CHAPTER 10 POWER ELECTRONICS

INTRODUCTION TO POWER ELECTRONICS

Power Electronics is a field which combines Power (electric ower!" Electronics and Control s#stems$ Power en%ineerin% deals with the static and rotatin% ower e&'i ment for the %eneration" transmission and distrib'tion of electric ower$ Electronics deals with the st'd# of solid state semicond'ctor ower de(ices and circ'its for Power con(ersion to meet the desired control ob)ecti(es (to control the o't 't (olta%e and o't 't ower!$ Power electronics ma# be defined as the s'b)ect of a lications of solid state ower semicond'ctor de(ices (Th#ristors! for the control and con(ersion of electric ower$ Power electronics deals with the st'd# and desi%n of Th#ristorised ower controllers for (ariet# of a lication li*e +eat control" Li%ht,Ill'mination control" -otor control . /C,DC motor dri(es 'sed in ind'stries" +i%h (olta%e ower s' (olta%e direct c'rrent (+0DC! transmission$ lies" 0ehicle ro 'lsion s#stems" +i%h

POWER ELECTRONIC /PPLIC/TIONS1

CO--ERCI/L /PPLIC/TIONS +eatin% S#stems 0entilatin%" /ir Conditioners" Central Refri%eration" Li%htin%" Com 'ters and Office e&'i ments" Uninterr' tible Power S' Emer%enc# Lam s$ DO-ESTIC /PPLIC/TIONS1 Coo*in% E&'i ments" Li%htin%" +eatin%" /ir Conditioners" Refri%erators 2 3ree4ers" Personal Com 'ters" Entertainment E&'i ments" UPS$ lies (UPS!" Ele(ators" and

INDUSTRI/L /PPLIC/TIONS1

P'm s" com ressors" blowers and fans$ -achine tools" arc f'rnaces" ind'ction f'rnaces" li%htin% control circ'its" ind'strial lasers" ind'ction heatin%" weldin% e&'i ments$ /EROSP/CE /PPLIC/TIONS1 S ace sh'ttle ower s' TELECO--UNIC/TIONS1 5atter# char%ers" ower s' TR/NSPORT/TION1 Traction control of electric (ehicles" batter# char%ers for electric (ehicles" electric locomoti(es" street cars" trolle# b'ses" a'tomobile electronics incl'din% en%ine controls$ UTILIT6 S6STE-S1 +i%h (olta%e DC transmission (+0DC!" static 0/R com ensation (S0C!" /lternati(e ener%# so'rces (wind" hoto(oltaic!" f'el cells" ener%# stora%e s#stems" ind'ced draft fans and boiler feed water 'm s$ lies (DC and UPS!" mobile cell hone batter# char%ers$ l# s#stems" satellite ower s#stems" aircraft ower s#stems$

78$7 DI33ERENCES 5ETWEEN ELECTRONICS /ND POWER ELECTRONICS1

This &'estion can be answered in n'mber of wa#s$ The sim lest wa# to sa# all the electronics de(ices which deals with ower are co(ered in Power Electronics$ There are de(ices which #o' do 'se in %eneral 'r ose electronics li*e1 Diode" 59T" -3ETs etc$ 6o' will find these de(ices in electronics 2 ower electronics both$ The de(ices 'sed in Power electronics ma# differ in term of constr'ction 2 beha(ior from those 'sed in electronics$ There are t# e of de(ices which #o' will find onl# IN PE" e:1 I;5T$ The onl# difference is that ower de(ices (e$%$ -OS3ETs! are made to handle m'ch lar%er ower re&'irements$ Ordinar# de(ices are low c'rrent and low (olta%e de(ices$

Power de(ices are hi%h c'rrent and,or hi%h (olta%e de(ices$

78$< POWER CON0ERTERS1

/ ower con(erter is an electrical or electro=mechanical de(ice for con(ertin% electrical ener%#$ It ma# be con(ertin% /C to or from DC" or the (olta%e or fre&'enc#" or some combination of these$ /mon%st the man# de(ices that are 'sed for this 'r ose are> Rectifier In(erter DC = DC con(erter /C = /C con(erter

/C = DC CON0ERTER (RECTI3IER!1 / rectifier is an electrical de(ice that con(erts alternatin% c'rrent (/C!" which eriodicall# re(erses direction" to direct c'rrent (DC!" which is in onl# one direction" a rocess *nown as rectification$ Rectifiers ha(e man# 'ses incl'din% as com onents of ower s' detectors of radio si%nals$ Rectifiers ma# be made of solid t'be diodes" merc'r# arc (al(es" and other com onents$ DC = /C CON0ERTER (IN0ERTER!1 /n in(erter is an electrical de(ice that con(erts direct c'rrent (DC! to alternatin% c'rrent (/C!> the con(erted /C can be at an# re&'ired (olta%e and fre&'enc# with the 'se of a ro riate transformers" switchin%" and control circ'its$ Solid=state in(erters ha(e no mo(in% arts and are 'sed in a wide ran%e of a lications" from small switchin% ower s' lies in com 'ters" to lar%e electric 'tilit# hi%h=(olta%e direct lies and as

state diodes" (ac''m

c'rrent a lications that trans ort b'l* ower$ In(erters are commonl# 'sed to s' from DC so'rces s'ch as solar anels or batteries$

l# /C ower

DC = DC CON0ERTER (C+OPPERS!1 / dc cho er is a dc=to=dc (olta%e con(erter$ It is a static switchin% electrical a liance er is

that in one Electrical con(ersion" chan%es an in 't fi:ed dc (olta%e to an ad)'stable dc o't 't (olta%e witho't Ind'cti(e or ca aciti(e intermediate ener%# stora%e$ The name cho connected with the fact that the o't 't (olta%e is a ?cho in 't dc (olta%e$ /C = /C CON0ERTER1 /n /C,/C con(erter con(erts an /C wa(eform s'ch as the mains s' wa(eform" where the o't 't (olta%e and fre&'enc# can be set arbitraril#$ /C,/C con(erters can be cate%ori4ed into

ed ' @ &'asi=rectan%'lar (ersion of the

l#" to another /C

C#clocon(erters -atri: Con(erters

78$A POWER ELECTRONIC SWITC+ES1

In electronics" a switch is an electrical com onent that can brea* an electrical circ'it" interr' tin% the c'rrent or di(ertin% it from one cond'ctor to another$ / ower electronic switch inte%rates a combination of ower electronic com onents or ower semicond'ctors and a dri(er for the acti(el# switchable ower semicond'ctors$ The internal f'nctional correlations and interactions of this inte%rated s#stem determine se(eral DIODES1 In electronics" a diode is a t# e of two=terminal electronic com onent with a nonlinear c'rrent.(olta%e characteristic$ / semicond'ctor diode" the most common t# e toda#" is a

cr#stalline iece of semicond'ctor material connected to two electrical terminals$ / (ac''m t'be diode (now rarel# 'sed e:ce t in some hi%h= ower technolo%ies! is a (ac''m t'be with two electrodes1 a late and a cathode$ The most common f'nction of a diode is to allow an electric c'rrent to ass in one direction (called the diodeBs forward direction!" while bloc*in% c'rrent in the o osite direction (the re(erse direction!$ Th's" the diode can be tho'%ht of as an electronic (ersion of a chec* (al(e$ This 'nidirectional beha(ior is called rectification" and is 'sed to con(ert alternatin% c'rrent to direct c'rrent" and to e:tract mod'lation from radio si%nals in radio recei(ers$ +owe(er" diodes can ha(e more com licated beha(ior than this sim le on.off action$ Semicond'ctor diodes do not be%in cond'ctin% electricit# 'ntil a certain threshold (olta%e is resent in the forward direction (a state in which the diode is said to be forward biased!$ The (olta%e dro across a forward biased diode (aries onl# a little with the c'rrent" and is a f'nction of tem erat're> this effect can be 'sed as a tem erat're sensor or (olta%e reference$ Semicond'ctor diodes ha(e nonlinear electrical characteristics" which can be tailored b# (ar#in% the constr'ction of their P.N )'nction$ These are e: loited in s ecial 'r ose diodes that erform man# different f'nctions$ Diodes were the first semicond'ctor electronic de(ices$ The disco(er# of cr#stalsB rectif#in% abilities was made b# ;erman h#sicist 3erdinand 5ra'n in 7CDE$ The first semicond'ctor diodes" called catBs whis*er diodes" de(elo ed aro'nd 7F8G" were made of mineral cr#stals s'ch as %alena$ Toda# most diodes are made of silicon" b't other semicond'ctors s'ch as %ermani'm are sometimes 'sed$

/ modern semicond'ctor diode is made of a cr#stal of semicond'ctor li*e silicon that has im 'rities added to it to create a re%ion on one side that contains ne%ati(e char%e carriers (electrons!" called n=t# e semicond'ctor" and a re%ion on the other side that contains ositi(e char%e carriers (holes!" called =t# e semicond'ctor$ The diodeBs terminals are attached to each of these re%ions$ The bo'ndar# within the cr#stal between these two re%ions" called a PN

)'nction" is where the action of the diode ta*es lace$ The cr#stal cond'cts a c'rrent of electrons in a direction from the N=t# e side (called the cathode! to the P=t# e side (called the anode!" b't not in the o osite direction$ +owe(er" con(entional c'rrent flows from anode to cathode in the osite to the electron flow" since electrons ha(e ne%ati(e char%e!$ direction of the arrow (o

/nother t# e of semicond'ctor diode" the Scott# diode" is formed from the contact between a metal and a semicond'ctor rather than b# a .n )'nction$ T+6RISTORS / th#ristor is a solid=state semicond'ctor de(ice with fo'r la#ers of alternatin% n and = t# e material$ The# act as bistable switches" cond'ctin% when their %ate recei(es a c'rrent 'lse" and contin'e to cond'ct while the# are forward biased (that is" while the (olta%e across the de(ice is not re(ersed!$ Some so'rces define silicon controlled rectifiers and th#ristors as s#non#mo's$

Circ'it s#mbol for a th#ristor

3UNCTION The th#ristor is a fo'r=la#er" three terminal semicond'ctin% de(ice" with each la#er consistin% of alternatel# N=t# e or P=t# e material" for e:am le P=N=P=N$ The main terminals" labeled anode and cathode" are across the f'll fo'r la#ers" and the control terminal" called the %ate" is attached to =t# e material near to the cathode$ (/ (ariant called an SCSHSilicon Controlled SwitchHbrin%s all fo'r la#ers o't to terminals$! The o eration of a th#ristor can be 'nderstood in terms of a air of ti%htl# co' led bi olar )'nction transistors" arran%ed to ca'se the self=latchin% action1

Str'ct're on the h#sical and electronic le(el" and the th#ristor s#mbol$ Th#ristors ha(e three states1 7$ Re(erse bloc*in% mode H 0olta%e is a lied in the direction that wo'ld be bloc*ed b# a diode <$ 3orward bloc*in% mode H 0olta%e is a lied in the direction that wo'ld ca'se a diode to cond'ct" b't the th#ristor has not #et been tri%%ered into cond'ction A$ 3orward cond'ctin% mode H The th#ristor has been tri%%ered into cond'ction and will remain cond'ctin% 'ntil the forward c'rrent dro s below a threshold (al'e *nown as the Iholdin% c'rrentI INSUL/TED ;/TE 5IPOL/R TR/NSISTOR (I;5T!1 The ins'lated=%ate bi olar transistor or I;5T is a three=terminal ower semicond'ctor de(ice" noted for hi%h efficienc# and fast switchin%$ It switches electric ower in man# modern a liances1 electric cars" (ariable s eed refri%erators" air=conditioners" and e(en stereo s#stems with di%ital am lifiers$ Since it is desi%ned to ra idl# t'rn on and off" am lifiers that 'se it often s#nthesi4e com le: wa(eforms with 'lse width mod'lation and low= ass filters$ The I;5T combines the sim le %ate=dri(e characteristics of the -OS3ETs with the hi%h= c'rrent and low.sat'ration=(olta%e ca abilit# of bi olar transistors b# combinin% an isolated= %ate 3ET for the control in 't" and a bi olar ower transistor as a switch" in a sin%le de(ice$ The I;5T is 'sed in medi'm= to hi%h= ower a lications s'ch as switched=mode ower s' l#" traction motor control and ind'ction heatin%$ Lar%e I;5T mod'les t# icall# consist of man#

de(ices in arallel and can ha(e (er# hi%h c'rrent handlin% ca abilities in the order of h'ndreds of am s with bloc*in% (olta%es of G"888 0$

EJUI0/LENT CIRCUIT1 /n e:amination of re(eals that if we mo(e (erticall# ' from collector to emitter$ We come across K" n= " and K n= an I;5T$ la#er s$ Th's" I;5T can be tho'%ht of as the combination of -OS3ET
K

la#er s$ Th's" I;5T can be tho'%ht of as the combination of -OS3ET and

n=

transistor J7 $+ere Rd is resistance offered b# n . drift re%ion$ /

ro:imate e&'i(alent circ'it of

-OS3ET

The metal.o:ide.semicond'ctor field=effect transistor (-OS3ET" -OS=3ET" or -OS 3ET! is a transistor 'sed for am lif#in% or switchin% electronic si%nals$ The basic rinci le of this *ind of transistor was first ro osed b# 9'li's Ed%ar Lilienfeld in 7F<L$ In -OS3ETs" a (olta%e on the o:ide=ins'lated %ate electrode can ind'ce a cond'ctin% channel between the two other contacts called so'rce and drain$ The channel can be of n=t# e or =t# e (see article on semicond'ctor de(ices!" and is accordin%l# called an n-OS3ET or a -OS3ET (also commonl# n-OS" -OS!$ It is b# far the most common transistor in both di%ital and analo% circ'its" tho'%h the bi olar )'nction transistor was at one time m'ch more common$

The BmetalB in the name is now often a misnomer beca'se the re(io'sl# metal %ate material is now often a la#er of ol#silicon ( ol#cr#stalline silicon!$ /l'mini'm had been the %ate material 'ntil the mid 7FD8s" when ol#silicon became dominant" d'e to its ca abilit# to form self=ali%ned %ates$ -etallic %ates are re%ainin% o 'larit#" since it is diffic'lt to increase the s eed of o eration of transistors witho't metal %ates$ -OS3ET OPER/TION1

/ metal.o:ide.semicond'ctor field=effect transistor (-OS3ET! is based on the mod'lation of char%e concentration b# a -OS ca acitance between a bod# electrode and a %ate electrode located abo(e the bod# and ins'lated from all other de(ice re%ions b# a %ate dielectric la#er which in the case of a -OS3ET is an o:ide" s'ch as silicon dio:ide$ If dielectrics other than an o:ide s'ch as silicon dio:ide (often referred to as o:ide! are em lo#ed the de(ice ma# be referred to as a metal.ins'lator.semicond'ctor 3ET (-IS3ET!$ Com ared to the -OS ca acitor" the -OS3ET incl'des two additional terminals (so'rce and drain!" each connected to indi(id'al hi%hl# do ed re%ions that are se arated b# the bod# re%ion$ These re%ions can be either or n t# e" b't the# m'st both be of the same t# e" and of o osite t# e to the bod# re%ion$ The so'rce and drain ('nli*e the bod#! are hi%hl# do ed as si%nified b# a BKB si%n after the t# e of do in%$ If the -OS3ET is an n=channel or n-OS 3ET" then the so'rce and drain are BnKB re%ions and the bod# is a B B re%ion$ /s described abo(e" with s'fficient %ate (olta%e" holes from the bod# are dri(en awa# from the %ate" formin% an in(ersion la#er or n=channel at the interface between the re%ion and the o:ide$ This cond'ctin% channel e:tends between the so'rce and the drain" and c'rrent is cond'cted thro'%h it when a (olta%e is a lied between so'rce and drain$ Increasin% the (olta%e on the %ate leads to a hi%her electron densit# in the in(ersion la#er and therefore increases the c'rrent flow between the so'rce and drain$ 3or %ate (olta%es below the threshold (al'e" the channel is li%htl# o 'lated" and onl# a (er# small s'b threshold lea*a%e c'rrent can flow between the so'rce and the drain$ If the -OS3ET is a =channel or -OS 3ET" then the so'rce and drain are B KB re%ions and the bod# is a BnB re%ion$ When a ne%ati(e %ate=so'rce (olta%e ( ositi(e so'rce=%ate! is a lied" it creates a =channel at the s'rface of the n re%ion" analo%o's to the n=channel case" b't with o osite olarities of char%es and (olta%es$ When a (olta%e less ne%ati(e than the threshold (al'e (a ne%ati(e (olta%e for =channel! is a lied between %ate and so'rce" the channel disa ears and onl# a (er# small s'b threshold c'rrent can flow between the so'rce and the drain$

The so'rce is so named beca'se it is the so'rce of the char%e carriers (electrons for n= channel" holes for =channel! that flow thro'%h the channel> similarl#" the drain is where the char%e carriers lea(e the channel$ The de(ice ma# com rise a Silicon On Ins'lator (SOI! de(ice in which a 5'ried OMide (5OM! is formed below a thin semicond'ctor la#er$ If the channel re%ion between the %ate dielectric and a 5'ried O:ide (5OM! re%ion is (er# thin" the (er# thin channel re%ion is referred to as an Ultra Thin Channel (UTC! re%ion with the so'rce and drain re%ions formed on either side thereof in and,or abo(e the thin semicond'ctor la#er$ /lternati(el#" the de(ice ma# com rise a Semicond'ctor On Ins'lator (SE-OI! de(ice in which semicond'ctors other than silicon are em lo#ed$ -an# alternati(e semicond'ctor materials ma# be em lo#ed$

78$L -ULTILE0EL CON0ERTER1

/n in(erter is an electrical de(ice that con(erts direct c'rrent (DC! to alternatin% c'rrent (/C!> the con(erted /C can be at an# re&'ired (olta%e and fre&'enc# with the 'se of a ro riate transformers" switchin%" and control circ'its$ Static in(erters ha(e no mo(in% arts and are 'sed in a wide ran%e of a lications" from small switchin% ower s' lies in com 'ters" to lar%e electric 'tilit# hi%h=(olta%e direct c'rrent l# /C ower from a lications that trans ort b'l* ower$ In(erters are commonl# 'sed to s' DC so'rces s'ch as solar anels or batteries$ The electrical in(erter is a hi%h= ower electronic oscillator$ It is so named beca'se earl# mechanical /C to DC con(erters was made to wor* in re(erse" and th's were Iin(ertedI" to con(ert DC to /C$ The in(erter erforms the o osite f'nction of a rectifier

C/SC/DED +=5RID;ES IN0ERTER / sin%le= hase str'ct're of an m=le(el cascaded in(erter is ill'strated in 3i%'re A7$7$ Each se arate dc so'rce (SDCS! is connected to a sin%le= hase f'll=brid%e" or +=brid%e" in(erter$

Each in(erter le(el can %enerate three different (olta%e o't 'ts" K0dc" 8" and .0dc b# connectin% the dc so'rce to the ac o't 't b# different combinations of the fo'r switches" S 7" S<" SA" and SE$ To obtain K0dc" switches S7 and SE are t'rned on" whereas .0dc can be obtained b# t'rnin% on switches S< and SA$ 5# t'rnin% on S7 and S< or SA and SE" the o't 't (olta%e is 8$ The ac o't 'ts of each of the different f'll=brid%e in(erter le(els are connected in series s'ch that the s#nthesi4ed (olta%e wa(eform is the s'm of the in(erter o't 'ts$ The n'mber of o't 't hase (olta%e le(els m in a cascade in(erter is defined b# m N <sK7" where s is the n'mber of se arate dc so'rces$ /n e:am le hase (olta%e wa(eform for an 77=le(el cascaded +=brid%e in(erter with L SDCSs and L f'll brid%es is shown in 3i%'re A7$<$ The hase (olta%e (an N (a7 K (a< K (aA K (aE K (aL$ 3or a ste ed wa(eform s'ch as the one de icted in 3i%'re A7$< with s ste s" the 3o'rier Transform for this wa(eform follows

Sin%le= hase str'ct're of a m'ltile(el cascaded +=brid%es in(erter

O't 't hase (olta%e wa(eform of an 77=le(el cascade in(erter with L se arate dc so'rces$

The ma%nit'des of the 3o'rier coefficients when normali4ed with res ect to 0dc are as follows1

The cond'ctin% an%les" O7" O<" $$$" Os" can be chosen s'ch that the (olta%e total harmonic distortion is a minim'm$ ;enerall#" these an%les are chosen so that redominant lower fre&'enc# harmonics" Lth" Dth" 77th" and 7Ath" harmonics are eliminated$ -ore detail on harmonic elimination techni&'es will be resented in the ne:t section$ -'ltile(el cascaded in(erters ha(e been ro osed for s'ch a lications as static (ar %eneration" an interface with renewable ener%# so'rces" and for batter#=based a lications$ Three= hase cascaded in(erters can be connected in w#e" as shown in 3i%'re" or in delta$ Pen% has demonstrated a rotot# e m'ltile(el cascaded static (ar %enerator connected in arallel with the electrical s#stem that co'ld s' l# or draw reacti(e c'rrent from an electrical s#stem$

The in(erter co'ld be controlled to either re%'late the ower factor of the c'rrent drawn from the so'rce or the b's (olta%e of the electrical s#stem where the in(erter was connected$

Pen% P<8Q and 9oos P<EQ ha(e also shown that a cascade in(erter can be directl# connected in series with the electrical s#stem for static (ar com ensation$ Cascaded in(erters are ideal for connectin% renewable ener%# so'rces with an ac %rid" beca'se of the need for se arate dc so'rces" which is the case in a lications s'ch as hoto(oltaic@s or f'el cells$ Cascaded in(erters ha(e also been ro osed for 'se as the main traction dri(e in electric (ehicles" where se(eral batteries or 'ltra ca acitors are well s'ited to ser(e as SDCSs$ The cascaded in(erter co'ld also ser(e as a rectifier,char%er for the batteries of an electric (ehicle while the (ehicle was connected to an ac s' l# as shown in 3i%'re$ /dditionall#" the cascade in(erter can act as a rectifier in a (ehicle that 'ses re%enerati(e bra*in%$

Three= hase w#e=connection str'ct're for electric (ehicle motor dri(e and batter# char%in%$ The main ad(anta%es and disad(anta%es of m'ltile(el cascaded +=brid%e con(erters are as follows /D0/NT/;ES1 The n'mber of ossible o't 't (olta%e le(els is more than twice the n'mber of dc so'rces (m N <s K 7!$

The series of +=brid%es ma*es for mod'lari4ed la#o't and ac*a%in%$ This will enable the man'fact'rin% rocess to be done more &'ic*l# and chea l#$

DIS/D0/NT/;ES1 Se arate dc so'rces are re&'ired for each of the +=brid%es$ This will limit its a lication to rod'cts that alread# ha(e m'lti le SDCSs readil# a(ailable$ DIODE=CL/-PED -ULTILE0EL IN0ERTER The ne'tral oint con(erter ro osed b# Nabae" Ta*ahashi" and /*a%i in 7FC7 was essentiall# a three=le(el diode=clam ed in(erter$ In the 7FF8s se(eral researchers 'blished articles that ha(e re orted e: erimental res'lts for fo'r=" fi(e=" and si:=le(el diode=clam ed con(erters for s'ch 'ses as static 0/R com ensation" (ariable s eed motor dri(es" and hi%h= (olta%e s#stem interconnections$ / three= hase si:=le(el diode=clam ed in(erter is shown in 3i%'re$ Each of the three hases of the in(erter shares a common dc b's" which has been s'bdi(ided b# fi(e ca acitors into si: le(els$ The (olta%e across each ca acitor is 0 dc" and the (olta%e stress across each switchin% de(ice is limited to 0dc thro'%h the clam in% diodes$ Table lists the o't 't (olta%e le(els ossible for one hase of the in(erter with the ne%ati(e dc rail (olta%e 0 8 as a reference$ State condition 7 means the switch is on" and 8 means the switch is off$ Each hase has fi(e com lementar# switch airs s'ch that t'rnin% on one of the switches of the air re&'ires that the other com lementar# switch be t'rned off$ The com lementar# switch airs for hase le% a are (Sa7" Sa@7!" (Sa<" Sa@<!" (SaA" Sa@A!" (SaE" Sa@E!" and (SaL" Sa@L!$ Table also shows that in a diode=clam ed in(erter" the switches that are on for a artic'lar hase le% are alwa#s ad)acent and in series$ 3or a si:=le(el in(erter" a set of fi(e switches is on at an# %i(en time$

Three= hase si:=le(el str'ct're of a diode=clam ed in(erter$

Diode=clam ed si:=le(el in(erter (olta%e le(els and corres ondin% switch states$

/D0/NT/;ES1

/ll of the hases share a common dc b's" which minimi4es the ca acitance re&'irements of the con(erter$ 3or this reason" a bac*=to=bac* to olo%# is not onl# ossible b't also ractical for 'ses s'ch as a hi%h=(olta%e bac*=to=bac* inter=connection or an ad)'stable s eed dri(e$

The ca acitors can be re=char%ed as a %ro' $ Efficienc# is hi%h for f'ndamental fre&'enc# switchin%$

DIS/D0/NT/;ES1 Real ower flow is diffic'lt for a sin%le in(erter beca'se the intermediate dc le(els will tend to o(erchar%e or dischar%e witho't recise monitorin% and control$ The n'mber of clam in% diodes re&'ired is &'adratic all# related to the n'mber of le(els" which can be c'mbersome for 'nits with a hi%h n'mber of le(els$ 3L6IN; C/P/CITOR -ULTILE0EL IN0ERTER -e#nard and 3och introd'ced a fl#in%=ca acitor=based in(erter in 7FF< $ The str'ct're of this in(erter is similar to that of the diode=clam ed in(erter e:ce t that instead of 'sin% clam in% diodes" the in(erter 'ses ca acitors in their lace$ The circ'it to olo%# of the fl#in% ca acitor m'ltile(el in(erter is shown in 3i%'re A7$D$ This to olo%# has a ladder str'ct're of dc side ca acitors" where the (olta%e on each ca acitor differs from that of the ne:t ca acitor$ The (olta%e increment between two ad)acent ca acitor le%s %i(es the si4e of the (olta%e ste s in the o't 't wa(eform$

Three= hase si:=le(el str'ct're of a fl#in% ca acitor in(erter$ One ad(anta%e of the fl#in%=ca acitor=based in(erter is that it has red'ndancies for inner (olta%e le(els> in other words" two or more (alid switch combinations can s#nthesi4e an o't 't (olta%e$ Table A7$< shows a list of all the combinations of hase (olta%e le(els that are ossible for the si:=le(el circ'it shown in 3i%'re A7$D$ Unli*e the diode=clam ed in(erter" the fl#in%= ca acitor in(erter does not re&'ire all of the switches that are on (cond'ctin%! be in a consec'ti(e series$ -oreo(er" the fl#in%=ca acitor in(erter has hase red'ndancies" whereas the diode=

clam ed in(erter has onl# line=line red'ndancies$ These red'ndancies allow a choice of char%in%,dischar%in% s ecific ca acitors and can be incor orated in the control s#stem for balancin% the (olta%es across the (ario's le(els$ In addition to the (m=7! dc lin* ca acitors" the m=le(el fl#in%=ca acitor m'ltile(el in(erter will re&'ire (m=7! R (m=<!,< a':iliar# ca acitors er hase if the (olta%e ratin% of the ca acitors is identical to that of the main switches$ One a lication ro osed in the literat're for the m'ltile(el fl#in% ca acitor is static 0/R %eneration$ The main ad(anta%es and disad(anta%es of m'ltile(el fl#in% ca acitor con(erters are as follows$

/D0/NT/;ES1 Phase red'ndancies are a(ailable for balancin% the (olta%e le(els of the ca acitors$ Real and reacti(e ower flow can be controlled$ The lar%e n'mber of ca acitors enables the in(erter to ride thro'%h short d'ration o'ta%es and dee (olta%e sa%s$ DIS/D0/NT/;ES1 Control is com licated to trac* the (olta%e le(els for all of the ca acitors$ /lso" rechar%in% all of the ca acitors to the same (olta%e le(el and start' are com le:$ Switchin% 'tili4ation and efficienc# are oor for real ower transmission$ The lar%e n'mbers of ca acitors are both more e: ensi(e and b'l*# than clam in% diodes in m'ltile(el diode=clam ed con(erters$ Pac*a%in% is also more diffic'lt in in(erters with a hi%h n'mber of le(els$

78$G PULSE WIDT+ -ODUL/TION (PW-!1

P'lse Width -od'lation (PW-! is the most effecti(e means to achie(e constant (olta%e batter# char%in% b# switchin% the solar s#stem controller@s ower de(ices$ When in PWre%'lation" the c'rrent from the solar arra# ta ers accordin% to the batter#@s condition and rechar%in% needs Consider a wa(eform s'ch as this1 it is a (olta%e switchin% between 8( and 7<($ It is fairl# ob(io's that" since the (olta%e is at 7<( for e:actl# as lon% as it is at 8(" then a Bs'itable de(iceB connected to its o't 't will see the a(era%e (olta%e and thin* it is bein% fed G( = e:actl# half of 7<($ So b# (ar#in% the width of the ositi(e 'lse = we can (ar# the Ba(era%eB (olta%e$

Similarl#" if the switches *ee the (olta%e at 7< for A times as lon% as at 8(" the a(era%e will be A,E of 7<( = or F(" as shown below and if the o't 't 'lse of 7<( lasts onl# <LS of the o(erall time" then the a(era%e is

5# (ar#in% = or Bmod'latin%B = the time that the o't 't is at 7<( (i$e$ the width of the ositi(e 'lse! we can alter the a(era%e (olta%e$ So we are doin% B 'lse width mod'lationB$ I said earlier that the o't 't had to feed Ba s'itable de(iceB$ / radio wo'ld not wor* from this1 the radio wo'ld see 7<( then 8(" and wo'ld robabl# not wor* ro erl#$ +owe(er a de(ice s'ch as a motor will res ond to the a(era%e" so PW- is a nat'ral for motor control$ PULSE WIDT+ -ODUL/TOR So" how do we %enerate a PW- wa(eformT ItBs act'all# (er# eas#" there are circ'its a(ailable in the TEC site$ 3irst #o' %enerate a trian%le wa(eform as shown in the dia%ram below$ 6o' com are this with a d$c (olta%e" which #o' ad)'st to control the ratio of on to off time that #o' re&'ire$ When the trian%le is abo(e the BdemandB (olta%e" the o't 't %oes hi%h$ When the trian%le is below the demand (olta%e" the

When the demand s eed it in the middle (/! #o' %et a L81L8 o't 't" as in blac*$ +alf the time the o't 't is hi%h and half the time it is low$ 3ort'natel#" there is an IC (Inte%rated circ'it! called a com arator1 these come 's'all# E sections in a sin%le ac*a%e$ One can be 'sed as the oscillator to rod'ce the trian%'lar wa(eform and another to do the com arin%" so a com lete oscillator and mod'lator can be done with half an IC and ma#be D other bits$ The trian%le wa(eform" which has a ro:imatel# e&'al rise and fall slo es" is one of the commonest 'sed" b't #o' can 'se a saw tooth (where the (olta%e falls &'ic*l# and rinses slowl#!$ 6o' co'ld 'se other wa(eforms and the e:act linearit# (how %ood the rise and fall are! is not too im ortant$

Traditional solenoid dri(er electronics rel# on linear control" which is the a lication of a constant (olta%e across a resistance to rod'ce an o't 't c'rrent that is directl# ro ortional to the (olta%e$ 3eedbac* can be 'sed to achie(e an o't 't that matches e:actl# the control si%nal$ +owe(er" this scheme dissi ates a lot of ower as heat" and it is therefore (er# inefficient$ / more efficient techni&'e em lo#s 'lse width mod'lation (PW-! to rod'ce the

constant c'rrent thro'%h the coil$ / PW- si%nal is not constant$ Rather" the si%nal is on for art of its eriod" and off for the rest$ The d't# c#cle" D" refers to the ercenta%e of the eriod for which the si%nal is on$ The d't# c#cle can be an#where from 8" the si%nal is alwa#s off" to 7" where the si%nal is constantl# on$ / L8S D res'lts in a erfect s&'are wa(e$ (3i%'re 7!

/ solenoid is a len%th of wire wo'nd in a coil$ 5eca'se of this confi%'ration" the solenoid has" in addition to its resistance" R" a certain ind'ctance" L$ When a (olta%e" 0" is a lied across an ind'cti(e element" the c'rrent" I" rod'ced in that element does not )'m ' to its constant (al'e" b't %rad'all# rises to its ma:im'm o(er a eriod of time called the rise time (3i%'re <!$ Con(ersel#" I does not disa ear instantaneo'sl#" e(en if 0 is remo(ed abr' tl#" b't decreases bac* to 4ero in the same amo'nt of time as the rise time$

Therefore" when a low fre&'enc# PW- (olta%e is a lied across a solenoid" the c'rrent thro'%h it will be increasin% and decreasin% as 0 t'rns on and off$ If D is shorter than the rise time" I will ne(er achie(e its ma:im'm (al'e" and will be discontin'o's since it will %o bac* to 4ero d'rin% 0@s off eriod (3i%'re A!$U In contrast" if D is lar%er than the rise time" I will ne(er fall bac* to 4ero" so it will be contin'o's" and ha(e a DC a(era%e (al'e$ The c'rrent will not be constant" howe(er" b't will ha(e a ri le$

/t hi%h fre&'encies" 0 t'rns on and off (er# &'ic*l#" re%ardless of D" s'ch that the c'rrent does not ha(e time to decrease (er# far before the (olta%e is t'rned bac* on$ The res'ltin% c'rrent thro'%h the solenoid is therefore considered to be constant$ 5# ad)'stin% the D" the amo'nt of o't 't c'rrent can be controlled$ With a small D" the c'rrent will not ha(e m'ch time to rise before the hi%h fre&'enc# PW- (olta%e ta*es effect and the c'rrent sta#s constant$ With a lar%e D" the c'rrent will be able to rise hi%her before it becomes constant$

W+6 T+E PW- 3REJUENC6 IS I-PORT/NT1 The PW- is a lar%e am lit'de di%ital si%nal that swin%s from one (olta%e e:treme to the other$ /nd" this wide (olta%e swin% ta*es a lot of filterin% to smooth o't$ When the PWfre&'enc# is close to the fre&'enc# of the wa(eform that #o' are %eneratin%" then an# PWfilter will also smooth o't #o'r %enerated wa(eform and drasticall# red'ce its am lit'de$ So" a %ood r'le of th'mb is to *ee the PW- fre&'enc# m'ch hi%her than the fre&'enc# of an# wa(eform #o' %enerate$ 3inall#" filterin% 'lses is not )'st abo't the 'lse fre&'enc# b't abo't the d't# c#cle and how m'ch ener%# is in the 'lse$ The same filter will do better on a low or hi%h d't# c#cle 'lse com ared to a L8S d't# c#cle 'lse$ 5eca'se the wider 'lse has more time to inte%rate to a stable filter (olta%e and the smaller 'lse has less time to dist'rb it the ins iration was a re&'est to control the s eed of a lar%e ositi(e dis lacement f'el 'm $ The 'm was si4ed to allow f'll ower of a boosted en%ine in e:cess of G88 + $

/t idle or hi%hwa# cr'ise" this same en%ine needs far less f'el #et the 'm still normall# s' lies the same amo'nt of f'el$ /s a res'lt the f'el %ets rec#cled bac* to the f'el tan*" 'nnecessaril# heatin% the f'el$ This PW- controller circ'it is intended to r'n the 'm at a low s eed settin% d'rin% low ower and allow f'll 'm s eed when needed at hi%h en%ine ower le(els$ PW- CONTROLLER 3E/TURES1 This controller offers a basic V+i S eedW and VLow S eedW settin% and has the o tion to 'se a VPro%ressi(eW increase between Low and +i s eed$ Low S eed is set with a trim ot inside the controller bo:$ Normall# when installin% the controller" this s eed will be set de endin% on the minim'm s eed,load needed for the motor$ Normall# the controller *ee s the motor at this Lo S eed e:ce t when Pro%ressi(e is 'sed and when +i S eed is commanded (see below!$ Low S eed can (ar# an#where from 8S PW- to 788S$ Pro%ressi(e control is commanded b# a 8=L (olt in 't si%nal$ This starts to increase PWS from the low s eed settin% as the 8=L (olt si%nal climbs$ This si%nal can be %enerated from a throttle osition sensor" a -ass /ir 3low sensor" a -anifold /bsol'te Press're sensor or an# other wa# the 'ser wants to create a 8=L (olt si%nal$ This f'nction co'ld be set to increase f'el 'm ower as t'rbo boost starts to climb (-/P sensor!$ Or" if controllin% a water in)ection 'm " Low S eed co'ld be set at 4ero PW-S and as the TPS si%nal climbs it co'ld increase PW-S" effecti(el# increasin% water flow to the en%ine as en%ine load increases$ This controller co'ld e(en be 'sed as a secondar# in)ector dri(er (se(eral in)ectors co'ld be dri(en in a batch mode" hi im edance onl#!" with Pro%ressi(e control (8=788S! #o' co'ld control their o't 't for f'el or water with the 8=L (olt si%nal$ Pro%ressi(e control adds enormo's fle:ibilit# to the 'se of this controller$ +i S eed is that same as hard wirin% the motor to a stead# 7< (olt DC so'rce$ The controller is ro(idin% 788S PW-" stead# 7< (olt DC ower$ +i S eed is selected three different wa#s on this controller1 7! +i S eed is a'tomaticall# selected for abo't one second when ower %oes on$ This %i(es the motor f'll tor&'e at the start$ If needed this time can be increased ( the (al'e of C7 wo'ld need to be increased!$ <! +i%h S eed can also be selected b# a l#in% 7< (olts to the +i%h S eed si%nal wire$ This %i(es +i S eed re%ardless of the Pro%ressi(e si%nal$

SINUSOID/L PULSE WIDT+ -ODUL/TION1 In man# ind'strial a lications" Sin'soidal P'lse Width -od'lation (SPW-!" also called Sine coded P'lse Width -od'lation" is 'sed to control the in(erter o't 't (olta%e$ SPWmaintains %ood erformance of the dri(e in the entire ran%e of o eration between 4ero and DC ercent of the (al'e that wo'ld be reached b# s&'are=wa(e o eration$ If the mod'lation inde: e:ceeds this (al'e" linear relationshi between mod'lation inde: and o't 't (olta%e is not maintained and the o(er=mod'lation methods are re&'ired SP/CE 0ECTOR PULSE WIDT+ -ODUL/TION1 / different a roach to SPW- is based on the s ace (ector re resentation of (olta%es in the d" & lane$ The d" & com onents are fo'nd b# Par* transform" where the total ower" as well as the im edance" remains 'nchan%ed$ 3i%1 s ace (ector shows C s ace (ectors in accordin% to C switchin% ositions of in(erter" 0U is the hase=to=center (olta%e which is obtained b# ro er selection of ad)acent (ectors 07 and 0<$

In(erter o't 't (olta%e s ace (ector

Determination of Switchin% times The reference s ace (ector 0U is %i(en b# E&'ation (7!" where T7" T< are the inter(als of a lication of (ector 07 and 0< res ecti(el#" and 4ero (ectors 08 and 0D are selected for T8$ 0U T4 N 07 UT7 K 0< UT< K 08 U(T8,<! K 0D U(T8,<!XXX$(E! SP/CE 0ECTOR PULSE WIDT+ -ODUL/TION (CONTINUED! 3i%$ below shows that the in(erter switchin% state for the eriod T7 for (ector 07 and for (ector 0<" res'ltin% switchin% atterns of each hase of in(erter are shown in 3i%$ 'lse attern of s ace (ector PW-$

In(erter switchin% state for (a!07" (b! 0<

P'lse attern of S ace (ector PW-

CO-P/RISON In 3i%1= com arison" U is the hase to= center (olta%e containin% the tri le order

harmonics that are %enerated b# s ace (ector PW-" and U7 is the sin'soidal reference (olta%e$ 5't the tri le order harmonics are not a eared in the hase=to= hase (olta%e as well$ This leads to the hi%her mod'lation inde: com ared to the SPW-$ CO-P/RISON O3 SPW- /ND SP/CE 0ECTOR PW/s mentioned abo(e" SPW- onl# reaches to DC ercent of s&'are wa(e o eration" b't the am lit'de of ma:im'm ossible (olta%e is F8 ercent of s&'are=wa(e in the case of s ace (ector PW-$ The ma:im'm hase=to=center (olta%e b# sin'soidal and s ace (ector

PW- are res ecti(el# 0ma: N 0dc,< 1 Sin'soidal PW0ma: N 0dc,YA 1 S ace 0ector PWWhere" 0dc is DC=Lin* (olta%e$ This means that S ace 0ector PW- can rod'ce abo't 7L ercent hi%her than Sin'soidal PW- in o't 't (olta%e$

S0- PW- TEC+NIJUE1 The P'lse Width mod'lation techni&'e ermits to obtain three hase s#stem (olta%es" which can be a lied to the controlled o't 't$ S ace 0ector -od'lation (S0-! rinci le differs from other PW- rocesses in the fact that all three dri(e si%nals for the in(erter will be created sim'ltaneo'sl#$ The im lementation of S0o eration time and also less ro%ram memor#$ The S0- al%orithm is based on the rinci le of the s ace (ector 'U" which describes all three o't 't (olta%es 'a" 'b and 'c 1 'U N <,A $ ( 'a K a $ 'b K a< $ 'c ! XXX(L! rocess in di%ital s#stems necessitates less

Where a N =7,< K ) $ (A,< We can distin%'ish si: sectors limited b# ei%ht discrete (ectors '8X'D (fi%1= in(erter o't 't (olta%e s ace (ector!" which corres ond to the <A N C ossible switchin% states of the ower switches of the in(erter$

S ace (ector -od'lation

The am lit'de of '8 and 'D e&'als 8$ The other (ectors '7X'G ha(e the same am lit'de and are G8 de%rees shifted$ 5# (ar#in% the relati(e on=switchin% time Tc of the different (ectors" the s ace (ector 'U and also the o't 't (olta%es 'a" 'b and 'c can be (aried and is defined as1 'a N Re ( 'U ! 'b N Re ( 'U $ a=7! 'c N Re ( 'U $ a=<! XXXX(G!

D'rin% a switchin% eriod Tc and considerin% for e:am le the first sector" the (ectors '8" '7 and '< will be switched on alternati(el#$

Definition of the S ace (ector De endin% on the switchin% times t8" t7 and t< the s ace (ector 'U is defined as1 'U N 7,Tc $ ( t8 $ '8 K t7 $ '7 K t< $ '< ! 'U N t8 $ '8 K t7 $ '7 K t< $ '< 'U N t7 $ '7 K t< $ '< Where t8 K t7 K t< N Tc and t8 K t7 K t< N 7 t8" t7 and t< are the relati(e (al'es of the on switchin% times$ The# are defined as1 t7 N m$ cos (a K ,G! t< N m$ sin a t8 N 7 = t7 = t< XXXX$$ (D!

Their (al'es are im lemented in a table for a mod'lation factor m N 7$ Then it will be eas# to calc'late the s ace (ector 'U and the o't 't (olta%es 'a" 'b and 'c$ The (olta%e (ector 'U can be ro(ided directl# b# the o timal (ector control laws w7" ( sa and (sb$ In order to %enerate the hase (olta%es 'a" 'b and 'c corres ondin% to the desired (olta%e (ector 'U the followin% S0- strate%# is ro osed$

VISION PROJECT:
THREE-LEVEL INVERTER ANALYSIS / three=le(el in(erter to ascertain the differences between it and a con(entional two=le(el in(erter 3or a three= hase three=le(el in(erter" a str'ct're similar to that 'sed with 7< electronic de(ices (I;5T! is needed (3i%$ 7!$ Each hase will switch across three (olta%e le(els (K0 dc,<" 8" and =0dc,<!$ In a str'ct're s'ch as this the ma:im'm (olta%e across the I;5T is limited to half the ma:im'm dc lin* (olta%e (0dc,<!$ This occ'rs beca'se the I;5Ts are connected to the ne'tral oint (-P! b# two fast diodes called ne'tral clam diodes$

3i% $7$ Three= hase three=le(el in(erter to olo%#" in which each hase switches across three (olta%e le(els$

Three= hase two=le(el=in(erter (PW-!=%eneration al%orithms can also be a lied to m'ltile(el in(erters$ The al%orithms with a trian%'lar carrier wa(eform rod'ce the best benefits in terms of harmonic distortion red'ction" i$e$ a three=le(el in(erter needs both a carrier and a reference$ In this case the n'mber of trian%'lar carriers is e&'al to L=7" where L is the n'mber of (olta%e le(els$ 3or a three= hase three=le(el in(erter this means that two trian%'lar carriers and one sin'soidal reference are needed$ Three alternati(e PW- strate%ies with differin% hase relationshi s can be 'sed for a three=le(el in(erter1 /lternati(e hase=o hase=shifted b# 7C8Z$ THREE-LEVEL INVERTER BENEFITS Phase=o osition dis ositions (POD!" where the carriers abo(e the reference 4ero oint osition dis osition (/POD!" where carriers in ad)acent bands are

are 7C8Z o't of hase with those below 4ero$ Phase dis osition (PD!" where all carriers are in hase across all bands$ PD strate%# is 'sed most fre&'entl# beca'se it rod'ces minim'm harmonic distortion for the line=to=line o't 't (olta%e$ Trian%'lar carriers and sin'soidal reference rofiles" as well as I;5T and NCD c'rrent rofiles" are shown in 3i%$<

3i%$ <$ Phase dis osition (PD! three=le(el in(erter" where all carriers are in hase across all bands and c'rrents rofiles$

/ three=le(el in(erter a ears to com rise hi%hl# com le: circ'itr# com ared with a two= le(el in(erter$ The res'ltin% technical and economic ad(anta%es" howe(er" are the reasons wh# the 'se of three=le(el in(erters is stron%l# recommended$ / three=le(el in(erter feat'res an I;5T with a lower re(erse=bloc*in% (olta%e1 G88 0 instead of 7"<88 0$ The G88=0 chi s are normall# faster and thinner than 7"<88=0 chi s$ The silicon in a three=le(el in(erter therefore has lower switchin% losses and a lower forward=(olta%e dro " the total losses er sin%le arm of the three=le(el in(erter are G8S lower than those of the two=le(el in(erter$ J< and JA switchin% losses are ne%li%ible$ D7 and DE diodes carr# a (er# low c'rrent (al'e since the c'rrent of J7 comm'tes to DL> the c'rrent of JE comm'tes to DG" and the c'rrent of J< comm'tes to JA$ Clam diodes carr# the f'll load c'rrent$

3i%$A$ o(erall losses as a f'nction of the switchin% fre&'enc# for a sin%le in(erter le% (AL (s$<L !