LargeScale Propagation Loss

1. Wave propagation models

1. LargeScale Path Loss Model (includes shadowing) :
It is the decay in signal strength due to distance between Tx and Rx. Remember the formula
Pr(d)=Pr(d
o
)(d
o
/d)
n
. this decay is gradual with distance and slow in nature and can be noticed
for relatively long distances and long time intervals.
Shadowing is the random variation in signal strength which is also slow in nature and gradual
with distance.
2. SmallScale fading:
It is the fast and random variations of signal strength due to multipath propagation and
movement of mobile station or the surrounding environment. It occurs over small distances
(fractions of a wavelength) and is fast in nature.
2. Free Space Propagation Model
By free space we mean that the path between Tx and Rx is clear lineofsight (no obstructions),
and that there are no objects in the surrounding of this path.
When this is the case, the received power is given by Friis formula (assuming no loss in antennas or
other equipment):
( )
2
2
r t t
r
d 4
G G P
) d ( P
t

=

P
t
and P
r
are transmitted and received powers (Watt), G
t
and G
r
are transmitter and receiver antenna
gains (dimensionless), d is distance between transmitter and receiver (m), and is the wavelength
(m).
Friis formula is valid only for farfield (or Fraunhofer region), that is when d is very large
compared to or to largest dimension (D) of transmitter antennaby largest dimension (D) we mean
Path loss
Path loss+shadowing
Path loss+shadowing
+fading
the largest distance between any two points on the surface of antenna, for rectangular shaped
antenna its the diagonal while for elliptical shaped its the major axis.etc.
Farfield is given by:

>
2
D 2
d

Gain of antenna is given by:
2
e
A 4
G

t
=

A
e
is the effective area of antenna (m
2
)front area of a dish receiver for example. A
e
is then
t

=
4
G
A
2
e

The quantity P
t
G
t
is called the Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP). Directional transmitter
antenna concentrates power in the direction of propagation and reduces power transmitted in other
directions. When compared to isotropic antenna, the amount of power radiated in the direction of
propagation is therefore more than that radiated by isotropic antenna (of course the power radiated
in other directions is less than that radiated by isotropic antenna, directional antenna only
concentrates power and does NOT add power to wave)
( ) Watt G P EIRP
t t
=

The power density (in Watt/m
2
) at the receiver antenna (just before it is collected by antenna) P
d
is
given by
2
t t
2
d
d 4
G P
d 4
EIRP
) d ( P
t
=
t
=

The received power P
r
(d) (in Watt) is the product of the power density P
d
(Watt/m
2
) by receiver
antenna effective area A
e
(m
2
)
( )
2
2
r t t
2
r
2
t t
e d r
d 4
G G P
4
G
d 4
G P
A ) d ( P ) d ( P
t

=
t

t
= =

which is the Friis formula again.
Power density P
d
(d) and electric field intensity E(d) at distance (d) from transmitter antenna are
related by:
t
= =
120
)] d ( E [
R
)] d ( E [
) d ( P
2
fs
2
d

The path loss, PL(d), is the ratio of transmitted to received power and is greater than one.
2
r t
2
r
t
G G
) d 4 (
) d ( P
P
) d ( PL

t
= =

In dB the formula becomes
| |
( )
(

t

=
(

t
=
2
2
r t
2
r t
2
d 4
G G
log 10
G G
) d 4 (
log 10 dB ) d ( PL

If we know the received power P(d
o
) at distance d
o
(d
o
in farfield), then we can compute the
received power P
r
(d) at any distance d>d
o
.
2
o
o r r
d
d
) d ( P ) d ( P
|
.
|

\
|
=

In dB
| | | | ) d log( 20 ) d log( 20 dB ) d ( P dB ) d ( P
o o r r
+ =

Usually d
o
is taken to be 1m for indoor propagation and 100m or 1km for outdoor propagation.
dB, dBW, and dBm
For power calculations:
dB (or dBW) is a unit of power compared to one Watt and is given by
| | | | | |) Watt P log( 10 dBW P dB P = =

While dBm is a unit of power compared to one milliWatt
| | | | | | | | 30 dBW P ) Watt P 10 log( 10 ) mW P log( 10 dBm P
3
+ = = =

For power ratios (like gain or loss):
Only dB is used (NOT dBW NOR dBm)
| |
| |
| |
| | ( ) | | ( ) | | | | dBW P dBW P Watt P log 10 Watt P log 10
Watt P
Watt P
log 10 dB ratio Power
2 1 2 1
2
1
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

The same power ration results if we divide mW over mW or Watt over Watt
| |
| |
| |
| | ( ) | | ( ) | | | | dBm P dBm P mW P log 10 mW P log 10
mW P
mW P
log 10 dB ratio Power
2 1 2 1
2
1
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

In other words
| | | | | | | | | | dBm P dBm P dBW P dBW P dB ratio Power
2 1 2 1
= =


Example 4.1
f=900MHz, largest dimension of transmitter antenna D=1m, find farfield distance?
Solution
d > (2D
2
/) d > (2(1)
2
/(310
8
/90010
6
) d > 6m


Example 4.2
P
t
=50 Watts, G
t
=G
r
=1, f=900 MHz find a) P
t
in dBm b) P
t
in dBW c) P
r
(100m) and P
r
(1km).
Assume free space propagation
Solution
P
t
[dBm]=10log(501000)=10log(50)+10log(1000)=17+30= 47dBm
P
t
[dBW]=10log(50)=10log(50)=17dBW
or
P
t
[dBW]= P
t
[dBm]30 = 4730= 17dBW

3. Propagation Mechanisms
Reflection, diffraction, and scattering.
Reflection: when wave falls on a smooth surface which is also large compared to wavelength,
ex: earth surface, buildings, walls,etc.
Diffraction: bending of propagating wave when hitting sharp edges, ex: mountain peaks, edges
of wallsetc.
Scattering: when wave falls on rough surface or when dimension of surface is small compared to
wavelength, ex: street signs, tree leafs, walking peopleetc.
4. Reflection
When a wave travels from one medium to another, part of it is reflected back into the first medium
and the other part is refracted (or transmitted) through the second medium. The amount of
reflected or transmitted parts depend on polarization (parallel or perpendicular) of wave,
permittivity () and permeability () of both media, and angle of incident
i
. In conductors, it
depends on conductivity () and frequency (f) as well.
We will consider transverse EM plane waves. In such waves E and H are orthogonal to each other
and direction of propagation is orthogonal to plane containing E an H. We define plane of
incidence as the plane containing the incident, the reflected, and the transmitted waves. In the
figure shown it is the plane of the paper.
A wave is said to be parallel polarized if the electric field E is contained in the plane of incidence,
figure (a).A wave is said to be perpendicular polarized if the electric field E is perpendicular to the
plane of incidence, figure (b).
We are interested in two cases, when first medium is air or vacuum (
1
=
o
,
1
=
o
,
1
=0) and
second medium is perfect dielectric (
2
=
r

o
and
2
=
o

2
=0). The other case is when first medium
is air or vacuum and the other medium is a perfect conductor (
2
= )
In both cases,
r i
u = u

And in the case of reflection from perfect dielectric
) 90 sin( ) 90 sin(
t 2 2 i 1 1
u c = u c

Or, since we assumed
1
=
2
=
o
,
1
=
o
, and
2
=
r

o

) 90 sin( ) 90 sin(
t r i
u c = u

Or
) cos( ) cos(
t r i
u c = u

Here
i
,
r
, and
t
are measured with respect to surface of boundary (NOT the normal of
boundary).
What about the amount of the reflected wave?
At the surface of boundary we have the following relation
i r
E E I =

is called Fresnel reflection coefficient, and its value depends on polarization of incident wave.
For parallel polarized wave (again we are assuming
1
=
2
=
o
,
1
=
o
, and
2
=
r

o
)
) ( cos ) sin(
) ( cos ) sin(
i
2
r i r
i
2
r i r
||
u c + u c
u c u c
= I

While for perpendicular polarized wave we have
) ( cos ) sin(
) ( cos ) sin(
i
2
r i
i
2
r i
u c + u
u c u
= I

Note that
r
1 for any medium
What if E field is neither contained in, nor perpendicular to surface of incidence?
In this case we decompose the wave into two components, parallel and perpendicular and deal
with each component separately.
If we plot the magnitudes of
||
and

as function of
i
for fixed values of
r
we get the following
graphs
Note that there is a value of
i
that makes
||
equal to zero, this value of
i
is called the Brewster
angle
B
. (for

there is no such value of

i
that makes it zero)
Solving for
||
= 0, we get
1
1
1
1
r
2
r
r
B
+ c
=
c
c
= u



Example 4.4
Find
||
and

when
i
approaches zero and medium 1 is free space and medium 2 is perfect
dielectric.
Solution:
1
) 0 ( cos ) 0 sin(
) 0 ( cos ) 0 sin(
2
r r
2
r r
||
=
c + c
c c
= I

1
) 0 ( cos ) 0 sin(
) 0 ( cos ) 0 sin(
2
r
2
r
=
c +
c
= I

This is an important result since for wireless communications usually the distance between Tx
and Rx is very large compared to antenna heights and the angle of incidence
i
is very small and can
be approximated as zero.

Reflection from perfect conductors
When medium 2 is a perfect conductor ( = ), then
||
=1 and

= 1. Both are constants and are

independent of
i
.
5. Ground Reflection (2ray) Model
In the previous chapter we used n=4 for path loss exponent, in this section well see why. We will
derive the 2ray formula from free space formula.
First we need to know how the electric filed decays with distance (d) in free space. So
| |
t
=
t
=
120
) d ( E
d 4
EIRP
) d ( P
2
o
2
o
o d

| |
t
=
t
=
120
) d ( E
d 4
EIRP
) d ( P
2
2
d

Dividing the two equations we get
d
d
) d ( E ) d ( E
o
o
=

Remember that E(d) and E(d
o
) are the amplitudes of a sinusoidal electric component of an EM wave
and are always positive.
Now consider the situation in which Rx antenna receives a lineofsight (LOS) and a ground
reflected versions of the same transmitted signal as shown.
Each one of the two paths alone is represented by freespace model. Heights of Tx and Rx antennas
are h
t
and h
r
. The ground distance between Tx and Rx towers is (d), while the LOS distance
between Tx and Rx antennas is (d) which can be more than (d) because h
t
and h
r
are not necessarily
equal. The distance traveled by the reflected path is (d) which is clearly larger than (d). We define
=dd.
2
r t
2 2
r t
2
) h h ( d ) h h ( d d d + + + = ' ' ' = A

can be approximated by (this is the first approximation)
d
h h 2
r t
~ A

If the magnitude of a freespace model electric field is given at some reference point (d
o
) then the
magnitudes of LOS and reflected paths are
d
d E
d
d
) d ( E E
o o o
o LOS
'
=
'
=

d
d E
d
d
) d ( E E
o o o
o g
' '
I =
' '
I =

What about phaseshift? Phaseshift between LOS path and reflected path is given by

A
t = u
A
2

can be calculated using the exact or the approximate values of .

So if the electric field received by LOS is considered to be at zero phase as
( ) t cos
d
d E
c
o o
e
'
then the
electric field received by reflected path is
( )
A
u e
' '
I t cos
d
d E
c
o o
We will use phasor diagram, but before that, if (d) is very large compared to h
t
and h
r
then (d), (d)
and (d) are close to each other and hence
d
d E
d
d E
d
d E
o o o o o o
' '
~
'
~

In other words the amplitudes of the two received signals are almost equal. Still though, there is a
significant difference in the phases.
The total electric field at the receiver is the phasor sum of the LOS and reflected waves. We will
assume that (d) is large and so
i
0 and = 1.
|
.
|

\
|
u
=
u =
t u + + =
t u Z + Z =
u Z Z =
u Z

+ Z =
u Z I + Z = + =
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
2
sin
d
d E
2
) cos( 2 2
d
d E
) cos( ) 1 )( 1 ( 2 1 1
d
d E
) ( 1 0 1
d
d E
1 0 1
d
d E
d
d E
0
d
d E
d
d E
0
d
d E
E E ) d ( E
o o
o o
2 2 o o
o o
o o
o o o o
o o o o
g LOS TOT

When

/2<0.3 rad, we can use the approximation sin(

/2)

/2 (this is 2nd approx.). Note that

when

>

t
> <

t
<

A t
<
u
A r t r t r t
h h 20
d
3 . 0
h h 2
d 3 . 0
d
h h 2
3 . 0 3 . 0
2

In this case
2
o o r t r t o o o o o o o o
TOT
d
1 d E h h 4
d
h h 2
d
d E
2
d
d E
2
2 d
d E
2
2
sin
d
d E
2 ) d ( E

t
=

t
~

A t
=
u
~
|
.
|

\
|
u
=
A A
Whats important here is that E
TOT
now decays as (1/d
2
) not as (1/d) as was the case with freespace
model. Moreover, E
TOT
now depends on (), which was not the case for freespace.
Since we used freespace model to find E(d
o
), the power density at (d
o
) can be written as
t
=
t
=
120
E
d 4
G P
) d ( P
2
o
2
o
t t
o d

This means that we can write
( )
30
d E
120
E d 4
G P
2
o o
2
o
2
o
t t
=
t
t
=

What about the TOTAL power density resulting from E
TOT
which is composed of both E
LOS
and E
g
?
t
|
.
|

\
|

t
=
t
=
120
1
d
1 d E h h 4
120
E
) d ( P
2
2
o o r t
2
TOT
d

Finally the received power is
( )
4
2
r
2
t r t t
4
2
r
2
t r
2
o o
2
2
r
2
2
o o r t
2
r
2
TOT
e d r
d
h h G G P
d
h h G
30
d E
480
G
d
1 d E h h 4
4
G
120
E
A ) d ( P ) d ( P = =
t

|
.
|

\
|

t
=
t

t
= =


Example:4.6
d=5km, G
r
=2.55 dB, d
o
=1km, E
o
=10
3
V/m, f=900MHz, h
t
=50m, h
r
=1.5m. Find P
r
(5km)?
Solution:
( )
( )
Watt 10 54 . 0
5000
) 5 . 1 ( 50 10
30
1000 10 1
) km 5 ( P
d
h h G
30
d E
) d ( P
12
4
2 2 255 . 0
2
3
r
4
2
r
2
t r
2
o o
r

=

=
=





6. Diffraction
Any wave (including EM waves) that is
obstructed by an obstacle can propagate
around this obstacle and reach into the
shadow region, this phenomenon is
called diffraction.
Diffraction can be explained by
Huygens principle which states that:
we can think of the propagating EM
wave as small point sources located at
the wavefront, these small point
sources radiate small EM waves. If we
sum the vectors of these small EM
waves, we get the original EM wave.
Huygens principle is a simplified
model to deal with EM waves.


Knifeedge diffraction model
To study diffraction mathematically, we will use a simplified method in which we represent
mountains, buildings, etc by a knifeedge. The knife edge is supposed to be very thin and extends
infinitely in and out of the page plane.
The question is: what is the value of the electric field with the presence of the knifeedge obstacle?
The answer is in terms of the freespace electric field E
o
which is the electric field in absence of the
knifeedge obstacle or any other obstacle including earth surface. So we will use the free space
model to find E
o
.
t
=
t
=
120
E
d 4
G P
) d ( P
2
o
2
t t
d

d
G P 30
E
t t
o
=

Now we find E
d
, the electric field with the presence of the knifeedge.
o d
E ) v ( F E =

F(v) is called the complex Fresnel integral.
How to find F(v)?
First we define (v), the FresnelKirchoff diffraction parameter. In the figure above we assume h
r
<h
t

(it can be also h
t
<h
r
). We simplify the geometry by subtracting the minimum of h
t
and h
r
from all
heights given in the figure. Whats important is the lineofsight distance between transmitter and
knifeedge which is approximately equal to ground distance (d
1
), also the lineofsight distance
Wave front Wave front
small sources
obstacle
shadow region
covered by
diffracted waves
between receiver and knife edge which is also very near to (d
2
), (here we are assuming that d
1
and
d
2
are much larger than h
t
and h
r
). Important too is the height of the knifeedge above the lineof
sight (h). Note that (h) can be zero if knifeedge is on lineofsight, or it can be negative if knife
edge is under lineofsight.
Now we define (v) as
( )
2 1
2 1
d d
d d 2
h v

+
=


At the end we calculate F(v), the Fresnel complex integral, as
h
r

h
t

h
t
h
r

h
obs

small sources
(Huygens)
Diffracted waves (vector summation
of small waves from small sources)
h
t
h
r

d
1
d
2

d
1
d
2

d
1

d
2

h=h
obs
h
r

h
t
h
r

d
1
d
2

h=0
h
t
h
r

d
1
d
2

(h) negative
d
d
1

d
1

d
2

d
2

( )
( )
}

t +
=
v
2
dt )
2
t j
exp(
2
j 1
v F

Dont worry! We will not evaluate this difficult integral. Instead, we will use a graph that represent
the dB value of F(v) versus (v). The dB value of F(v) is called the diffraction gain G
d
(v).
( ) ) v ( F log 20 v G
d
=

Here we use 20log[] and not 10log[] since it is not a power ratio.

Example:4.7
=1/3 m, d
1
=1km, d
2
=1km, find diffraction loss for a) h=25m, b) h=0, c) h=25m.
Solution:
a)
( ) ( )
74 . 2
) 1000 )( 1000 )( 3 / 1 (
1000 1000 2
25
d d
d d 2
h v
2 1
2 1
~
+
=

+
=

Using the graph we find diffraction gain G
d
to be approximately 22 dB (or diffraction loss is 22
dB)
b) h=0 so v=0, using graph the diffraction loss is 6dB
c)
( ) ( )
74 . 2
) 1000 )( 1000 )( 3 / 1 (
1000 1000 2
25
d d
d d 2
h v
2 1
2 1
~
+
=

+
=

Using the graph we find diffraction loss to be approximately 0 dB


Example:4.8
f=900 MHz
a) find diffraction loss
b) find obstacle height required to
induce 6dB diffraction loss.
Solution:
a) h=75m25m2km/12km=70.8m
( )
25 . 4
) 2000 )( 10000 )( 3 / 1 (
2000 10000 2
8 . 70 v ~
+
=

Using graph we find that diffraction
gain G
d
26dB or diffraction loss is
26dB.
b) From graph we find that to get diffraction loss of 6dB (G
d
6dB) we need h=0, which means that
the obstacle edge is exactly on the LOS between Tx and Rx. This means that
h
obs
=25+25m2km/12km=29.17m.

Fresnel Zone
The path length difference between
lineofsight and diffracted signal ()
is given by
( ) ( )
|
|
.
|

\
| +
~
+ + + ~ A
2 1
2 1
2
2 1
2 2
2
2 2
1
d d
d d
2
h
d d h d h d

The phase difference between lineof
sight signal and diffracted signal is
given by
|
|
.
|

\
| +

t
~ A

t
= |
2 1
2 1
2
d d
d d h 2

We are looking for values of (h) that makes the phase difference between LOS and diffracted path
equal to multiples of , that is
t = | n
, which correspond to constructive and destructive
interference cases. These values of (h) are called Fresnel distances of order (n), or simply r
n
.
Solving for
t = | n
we get
( )
2 1
2 1
n
d d
d d n
r
+

=

50m
25m
100m
h
10km 2km
75m
h
t

h
r

h
d
1
d
2

d
1

d
2

2 2
1
h d + ~
2 2
2
h d + ~
LOS
If we find r
n
for all possible d
1
, d
2
(remember d
1
+d
2
=d), we end up with an ellipsoid for each (n).
These ellipsoids have the transmitter and receiver antennas at their foci as shown.

Recall that
( )
2 1
2 1
d d
d d 2
h v

+
=

then
2
v
2
t
= |

Now, what are the values of v (or h) after which F(v) keep decreasing below 0dB? (in other words,
the diffracted signal strength keeps falling below LOS strength?)
From the graph we find that after v = 0.8, F(v) keeps decreasing below 0dB. This value of (v)
corresponds to
( ) ( )
1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
r 57 . 0
d d
d d
2
8 . 0
d d 2
d d
8 . 0 h =
+

=
+

=

In other words, in order to guarantee diffracted signal to be equal in strength to LOS signal, we
have to keep obstacles outside 57% of the first Fresnel zone, or approximately 55% (sometimes its
taken as 60%).
7. Scattering
Scattering is the reflection of EM wave from a rough surface, in this case the EM wave does not
reflect in one direction like in smooth reflection, but scatters in different directions. Question is,
when is a surface considered to be rough or smooth?
Rayleigh criterion answers this question. When the maximum separation between top and bottom
parts of the surface, called (h) is greater than the critical height (h
c
), the surface is rough, otherwise
it is smooth. Critical height (h
c
) is given by
i
c
sin 8
h
u

=

n=1, or =
n=2, or =2 n=3, or =3
In this case, the reflected electric field intensity is less than that in the case of smooth (specular)
reflection. So the reflection coefficient must be multiplied by scattering loss factor (
s
)
I = I
s rough

s
<1
When the wave is scattered from a rough surface, the received power is computed in two steps. First
from transmitter to the rough surface for which we find the power density as
2
1
t t
1 d
d 4
G P
) d ( P
t
=

The power density at the reflector is multiplied by its effective area, called the Radar Cross Section
(RCS) in m
2
, which takes into account the reflection coefficient and the loss factor. The total power
reflected by the surface is then equal to
RCS
d 4
G P
RCS ) d ( P P
2
1
t t
1 d refl

t
= =

In the second step, this power is reradiated towards the receiver, and the received power is given
by
( )
2
2
2
1
3
2
r t t
2
2
2
1
2
r t t
Rx
2
2
refl
2 r
d d 4
RCS G G P
) 4 )( d 4 )( d 4 (
G RCS G P
A
d 4
P
) d ( P
t

=
t t t

=
t
=

h

i

d
1

d
2

d
1
d
2

RCS(m
2
)
8. Practical Path Loss Models
Logdistance Model
We know that the path loss exponent (n) is 2 for freespace and 4 for tworay model. In general (n)
can have other values depending on the environment surrounding the wave path. We define power
loss as
( ) ( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
+ =
=
o
o
r o r o r t
r t
d
d
log n 10 ] dB )[ d ( PL
] dB )[ d ( P ] dB )[ d ( P ] dB )[ d ( P ] dB [ P
] dB )[ d ( P ] dB [ P ] dB )[ d ( PL
PL(d
o
) is determined by site measurement or by using freespace model (although (n) is not
necessarily 2, we will use the freespace model as an approximation for PL(d
o
) only).
We want to apply the above formula in real life. In practice, the received power in a given
environment is not exactly equal to that calculated by this formula which was derived for ideal
cases. Two locations within the same environment (same path loss exponent n) and having same
distance (d) between Tx and Rx may have different actual path losses. In practice, random clutter
and variations between any two locations within the same environment cause these differences.
These random variations are called shadowing. Since shadowing is random, we will use statistical
models to describe it.
The above formula only gives a statistical average value, or mean value, of large scale path
loss. The exact path loss depends on shadowing which is random in nature. Shadowing is described
by probability density function. We will use overbars to indicate that these formulas only give
average values and not exact. Thus, the average power loss is
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
o
o
d
d
log n 10 ] dB )[ d ( PL ] dB )[ d ( PL

And the average received power is
] dB )[ d ( PL ] dB [ P ] dB [ ) d ( P
t r
=

Lognormal Shadowing
The random variations due to shadowing are Gaussian (or Normally) distributed around the mean
value. Any Gaussian distribution needs two parameters to be identified, meanvalue and standard
deviation. The mean value (at distance (d) from transmitter) is given by
] dB )[ d ( P
r
, and the standard
deviation is given in dB as ([dB]). Note that both the mean and standard deviation are in dB. The
Probability Density Function (pdf) of the received signal at distance (d) is thus
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
o

to
=
2
2
r
2
X
] dB [ ) d ( P x
exp
2
1
) x ( f

The probability that the received signal, P
r
(d)[dB], is greater than a specific value, [dB] (in dB
too), is given by
}

= > dx ) x ( f ] ) d ( P Pr[
X r

Again, we do not need to evaluate this integral; instead, we will use Qfunction tables.
|
|
.
|

\
|
o

= >
) d ( P
Q ] ) d ( P Pr[
r
r

Of course, the probability that P
r
(d) is less than is
|
|
.
|

\
|
o

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
o

= > = <
) d ( P
Q
) d ( P
Q 1 ] ) d ( P Pr[ 1 ] ) d ( P Pr[
r r
r r

Always remember: P
r
(d), , and all are in dB.

Example:4.9(c,d) modified!
The received power at some reference d
o
=100m was found to be 0dBm, n=4.4, =6.875dB. c) find
the average received power at d=2km d) find Pr[P
r
(2km)>60dBm)
Solution:
dB 25 . 57
m 100
km 2
log ) 4 . 4 ( 10 ] dB )[ m 100 ( P ] dB [ ) km 2 ( P
r r
=
|
.
|

\
|
=

65542 . 0 34458 . 0 1 ) 4 . 0 ( Q 1 ) 4 . 0 ( Q
dB 875 . 6
) dBm 25 . 57 ( dBm 60
Q ] dBm 60 ) d ( P Pr[
r
= = = =
|
.
|

\
|

= >

Note that the term (60dBm(57.25dBm)) = 2.75dB (not dBm!) which is the same if we convert
the 60dBm to 90dB and the 57.25dBm to 87.25dB then subtract them!