an effect on the de*endent variable in addition to the treatment. the im*act of ,hich ,ould be im*ortant to assess"

%he Completely #andomi=ed 5esign( In com*letely randomi+ed design. all the e)*erimental units are assigned randomly among all the treatments" /he com*letely randomi+ed design is one of the most commonly used and sim*le design. but is not al,ays the best design" /here are several alternatives to the com*letely randomi+ed design" /he basic form of the true e)*eriment is a com*letely randomi+ed design" Let us ,e say that a bus trans*ortation com*any manager ,ants to -no, the effects of fare reduction by 3. C and 1& cents. on average daily increase in the number of *assengers using the bus as a means of trans*ortation" Ae may ta-e %C routs that the buses usually *ly. and randomly assign nine routs for each of the treatments (i"e". reduction of fares by 3. C. and 1& cents) for a t,o ,ee- *eriod" /his e)*erimental design ,ould loo- as in follo,ing figure Routs @rou* 1 of nine routes @rou* % of nine routes @rou* ! of nine routes Number of *assengers before E1 E! E3 /reatment Q1 Q% Q! Number of *assengers after E% E2 E4

#andomi=ed Bloc 5esign( In randomi+ed bloc- design. the e)*erimental units are assigned randomly among all the treatments se*arately ,ithin each bloc-" In the foregoing case. the bus com*any manager ,as interested only in the effects of different levels of *rice reduction on the increase in the number of *assengers. in general" Aere may be more interest in targeting the *rice reduction on right routes or sectors" For e)am*le. it is li-ely that the reduction in fares ,ill be more ,elcome to senior citi+ens and residents of cro,ded urban areas ,here driving is stressful. than to car o,ners living in the suburbs. ,ho may not be eFually a**reciative of and sensitive to *rice reduction" /hus reduction in fares ,ould attract more *assengers if targeted to the right grou*s" In this case. the bus com*any manager ,ould first identify the routs that ,ould first identify the routes that ,ould fall into the three bloc-s. those in suburbs. cro,ded urban areas. or residential areas of retirees" /hus. the %C routes ,ould get assigned to one or the other of

2% three bloc-s and then randomly assigned. ,ithin bloc-s. to the three treatments" /he e)*erimental design ,ould no, loo- as in figure( Fare reduction Suburbs 3c Cc 1&c Bloc-ing factor( Residential rea cro,ded Urban reas Retirement reas Q1 Q1 Q% Q% Q! Q!

Q1 Q% Q!

Latin !*uare 5esign( =hereas the randomi+ed bloc- design hel*s the e)*erimenter to minimi+e the effects of one nuisance variable (variation among the ro,s) in evaluating the treatment effects. the Latin sFuare design is very useful ,hen t,o nuisance bloc-ing factors (i"e". variations across both the ro,s and the columns) are to be controlled" :ach treatment a**ears an eFual number of times in any one ordinal *osition in each ro," For instance. in studying the effects of bus fare reduction on *assengers. t,o nuisance factors could be (1) the day of the ,ee-6 (a) mid,ee- (/uesday through /hursday). (b) ,ee-end. (c) Monday and Friday. and (%) the (three) residential localities of the *assengers" three by three Latin sFuare design can be created in this case. to ,hich ,ill be randomly assigned the three treatments (3. C. and 1& cent fare reduction). such that each treatment occurs only once in each ro, and column intersection" Residential rea Suburbs Urban Retirement Mid,eeQ1 Q% Q! $ay of the ,ee=ee-end MondayBFriday Q% Q! Q! Q1 Q1 Q%

+actorial 5esign( /hus far ,e have discussed e)*erimental designs in the conte)t of e)amining a cause7 and7effect relationshi* bet,een one inde*endent variable and the de*endent variable" /he factorial design enable us to test the effects of t,o or more mani*ulations at the same time on the de*endent variable" In other ,ords. t,o treatments can be simultaneously mani*ulated and their single and 0oin (-no,n as main and interaction) effects assessed" For e)am*le. the manager of the bus com*any might be interested in -no,ing *assenger increases if he used three different ty*es of buses (lu)ury :)*ress. Standard :)*ress. Regular) and mani*ulated both the fare reduction and ty*e of vehicle used. simultaneously" Bus Fare Reduction Rates 3c Cc Q1L1 Q%L1 Q%L% Q1L% Q!L! Q%L!

/y*e of Bus Lu)ury :)*ress Standard :)*ress Regular

1&c Q!L1 Q!L% Q1L!

2!

C$AP%&# > Measurement of )ariables Operational 5efinition and !cales In everyday usage. measurement occurs ,hen an established yardstic- is used to verify the height. ,eight. or another feature of a *hysical ob0ect" Ao, ,ell you li-e a song. a *ainting. or the *ersonality of a friend is also a measurement" In a dictionary sense. to measure is to discover the e)tent. dimension. Fuantity. or ca*acity of something. es*ecially by com*arison ,ith a standard" =e measure casually in daily life. but in research. the reFuirements are rigorous" ?once*ts used in research may be classified as ob0ects or as *ro*erties" Eb0ects include the things of ordinary e)*erience. such as tables. *eo*le. boo-s. and automobiles" 5ro*erties. on the other hand. are the characteristics of the ob0ects" *ersonGs *hysical *ro*erties may be stated in terms of ,eight and height" 5sychological *ro*erties include attitudes and intelligence" Social *ro*erties include leadershi* ability. class affiliation. or status" /hese and many other *ro*erties of an individual can be measured in a research study" $o- )ariables are measured1 $ata re*resenting several demogra*hic characteristics of the office *ersonnel are also easily obtained by as-ing em*loyees sim*le. straightfor,ard Fuestions. as( Ao, long have you been ,or-ing in this organi+ationM Ao, long have you been ,or-ing on this *articular assignmentM =hat is your 0ob titleM ?ertain ty*es of information can also be obtained from the com*any records. as the absenteeism of em*loyees or their ob0ective *erformance in terms of the number of *roducts *roduced or the re0ects during the course of each month" Ao,ever. even such ob0ective data might. in some cases. call for careful inter*retation ,hile ma-ing managerial decisions" /here are four different ty*es of scales that can be used to measure the o*erationally defined dimensions and elements of a variable6 Bominal scale is one that allo,s the researcher to assign sub0ects to certain categories or grou*s" For e)am*le. ,ith res*ect to the variable of gender. res*ondents can be grou*ed into t,o categories (male and female) Ordinal scale not only categories. it also ran-7orders the categories in some meaningful ,ay" /he *reference ,ould be ran-ed and numbered 1. %. and so on" For e)am*le. res*ondents might be as-ed to indicate their *references by ran-ing the im*ortance they attach to five distinct characteristics in a 0ob that the researcher might be interested in studying" Interval scale lets us measure the distance bet,een any t,o *oints on the scale (measurement of tem*erature in Fahrenheit degree or ?elsius degrees)" #atio scale overcomes the disadvantage of the arbitrary origin *oint of the interval scale. in that it has

22 an absolute +ero *oint. ,hich is a meaningful measurement *oint" /hus the ratio scale not only measures the magnitude of the differences bet,een *oints on the scale but also ta*s the *ro*ortions in the differences" It is also necessary to e)amine the methods of scaling (that is. assigning numbers or symbols) to sho, the attitudinal res*onses of sub0ects to,ard ob0ects. events. or *ersons" /here are t,o main categories of attitudinal scales. the rating scales and the ran-ing scale" Rating scales have several res*onse categories and are used to sho, res*onses ,ith regard to the ob0ect. event. or *erson studied" Ran-ing scales. on the other hand. ma-e com*arisons bet,een or among ob0ects. events. or *ersons and indicate the *referred choices and ran-ing among them"

C$AP%&# F Measurement( !caling/ #eliability/ )alidity /here are four different ty*es of scales that can be used to measure the o*erationally defined dimensions and elements of a variable6 Bominal scale is one that allo,s the researcher to assign sub0ects to certain categories or grou*s" For e)am*le. ,ith res*ect to the variable of gender. res*ondents can be grou*ed into t,o categories (male and female) Ordinal scale not only categories. it also ran-7orders the categories in some meaningful ,ay" /he *reference ,ould be ran-ed and numbered 1. %. and so on" For e)am*le. res*ondents might be as-ed to indicate their *references by ran-ing the im*ortance they attach to five distinct characteristics in a 0ob that the researcher might be interested in studying" Interval scale lets us measure the distance bet,een any t,o *oints on the scale" #atio scale overcomes the disadvantage of the arbitrary origin *oint of the interval scale. in that it has an absolute +ero *oint. ,hich is a meaningful measurement *oint" /hus the ratio scale not only measures the magnitude of the differences bet,een *oints on the scale but also ta*s the *ro*ortions in the differences" It is also necessary to e)amine the methods of scaling (that is. assigning numbers or symbols) to sho, the attitudinal res*onses of sub0ects to,ard ob0ects. events. or *ersons" /here are t,o main categories of attitudinal scales. the rating scales and the ran-ing scale" Rating scales have several res*onse categories and are used to sho, res*onses ,ith regard to the ob0ect. event. or *erson studied" Ran-ing scales. on the other hand. ma-e com*arisons bet,een or among ob0ects. events. or *ersons and indicate the *referred choices and ran-ing among them" #ating !cales( /he follo,ing rating scales are often used in organi+ational research( 5ichotomous scale is used to sho, a Les or No ans,er. as( $o you o,n a carMLes No Category scale uses multi*le items to elicit a single res*onse" Li ert scales is designed to e)amine ho, strongly sub0ects agree or disagree ,ith statements on a 37*oint scale are

23 !emantic differential scale such as good. bad. strong ,ea- etc Bumerical scale +i.ed constant sum scale Graphic rating scale #an ing !cales( Paired Comparison( /o choose bet,een t,o ob0ects at a time" /his hel*s to assess *references" +orced choice( :nables res*ondents to ran- ob0ects relative to one another. among the alternatives *rovided" /his is easier for the res*ondents. *articularly if the number of choices to be ran-ed is limited in number" Comparative scale( *rovide a benchmar- or a *oint of reference to assess attitudes to,ard the current ob0ect. event. or situation under study" Goodness of measures( /he use of better instruments ,ill ensure more accuracy in results. ,hich in turn. ,ill enhance the scientific Fuality of the research" Aence. in some ,ay. ,e need to assess the 8goodness9 of the measures develo*ed" /hat is. ,e need to be reasonably sure that the instruments ,e use in our research do indeed measure the variables they are su**osed to. and that they measure them accurately" Let us no, e)amine ho, ,e can ensure that the measures develo*ed are reasonably good" First an item analysis of the res*onses to the Fuestions ta**ing the variable is done. and then the reliability and validity of the measures are established" Item Analysis is done to see if the items in the instrument belong there or not" :ach item is e)amined for its ability to discriminate bet,een those sub0ects ,hose total scores are high. and those ,ith lo, scores" In item analysis. the means bet,een the high7score grou* and the lo,7score grou* are tested to detect significant differences through the t7 values (t7test)" /he item ,ith a high t7value are then included in the instrument" /hereafter. tests for the reliability of the instrument are done and the validity of the measure is established" /he reliability of a measure indicates the e)tent to ,hich it is ,ithout bias (error free) and hence ensures consistent measurement across time and across the various items in the instrument" In other ,ords. the reliability of a measure is an indication of the stability and consistency ,ith ,hich the instrument measures the conce*t and hel*s to assess the 8goodness9 of a measure" Several ty*es of validity tests are used to test the goodness of measures and ,riters use different terms to denote them" For the sa-e of clarity. ,e may grou* validity tests under three broad headings( content validity (is the e)tent to ,hich it *rovides adeFuate Itemi=ed #ating scale !tapel scale Consensus scale

24 coverage of the to*ic under study). criterion?related validity (reflects the success of measures used for *rediction or estimation). and construct validity ( ttitude scales and a*titude and *ersonality tests generally concern conce*ts that fall in this category)" C$AP%&# 'G 5ata Collection Methods !ource of 5ata $ata can be obtained from *rimary or secondary sources" 5rimary data refer to information obtained firsthand by the researcher on the variables of interest for the s*ecific *ur*ose of the study" !econdary data refer to information gathered from sources already e)isting. as com*any *olicies. *rocedures. and rules can be obtained from the organi+ationGs record and documents" ?ertain other ty*es of information such as the *erce*tions and attitudes of em*loyees are best obtained by tal-ing to them6 by observing events. *eo*le. and ob0ects6 or by administering Fuestionnaires to individuals" Such data gathered for research from the actual site of occurrence of events are called primary data" /he four main *rimary sources of data are individuals. focus grou*s. *anels. and unobtrusive methods" +ocus groups intervie,s are ,idely used in mar-eting research" In this setting. ' to 1% *eo*le are brought together to discuss a certain to*ic such as ne, *roduct ideas. reactions to certain consumer *roblems. and so forth" /he intervie,er generally has a list of s*ecific *oints to see discussed. and these are used to *rom*t discussion" @sefulness( /he Focus grou* discussions on a s*ecific to*ic at a *articular location and at a s*ecified time *rovide the o**ortunity for a fle)ible. free7flo,ing format for the members" /he unstructured and s*ontaneous res*onses are e)*ected to reflect the genuine o*inions. ideas. and feelings of the members about the to*ic under discussion" Focus grou*s are relatively ine)*ensive and can *rovide fairly de*endable data ,ithin a short time frame" Panels( Focus grou*s meet for a one7time grou* session. panels (of members) meet more than once" In cases ,here the effects of certain changes are to be studied over a *eriod of time. *anel studies are very useful" Individuals are randomly chosen to serve as *anel members for a research study" If the effects of a *ro*osed advertisement for a certain brand of coffee are to be assessed Fuic-ly. the *anel members can be e)*osed to the advertisement and their intentions of *urchasing the brand assessed" 5anels can be either static (the same members serve on the *anel over e)tended *eriods of time) or dynamic (the *anel members change from time to time as various *hases of the study are in *rogress)"

2C /he main advantage of the static *anel is that it offers a good and sensitive measurement of the changes that ta-e *lace bet,een t,o *oints in time7a much better alternative than using t,o different grou*s at t,o different times" /he disadvantage is that the *anel members could become so sensiti+ed to the changes as a result of the endless continuous intervie,s that their o*inions might no longer be re*resentative of ,hat the others in the *o*ulation might hold" Members could also dro* out of the *anel from time to time for various reasons. thus raising issues of bias due to mortality" @nobtrusive Measure( /race measures. or unobtrusive measures originate from a *rimary source that does not involve *eo*le" Ene e)am*le is the ,ear and tear of 0ournals in a university library. ,hich offers a good indication of their *o*ularity. freFuency of use. or both" /he number of different brands of soft drin- cans found in trash bags also *rovides a measure of their consum*tion levels" !econdary !ources( Refer to the information gathered from sources already e)isting. as com*any *olicies. *rocedures. and rules can be obtained from the organi+ationGs record and documents" Such data can be internal or e)ternal to the organi+ation and accessed through the Internet or obtained from the recorded or *ublished information" @sefulness( /he advantage of see-ing secondary data sources is saving in time and costs of acFuiring information" 5isadvantage( Ao,ever. secondary data as the sole source of information has the dra,bac- of becoming obsolete. and not meeting the s*ecific needs of the *articular situation or setting" Aence. it is im*ortant to refer to sources that offer current and u*7to7date information" 5ata Collection Methods $ata can be collected in a variety of ,ays. in different settings (field or lab) from different sources" $ata collection methods include intervie-s (face to face intervie,s. tele*hone intervie,s. com*uter assisted intervie,s. and intervie,s through the electronic media6 *uestionnaires that are either *ersonally administered. sent through the mail or electronically administered6 observation of individuals and events ,ith or ,ithout videota*ing or audio recording6 and a variety of other motivational techniFues such as *ro0ective tests" Intervie,ing. administering Fuestionnaires. and observing *eo*le and *henomena are the three main data collection methods in survey research" 5ro0ective tests and other motivational techniFues are sometimes used to ta* variables" In such cases res*ondents are usually as-ed to ,rite a story. com*lete a sentence. or offer their reactions to ambiguous cues such as in-blots or unlabeled *ictures" It is assumed that the res*ondents

2' *ro0ect into res*onses their o,n thoughts. feelings. attitudes. and e)*ectations. all of ,hich can be inter*reted by trained *sychologists" Intervie-s( @nstructured Intervie-s( /hese are so labeled because the intervie,er does not enter the intervie, setting ,ith a *lanned seFuence of Fuestions to be as-ed of the res*ondent" /he ob0ective of the unstructured intervie, is to bring some *reliminary issues to the surface so that the researcher can determine ,hat variables need further in7de*th investigation" In order to understand the situation in its totality. the researcher ,ill intervie, em*loyees at several levels" In initial stages. only broad. o*en ended Fuestions ,ould be as-ed. and the re*lies to them ,ould inform the researcher of the *erce*tions of the individuals" /he ty*e and nature of the Fuestions as-ed of the individuals might vary according to the 0ob level and ty*e of ,or- done by them" :m*loyees at the sho*7floor level. and other nonsu*ervisory em*loyees. might be as-ed very broad Fuestions relating to their 0obs. ,or- environment. satisfactions and dissatisfactions at the ,or-*lace. and the li-e" For e)am*le( =hat do you li-e about ,or-ing hereM /ell me something about the re,ard systems in this *lace" fter conducting a sufficient number of such unstructured intervie,s ,ith em*loyees at several levels and studying the data obtained. the researcher ,ould -no, the variables that need greater focus and call for more in7de*th information" /his sets the stage for the intervie,er to conduct further structured intervie,s. for ,hich the variables ,ould have been identified" !tructured Intervie-s( /hese intervie,s are conducted ,hen it is -no,n at the outset ,hat information is needed" /he intervie,er has a list of *redetermined Fuestions to be as-ed of the res*ondents either *ersonally. through the tele*hone. or through the medium of a 5?" /he Fuestions are li-ely to focus on factors that had surfaced during the unstructured intervie,s and are considered relevant to the *roblem" /he same Fuestions ,ill be as-ed of everybody in the same manner" %ips to follo- in Intervie-s( /he information obtained during the intervie,s should be as free as *ossible of bias" Listening attentively to the intervie,ee. evincing -een interest in ,hat the res*ondent has to say. e)ercising tact in Fuestioning. re*eating and clarifying the Fuestions *osed. and *ara*hrasing some of the ans,ers to ensure their thorough understanding. go a long ,ay in -ee*ing alive the interest of the res*ondent throughout the intervie," Recording the res*onses accurately is eFually im*ortant" Bias during the intervie-s(

2D Intervie,ees can bias the data ,hen they do not come out ,ith their true o*inions but *rovide information that they thin- is ,hat the intervie,er e)*ects of them or ,ould li-e to hear" If they do not understand the Fuestions. they may feel diffident or hesitant to seeclarification" /hey may then ans,er Fuestions ,ithout -no,ing their im*ort. and thus introduce biases" /he intervie,er can reduce bias by being consistent ,ith the Fuestioning mode as each *erson is intervie,ed. by not distorting or falsifying the information received. and by not influencing the res*onses of the sub0ects in any manner" /he above biases can be minimi+ed in several ,ays" /he follo,ing strategies ,ill be useful for the *ur*ose" !trategies to minimi=e the biases ', &stablishing credibility and #apport/ and motivating individuals to responds( /he *ro0ection of *rofessionalism. enthusiasm. and confidence is im*ortant for the intervie,er" manager hiring outside researcher ,ould be interested in assessing their abilities and *ersonality *redis*ositions" Researchers must establish ra**ort ,ith and gain the confidence and a**roval of the hiring client before they can even start their ,or- in the organi+ation" ;no,ledge. s-ills. ability. confidence. articulateness. and enthusiasm are therefore Fualities a researcher must demonstrate in order to establish credibility ,ith the hiring organi+ation and its members" /o obtain honest information from the res*ondents. the researcherB intervie,er should be able to establish ra**ort and trust ,ith them" 6, %he Euestioning %echni*ue( a8 +unneling( In the beginning of an unstructured intervie,. it is advisable to as- o*en7ended Fuestions to get a broad idea and form some im*ressions about the situation" For e)am*le a Fuestion that could be as-ed. ,ould be( 8=hat are some of your feelings about ,or-ing for this organi+ationM9 From the res*onses to this broad Fuestion. further Fuestions that are *rogressively more focused may be as-ed as the research *rocesses the intervie,ees res*onses and notes some *ossible -ey issues relevant to the situation" b8 @nbiased *uestions( It is im*ortant to as- Fuestions in a ,ay that ,ould ensure the least bias in the res*onse" For e)am*le. 8/ell me ho, you e)*erience your 0ob9 is a better Fuestion than. 8Boy. the ,or- you do must be really boring6 let me hear ho, you e)*erience it"9 /he latter Fuestion is 8loaded8 in terms of the intervie,erGs o,n *erce*tion of the 0ob" loaded Fuestion might influence the ty*es of ans,ers received from the res*ondent" Bias could be also introduced by em*hasi+ing certain ,ords. by tone and voice inflections. and through ina**ro*riate suggestions" c8 Clarifying Issues( /o ma-e sure that the researcher understands issues as the res*ondent intends to re*resent them. it is advisable to restate im*ortant information given by the res*ondent" d8 $elping the #espondent to thin through issues(

3& If the res*ondent is not able to verbali+e his *erce*tions. or re*lies. 8I donGt -no,.9 the researcher should as- the Fuestion in a sim*ler ,ay" e8 %a ing Botes( =hen conducting intervie,s. it is im*ortant that the researcher ma-es ,ritten notes as the intervie,s are ta-ing *lace. or as soon as the intervie, is terminated" C$AP%&# '' !ampling Population( 5o*ulation refers to the entire grou* of *eo*le. events. or things of interest that the researcher ,ishes to investigate" &lement( n element is a single member of the *o*ulation" If 1&&& blue7collar ,or-ers in a *articular organi+ation ha**en to be the *o*ulation of interest to a researcher. each blue7 collar ,or-er therein is an element" If 3&& *ieces of machinery are to be a**roved after ins*ecting a fe,. there ,ould be 3&& elements in this *o*ulation" !ample( sam*le is a subset of the *o*ulation" !ubject( sub0ect is single member of the sam*le. 0ust as an element is a single member of the *o*ulation" !ampling( Sam*ling is the *rocess of selecting a sufficient number of elements from the *o*ulation. so that a study of the sam*le and an understanding of its *ro*erties or characteristics ,ould ma-e it *ossible for us to generali+e such *ro*erties or characteristics to the *o*ulation elements" Reasons for sam*ling( In research investigations involving several hundreds and even thousands of elements. it ,ould be *ractically im*ossible to collect data from. or test. or e)amine every element" :ven if it ,ere *ossible. it ,ould be *rohibitive in terms of time. cost. and other human resources" Study of a sam*le rather than the entire *o*ulation is also sometimes li-ely to *roduce more reliable results" /his is mostly because fatigue is reduced and fe,er errors ,ill therefore result in collecting data. es*ecially ,hen a large number of elements is involved" #epresentativeness of samples(

31 /he need for choosing the right sam*le for a research investigation cannot be overem*hasi+ed" =e -no, that rarely ,ill the sam*le be the e)act re*lica of the *o*ulation from ,hich it is dra,n" For instance. very fe, sam*le means are li-ely to be e)actly eFual to the *o*ulation means" Bormality of distributions( ttributes or characteristics of the *o*ulation are generally normally distributed" =hen the *ro*erties of the *o*ulation are not overre*resented or underre*resented in the sam*le. ,e ,ill have a re*resentative sam*le" =hen a sam*le consists of elements in the *o*ulation that have e)tremely high values on the variable ,e are studying. the sam*le mean ,ill be far higher than the *o*ulation mean and vice versa" Probability !ampling( =hen elements in the *o*ulation have a -no,n chance of being chosen as sub0ects in the sam*le. ,e resort to a *robability sam*ling design" 5robability sam*ling can be either unrestricted (sim*le random sam*ling) or restricted (com*le) *robability sam*ling) in nature" In the unrestricted *robability sam*ling design. more commonly -no,n as sim*le random sam*ling. every element in the *o*ulation has a -no,n and eFual chance of being selected as a sub0ect" Let us say there are 1&&& elements in the *o*ulation. and ,e need a sam*le of 1&&" Su**ose ,e ,ere to dro* *ieces of *a*er in a hat. each bearing the name of one of the element. and dra, 1&& 1&& &f those from the hat ,ith our eyes closed" =e -no, the first *iece dra,n ,il have a 1B1&&& chance of being dra,n. the ne)t 1BDDD chance being dra,n. and so on" In other ,ords. ,e -no, that the *robability of any one of them being chosen is 1 in the number of the *o*ulation. and ,e also -no, that each single element in the hat has the same or eFual *robability of being chosen" /his sam*ling design. -no,n as sim*le random sam*ling. has the least bias and offers the most generali+ability" Ao,ever this sam*ling *rocess could become e)*ensive. in addition an entirely u*dated listing of the *o*ulation may not be available" For this reason. other *robability sam*ling design are often chosen instead" #estricted or Comple. probability !ampling( s an alternative to the sim*le random sam*ling design. several com*le) *robability sam*ling *rocedures offer a viable. and sometimes more efficient alternative to the unrestricted design ,e 0ust discussed" :fficiency is im*roved in that more information can be obtained for a given sam*le si+e using some of the com*le) *robability sam*ling *rocedures than the sim*le random sam*ling design" /he five most common com*le) *robability sam*ling designs are( systematic sam*ling. stratified random sam*ling. cluster sam*ling. area sam*ling. and double sam*ling" !ystematic random sample( random starting *oint is selected. and then every nth member of the *o*ulation is selected"

3% First. k is calculated as the *o*ulation si+e divided by the sam*le si+e" For ?om*uter 5rinter Unlimited. ,e ,ould select every %&th (%&&&B1&&) invoice from the file dra,ers6 in so doing the numbering *rocess is avoided" If n is not ,hole number. then round do,n"

!tratified random sampling( *o*ulation is divided into subgrou*s. called strata. and a sam*le is randomly selected from each stratum" Cluster sampling( *o*ulation is divided into cluster using naturally occurring geogra*hic or other boundaries" /hen. clusters are randomly selected and a sam*le is collected by randomly selecting from each cluster" Su**ose you divided the state into 1% *rimary regions" /hen selected at random four regions %. C. 2 and 1% and concentrated your efforts in these *rimary units" Lou could ta-e a random sam*le of the residents in each of these regions and intervie, them" (Note that this is a combination of cluster sam*ling and sim*le random sam*ling)" Bonprobability !ampling( In non*robability sam*ling designs. the elements in the *o*ulation do not have any *robabilities attached to their being chosen as sam*le sub0ects" /his means that the findings from the study of the sam*le cannot be confidently generali+ed to the *o*ulation" Some of the non*robability sam*ling *lans are more de*endable than others and could offer some im*ortant leads to *otentially useful information ,ith regard to the *o*ulation" /he non*robability sam*ling designs. ,hich fit into the broad categories of convenience sam*ling and *ur*osive sam*ling" Convenience !ampling( ?onvenience Sam*ling refers to the collection of information from members of the *o*ulation ,ho are conveniently available to *rovide it" Ene ,ould e)*ect that the 85e*si ?hallenge9 contest ,as administered on a convenience sam*ling basis" Such a contest. ,ith the *ur*ose of determining ,hether *eo*le *refer one *roduct to another. might be held at a sho**ing mall visited by many sho**ers" /hose inclined to ta-e the test might from the sam*le for the study of ho, many *eo*le *refer 5e*si over ?o-e or *roduct Q to *roduct L" Such a sam*le is a convenient sam*le" Purposive !ampling( /he sam*ling here is confined to s*ecific ty*es of *eo*le ,ho can *rovide the desired information. either because they are the only ones ,ho have it. or conform to some criteria set by the researcher" /his ty*e of sam*ling called *ur*osive sam*ling and this have t,o ma0or ty*es of <udgment and Fuota sam*ling"

3! Hudgment !ampling( Involves the choice of sub0ects ,ho are most advantageously *laced or in the best *osition to *rovide the information reFuired"

Euota !ampling( Is a %nd ty*e of *ur*osive sam*ling. ensures that certain grou*s are adeFuately re*resented in the study through the assignment of a Fuota" @enerally. the Fuota fi)ed for each subgrou* is based on the total numbers of each grou* in the *o*ulation" Ao,ever. since this is a no *robability sam*ling *lan. the results are not generali+able to the *o*ulation" Issues of precision and confidence( Precision( Refers to ho, close our estimate is to the true *o*ulation characteristic" Confidence( ?onfidence denotes ho, certain ,e are that our estimates ,ill really hold true for the *o*ulation"

C$AP%&# '6 5ata Analysis and Interpretation Getting 5ata #eady +or Analysis( fter data are obtained through Fuestionnaires. intervie,s. observation. or through secondary sources. they need to be edited" /he blan- res*onses. if any. have to be handled in some ,ay. the data coded. and a categori+ation scheme has to be set u*" /he data ,ill then have to be -eyed in. and some soft,are *rogram used to analy+e them" &diting data( Aandling blan- res*onses( ?oding( ?ategori+ation :ntering $ata $ata nalysis(

Precision

32

?onfidence

C$AP%&# '9 %he #esearch #eport %he #esearch Proposal Before any research study is underta-en. there should be an agreement bet,een the *erson ,ho authori+es the study and the researcher as to the *roblem to be investigated. the methodology to be used. the duration of the study. and its cost" /his ensures that there are no misunderstandings or frustration later for both *arties" /his is usually accom*lished through the research *ro*osal. ,hich the researcher submits and gets a**roved by the s*onsor. ,ho issues a letter of authori+ation to *roceed ,ith the study" /he research *ro*osal dra,n u* by the investigator is the result of a *lanned organi+ed and careful effort. and basically contains the follo,ing( 1" %" !" 2" 3" 4" @oal of the study s*ecific *roblem to be investigated 5rocedure Research design /ime frame of the study the costs of the study

%he #eport /he research re*ort contains findings. analysis of findings. inter*retations. conclusions. and recommendations" Integral parts of the report %he title page /he title of the re*ort should succinctly indicate ,hat the study is all about" %able of content /he table of contents ,ith *age reference usually lists the im*ortant headings and subheadings in the re*orts" se*arate list of tables and figures should also be listed in the table of content" %he #esearch proposal and the Authori=ation Letter %he &.ecutive !ummary or synopsis /he Introductory Section /he body of the research

33 /he final *art of the re*ort c-no,ledgements References **endi) Content of a good %hesis #eport 1" Introduction 1"1" Reason for choosing the to*ic Introduction and im*ortance 1"%" Sco*e of the study Ergani+ational im*ortance of the research 1"!" Significance of the Study 1"!"1 For the individual 1"!"% For future researcher 1"2 Limitation of the study 1"3 Eb0ectives of the study %" %"1" %"% %"! %"2 %"3 !" 2" 3" 4" C" C"1" C"%" '" Research Methodology Research /y*e Nature of *roblem( ?orrelation or Inde*endent7$e*endent Nariable relationshi* Res*ondents of the Study :m*loyee or ?lients based research Sam*ling *rocedure 5robability sam*ling and Non 5robability sam*ling Research Instruments Secondary data collected from the different boo-s. <ournals etc For Fualitative analysis Fuestionnaire ,ere used Statistical analysis **ro*riate method should be given (?hi7SFuareB/7test) Introduction of the organi+ation. these are used as instrument for the research Nision and Mission and brief Aistory of the organi+ation 5roblem Statement and Ay*othesis of the study :)*lanation of the im*ortant issues of the study Literature revie, ?lassified on the basis of factor effecting on the sub0ective issue 5revious research relevant to the research to*ic ?once*tual frame,orRelationshi* among the inde*endent and de*endent variables (?ausalB) $escri*tion of variables $e*endent. Inde*endent. Intervening and Moderating Nariables Results and $iscussion /abulated results described in Hage in figures and statistically

34 com*lete discussion of the high and lo, values (significant or not significant statistically)" /he e)*lanation. ,hether the results are in accordance ,ith the literature" If the results are or not in accordance. e)*lain then the *ossible technical reasons" ?onclusions and recommendations References

D" 1&"