CHEMICAL

RECEEATIONS:
\

% ^o^ular Panual
OP

EXPERIMEFfAL
tf

CHEMISTRY.

BY

JOHN
FELLOW OF OF THE

JOSEPH
THE CHEMICAL

GRIFFIN,
80CIET7,
SOCIETT OF

HONORARY

MEMBER

PHILOSOPHICAL

OLASOOW.

TEE

TENTH

EDITION.

7IB8T

SIVI8I0F:

ELEMENTARY

EXPERIMENTS.

LONDON: PTBLISHED
10, FraSBUKY

BY

JOHN SQUARE
;

JOSEPH
119, 120, BUNHILL

GEIFFIN,
ROW.

1854.

""

""""!"

tf

A,
""

"*"

xx"mdon:

fbinted

bt

w,

clowss

and

soNSy 'Stamford

stbeet.

\ PEEFACE.

Experimental Cliemistryfor the use author has two classes of readers particularly in view, of beginners. The on attending Lectures or Lessons Chemistry, and namelyi Students ^ Schoolmasters who desire to teach the Elements of Chemistry, in Popular ^ Lectures or Experimental Lessons. Both of these classes of readers will in the following pages. 14ie author has enfind useful information y. those which most deavoured to elucidate subjects eflfeotively "2 urgently demand the notice of beginners. Thus, he has given ample accounts of and Common Useful while J" Air, Water, Earths, Acids, Metals, Salts, subjects of less importance are passed unnoticed. ' ^ The experiments selected to illustrate the subjects fixed upon are ^ be performed with and convincing, and such as can and striking facility "H economy. and safetyare to ensure The success precautionsnecessary far as possible, the experiments are exhibited of detailed, and, as by means J of and which o f new numerous figures apparatus, many simplified 4 represent intended to aid the researches of young chemists. "p^ instruments, specially the case with apparatus adapted to micro-chemistry, This is particularly the art of experimenting on minute or quantities. The chapters Elementary Experiments are written in a peculiar describing in what manner be the elements of practicial to show can style, chemistry The in schools. taught to large classes of students chapter on the is a sequel to the elementary experiments. Qualitive Analysis of Salts of very young Introduction It is an to Analysis for the use chemists. After mastering these chapters, the reader will easily comprehend the use of the work. of the Tables of Tests given in subsequent chapters
This
as a
, -

work' is offered

Manual

of

"

"

The

Tables

^vill

li^found

to

contain

mass

of useful

information,

conveyed,I hope, intelligibly. is not confined to chemical The experimentalportion of the work creations reincludes much to experiments of demonstration,but formation inor In particular, it embraces to analytical relating an processes. of fixed strength, of a new -method of preparing test liquors account and of applying such liquors, of graduated decimal measures, to the by means of and salts. This method of testingis acids, alcalies, rapid analysis to persons of chemistry and equally useful to students professionally the applications of which it is engaged in the chemical arts. Among is that of determining the strength and purity of chemical susceptible,
used preparations The author
in medicine. has

the

pleasingtask

of

favourable

receptionitccorded to nine

the editions this of work; preceding

expressinghis gratitudefor

184578

17

PBEr/VCE.

the Tenth to and, on presenting Edition, which be has endeavoured in the hope that it will render worthy of continued patronage,he indulges stillbe found entitled to rank with books of practical utility.

The

work

will be

in published

Three
"

Divisions
General

"

I. Elementary

Experiments.

Doctrines

of the Science ;

Introduction to Analysis; Chemical Manipulation ; Centigwuie Testing; Tables. II. The and their Combinations Metalloids with one another;
Air ; Water

III. The

Metals

Acids. ; The Gases ; The and their Compounds,

London, December^1853.

CONTENTS

OF

THE

FIRST

DIVISION.

PAGE

PAGB 1

INTRODUCTION and Use of ChemiBtry. Nature, Otjects, Beasons why Chemistry should be a branch
.......
....

1
.

Classification of Tests I. Indicating Tests A. For Metals

B. For Acids

71

71
71 78 82 84 91
. . . .

of generaleducation of Chemical Research Methods DUTerent Classes of Experiments Micro-Chemical Exi)eriments DUTerent sorts of Chemical Substances Elements Chemical Elements in plants and that occur The animals to mineral Elements substances peculiar The Cause of Chemical Combination Varieties of Compounds," Acids, Bases, Salts."c The Cause of Chemical Decomposition ATOMIC THEORY THE WEIGHTS ATOMIC
... .... . .
.

2 4 6 8 9 9 14
14

II. Confirming Tests

A. For
B. For

Metals Acids 80,

Table

of

Indicating Tests
PERFORMANCE EXPERIMENTS

81

Assay
ON

Note

72, 81
OF
BY

THE

ANALYTICAL MEANS
.

15 15 16 19 22 31 31 36 37

TEST 97 OF EQUIVALENT LIQUORS Apparatus required for CentigradeTesting 97 100 CentigradeTest Tubes Test-Mixers
101 101 98
.
.

"

...

Pipettes
Tables Measures of Standard Solutions Preparation Sulphuric Acid 100" Oxalic Add 50"
of Decimal
.

.108 .104 .105

ELEMENTARY Alterations
and

of

EXPERIMENTS Vegetable Colours

by

Acids

Muriatic Nitric

Acid Acid

100"
.

.111
.111 .111 .111 109
.

Alcalies

lOO'

Bleaching of Vegetable Colours by Chlorine Chemical Metamorphoties

EXAMPLES Solution OF CHEMICAL

Caustic Potash 100* Caustic Soda 100"

"

TIONS:" OPERA"r^
" .

Ammonia

49
"

Evaporation PrecipiUtion Testing DissolvingPowers Crystallisation

Efflorescence

51 51 51 of different

of Limits Alcalies Tableof the Solubilityof Acids.

100" Carbonate Carbonate of Soda 100" and the Solubilityof Acids

.

100" of Potash

103

103 105

.106

Liquids

..51
53 56 56 56

Deliquescence
Effervescence , Sublimation Filtration of Discrimination Mtaieral Bodies
. . . . .

'.

'

57 68

Table of the SolubQity of Alcalies .107 of Test Liquors Measure .108 Atomic 103 Test liquors of 100" Ill Test Liquors of 50" the process for Observations General on and Testing the strength of Acids Ill Alcalies
. . . . ..... . .

Vegetable,Anhnal,
SALTS

and 68
.

Table

of Test

Equivalents
in the Arts of Soda
. . .

114 .112
113

Chemical

Testing Vinegar

Testing of

Carbcmate

QUALITIVE

67 ^-uslysis for the exi)eriments 66, 84 Apparatus required 68 Preparationof a Solution of the Salt
. .

Substances Salts adapted for

ANALYSIS OF to be sou(^t for

65
65

113
.
.

and Marls. Limestones Miscellaneous Experiments with

113
.

"quiva"
50"
.

Liquors Experiments with Test liquors of

lent Test

116

.117

INTKODUCTIOS.

Cheuibtrv the

is the

science

which

makes

known
bodies.

to

us

the
of

propertiesof
the variom

particlesof component of substances, and of sorts

It exhibits
can

all natural the

exact

It treats of

determination

tlieir differeuces.

the

means

hy
from
to

which

be

separated
can

one

component parts of compound bodies of comthe elements another, or by which

the

ponnds
of the The

be the
can

made solid be of all

combine

together.

In

Sne,

it shows

hy
man.

what

contrivances world

objects
of all the of

which the constitute particles most beoeficiall}' applied to the inexhaustible. Chemistry are bodies which
act

material
service It of

substances

undertakes
the It and seeks

the
solid
to

examination
matter

upon

the

senses,

animal,

and vegetable,

mineral

substances. the number of

deterroine

propertiesof those
the particles,
all other

substances,
individual

proportion
components,

of their
and

component

nature

those

be produced by compounds which can their combination. So the objects of Chemistry varied infinitely are that it is an of everlastingsource occupation and amusement ; and the of the philosopher,it it receives attention while, on this account,

the

properties of

claims
and

the

notice the

of

all men, and

from

its

in utility

the arts life.

which

promote

support
The

comforts

existence

of civilized

evident
Datui'al

of Chemistry is rendered importance of the science considerations the It useful in explaining is by following : of the atmosphere, phenomena: for in determining the constitntion in investigating the changes to which the vailaticms it is suliiject,

great

"

IMPOETANT

TTSBS

OF

CHEMISTET.

of
is

and temperature,the laws of winds, dew, rain, bail,

our
"

snow.

Chemistry

only

satisfactory guide.

These

remarkable

changes in the face of

"

do not produce any emotion changes which, because familiar, chemical in the are mind, though in themselves trulywonderful be scale, and can only explained by operations on a .magnificent
nature

chemical

laws. researches into the nature

of
"

In man's

of the

whence things

he

derives

the

means

his comfort, his

existence

the

examining the the animal vegetable,and

in

his his luxuries,and even haj)piness, the which various objects mineral, compose

kingdoms Chemistry is essentially

"

for the successful progress of his inquiries. requisite In considering of Chemistry the application to the

improvement of
to
our

the
view.
most

arts

of civilized
So

a life,

wide

field of

contemplation opens
are

extensive, indeed, are

its influence and

"

importance, that,in

of the arts,many of the processes in some all that of some depend on chemical principles.The bare mention will suggest ample illustrations of its extensive utility. In the medical of a art, so great is the service
that Chemistry,
an

employed,
of these arts

its

is practical acquisition

now

essential

branch

of have

medical

education.

knowledge of as universally regarded In agriculture, recent

to

chemical

researches

established

that promise principles

be

In the art of benefit to mankind. by results of extraordinary metals their ores, in purifying and from combining them extracting with each other,and an whether for and metals forming instruments useful or ornamental almost all the processes are purely purposes The chemical. arts of glass and porcelain making, of tanning, soapChemistry ; and depend entirely making, dyeing, and bleaching, upon of the culinary all the processes in baking, and most distilling, brewing,

followed

"

"

arts, and

many operations. In

other

processes

in

domestic

economy,

are

chemical
or

short,wherever,in any of the processes

or

of nature
"

of
a

art, the accumulation

the diminution effected

"

of heat takes
"

place wherever
substances
in

sensible
and

change
are

is to be

by

heat

wherever
the
union

bination com-

separated new compounds are to be effected the operations and their results can chemical principles. on only be explained From this generalview of the extensive of chemical applications the the those which it considered science to who have not ^arts, objects will be enabled to judge of the importance of this study. embraces
the formation of
"

to be

wherever

of

simple substances

Reasons

why
"

Chemistry consider

should

become

stated
a

Branch

op

Education.
find of
no

^If we

as Chemistry purely

science, we
generous those who
out
more
more

shall
love
cessfully suc-

subject better
confers it. pursue

calculated

to

encourage

that

truth which

dignity and
is
no

on superiority

There

science
none

which which

holds

teresting in-

subjectsof research,and
of prooft the wisdom and

affords

striking

beneficence of

the Creator

of the universe.

EEASONS

FOE

STtDTIWa

CHEMISTEY.

constructed to the rrvstchine by human art,is admired, in proportioii and to the of its contrivance, of its usefulness, to the extent simplicity the worlds of man sink into nothing niceness of its adaptations.But When when brought into comparisonwith the works of nature. we

examine

the

former,every step
and

of

clumsiness rise perfection

our on

defect :

parative progress is obscured with comin contemplating behold the latter, we our

view.
a

It is
minuter

and more wonders perfection, exquisite that by its aid we the merit of Chemistry,

still
are

meeting
enabled

And we system of the universe. survey of the gi'eat find,so far as our limited powers can comprehendit,that the whole is. balanced and all its changestend to the most and that nicely adjusted,
to take

beneficial

purposes.

Circumstances

which,

on

view, superficial

were

and defects, closer inspection a seeming imperfections pointsout to be and surprising real excellencies. In all the singular which changes the observe and more we closely everywhere present themselves, admire the simplemeans do we examine them, the more by which they played diswisdom are accomplished,and the intelligent design and perfect
in the beneficial ends
to

which

theyare

directed.

To may

these considerations
add

the respecting
at
a

we importanceof Chemistry,

period when this science is takingits education, is not without proper placein schools as a branch of general This consideration is,that Chemistryis a subject its interest. qualified hands of the the mind and to train both people to habits of young It the order. that accurate teaches and doctrine industry, regularity,
another, which,
and
extensive

observation
exact

that careful and facts

to

of facts ; is necessary for the accumulation comparisonis necessary for the reduction of these that

generalstatements;
the relative value

estimating

points
chemist of any

where
must

is necessary in logicalprecision statements on problematical information is t he that, consequently, wanting ; positive of judgingaccording to circum" capable study to become

of various

and stantial evidence,

in that manner

habituate
come a

himself
under his

to

the formation

sound
one

opinions on
will consider of

all

that subjects
cannot

the

great value of
but

sound

ordinaryaffairs
argument

he life,
a

the appreciate

cognizana*. If judgment in the strengthof this

in favour of

chemical

education.

Againj

the

n^essityof

regardto deanJtiness in induce must gradually

faiost slovenly ; while thie different steps of

observingthe most scrupulousand constant to success, as being indispensable experimenting,

habits of
neatness

and

cleanliness

eVen

in

thd

unavoidable necessity of carrying on equally in and cautious an an orderly operation manner^ have a corresponding moral influence upon the of mttst most persons careless disposition. the of any advantages to be hoped for from the therefore, Independently, of the mere facts of Chemistry, out of view setting entirely possession the details of the science to either of the principles or the applications,
B

4 the

METHODS

or

CHEMICAL

BESEABCH.

commercial, prospective
in the mental is,

there

of the young student, scientific, pursaits and moral discipline which its study affords, high
or

inducements Methods

for
of

making Chemistrya
Chemical Research.

branch
"

of

generaleducation.
been

^It has

demonstrated

by

of chemists, that the marvellous the ejcperiments under

of appearance diversity

which

bodies
are

are

presentedto

are subject, small number ^The distinctive of unchangeable elementary particles. mark of the phenomena which of these particles, the nature properties their reactions,the methods of causing them to combine, the properties of decomposing these of the resulting compounds, and the methods the objects which the chemical student compounds, are, consequently, is called upon to investigate. methods of proceeding of chemical in the acquisition There are two these called and Analysis means are synthesis. analysis knowledge; the art of separating of compound bodies, Synthesis, the constituents the the art of forming or compounds, by the putting together^ effecting of their component and synthesis combination^ particles.Both analysis effected the are performingof certain processes or operaby practically tions,
"

to which

they

the eye, and the unceasing changes occasioned by the mutual i-eactions of a

'

"

thence The

called chemical
natural

operations.
bodies, whether
never

of properties
or

pound, native
be discovered
to

factitious, can

be

they be simpleor com* d priori; they can determined

an

onlyby
chemist

actual trial.

When

unknown
it to

substance
certain

is

trials^ presented a He certain for it. or operations examines, example, the performs upon and relation of the unknown water, acids,alcalies, body to heat, light,
other

for examination, he

submits

liquids. These
is
to

trials have

names particular

given to them,

for

the sake of convenience

in the communication

of

knowledge.

If

stance sub-

If heat,the operation is termed a ignition. exposed the subocance If the substance, melts,the operation is termed fusion. the operationis termed on being put into water, dissolves or disappears,
red SOLUTION,
is

and

the heat

is resulting liquid
so as

called
water

sdution.

If the solution the operation

exposed to
is termed

to

cause

the

to

rise in vapour,
so

evaporation

; or

if the

operation is
into

the

vapour

is collected and

reconverted
on

performed that water, the operation is

instead solution,

termed

distillation.

If,
a

the

contrary, the
with
some or

of

operation separate the solid powder from the resijdual liquid, througha porous substance,this by straining
PRECIPITATION

being exposed the production of

to

is mixed evaporation,

which liquid
the

causes

solid substance if
means

powder,
to

is called

; and

be

taken

is operation

termed

filtration.

of these operations communicates to the chemist a performance the properties certain degree of knowledge respecting of the substance If the substance melt when does not exposed to a operatedupon. of heat,it is said to be infus"de^If it does not dissolve strong degree The

3EXPXBIMEKTS

07

BESEABOH.

5 of description
to

when

in placed
a

it liquid,

is said to be insoiiihle, A

the

results of
substance.
to
a

series of such

experiments,is the chemical character of the

for the
go

We

cannot

account
can

thus found propei*ties

than

belong
of

substance.

Nq

chemist

farther

the ascertainment

of man is insufficientto determine simple facts. The sagacity why a fusible or infusible. The nature given substance is soluble or insoluble, the fusion which is unknown. causes of or And, solubility power to all physical indeed, this is the case with regard the phenomena : forces which produce them are unknown to man, exdpt by their effects. The more the operations performed upon a substance,the numerous the its properties is accurate more knowledge acquiredrespecting : provided the operationsbe suitably conducted. The properties of a substance be wholly known. Chemists begin with a single can never fact; their dailyexperience enlargestheir knowledge: but, at the best,tlfeir of any one acquaintancewith the properties body is but limited and until substance shall have been submitted Not a to the imperfect. all possiblevariations of action of every other substance, and under

temperatute, pressure,

add

so never

forth, will
be. The elements
many

its

properties be
we

wholly
possess

determined; and
the respecting

that

will

knowledge
and

of known properties
laboui's of

their

the notwithstanding
be in the

industrious

compounds, is, chemists, still

young
he

extremelyimperfect.No

chemist, however practical

may

science,can pursue his studies with even a moderate degree of without being enabled to add something almost daily to the existing *zeal,
stock of The intelligence. of strike the eye of an The first business

of unrecorded variety is industrious experimenter,

a

facts which indeed

continually

surprising.

with what
the

is

young chemist is to make himself acquainted determined known, with what has been already already by
concern

experiments of others. His next which no one else has yet discovered.
is Chemistry
a

will be

to

learn

something

science it

founded

person

can as

understand

unless he fully
benefit

its fundamental verify

never

entirely experiment that no upon performs such experipersonally ments of lectures, truths. The hearing and the
so

reading of books, will

for

him

who

attends

to

nothingelse

Chemistry can alone be studied to advantage practically.One and observed well conducted, Uxperimenty carefully by the student, from willafford more firt^t than the mere to last, of a whole knov/ledge perusal
volume. DiFFjBBENT
be

CLASSES

OF

EXPERIMENTS."

Chemical

divided, for convenience, into three sorts;

Productive.

experimentsmay namely. Determinative,

"

and Demonstrative,

Determinative Experiments(Experiments of Besearch), If any(a.)

body brings me
must it to

substance, and
determine

desires to know

the

nature

of it,I
submit

make

determinative

experiment ; in

other words, I must

it is

or analysis,

by

what experiment^

composed of.

6 Chemical

sxnsBnasvTS

gt

beseabch.

is analysis makes qnalitive analysis

of

two

sorts, qnalitiveand
the chemical
natore

A qtiantitive"

known

of the constitaents

of

A the relative quantities of those constituents. a compound, makes both the nature of the constituents known analysis quantitive but not

and

the exact

of each by weight. Experiments of quantity

this sort

are

No man also called experiments of research. execute can an analysis of considerable share without previously chemical information. a acquiring be executed, it is necessary to become can qnalitive analysis of all the known elements and their acquaintedwith the pro{9^rties whether compounds, as well as with the methods of determining principal of The of certain absent. use occasion, are present or them, on a any the knowledge previously chemical tests or reagents, depends upon that particular bodies, in particular circumstances, act in a acquired, There determinate manner. is, for example, a liquid called oil of other which in vitriol. I know contain certain substances that liquids with oil of vitriol, If, solution, produce a precipitate. upon being mixed unknown in water, and mixing the substance an then,upon dissolving
a

Before

solution with the substances know

and

I obtain oil of vitriol,

no

I precipitate,

am

certified that

alluded

to

are

not

present.
do

It is evident, that unless I

beforehand what
I

what substances

with oil of vitriol, give a precipitate

to

substances
see a

do not, it is useless I
as

apply the
oil of

test

because,
A
vast

whether
number

or not, precipitate

acquire no
well
in
as

information.

of other substances their

serve,

the office of vitriol,

chemical tests,and

constitutes st analysis study. In the subsequent pages, the very important part of chemical of tests a pai'ticular reader will frequently find it stated by what diversity

employment

chemical

substance
any In
a

may

be

known

to

be is

present,and also for what

as a

other substances

given compound something more (^uantitive analysis

to

to act qualified

test.

has to be
of ingredients

done.
a

Supposing

compound, supposing lie has detected that the them, he has, in quantitiveanalysis, these f rom additional task of separating one another, of ingredients their them from every possible intermixture, and of determining freeing substtmces be separated can weights. In some respective cases, two
from each other with
ease; in

chemist

know

how

to detect all the

other

cases,

the

efiected without

great
the

The difficulty.

methods

of

be separation cannot separation depend

substances which are to of the pai'ticular altogether properties upon be separated, and can only be learned by studying those properties. the skill of the chemist in the performBut success also depends upon ance in which of the numerous The fusions, occur analysis. operations and be to solutions, filtrations, require performed with evaporations, If a drop of liquid falls down, of atom extreme care. or an and the labour, powder is blown away, the whole experiment is spoiled, To with accuracy of is perform an analysis probably weeks, frusti*ated.

should be the

of object

student'sambition ; but ifbe wishes to attaip

DEHOlirST"iMnTE

Am)

FBODUCTITS

SXPEBIHEKTS.

that he

he object, become the

success

znnst

chemical
may

bodies,but
of

of only indastrionslj stadj the properties himself to manipulation, that accustom continually
not

dexterous
an

which

performanceof those operations upon analysis mainlydepends.

in the

Demonstrative (h,)

Experimentsare
of
new, anything

*of

diiferent kind.

They
When

are
a

employed
chemist
describes

in

the

communication

chemical he
announces

knowledge.
the

has discovered
an

and discovery,
can

experiment by which
is
a

the

truth of his statement

There
are

be

proved. This
which,
other other end
;

demonstrative
at to
one

experimeut.
end, very
soon

stances certain sub-

if 'heated
are

becoftie

hot

at

the

these

said
on

substances

which,
hot
heat.

good conductors of heat. There are being heated at one end, are a long time
be end
;

before
had

they become
of
but the metal

at

the other

such substances
are

are

called of

conductors

In

generalthe metals platinum is

take
and
a a

good
of

conductors

heal,
it

called

bad

conductor
wire

of heat.

The

proof of
by
a

this is easy.
at fingers
one

You
end find

short the

platinum, hold
jn the flame tlie

the

place
the heat

other
to

end

You that spirit-lamp. This is demonstrative a slowly. of

science business
must

comes

fingers very
of
ji

be

supposed
to

to

be

experiment. quite ignorant of

the truth

As

the
its

students

it is the facts,

by and accordingly lecturers on Chemistrycommonly exhibit experiments, of experiments. It would b6 in vain, however, to a great number in demonstrate to a class, everything.Want of time forbids it. attempt, But a teacher should be careful not to state that as a chemical fact^ which is incapable ofproofhj a chemical experiment, those to (c.)Productive Experiments, I have given this name for the of chemical substances. production object experiments which have The of i s collection productive Fharmacopceia a experiments, containing instructions for preparing or producingthe chemical substances employed in medicine. It will be understood, of course, that many analytical and demonstrative I experiments are also productiveexperiments ; but the latter understand by term, those experiments only which are made for the express purpose of producingchemical preparations in quantities Productive experimentson the small scale form an admirable for use. The of the various acids, students. exercise for young preparation is capable of furnishing oxides, salts, iodides,""c., sulphides, chlorides,
"

of

teachers

demonstrate

of their assertions

most

usefi.ll information
has

the properties of those substances, res])ecting

the student to careful habituating of substances be prepared in the can manipulation. A vast number small way with great facility, with the helpof glass tubes, small flasks, to enable the operator "c., in sufficient quantities capsules, plates, glass A other substances. and to ascertain their properties with reactions student's spare time cannot be more or agreeably occupiedthan usefiilly in preparingand examining compounds not previously familiar to him. and

the further beneficial effect of

8 Portions
tabes

KICBO-CHSHICAL

EXPEBIHEHTTB.

of

substances

so

preparedmaj
Productive

be

in preserved

small

glasd
are

closed with

corks.

experimentsin

the

largewbj
other
dities commo-

those which of the

and acids,alcalies, produce the metals, salts, the druggist, the colour-maker, "c. drysalter, The chemical

Mioro-Chemical characterise

Experiments."
be

of properties that substance, with

a

a or

stance subthe
can

the smallest portion of equally

greatest mass.
be

That

which
with
a

can

demonstrated

pound,

often be demonstrated either performed^

with
in

grain. Hence, chemical experiments may large portions of matter, or with small
case a

largeor smalT portionshould be operatedupon, is a thing to be determined solely by expediency. In with a view to obtain trade, where productiveexperimentsare made for sale, the quantities operated upon are often extremely preparations of a In analysis, the quantity thousands of tons. large, amounting to but the fraction of a grain. body submitted to a test weighs sometimes portions ; and
whether
any

When

lecturer has
make
a

to

teach

Chemistry

obligedto
otherwise what takes

his

demonstrative

u^n experiments
to

to

larg^eaudience, he
a

is

largescale,

of majority And place.

the persons present may not be able to perceive whenever is built upon a single a theory ment, experi-

the lecturer should

in such

take

care particular

make

this

experiment

that every person and comprehend see a manner present may it fully the theorysinks to tell^ is not made ; for if the demonstration I give unheeded, and the arguments grounded upon it are worthless. this hint
to

the

members

of

Mechanics'
to lecturing

who Institutions,
one

have

lately

adopted the useful

As

of practice

another.
are

the demonstrative

experiments of the lecture-room

student learn who desires to he
can

unavoidably
somewhat

scanty and
more

the unsatisfactory, than

know

of the science
in

there,must
or own

either at home laboratory, that he perform with his necessary, in the best manner experimentsof chemistry, and his
means

studies

the

in

necessarily pursue his pensably public. It is indisthe fundamental

hands

that his time, his

apparatus,

operate upon
save

will find it of importance, in this case, to of matter small portions extremely ; for he will then not only
admit. money, but often be enabled
to

He

time

and

perform

successful would

experiment, when,

fail. The certainly

as by operating upon a large mass, Qie of the formation and preparation tallisatio crysgases, of salts, of tests, and a thousand other enterthe application taining and instructive experiments, all be performed by the student, can better on a small scale than in the largeway ; nay more, a student in his closet very ^equentlysucceeds in performing an experiment which the hurry and fails on the lecture-table of the professor; because business of a lecture-room, This, produce unavoidable accidents.

he

therefore,is
be

circumstance

of

which

the
The

chemical

student

should

prepared

with

take every and accuracy, facility,

to

advantage.
economy,

of experimenting faculty ought to be gained as speedily

CHEMICAL

ELEMEKTS.

as

possible ; for
DiFFEEEin'

it is upon

that

Acuitythat
SUBSTANCES. substances

the progress of the young

All natural bodies
are

chemist is either

dependent. principally
SORTS
or

OF

CHEMICAL Those

"

simple
known
as

by

any

manner

to

are compound. simple, cannot, in method, be separated, or decomposed, divided, such a different in their propertiesfrom one produce particles

which

another, or "from
substance^
of particles tin
a are an

the

substances. original which

On
is

the other

hand, those

compound, unlike nature.

experiment

into capableof resolving

For
were

very

late dale, tliere

These
were were

a periodof many centuries, and even held to be simple or four substances

elementary.
ever

$re, air, earth, and

tried to
to

water.

Of

these

four

bodies,all others
prove,
or

supposed to

be constituted,though nobody could

;ndeedever

system,

however,

continued

be

The the case. prove, that this was orthodox until very lately, when

imaginary elements, namely, air, water, and earth, were it is still unknown proved to be compounds. But with respectto fire, whether it be simpleor compound, or in what its essence or consists, by the ancients what causes its effects are produced. What considered to be simple bodies are no longerconsidered to be simple; but in placeof
these

three of these

substances, the chemists

elements
a

of

modem

times
race.

have elevated
No

to

the

of dignity

however, dogmaticall one, now-a-days that the substances termed elements are The of a simple nature. element intimates term no more absolutely that the it than has never, in the. is applied, body to which opinionof modern been has never it to that chemists, subjected decomposition different from one another, been divided into particles the original or from
more numerous

far

asserts

"

substance.

Chemical

Elements.

"

Accordingto

the present views

of chemists,

there are sixty-one or simplesubstances ; that is to say, sixtyelements, differ in propertiesfrom every other substances which one individually fied substance, and which, by their various combinations, produce the diversi-

compounds
and
mineral.
in the

that The

constitute the
names

material

world,
"

animal, vegetable,
are

of

these added
a

sixty-oneelements

contained

followinglist.

I have

idea of the relative

in which

importance and
in nature, and

abundance

few notes, to give the reader an of these elements,the state

as concern

theyexist

their classification into such

animal

of The properties substances,and such as do not. vegetable from these elements,and the experimentswhich to separate them serve the other substances, and of each is demonstrated, by which separate identity will be described in a subsequentpart of this work. and
1. 2.

Oxygen.

Hydrogen,
are

3. Nitrogen. 4. Carbon. of extreme

These abundance.

four elements

importance,and

exist

in

great

Oxygen

and

hydrogena!e

the sole constituents

of Water.

10
^

CHEMICAL

ELEMBIfTS.

Oxygen and nitrogenare the main constituents of Atmospheric Hydrogen and nitrogenconstitute Ammonia, which is formed
the
and putrefaction

Am.
in

large

and quantitiesduring storms, and, after thundervegetablesubstances,ascends into the atmosphere, Oxygen and carbon again falls to the earth,dissolved in rain. constitute in Carbonic exists which Acid, atmosphericair. It always
is from

decompositionof animal

these substances
acid
are

that Vegetables

are

derived.
into the

The

ammonia

and

carbonic

carried down

by

rain-water

or sotl, rulent pulve-

these

plants decompose gen hydrogen, compounds, oxygen, and nitrothem into new and conveiis of vegetation the power organises ; and These such did exist. not previously as new vegetable compounds, substances consist for the greaterpart of carbon, and hydrogen, oxygen,
seeds and
roots

surface of the earth.

and

The

of

absorb

their carbon,

and
serve

some

of them
as

of

carbon, hydrogen,oxygen,
those The process of with
a mere

and

nitrogen. They
contain

afterwards
most

the food of Animals,

which

nitrogen

being the
chemical

nutritious.
into animal

converts digestion

the vegetable

substances

substances, often with

sometimes constitution,
cases

in such

of consisting

change in very slight all the at none tion ; process of digessolution of the sul^tances operated
substances suffer
"

upon. carbonic
constant

When
and

animals

die,their component

tion, decomposiand
is
means a

reproduce their
oxygen, circulation of the
"

acid

constituents original hydrogen,nitrc^en,and

^water, ammonia,
carbon. derive when There their

of nutriment

from

the air ; animals

return to

Plants organicelements. from plants ; and the These

the animals

die, their components

of plants and generation

atmosphere,to supply another

are

of animals.

mighty

and and

wonderful astonish" of

transmutations,such
ment.

as

fillthe mind

with

admiration

The

various other
I will

compounds that
with
one

are

produced by the
too
numerous :
"

combination

these four elements

in this list.

another,are

to

be mentioned

and Oxygen, h3'^drogen, nitrogen,produce liquidnitric acid. Oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon, and produce oxalic acid, citric acid (lemon-juice), vinegar. Hydrogen and carbon produce the gas that is employed in gas-lighting. Hydrogen, acid. a nd nitrogen, carbon, produce prussic Carbon is found in nature nearly pure in pure in the diamond;
name

only a

few of them

graphite ;

and

very

in abundantly

combination

with

hydrogenas

coal.

5.
"

Silicon. with
most

This

element
"

in combination and
is
one

oxygen

forms

sand, flint, quartz,

in nature.

siliceous earth
In combination

of the
and

abundant

substances

it enters

oxygen into the constitution

with

potassium,forming silicate of potash,

of straw

(wheat-straw, cane, "c.)

CBMUICJOj

EIiEMENTB,

11

6,
In combination

"

Alitminium. this element forms

or clay,

with

oxygen

aluminous

combined earth. It also forms part of many minerals,sometimes only of silicon. with the addition with oxygen, Though more frequently
so

useful in

it of plants, promoting the growtli

enters

but
a

and rarely constituent

in

small

into proportion

their

and composition,

never

forms

of

animal substances, 7.
In
"

Calcium.

combination

with
the

earth.

In combination

forms lime or calcareous oxygen, this element and carbon it forms with oxygen chalk,marble,
numerous

calcareous spar, and

enters into the

varieties of limestone. and plants, bones.

This

element

composition of many

of certain parts of all

their shells and animals, particularly

The
one

last three elements,in combination

the main.

with

oxygen,

and mixed
that

with

another,form
exist soils,
are

portionsof all the

different kinds

of soilsand
occur

and calcareous. rocJis, siliceous, aluminous,

in in
more

All other elements

much

smaller

quantitiesthan

some these, tliough

of

them

yet

growth,or

the

than they are, to promote the general indispensable productionof particular parts,of plants. 8.
"

Chlorine.
constitute

"

9. Sodium.

These

two

elements

the
to

kitchen salt, a white

substances from

substance

used

compound called sea salt or season food,to preserve animal

as a manure

and putrefaction, mineral.

often also

to

promote the

growth
The

of

plants.
in

It is the chief sahne

a

matter

of

s^a

water, and it also

muriatic

exists in the state of chlorine

combination

with

hydrogen

forms

acid, or

of spirits

salts ; in

it forms the combinationwith hydrogenand nitrogen with

salt called sal-ammoniac. The

Sodium sodium in combination called

carbon

and

oxygen

forms sodium

the

detergent commonly
exists in
a

soda,

or

great number
substances.
10.
"

of

carbonate chemically, and chloride of plants,

of soda.
ig

found in many

animal

Potassium. of the mineral

and felspar, form of many
a

This element
'

is

constituent

therefore
mass

one

of the components the earth. It is wood

of the

rocks, which granitic

the

tlie great

of
The is
a

for indispensable
it ; and
no

growth
can

plants.

of all trees contains

tree

flourishin
and the

soil which

without

potassium.
which

When

wood

is

burnt,
or

ashes This

washed,
consists

salt is obtained

is termed

potassium, oxygen, and carbon.

potash, calle4 sorrd^ The juice of the plant

pearlash.

of

12
contains

CHEMICAL

ELEMENTS.

potash. This consists of potassium, oxygen, and carbon, and hence this plantcannot grow in a soil which is free from potassium. The leaves of the graminesBcontain stents and and which consists of the elements silicateof potash, silicon, oxygen, soils derive this element from the decomposition potassium. In general, of felspar, of other that but of late, contain it it has been stones or ; added the salt called nitrate of potash artificially, by using as a manure which is a compound of oxygen, (saltpetre), nitrogen, and potassium.
a

salt termed

oxalate of

This

salt renders both

soils very fertile, because

are

it adds

to

them

two

stances, sub-

of which

beneficial to plants, highly namely,nitrogen

and

potassium.
II.
"

Sulphur
near

(Brimstone).
"c.,there Paris,in Derbyshire,
selenite,
called alabaster, gypsum,

are

In inany parts of the world, as of a mineral found large masses

of Paris,"c. This mineral consists of oxygen, sulphateof lime, plaster in many is found dispersed substance calcium, and sulphur. The same dissolved in most rivers, and seas, and forming a limited soils, springs, in a free state near volcanoes, plants. Sulphur occurs part of many and

pyrites. mineral called in Scotland slate Thus, the very abundant golden-looking with iron. consists of sulphur in combination diamonds, or iron pyrites,
in

combination

with

many

metals,

in

the

ores

termed

Sulphur combined
termed oil of

with

oxygen

and

hydrogen

form

the

strong acid

acid. It is a constituent, in small prooi vitriol, sulphuric portions, in of many of those vegetableproductions, which, consequence the substances afford nutritious food, namely, of their containing nitrogen, called fibrin, albumen, casein, and gluten. It is very often present in small
of horn and of It is a constituent in animal substances. quantities odour of rotten The peculiar hair, and it is always present in eggs. and hydrogen. sulphur eggs is due to a compound containing
12.

"

Phosphorus.
a

few minerals

are

found

that contain

considerable
at

quantityof this

element.

of lead, found Thus, phosphate

and phosphorus, phosphorus. In

lead.

Apatite contains

Leadhills, contains oxygen, calcium, chlorine,and oxygen,

a

element
in
some

occurs

other very many miich so, that ; so

minerals,

small

of proportion

this

phosphorus occurs
as

in most

soils,and,

state

of

combination,
none probably

phosphate of

lime, phosphateof

magnesia, "c., in many

animals, of which
not

vegetables. From
can

only exists

in

tiieir liquidor
of bones
; and

soft

into it passes vegetables since it live without phosphorus, for the parts, but is indispensable

bones The

of the vertebrated
matter earthy

animals, and
consists

the

shells

of

the

crustaceous.

of chiefly

the elements the

same

phosphorus,
elements,
and

calcium, and oxygen

shells

commonly

contain

with the addition of carbon.

This is the

reason

why ground bones

OHEMTCAL

SL"Hl!NTB.

13

shells form

an

excellent

manure

for soils. of
a

due probably

to the presence

fish is decaying phosphorus. compound containing The

odour

of

13.
This element

"

^Magnesium.
in

exists in abundance

the

mineral

called

magnesian
a

in many rarer limestone, pretty largely of other minerals, and great number

in minerals, in small quantity

as a

constant
sources

constituent

of the
into

saUne
most

matter

of

the

ocean.

From

these

it finds its way

into soils, thence, in small proportions, into

them

animals.

It is

constituent

and from plants, many In the of blood and of bones.

it is found in the seeds

state of

of magnesia and ammonia, phosphate

of

the

considerable quantity of piiosa gramiueie ; and the potato contains portant phate of magnesia. It is an element,the knowledge of which is imit appears to be often injurious to vegetato the agriculturist, as tion
;

yet, for the

reason

the potato plant. It is with oxygen and sulphur, it forms

given above, it greatly promotes the growth of well known in medicine, for, in combination
the bitter substance purgative

called

Epsom salt,or

the earth termed alone,

sulphateof magnesia,and, magnesia.

14.
"

in combination

with oxygen

Iron. of all the widely-diffused with oxygen

and
as as

The

most

abundant
It
occurs

and

the most

metallic

substances.

in combination

ochre, ironstone,
carbonate

"c.; with
and

as pyrites sulphur ;

with carbon

oxygen

of iron,
of

this in combination and

with

clay as
too

a mineral clay-ironstone,

great

abundance
many other

importancein
of

England and

Scotland.
numerous

It occurs,
to

also, in
It is the

forms

combination,

detail.

of earths and matter ordinary colouring all into and animals. enters vegetables

soils. It is
a

In

minute

it quantities,

constituent

of the blood.

15,
This element, combined
tenned of manganese, peroxide

"

Manganese. oxygen, produces a black substance in large mineral which occurs quantities.
occurs

with
a

Manganese forms

the colouring matter

others many of many

minerals,and
more.

in small

as quantities

It is found

in very in plants

small

in animals. and but rarely quantities,

5.

"

Iodine.
into the

Exists in sea-water, sponges, "c

and

enters

.of sea- weeds^ composition

!"/. Fluorine.
"

Known
which
and

as chiefly

component of the mineral

calcium.
It
occurs

called
some

in Fluorspar,

it is combined

with

in
.

other

minerals,
'

has been found in the bones of animals.

u The
most

CHEMICAL

XLEMEKTS.

elements foregoing
into the

all enter

into

the

and of plants, composition In contradistinction

to

of them

composition of

animals.

the

organicelements, namely,the four elements, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, from No. the others, and nitrogen, 5 to No. 17, are termed the inorganic^ of mineral in constituents or plants. These inorganic elements occur the proportions of the to plantsin very small proportions relatively organic elements ; yet they are not less essential than the latter to the much so developmentand growth of the plants, so, that soils in which
mineral particular
constituents

do

not

regard

to

the

vegetationof

plants which

sterile in exist,are absolutely these particular stituents, coni*equire

the presence of any excess of organic notwithstanding manure. The following elements belong exclusively to inorganic nature. They form no part of plantsor animals, nor are they useful in promoting the growth of either class of organizedbodies^ 18. Gold. 19. Silver, Copper, 20.
21.

23. Zinc. 24. Mercury. 25. Antimony. 26. Arsenic. 27. Platinum.

Well-known
which
occur

common

metals,
con*

Lead. Tin* Bismuth.

pretty siderable quantities.

in

22.

28.

38.

Tellurium*

30.

29. Cobalt. Nickel.

39. Pelopium. 40. Niobium*

31. Chromium. 3^. Palladium 33. Cadmium 34. Molybdenum.

41. Tantalium*

Metals,
"

rarerj
used

less
than

known,
the
are

and

less

foremost
are

42. Titanium.
43. Osmium. 44. Rhodium* 45. Iridium

jgoing.
abundant

Those
and

which
most'

used

35. tJRANiuM.

the firstseven

in the list*

36.

Vanadium.

46. Ruthenium. 32. Thorium.

53. Zirconium. 54.- Vttrium* 55. Glucinum* Metallic bases
occurs

37. Tungsten*
47. Cerium.
\
Metallic
seldom
ores,

48. 49.

Terbium. Erbium*

bases

of

rare

earths,

and
to

50. DiDYMIUMi 51* Lantanium*

their separated from when separatedapno

pUed

use.

56.

Strontium.

of alcaline earths;

Barium

57. Barium. 58. LiTmuM;

in the mineral called Hestvy plentifully It is chiefly used in chemical Spar; ments. experiLithium is extremely rare;

59. Boron.
60.

The

base of the boracic acid. Rare

;

Selenium. Bromine.

resembles sulphurin many

chlorine in many
a

of its

properties.
ployed em-

61.

Resembles
in the arts to

of its

properties. Is
in

certain extent.

Occurs

sea-water^ and

in

some

salt springs.

VAEIETIES

OP

COMPOUNDS.

15 When the

The
bodies

Cause
are

op

Chemical
contact

Combination."
under

elementary

circumstances, theyunite particular Some bodies. tions combinaand combine or together, produce compound effected very readily, with great diflSculty, and there and some are made be elements to comwhich can certain bine. are scarcely by any means The the of the combination elements, compourids produced by properties possess very different from those of the elements of which are they composed. The power, in virtue of which simple bodies the nature of which is and produce compounds, is one combine can that learned than Chemists have unknown to no more man. totally bodies supposed to be simple, do combine or simplebodies, ; but WHY loAa^ which it is makes them or combine^they have not theycoirJbim^

placed in

discovered. It is sometimes because

^

stated that certain bodies

an

combine

with
that

one

another,
it is

they
do not

have
combine

for affinity

one

another, and

these bodies

.which

have no aflSnity for each other; and together of combination. is the caiLse thence argued that chemical affinity

Now,
which

it is convenient

to

have

term

to
a

denote

that kind of attraction

compound, as distin* of all makes the particles attraction which guishedfrdm that physical bodies cohere. we Using the word cohesion to denote this latter quality, bear in But tlieword the formen must to we affinity signify may use mind, that by so doing,we merelygive a namje to a phenomenon,not of it. an explanation Varieties Compounds. of ^c. The Chemical Acids, Bases^ Salts^
binds

the together

elements

of

chemical

"

Elements
The
are

are

classed into two is not

groupsj the
:
"

metals

and

the

metalloids.

line of demarcation

but very distinct,

the

elements following

commonly
1. 2.

called metalloids

Oxygen* Hydrogen.

7. Chlorine^
8. Bromine.

13* Silicon. To which

sotne

3* 4.

Nitrogen.
Sulphur.

9. Iodine; Fluorine. 10.

11.

chemists add

14. Arsenic* 15. Tellurium.

5. Selenium. 6. Phosphorus.
The When when
the residue of the elements
in

Carbon. Boron.

12.

belongto
with
is
a

Oxygen,
it
occurs

combining with
occurs

the group of metals. another element, produces the metalloid,

a

an

oande;
an

this combination with

a

compound
form

is

acid;
Thus
ot is

metal, it
combine

commonly
one

base ; and
to

the acids and salts.

bases thus

produced
contain

with

another

salt called

of soda, sulphate
and

is held

by
soda.

the

to chemistry

acid sulphuric

and

The

prevalenttheory sulphuricacid
the soda

composed
and sodium

of oxygen

sulphur (a

and metalloid^,

of oxygen direct

(a metal).
are

There

which is, however,another class of salts,

producedby

1
16
*

OATTBE

01*

CHSMIOiLL

DECOMFOBITIOK.

withont the of the metalloids, combiDation between the metals and some chlorine of oxygen. Thus, kitchen salt is a compoundg^ incorporation
and sodium
; is a compound fluorspar

of calcium and

chlww

psmd

iroA

of these The chemical names is a compoimd of iron and sulphur. pyrites of and of chloride fluoride of calcium, sulphide sodium, compounds are iron.

compoundsproduced by hydrogenare very variable in their call water ; characters: with oxygen it forms the mild compound we
The
it forms the alcali with chlorine it forms muriatic acid ; with nitrogen it and with metalloids ammonia; together producesstrong oxygen acid; with oxygen and metals acids,as nitric acid and sulphuric it producesalcalies, caustic soda, and slaked as caustic potash, together

lime.

are sense. explanations givenin a general to describe to these rules. It is impossible exceptions

These

There
in
a

are many few sentences

actions of the chemical elements. the diversified

The

Cause
are

of

Chemical

Decomposition.

"

When

chemical

pounds com-

electrified, strongly they

and sufl*er decomposition,

the

liberated atoms
and

of their constituents appear, partly at the positive pole, of the electric at the negative partly pole, apparatus. Those which

elements, pole are denominated electr(Hnegati^ appear at the positive It elements. and those which appear at the other pole, electro-positive
is found

that every element is negative towards towards the rest. 2X\" positive The

of the elements, portion the moment

no

manifestation of electrical appearances

or

at

when
We

an

act

of combination
nature

is eflected, throws decomposition

light upon

the
see

of

the

force which

makes

the elements

combine.
acts

than the phenomena by which the nothingmore attended. and decomposition are When
a

of combination

in juxtaposiset at liberty are tion, which producesuch compounds as place, best exist wntfor the circumstances in which the occurrence is brought can The same elements broughttogether to pass. at a low temperature,at medium a temperature, and at a high temperature, produce different i. e., they producesuch compounds as can best exist under compounds,

number

of chemical elements
take

those combinations

the circumstances of the trial.

If
a

of a powerful element and compound, consisting electro-native

indifferent element, ". e., of
one no possessing

of

an

very marked
those two

trical elec-

powers, be

brought into

contact

with

powerfiil electro-positive
elements

is immediately and element, decomposition effected,

which electricities most antagonistic the exclusion of the other. The very neutral

exhibit the

combine, to strikingly, compound produced

by the combination
can

better exist in presence

neutral

with an electro-negative electropositive element, of an indifferent element, than the semiin combination with an compound composed of an indifferent
an

of

exist can eUctro-negativey

in presence of

an

In the electro-positive.

one

DOUBLB

DECOMPOSITIOK.

17
; in the

case, the electi'ical power

is

at rest partially

its dispersive other,

state fitted for

influence is in full When chemical

operation. in compounds are placed in juxtaposition,

in solution in water, theyare observed action, as, for example, to decompose each other, provided that,by domg so, they can give capablethan the original origin to other compounds, more compounds

they emerging from the sphereof each other's action ; otherwise, do not deoompose each other. tw^o If,for example,we put together of their of such a natm*e as to give rise,by an interchange soluble salts, that of their is and to acids electrical elements, bases, antagonistic say, of then other salts of the same to two no degree solubility, tion decomposithe other hand, we takes place. But if,on place together two of their antagonistic salts of such a nature, that the interchange electrical salt of less than the elements then can original solubility salts, produce a of the new salt result decomposition is effected, let the insolubility either the solid form or the gaseous. from its tendency to assume in practice: Tux" saline compounds in useful rule Hence draw a we with the acid of solution being if the base of the one can prodtice, given, the other,a compound insoluble in the water of the given solutions, then, wiU precipitation occur. upon mixing the solutions, of barytesis insoluble in For example, the compound called sulphate and chlorides. solutions of the sulphates mix If, therefore, we aqueous of with a solution sulphate a solution of chloride of barium of soda, the
of
" " "

sulphurand
and A sodium

oxygen

of the latter combine

with the barium

"

of the

former,

in precipitate in the mixture

the state of
of

chloride of sulphate of barytes Cleaving

and acid produces,cA sulphuric red

supernatantsolution.
of borate soda
a

heat, borate
and
case,

acid ; but at the heat of boiling water sulphuric of soda and boracic acid. In the first in solution it producessulphate

of soda and

acid separates by volatilization; in the second, case, sulphuric acid separates by precipitation.Thus the proximate constituents afforded by the decompositionof compounds are different under of decomposition.If the two original different circumstances compounds, of the the two and being produced by compounds capable interchange electric elements, were all equallyfixed in th^e of their antagonistic fire, soluble in water, there would be no decomposition. and equally Vain, therefore, is the attempt to efiect double decomposition, cepting exwhere it can new produce compounds, self-empowered to get each other's of but when this is provided for, out vicinitj;; readily efiectedr, Whenever readily and constantly we decompositions are whether will not there be or to know, desire a precipitate produced solutions mixed saline do are two when not together, w e given require tables of affinity, have been termed we to look at what only need to whether the two examine given soluble salts can by exchangingtheir acids and bases, produce an insoluble salt. If they can, then there will

the

the boracic

18

ATOMIC

WXiaHTS

0?

THE

ELEMENTS.

producedwhen the solutions are mixed together. precipitate In point of fact, most' tables of affinity are merely tables of precipitation, founded the assumption that the degrees of insolubility and are on of their of different substances, mark the strengthof the affinity components,
be ceiialnly
a
,

ATOMIC Al.
Sb. As.

WEIGHTS

OF

THE

ELEMENTS.
Mo. Ni.

Aluminum

170,900

Molybdenum
Nickel
Niobium

Antimony
Arsenic Barium Bismuth Boron Bromine Cadmium Calcium
Carbon

Ba. Bi. B. Br. Cd. Ca. C. Ce. CI. Cr. Co. Cu. ? D, E. F. Be. Au. H. ? II. I.

806,452 468,750 856,770

1299,975

574,829 369,330 87^530 1242,624

100,000

Nb.
N.
?

Nitrogen
Norium Osmium

136,204
499,810

Os. O. Pd. Pe. P. Pt. K. Hh. Ru. Se. Si.

Oxygen
Palladium

696,767
251,651
75,000

665,477 196,020
1232,08a

Pelopium Phosphorus
Platinum
Potassium Rhodium Ruthenium

Cerium Chlorine Chromium Cobalt

590,800

221,640
335^091

Copper
Donarium

368,650 395,600
620,000
117,717

Selenium
Silicon Silver Sodium

489,300 651 ,962 651,962 495,285

277.778

Didymium
Erbium
Fluorine

Ag.
Na. Sr. S. Ta. Te, Tb. Th. Sn.
Ti.

1349,660
289,729
545.929 200,750

Strontium

GlucinumGold

Hydrogen
Ilmenium Iodine Iridium Iron

87,124 1229,165 6,250 792,996

1232,080
350,527

Sulphur
Tantalium Tellurium
Terbium

801,760
743,860
735.294 301,550

Thorium
Tin

Ir.
Fe.

Titanium

Lantanium Lead
Lithium

La. Pb.
L.

588,000 1294,645
81,660
150,190

Tungsten
Vanadium Uranium Yttrium
,

W. V. U. Y. Zn. Zr.

1150,780

856,892
742.875

Magnesium
Manganese

Mg,
Mn.

344,684
1251,290

Zinc

Mercury

Hg.

Zirconium

406,591 419,728

19

THE

ATOMIC

THEORY.

T9E
exist
are

elements

of which

in the state of

compounds are composed'are supposed to indivisible which solid, small, extremely particles,
all
differ in their relative weights.
we

called Atoms.
These
atoms
are

supposedto
imagined
and
a

Thus,
a

for example,it
atom single

is

that if

could of

separate from

the

mass

of Carbon

atom single

Oxygen,

and

weigh them
to be in

pne

against the
It is

their relative other, 3

to

weightswould

be found

the relation of Carbon the elements

if any

Oxygen 4.
such
an

to make, impossible
"

experiment,because
atoms

the atoms

oiP

exist" too small are really relative of the T he have atoms be weights individually perceptible. to therefore been fixed by experiments of another kind, or by arguments nient depending upon circumstantial evidence, which it would not be conveconfine I here. shall to practical considerations, to discuss myself the atomic contains ments, which table and simplygive a weights of the eleas agreed upon by modern chemists,after numberless researches The numbers I use in this to which I have alluded. of the description

such

small soUd

table
"

are

those

of Bebzelius,

as

given in the

last edition

of Rose's

Handbuch des analytischen Chemie^*Beriin,1852. Ausfukrliches The Table is given in the oppositepage. in the table a symbol is placed, which consists of Against each name
or more

one

and which in all cases letters,

atom an signifies

of the element

it refers to. O.

Thus

parts of oxygen. Cu. signifies 395 ,600 parts of copper.

signifies 100,000

When
atomic

the

elements

combine

to

form

compounds, theycombine
of
one

iu

atoms or more quantities ; that is to say, one of another element with one or more atoms

element
a

bines com-

to form
sum

compound
to

and

the

weight of the
which
That
is to

compound
it.

is

equalto
O

the

of the

of weights

the elements

compose

Thus

combines

with HH

produce
with

O-t-HH.
twice 112,

say, 100,000
=

parts of oxygen parts of

combine

6,250 (ortwo
and

atoms)

12,500

to produce hydrogen,

500 partsof WATER,

manner we

which

oxygen

hydrogen in these
account
are

elements compound is composed of Jidie proportions.

for tlie

In like

all of which

pounds, composition of all sorts of combuilt up of the atoms of the elements,and all c

20 of which
atoms

THE

ATOMIC

THSOBT.

have ihe

same are

weightas

the

sam

of the

of weights

the several

of which

they

composed.
Weights
of

Table
In

of

the

Atomic

Chemical

Comfounps.

table (page 22) is presentedthe atomic weights of following many important chemical compounds, with the arrangement of symbols by which their presumed composition is indicated. Thus, for example, called sulphate of lead, is denoted the compound by PbO,SO*. of the prevailing theoretical qptnton, that in This gives an expression the of sulphate combined lead
we

have
atom atom

one

of lead, forming one with that the

one

of oxide

of oxygen combing with one atom of lead, and three atoms of oxygen of sulphur,forming one of sulphuric atom
atom

acid, and
oxygen metal
"

these

two

primary compounds
the base

"

the

acid

formed
with
or

by
the

with
^are

metalloid and this

;

combined that

It is evident

to form a together compound contains

by oxygen secondarycompound,

formed

salt.

of the
are

and oxygen sulphur, compound. combined

is

these form
it is
are

what
no

are

the three elements,lead, called the ultimate elements

certain that these elements
manner

But

by

means

into what

called the

proximate elements,in the

by the symbol. It is tnie that the elements may represented as he combined theyare represented together by the formula PbO,SO" ; that combination the also is but it true, may be Pb,SO*, or PbS,0*, or
which

PO%SO",
I cannot

"c
enter

here into
to

discussion

of this difficult matter,

"

sufficeit

for the present purpose say, that the symbols represent the composition in the table, of the compounds that are named to the most according views prevalent numbers be of modern used
as

chemists, and
all

in

such

manner

that

the

may of certainty success, constitution I add

manner a

experimentaloperationswith as much the proximate regarding of the compounds, were be to true. proved absolutely of one- of the longersymbols, to explain the description
If the theoretical views the

in

in

which

letters and

numbers

are

combined.

I take

for

example, green copperas, of iron^the symbol or formula

the

t?ie crystallised sulpJiate of the for which

protoxide
i

salt is

FeO,SO"+7H"0.
proximate constitution of this salt is stated by this follows of protoxide of iron (FeO), is One atom : of sulphuric with one add (SO"),and this compound atom combined of water with seven of crystallisation is combined atoms (7H'0). FeO between SO" and The comma marks the placed (,) separation the two The sign plus (+) sepabetween proximate constituents. rates
The
or

theoretical
to

formula

be

as

"

another
comma

would

proximate constituent, and that separate it. It signifies

more

the water

than the efiectively is less strongly

THE

ATOMIC

THEOBT.

21

combined combined

with with of goes

the

the
one

salt, than
another.

the The

acid

and

the

base

of

the

salt

are

superior figure (')

the

which

follow?

the

symbol
the

acid!

multiplies only
the O.
that
or

symbol

or

letter which

diately imme-

before
and

it,namely

The

large figure (7) multiplies all

come

letters
to

numbers

follow
to
a

it, till you

full

to

another

comma

(,) or
In
are

the

sign plus ( + ) experiments

which
of
to
are

point
substances,
table. those

making
to

with
stated
or 1

chemical
in

proportions
parts
of of of

be

taJsen

the

Thus,

664I

anhydrous
soda, soda,
must
or

carbonate be taken

soda,

789}

parts of crystallised carbonate

of

produce
of
results

201

^i parts
and

crystallisedsulphate
quantity of the
of

733
to

parts
obtain

df chloride these
of

sodium,
61 3 1 gas,
acid
or

the

acids

required
acid,
as or

are

parts
as

hydrate liquid
these

of

sulphuric
acid
are

4551

parts

muriatic

acid

much
All

muriatic

contains

that

quantity

of muriatic

gas.

quantities

stated

by weight.
experiments
of
:" as

Such
means

these the

can

be

very

conveniently represented by
equations.

symbols put

into

form

of mathematical

Thus

NaO,CO*

10

BTO

H"

CP

Na

CI* +

C0"

1 1

HO.

NaO,CO"+
In The both
water

H"0,SO"
cases, exists
water

9 H"0

NaO,SO"
is

10

H"0+CO".
the
soda

these
that

the
in

carbonic the

acid

expelled
of

in

carbonate crystallised

of

gaseous is lost
of

state. in

the
is

solution.

The the

required
of

by

the

crystals
relative
to

sulphate
another.
in

soda

gained
These

from

solution.
are

weights
the of

course

all
are

to

one

What

cibsolute

quantities of
upon

substances

be

used is

any

operation,
An

depends
atomic

object for which

any of

the be

operation

performed.
in

weight
or

substance
any of

may

weighed*

out

grains, pounds, preparation

the of

tons,
In

quantities

other
this
it is
means

denomination.

another

section

work,
is

where

I describe that

the when
it

Equivalent
Weight
a

Test any

Liquors,
substance

recommended,
in

Atormc
be

of

taken the

English grains,

shall

called

Test

Atom,

By

this
are,

relative

quantities represented
purposes,

by

the
into

atomic

weights,

for

specific experimental

converted

absointe

quantities.

22

ATOMIC
Acetic
,

WEIGHTS.
C*H"0'

Acid, anhydrous hydrate

.

^37-5
750.

C*H"0"+Aq*
C"H"0

Alcoliol, Alumina,
"

"

A1"0"

287.5 641.8
2144. 170.9
I

Sulphate,
. "

AP0",3S0"
Al Al"

Aluminum,
"

two

atoms. N

341.8
5934.1

Alum, Potash, cryst,

"

K0,S0"+Al"0",3S0"+Aq**
"H"0,S0"+Al"0",3S0"+Aq"*
N*H"

Ammonia, cryst. Sesquicarbonate,

Bicarbonate,

5669.9
212.6 1475.
1199.9
1000.2
I

Ammonia,
"
"

2N*H"0,3CO"

"

Molybdate,
Nitrate,
.

N"H"0,H"0,2C0" N"H"0,MoO"

987.5

"

N"H"0,N"0"
N*H"0,C"0" N"H"0,SO"
N*H" N"H"0
N"H"C1"

"

Oxalate,

"

Sulphate,
"
.

825.8
225.1 325.1

"

Ammonium, Oxide, Chloride, Iodide,

" "

"

"

668.3
1811.1

N"Hn" N"H"S Sb Sb"

Acid
"
"

-^

Sulphide,
.

425.9

Antimony,
"

two

atoms,

806.5 1612.9
1912.9 2112.9

~-r"

Antimonious Antimonic

Sb"08 Sb"0*

Acid,

"^^

Sb"S^ Sulphide, 2215.2 KO,Sb"0"+2(C*HK)*)+H"04264.7 Antimony and Potash, Taiirate,

Antimoniuretted

Hydrogen,
" "

H"Sb" As As"

Arsenic,
"

"

1650.4 468.8
937-5
1237.5

tvQQ

atoms,
.

"

Arsenious

Acid,

As*0"
"

"

Arsenic

"

Acid, Realgar, Sulphide,

,

As*0" As"S" As"S"

1437-5
1339:0

"

Orpiment,. Pentasulphide, Arseniuretted Hydrogen,

Barium, Peroxide, Chloride, anhydrous,
,

1539.8
1941.3 975-

A"S* H"As"
Ba

"

"

BaO" BaCl"

856.8 1056.8
1300. 1525.
I I

"

"

"

cryst,,

"

"

BaCl"+Aq"

ATOMIO

WEIGHTS.

28 6 6

Barium, Silico-Fluoride,
"

3BaF*+2SiF"
BaS BaO
...

"

'

5244
1057

Sulphide,
. .

Barytes,
" "

Hydrate,
Carbonate,

BaO,Aq

8 956-. 1069 3

Acetate, cryst. Chromate,

BaO,C*H"0"+3Aq
BaO,CO BaO,CrO"
BaO,N"0* BaO,C*0'+H"0
"
"

1931

8 8

"

"

1231 1591

9
8

"

-"

"

"

Nitrate, Oxalate, Phosphate, Sulphate,

. .
.

163 1
"

1519

.2BaO,P"0*
BaO,SO"
Bi

2805
1457 J 300

3 5

Bismuth,
""

Nitrate,
Oxide,

Bi"0",N"0"+9H"0
Bi*0
=

4587
2900 3100

"

Bismuthic

Acid,

Bi"0" B0"

Boracic Acid,
" *"

436
773
126
"

cryst,,
.

BO"+Aq"
B

7
2

""

Boron, Chloride, Fluoride,

"

BCl
.

BF"
.

1406 I 842 4
1499 499
999 6
8

Bromic

Acid,
.

Br*0"
Br Br" Cd

Bromine,
"

two

atoms,

G
8 8

Cadmiuin,
"

696
796

"

"

Oxide, Bromide,

CdO
CdBr"
"

cryst,,
"

CdBr"+4H"0
CdO,Br*0*+H"0

Bromate, cryst,

1696"4 2146 4 2408

1747
" . .

"

"

Sulphate, cryst. Sulphide,

. ,

CdO,SO"+4H*0
CdS
Ca
. .

897
251 7
9 9
I

"

Calcium, Chloride,
.
.

CaCl"

"

cryst,, Fluoride,
. .

CaCl"+Aq*
CaF" CaS
C C" CO* 2C0?

694 1369 487

452 75 150 275 550 175

"

Sulphide,
. "

Carbon,
"

"

^100 atoms.

Carbonic
"

Acid,
atoms,
.

^100

"

Oxide, Carbon, Sulphuret, Cerium,

.

CO CS" Ce CI

476 5
590
221

Chlorine,
.

""

two

atoms.
.

Cl" a"o*
.
.

443 943

3 3

Chloric Acid,

335-1
970.3

978.4
635.1
2002
.

2400.

2625. 368.7

468.7
1037.3

1756.9
395.6
891.2
.

495.6 1245.6
1234.5

838.9 1845.7 996.4 1558.9

992.

596.4
325.1

726.6
620.

462.;
575117.7

235-4
.

87-1
474.2 1229.2

2458.3 3788.2 1598.5

1012.5

455-8

337-6
247.9

2711.7

6.25
12.5 212.5

ATOMIC

'WXIOHTB.

25

ATOMIC

WEIGHTS.

27

Molybdfc Acid,
Muriatic Acid,

MoO" H"C1"
Ni

Nickel,
"

"

Oxide, Sesquioxide,
'

NiO Ni"0'
.

"

Sulphate, crystj
Acid,
. ,

NiO,SO"+7H"0
Nb Nb"0" N"'0*

874.8 455.8 369-3 469.3 1038.7 1757.6

Niobium,
Niobic Nitric Acid
"

hydrate^

N"0*+Aq
N*0"
NO N*0"

675.1 787.6
475-1

Nitrous

Acid, Nitric Oxide,

"

187.5
375-1 275.1

tioo atoms.

Nitrous

Oxide,
atoms,
,

N"0
N N"

Nitrogen,
"

87.5
175.1

^100

Norium,

Olefiant Gas,

CH" Os
OsO
*
.

Osmium,
Acid, Oxalic Acid, anhydrous,
"
"

Osmic

87.5 1242.6 1642.6

450.

c*o"

effloresced,
cryst,,
. "

"

"

C"0"+Aq C"0"+Aq'.
O

562.5 787.5
lOO,

Oxygen,

Palladium, Pelopic Acid,

" "

Pa Pe"0" Pe
CP05'

665.5

Pelopium,
Perchloric Acid

"43-3

Phosgen Gas, Phosphorus,

. "

CO+Cl*
p p"

618.3 196.
392.

atoms. ^100 Acid, Phosphoric PhosphorousAcid,

P"0* p"Q8
.

892.

692.
429.5
1232.
I

Phosphuretted Hydrogen
Platinum,
" "

"

"

"

Pt PtCl*

Chloride,
Ammonium Potassium

"

Chloride, Chloride,

N"H"Cn-|-PtCl*

2118.7 2787.1
3051.3

KCP+PtCl*
KO

Potash,Anhydrous,
"

589.3
701.8
2702.2
2616.
I

Hydrate,
Antimoniate, Arseniate, Acid, Carbonate, Bicarbonate, cryst
"

KO,H"0

"

"

KO,Sb"0* 2K0,As"0*

"

K0,As"0*+Aq"
KO,CO"

2251.8
.

"

"

K0,H"0,2C0"

864.3 1251.8

1532 6
1732 1224 1234 6
4

1859 5

1978 7

1264
II5I
1826

4
8 8 8

3176
4119 2304

3 3
8
I

2641
1090

1703 I4I4 2351

3 3 8

489 3 589 3 789 3 1488 9

932
6 J 9 7
I

3051
I2I5 724 4142 2075

814 4

8
I

690

.1493 I 337 6 1050

652 652
495 3
3
.8

795 3

695
577
277

1607 984
1349 1449

8 6

7 7

2349 3 1792 9

"

"

ATOMIC

WEIGHTS.

20 2393-

Silver,Chlorate,
" ""
"

"

Cyanide, Fluoride, Iodide,

.
.

'

"

Nitrate,

"

"

basic, Phosphate,
"

"

netUrai,

"

Sulphate,
Sulphide,

AgO,a " 0 " AgCy" AgFAgl" AgO,N"0" 3AgO,P " O " 2AgO,P " 0 " AgO,S0
"

1674.8 1585. I
2935 2124 7
7
I

5241
3791

4 4 4

1950 1550

"

AgS
NaO

Soda, anhydrous,
"

^389.7
502.2 1702.2

Hydrate,

NaO,H"0

"

Acetate, cryst.,
Borate, ciyst,,
"

"

NaO,C*H"0"+6Aq NaO,2BO "+Aq ^"

NaO,2BO " NaO,CO " NaO,CO"+Aq"" NaO,H"0+2CO"
NaO,N
"

2387.1
1262.
I

"

anhydrous,
"

"

Carbonate,
"

664.7
1789.7
1052.2

"

cryst.y

"

Bicarbonate, cryst,
Nitrate,
.

"

"

Phosphate, cryst,
^"~'

H"0,2NaO,P"0*+Aq"*
H"0,2NaO,P"0" 2NaO,P " O *

'

"

"

"

Pyrophosphate,
"

1064.8 4484. 1784. 1671.5

"

cryst, cryst.,

2NaO,P"O*+10H"O
NaO,SO
"

2796.5
890.5
2015.5

"

Sulphate,
"

"

NaO,SO"+Aq"
NaO,S"0"+5H"0
Na

"

Hyposulphite, crysty
. "

"

Sodium, Protoxide,

NaO
Na"0"

"

Peroxide,
Chloride,

1653.7 289.7 389-7 879.5

733-

"

NaCP

"

Cyanide,

"

NaCy"
NaF"
3NaF Nal" NaS

614.8
525.
a

"

Fluoride,

"

"

"

Fluo-Silicide, Iodide, Sulphide,

,

"+2SiF

"

..

3543-^ 1875.7
490.5

"

"

Strontian, Carbonate, Niti*ate, anhydrous,

"

SrO

645.9
"

SrO,CO

920.9
1321.

SrO,N"0*

"

cryst.,

SrO,N"0*+Aq"
SrO,SO
Sr
"

"

^*Sulphate,
"

18S3.5 1146.7
545-9

Strontium,
"

Chloride,
cryst..

SrCl"

989.2

Succinic Acid, cryst.,

SrCl"+6H"0 H"0,C*H*0"

1664.2 726.6
200.8

Sulpho-Cyanogen, Sulphur,

Cy"S"
S

80
two atoms, Sulphur, Sulphuretted Hydrogen,
"

ATOMIC

WEiaHTfl.

S" H'S SO S*0* S*0* S^0"

. .

"

401 5 213 3

Acids Sulphur,
"

of"

Acid, Hyposulphurous
Pentathionic Acid, Tetrathionic Acid,
Trithionic

-^

300.8 1503.8
1303. 1102.3

.^-

Acid,

"

-^

"

SOI Acid, Sulphurous s"o" Hyppsulphur Acid, so" Acid,anhydrous^ Sulphuric

.
"

400.8
901.5

500.8
S0"

"

Hydrate

H*0,
Ta*0" Ta

Tantalic Acid Tantalium

Tartaric
,-"
"

Acid, anhydrous
cry St.y

C*H*0*

825.
937-5
801.8

C*H*05+H"6'
Te TeO" Tb Th Sn

Tellurium
"

Telluric Acid
.

1101.8

Terbium,
.

^-

Thorium, Tin, Protoxide,

, .

743-9 735-3

SnO
SnO" SnCl*

835-3
935-3

"

Peroxide,
"

"

Protochloride

"

"

cryst.,. Perchloride,
.
,

SnCl"+
SnCl* SnS" TiO" Ti W W0" U vo" V

Aq"

"

Sulphide, Titanic Acid,

Titanium,
.

1178.6 1403.5 1621.9 1136.8 501.6 301.6

1150.8

Tungsten Acid, Tungstic

Uranium, Vanadic Acid,
Vanadium, Water,
" .

1450.8
742.9

1156.9 856.9
5 212.5
112.

H*OorAq
H"0" Y Zn
"

Oxyorenated
, "

Yttrium, Zinc, Oxide, -r

. " "

ZnO ZnCP
.

406.6 506.6

Chloride, Sulphate, cryst

"

ZnO,
ZnS Zr"0"

S6"+7H"0
.

845.9 1794.8

"

Sulphide,
. "

607.3
1139.4
419.7

Zirconia, Zirconium,

Zr

r^*

""*

"

81

ELEMENTAEY

EXPERIMENTS.

The

objectof this: set of ElementaryExperiments is to render the of the more student familiar with some important chemical operations, of which he cannot without a proceed a step in safety. knowledge of experiments, to the extended course Being onlyintroductory systematic their subjects to render them are aS very simple. I have endeavoured
easy
are

of

as possible performance ; and

I believe with

that,if

the

instructions

few diflScuIties. followed,the student strictly contrived that they can be performed,either experimentsare so at the same time, by a singlestudent, or by a considerable number make this I remark the to dictation. for to account according working of the details that are given under some heads, and the pecu-" precision
will meet The

of liarity

the

style.
OF VEGETABLE COLOURS BY ACIDS
AND
"

ALTERATION

ALCALIES.

a.

Action

of Nitric Add
water.

on

Blue

Litmus.

Half fill a conical test

Add
to

with glass

it three

drops of diluted nitric acid.

with
a

Stir the mixture

glassrod.

Dip
Put

into

Observe You

litmus test paper. that the blue colour changes to red.

it
a

slipof

blue

the stirrer

to your tongue and taste the mixture. acid taste.* will find it to have a sour or

glass that is best is of adapted for these experiments, conical shape with a lip. It is a
*

The

test

called Water

Clark's
in

Test

small

Glass, fig.i. veniently quantitiesis conmeans

supplied by
water-bottle, 2. fig.
consists of
two
a

of the

This apparatus
which
a

glasstubes
one

to glassbottle, fitted are by

cork.
the
2.

Through

tube,

a, air enters

while water bottle, escapes through h, the other tube. It answers very well
a

for

giving

small

quiet

stream

wettingpapers,

water, for and the like.

of

tubes, filling
I.

82

ACTION

OF

JLCIDS

017

TEST

PAPBB8.

h. Action Take

of Nitric Add
turmeric
remains

on

Yellow Turmeric,

the dilated nitric acid

into it
a

in Experimenta. prepared test paper.

Dip

slipof yellow

Observe
The

that the

yellowcolour
are

unchanged.
of
a

drops of
the

acid

most

added by means conveniently both

straight

called ends, usually glasstube, open at It be 6 inches and not tube, fig. dropping long, may 3. less than ^ inch in diameter, having a very small orifice but not
or pipette, narrow a
u

at capillary point,

one

end.

See

" Chemical ManipuGriffirCs

"

hUoriy^from which
'^

the

is made: following quotation

y
^'

In

suck

it is seldom using such a tube in testing, necessary to On with the mouth. dipping the tube into the test, a

less of it,according to the depth of the or portionenters, more be required is allowed to enter, and is as dip. As much may to the top of the tube, and retained by applyinga moistened finger just as much as may be wished is allowed to drop into the solution under examination, by a partial or complete removal of the finger. of applying A modification of this method tests by dropping tubes, where of students in be advantageously a largenumber employed may and are all to apply the furnished with solutions for analysis, a class are bottles should Two-ounce be provided tests to their solutions. same with large and good corks, perforated and fitted with piecesof straight glass tube of the width in represented the margin, and so long as to rise half an
"

"

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

'

4.

inch
of the bottles. The and The be

above The
are

the lower
to

cork, and

to

descend

to the bottom nearly

a

little contracted.

test solutions

end of the tubes may be be put into these bottles,

the tubes
cork
must

used stand

to
so

remove

them
*

as

required.
as

high above
thumb and

the bottle middle

to

caught by easily right hand,

or

the

the
to

while

the

is left at forefinger

of finger liberty

close

open

be

required.

the upper part of the tube, as may The tests are under complete contiol
an periment ex-

in this

which apparatus,so that any quantity be administered demand, can may

a

with

When facility.
is

very small
lifb the
acts two.

of the re-agent quantity

without
a

required, you
end.

tube

its closing

upper

It then

like When

glass rod, and takes

you
want
a

up

only a drop or

larger

II
\f

your and into the liquid,

quantity, you end by upper

lift the tube out

of the

close the liquid, closed tube

air in

forefinger, plungethe
remove

your

finger. The
the tube

the bottle then presses the

liquid up

con*

ACTIOK

07

AOIDS

OK

TEST

PAPBBB.

83

c.

Action

of Ammonia

on

YeUow

Turmeric,

Half fill a conical test

Add
to

with glass

water.

Stir the mixture

of Liquid Ammonia. (irops rod. with a glass of yellowturmeric test paper. Dip into it a slip Observe colour changesto brown. that the yellow
it three

Put

the stirrer

to your

tongue and
an

taste the mixture.

or

You

will find it to have

acrid

alcdlinetaste.

higherthan siderably
liftedwith what Another
to

the level in the bottle. of bottle for

shown

The

tube

can

then be

it contains."

excellent form
in is testing,
a

be

used

liquors containing 6. It has ^ wide by fig.

with
a

mouth, and, instead of

cap,

stopper,is furnished
of the neck.
orificeof which

glass

ground
with
a

to fitthe outside

the pipette,
one

It is also vided prois so small that it

a

cannot

deliver above The

at drop of liquor

time, though,

of at the pleasure succession.

course,

the operator,it can give many drops in remains the in bottle. Of always pipette
use,
no requires cleaning, vents preon

it is

alwaysreadyfor

the waste

of any the overdosing

and is an effectualcheck of the reagent, is to be tested. that liquor

be

6.

Every
form of

test

should glass

accompanied by

stirrer of the

size

and

fig. 7.

The
are slips 8. fig.

slipof

test

paper may
bound up

be 24 inches

long, 4

inch wide.

Such

to be had

in little books,like banker's

chequebooks,

8.

for delicate carefully strative, the purpose for which theyare used is merelydemontesting. When it is better to use as in Lectures, larger strongly papers more t hat the changesof colour may be easily at a distance. coloured, seen Such test papers are now for sale. prepared
test papers

The

made

of this size

are

coloured

84

ACTION

or

AiiCAiiUss

ok

tsst

fapebs.

d. Action Take the diluted ammonia

into it
a

of Ammonia

on

Blue

Litmus,

preparedin Experiment c.

Dip

of blue litmus test slip paper.

Observe

that the bine colour remains

e,

unchanged.
and

Counter-Actions

of Nitric Acid

Ammonia}

Take
And

the diluted nitric acid

the diluted ammonia
into the acid
a

preparedin Experimenta.
test

in Experimentc. prepared

Dip

of slip paper
a

blue litmus

paper.

Dip Dip

the reddened

into the ammonia.

Observe Then-

that the redness

into the ammonia

and the Uu/e colour returns. disappears shp of yellowturmeric test paper. acid. returns,

dip the brown

part into the

colour

Observe

that the brown

and the yellow colour disappears

on

/. Action of Carbonate of Soda

Take Wet Fut
a

Bed

Litmus,

slipof
the wet

red litmus test paper.

it with
on

water

from the
a

water

bottle.
carbonate

paper

of crystal

of soda.

Observe

that the red colour g. Action

changesto blu/C,
on

of Carbonate of Soda
test paper.

Yellow Turmeric.

Take

of yellowturmeric slip
water

Wet
Put

it with
on

from
a

the water

bottle. of soda.

the wet

paper

of carbonate crystal

Observe

that the

colour changes to brown, yellow Counter'Actions

h. Other Half fill a conical test

of Acids

and

Alcalies,

glasswith blue cabbage liquor.' acid. Add to it a few drops of diluted sulphuric Observe that the blue colour changes to red.
Take Take
" II

pipettein straight
in the
I

your

lefthand.

up
"" I I

some pipette
*"

solution of
^
. .

potash.
. . . . .

"

"

--^^

""""lljIMJUII

I-

Instead of nitric acid,you

; and

may

take muriatic, sulphuric, or acetic,

you

oxalic acid

instead of ammonia

caustic soda, for these

experiments.

The

take caustic potash or may effects produced by the reagents leaves

of

of each set will be similar.

s

To

prepare

cabbage,pour for use. blue liquor adding to it as much

for required use, the acfd.
a

cabbage liquor, chop up w ater over them, and after boiling

It
soon

blue

some some can

blue

hours decant the

be

becomes

mouldy, but
will make
or

preserved by
When
to
tralise neu-

oil of vitriolas solution of soda

it

red. strongly be

potashmust

added

TjssTUira

Ton

acids

jlsj"

alcalies.

35

Add

the

to pota^ gradually

Stir the mixture Observe And

with

that the red

more

liqitor. rod held in your right hand. glass hquor regainsits blitecolour.
a

the coloured

that with another

it

potashit

becomes

green.

With Add

take diluted pipette

acid. sulphuric

to gradually

Stir the mixture

the green mixture. with a glass i-dd. firstto "?t^, and finally to changes red"

Observe that the green colour

Besults of these Experiments ;

a.

We

have demonstrated,
"

That That That And We

blue litmus is
brown from acids

yellow turmeric

changed to red by acids.^ is not changed in colour by acids. is changed to yellow turmeric by acids. these demonstrations, we draw the generalconclusion, that change blue litmus to red,and brown turmeric to yellow.
or or

have also found, that acids

to red,have
a

substances

which

changeblue

litmus

sour peculiar

acid taste.

k. We
That That That

demonstrated, is changed to turmeric yellow

"

have

brown

by alcalies.

red litmus

is

changedto

blue

blue litmus is not

changed in colour
we

by alcalies. by alcalies.
draw

And We

from

these

demonstrations litmus to

the

that conclusion, general

akdlies

red cJiange

have also
litmus
to

and yellow turmeric to broum. blue, the substances which change red found, that alcalies, or
a

blue, have

acnd peculiar

or

akdine

taste.

I, The

experiments on
have
acids
restore

the counter-actions the of faculty that have

of acids and
altered

alcalies, prove
other's power.

that these bodies

each neutralising been

Hence,

colours

and by alcalies,

alcaliesrestore colours that have been

m.

altered

by

acids.

of the knowledge derived fix"m these respectsthe application when that reddens blue litmus, I a substance experiments, may remark, it makes red litmus turn blue,or yellow it is said to be add; when As

as

conclusions presuppose that the reactions have been tried, in Note ^ page 34, with a few other acids and alcaliesthan suggested
^

These

those named

in the text.

It would

be rightto hardly of
one

draw and

sweeping
one

conclusions general towards

from

the The

behaviour

acid

alcali
more

the coloured tests ;

yet it would
student
can

have been
increase
or

tedious to

put

in the text. experiments

at

vary the
D

examples
2

pleasure.

36

BLEACHura

power

of

chlobhtb.

turmeric

torn

brown,

it is said to

be cHodline.
constitute

Bat

the

of possession call
an

this acid property is not

sufficient to
the the

what

chemists

Acid,

nor

is the

of possession
;

AN

Alcali
some
"

because

alcaline property sufficient to constitute of colours is vegetable altering power

by possessed
acids
nor

substances
as,

alcalies This

which, properly speaking,are neither for example, carbonate of soda, used in ment Experiis
a

/.
an

substance
an

both salt,containing
an

carbonic

acid and

soda, that is,both

acid and

alcali. It cannot, therefore, be called very

be properly said to be

acid,nor

yet an

but alcali,

it

can

dUxdine,

for this term

simply a property which the substance actually that of alcalinity. There are other salts which contain possesses, namely,^ and which, nevertheless, both an acid and an alcali, manifest an add
describes

reaction

on

property,and
neither acid

colours. Many vegetable said to have an theyare have

no

salts of
add

the metals
There

have
is
a

this thiixl
are

reaction. salt is

class of salts that

nor

action

on

colours,and vegetable
an

that

alcaline in taste.
are

Common

example of this

kiod"

Such

substances

said to be neutral.

Bleaching
a.

of

YEaETABLE

Colours

bt

Chlorine.

Bleachingof Bltte CabbageLiquor,

into
a a

Put Add The

conical test few with

to it

a littleblue cabbageliquor. glass dropsof solution of chlorine.* a

Stir the mixture white. h.

glassrod.
the mixture becomes

colour of the

is destroyed, and cabbageliquor

Bleaching of Indigo,
to it

Half fill a conical test Add

a

few

with water. glass of of indigo. drops sulphate

a

glassrod. of solution of chlorine gas, Add to it a small quantity Or of a clear solution of bleaching powder. Stir the mixture with a glassrod. The blue colour disappears and is succeeded by a pale greenish yellow.
c.

Stir the mixture

with

Bleachingof Litmus Paper, glasswith solution of chlorine.

into it

Half fill a conical test

Dip

Observe
^

blue litmus test paper. that the blue colour is bleached to white.
a

of slip

solution of chlorine gas in water be preserved for some can time in a good state for use, if closely corked up in an opaque bottle of Directions for preparing the solution will be stoneware. salt-glazed A

given under the head of Chlorine.

BXPEEIMENTS

WITH

COLOUEED

LIQUIDS.

37

d.

Bleaching of Pink Paper,

the solution of chlorine used in
into it
a c. Experiment

Take

Dip
Or

of pink paper. slip

use

any kind

or calico,

unbleached of paper stained with vegetable or colours, of vegetable origin. any kind of cloth tingedby colours

Observe
e.

that the colour is almost

"

(bleached). destroyed immediately

Chlorine colours. destroysvegetable cloth
cotton bleaching

JResidtof this Experiment :

The

experimentillustratesthe

art of

by

means

of chlorine.

CHEMICAL

METAMORPHOSES.
are

When

certain

chemical bodies
combine

in placed

contact

under
new

particular
compounds

produce they of new These possessed changesare evidenced to the eye properties. by changesof colour and form, of taste and smell,of temperature and The experiof bulk, which frequently of a very surprising nature. ments are in proof of these facts will not, I hope,be considered adduced
circumstances,
out

together and

of

in place

work

devoted

to

Chemical Coloured

"

Recreations." Liquids.
a

Experiments To To To

with

produce

Green Liquid by mixing heautifvl

Blue

one

voith a
and

Colourless one. Crimson Liquid by mixing a Blue producea beautiful

cm a

Colourlessone.

change the Colour of a Liquidfrom Green

one

to

Itedyby adding a

Colourless To make
two

to it.

the

Colourless The
A

Bed Liquiddltemately Liquids,

same

and

Green

by the

addition

of

methods

of

producingallthese effectsare detailed in Process h^on

and

the Reactions of Acids

Alkalies with
at

Colours, page 34. vegetable

a

Liquor which
middle^ and

is

Crimson
at

the
"

bottom^ Purple in
tall

the

Green

the

top, Nearly fill

"

with cylindrical glass

a

of tablespoonful
at

water, and colour it blue by adding tincture it of cabbage then make

green

the
and

top by
a

gently adding
a

Httle

liquid
to

ammonia,

afterwards introduce

acid littlesulphuric

by

means

of

pipette, or. glasstube, long enough

of the vessel ; upon which
the

reach to the bottom above mentioned with the

to

effect

will be

produced.
one

If you

stir the mixture

or

tube, it will be glass

blue,green,
or

ing red, accordof

the

predominance of

other

the

dients. ingre-

See page 35. If you add a littleliquidchlorine, ^ colour will be totally the destroyed.Page 36.

38

BXPEBIMEISTS

WITH

COLOUBED

LIQUIDS. the

Cr2:\
To

Three

Colours produced from different

the addition

same
"

vegetable

infusion by
of three test
one

of three Colourless Liquids,Into each glasses put a littlediluted blue tincture of cabbage.
a

add

solution

of

alum,

to

the second

solution of

potash, and to the third a few drops of muriatic acid. The product of the first mixture will have a purplecolour, that of the second a bright green, and that of the third a beautiful
10.

crimson.

Blue Liquid produced by heautifvl

a

twb miocing

Colourless

oms,-^

Add

solution of nitrate of copper to a glassof water" the mixture dilute : pour a little will be colourless if sufficiently liquid fine blue colour. ammonia into it the mixture will then assume a few

drops of
"

"

Rationale,
a forming

The

alcaliprecipitates the copper, Colourless ^Add

a

and

then re-dissolves it, with

blue solution of the ammonia-niti-ate

a
"

of copper.
one

To

produce

Liquid by rrdxinga deep Blue

to

liquidproduced in the preceding experiment: upon which the colour instantly disappears. Rationale. blue and nitrate of The compound is decomposed,
"

Colourless one.

littlenitric acid

the blue

in solution of copper are formed. These salts remain in the water, the quantity of which renders the blue colour of the nitrate of copper insensible. ammonia

and

nitrate

Coloured
"

which IJiquors

become

Colourless

on

the addition

of a Colour"

less Liquor. A Action Colours.

or
"

solution of chlorine in water, or a solution of chloride of lime,deprives all vegetable solutions of their colour. Page 36.
of

Acids

and

Alcalies
be

on

variety

of

Vegetable

These

experimentsmay
"

performedin
its

conical test A

glasses

small

test tubes.

Brazil

Wood^
Caustic
The

Boiled

in 16

times
it

weightof

water.

deeplyit

coloured red brown.

acids make action.

liquor.Alcalies

turn

purpleor

violet. Iron salts turn

potashin 200,000 parts of water acts upon it. Strong it bright rose-red. Sulphuric acid has the most powerful it acid red liquor is a fine colour for printson paper, but
the weaker

the paper. injures Sulphurousacid bleaches it. Some of acids turn it yellow. dissolved in sulphuricadd. Paper saturated with Indigo bleaches it
that nitric Boiling add does the
same.

"

Chlorine
bromides

Chromatcs
a

and
on

bleach it cold. Xi^mzis." AlcaUes

Iodides do the same, but leave in the air. disappears gradually Solution
in water
or

red

stain

the paper
redden it

alcohol.

Blue.

Acids

restore

the blue colour.

A

bright yellowsolution, Alcalies turn it reddish-brown. affected. Very readily Alcalies Rose leaves macerated in alcohol. Yellowish-brown liquid. tion turn it green. Acids made it rose-red. The changes of colour in this solusmall portion either of acid or alcali. effectedby an exceedingly are

Bhubarb

infused in water.

OFBIOSITIES

OF

CHEMICAL

BEACTIOWS.,

89 Yellow

Turmeric, Alcalies
turn
"

"

Infusion in water,
them

or

tincture in alcohol.

liquids.

reddish brown.
it green and

Violets, ^A violet liquor. Alcalies turn

acids red.
it

LogvoQod, Gives
"

brownish
a

decoction.

Acids

render

yellow oif
a

reddish. of

Alcalies

give it

splendid purplecolour.
ammonia liquid
are

If

drop of
on

tion solusame

logwood

and

another of
from of the

put

the

but at a distance plate, soon changesthe colour

each

other,the vapour

of the alcali very

logwood.
by

Two

Limpid
i.
a

Liquors
If
a

converted

mixture

into

Solid

Mass.

Process
mixed

saturated solution of chloride of calcium be

solution of carbonate of

with
are

saturated

both potash,
of

of
an

which

transparent
almost
"

the liquids,
mass.

result is the formation

opaque salts takes

are

and

solid

Mutual
the

decompositionof the
carbonate of lime
water

place
;

chloride of

potassiumand
whole

formed Process

and

the latter absorbs

of the

of
''"

solution,and producesa degree of solidity.

2,

acid Drop sulphuric

into

saturated solution of chloride

"

is produced. The chloride of calcium; in this case also an opaque mass of calcium is decomposed, and sulphate of lime, a highly insoluble salt, is formed.

Process 3. Pour a saturated solution of caustic potash into a saturated solution of sulphateof magnesia (Epsom salt), solid mass is a nearly

produced.
with

The
water

acid leaves the magnesia (which then combines sulphuric and is precipitated in the form of a white powder) in with the

order to combine If
mass a

potash.
to

littlenitric acid be added will be converted

into
a

the

productof Process

i, the solid

: the insoluble carbonate transparent liquid

of lime A is
an

being converted into the soluble nitrate of lime. poupder produced by mixing two
common occurrence

sdid white effect of

colourless

This liquids,
"

in

chemical

experiments. See the

the mixture
it is
a

article on
are liquids

The Precipitation,
of every

solids

producedby

of different

of variety

colour and

form, and
I shall add

and

instructive
on

exercise,to examine
add,

the effect of various

an a

agents

different metallic solutions.

"

amusing precipitating example in th|

very

test for muriatic

Add

drop of
a

muriatic

acid to

quart of
it a

watei

pour
vaded with

some a

of the inixture solution of nitrate

a

into

test
"

and glass, the

let fall into

drop of

of silver

whole

sing] will instantly be peij"

acid combines

by

because milkiness, of this

the chlorine of the muriatic

the silver and forms

chloride of

is the power dissolved in 42,2

great

insoluble. So a salt highly silver, salt is test, that if a single grainof common

amounting to A fluid two solid metals. produced ly rubbing together

50 grainsof waiter,the muriatic acid is detected,though only i part in 108,333 ^^ *^" weightof the solution.
"

Triturate

an

amalgam

of lead with

an

amalgam

of bismuth

"

the

productwill be

40

OITBIOSITIES

OE

CHEMICAL

BSACTIONS.

like mercury. fluid, which

or,

Fluids
are

are

likewise

follow

of soda sulphate or sulphateof soda and carbonateof potash." These salts should be all fresh crystallised. A green coloured sdid produced by mixing a Uue one with a white one. ^Triturate crystallised sulphate of copper with crystallised \ super" "

triturated ; and nitrate of ammonia

tures producedwhen any of tie mixof zinc acetate of lead and sulphate
"

acetate

of lead.

In this process, acetate

of coppwer, which

has

green

is formed. colour, To make

a

liquor. Add
"

sdid green paint by mixing a Uue liquor with a colourless solution of to a hot solution of blue sulphate a little

copper,

powder, known by the name of French green, will be precipitated. The powder is a subcarbonate of copper. The liquor be separated by filtration. may Tvx" pungent and invisible gases unite and form an inodorous solid, Process i. Fill a jar with ammoniacal gas, and another with muriatic acid gas, in the manner described in a subsequent part of this work. the above-mentioned to mouth, and effect Apply the two jars mouth will instantly be produced, chloride of ammonium being formed and the sides of the jars. on precipitated Process 2. Dip a clean feather into muriatic acid,and with it the interior of a glass moisten such as is depicted in like manner the interior of moisten by fig. 12, and similar glasswith liquid ammonia. in The a glasses,
"

of colourless carbonate

of soda

beautiful
"

"

this state, will

to

seem

empty,
whole

but

if

they be put
space

mouth
will be

mouth
a

the together, dense

included

filled with
on

white vapour ; which in the end settles in the form of a white powder, the sides of the glasses ammoniacal containing
acid

solid chloride of amjnonium. Process 3. If two jars, one

13.

gas,

and

the other

carbonic containing

gas,

are

thus

put

solid carbonate of ammonia together, Two

will be formed.
"

without odour, higUy-odorous liquids produce a mixture totally Mix liquid ammonia with muriatic or nitric acid, till the resulting liquor the saline is neutral. The smell of both the ingredients a nd disappears, has neither the acid nor the alcaline taste possessed ^product by the two

]|^orous liquids.
"

Two
"

bodies devoid

of odour produce

odorous and compound highly sal-ammoniac

in a mortar Mingletogether equal parts of mixture Tne a mmoniacal quicklime. disengages gas,

vcHatHe,

and
a

which

has

very

pungent odour. To deprive red a

Hold You
This
a

rose

and of its colour, the blue flame

to restore

the colour

again,-^

red

can

do this

flame

^produced by burning sulphur. the rose to the top of an inverted glass by fastening jar. diffuses a gas which has the properl^ of depriving vegetables
rose
over

of their colour.

It is called

acid sulphurous

gas.

Whenever

it comes

CTTBIOSITIBS

OP

CHEMICAL

BBACTIOITS.

41

into contact
rose

with

the rose, the colour is

its red

either the
rose

or variegated beautifully

the to make as discharged If you afterwards white. entirely

so

dip
A

into

water

colour is restored

to

it.

subetance

wMch
"

powerfulpoisons,
soda
are a

he eaten, produced by the admixture of two may of acid and a solution solution of muriatic caustic
in together

both

poisonous. If mixed
of

such

as proportions

to

make The

neutral solution,they produce common method

kitchen salt.

is in proper making such mixtures proportions, in the article on EquivalentTest Liquors. explained Uxplanation, 9} parts of muriatic acid contain 9 parts of chlorine and J part of hydrogen. loj parts of caustic soda contain 6 parts of these quantities sodium, 4 parts of oxygen, and J part of hydrogen.When of the ingredients, in a state of aqueous are solution, mingled together, combinations take place. 9 parts of chlorine and 6 parts of sodium, new also called chloride of sodium salt, produce 1 5 parts of common ; and 4 parts of oxygen and i part of hydrogen,produce 4^ parts of pure water. Thus nothingis lost or left at liberty. The chloride of sodium dissolves
"

in

the water
of

at

the

moment

of formation, but

can

be

obtained in the

crystals by evaporatingthe solution. To Dissolve Metallic Copper in a Liquid, Dissolve copper wire or foil in six drops of nitric acid,usinga
state
"

grain of thin
lowing of the folthe production

tube

form.

Observe

the

effervescence that is

produced ;

the liquor, tlie changeof the liquorto gas just above smell that is disengaged. green, the heat which is produced,the peculiar In one the copper will be dissolved, the liquor minute remaining green. Blow
the tube
into

of red

the tube

by

smaller tube
the

held in the mouth.

This

expels

red and

gas, and blow The

shake the liquorblue. Alternately green air into it,until the green colour and red gas no more
turns
see

return. not
a across

smell

it,to

with the goes away gas. the colour of the liquor and

Look
gas.

into the tube

and
over

Boil it next the

lamp. spirit
thick and

White

fumes

gets

pasty,allow

W^hen of nitric acid go away. it to cool. It will form a mass

liquor

of blue

like rays from the centre. This is nitrate of copper. crystals, proceeding then melt, get drier,and stick about the Apply heat; the crystals sides of the glass The hard cake. salt now as a decomposes, and a the bulb is cold,half strong smell of nitric acid is disengaged. When fillit with water. Part of the hard matter dissolves, producinga blue solution of nitrate of copper ; part remains undissolved
as a

bluish-green

42

*"

SYMPATHETIC

ESTKS.

powder.
water.

This is Add
a

nitrate with

excess

of base, which

is

insoluble in

With

singledrop of nitric acid, and the whole will dissolve. the resulting solution,you can apply the different tests for
which
are

detecting copper,

described

under

the head

of

Copper.

SYMPATHETIC
Sympathetic inks
are

INKS.

ing, which, beingused for writingor drawliquids form figures or letters, which, under certain circumstances, or after certain become changed in colour, or from being illegible operations, become at present are conspicuous. Liquids of this kind known very the with their assistance and executed are some numerous, experiments modern of the most a ffords. Several w hich chemistr}^ entertaining
.

varieties

were

known

in

very ancient

times.

We

find Ovid

teaching

ychmg
with
dust
or

women

to deceive their

by writingbillets to guardians
with which
are

their lovers

new

milk, letters
soot.

formed

rendered
same

And
time

Ausonius
it
was

in whose Pliny,

proposes that known well

as

the

by coallegible Paulinus. to thing'

would

attract

black

powder

as

glutinous juice any colourless, for this purmilk, recommends pose

the There very

milky
are

sap of certain plants. several metallic solutions, colourless, or entirely if

havinga
remain

weak

tint,which,

appliedto
with

either invisible,
to its vapom*.

till washed

paper, another colourless solution,or is

none more

that produce figures

Among these,there exciting greater astonishment,than

sugar of
which lead,
at
a

curious

or a

exposed capableof

that whi6h

consists

of

solution of

becomes considerable

black

gas, even of mechanical been of

to sulphuretted on gen hydroexposure The mountebank distance. performers

tricks and
term
as

chemical

whom experiments, considerable

the

people have
the service
mu^t

pleasedto
such
to

derive conjurors, those under

aid from

bodies

consideration.

How

potent

he

appear paper
to do

it were, to grow, a causes as on a figure ignorant eyes, who meanwhile and ! to view Yet, by any hand, exposed that ink the the this, requires use only just named, and person

untouched

the business with a littledexterity. manage Whatever is written with a solution of sugar

of lead, with

clean
over

dry ; but, when the pen, remains with liquidsulphuretted hydrogen,it becomes
most circumstance extraordinary
is

invisible while

is washed writing

black. instantly

The

without former

number,
the
;

and

even

this,that, though sheets of paper the invisible board, be placedbetween

in the

writingand
case

trates penethe folds of the paper. the hypotheses successive It is instructive to look back upon which the causes of various effects observed in set up to explain speculators the substance of the wood
and

the same effect will take placeas liquid, reviving the writingbeing turned black by a vapour which

SYMPATHETIC

INKS.

43 take
ages of

nature.

The

phenomena
were

which
in

appeared
the middle
way
to

to

placewithout
to certain
"

any

visible agency,
which

ascribed

occult

magnetic effluvia, was by a something sympathy; and sympathy itself was In future times our exploded by attraction and electricity. of tracing method out own causes no doubt, be reckoned as absurd will,
succeeded termed
as

This qualities.'*

doctrine gave

the idea

precededit. ink is that prepared Another from remarkable of sympathetic the of ascribed to invention is cobalt, Hellot, which, though generally affirmed Pott German detailed have been to by by a lady,very early
kind

the ridiculous modes

which

have

in the seventeenth

that,by
same

means

if it be true century. But it must be older than this, of this invention, Theophrastus Paracelsus could, in the

Such and winter. is the summer picture,represent alternately of this ink of cobalt, that the traces of it in writingor drawing nature colourless when of a are cold, but when moderatelyheated become

beautiful

green colour ; which

be made
mention

colour, however, vanishes

as

the
heat.

paper

cools,but. can
I shall
now a

to reappear
a

by

fresh

of application
out

few

of 1;hese inks

of the

great number
to

which

but

slightacquaintancewith
The

chemistrywill suggest
be
;

the

Student." with
a

sympathetic inks may camel-hair pencil or a common qnill pen

that

Note.

laid

on

paper
is

either

but, whichever
"

used,
of

it is necessary the smallest

the

instrument

be

clean perfectly

the

presence

'the foreignbody will- go nigh to spoil clean fresh-cut quill thingto use is a pen. the with of characters Write will be invisible. weak tincture 1 galls : Moisten the paper with a feather, dipped in a weak solution of sulphate this phenomeTo understand of iron the writingwill become black. non, have only to know that a black liquidcommonly termed ink you solution of of is formed of iron. infusion to sulphate by adding galls a Write of of with solution weak 2. a prussiate potash" the letterswill be invisible. Moisten the paper, as in the preceding experiment, with solution of sulphate the writingwill assume of iron a weak a fine Um

quantityof

any

effect.
.

The

best

"

"

colour.

"

Rationale.

Prussian blue is here formed.

solution

3. Wash
when

dry : hlack and tincture of galls potashproducesWwe letters, colourless marks. common paper they make
4. Most

paper with a written upon

of

sulphate of iron, and

dilute

sufSfer it
but

to

this paper,

sblution of
ones

prussiateof
;

upon
are

acids,diluted
is

and

written

with, leave marks

which
;

invisible till the paper

heated, when

they become

Uack

the

hea,t

concentratingthe weak
5. Write
with
a

acid,and

enablingit to
;

dilute solution of nitrate

char the paper. of silver, and let the

dry
the

in the dark"

it

wilj be invisible
"

writing in the dark of the writingto the light

it will
sun
"

fold up the paper, so as to invisible ; but, expose continue

writing keep
the The

it will become

hlack,
"

Rationale,

4A
nitrate of silver has the

SYMPATHETIC

HTKS.

; property of being decomposed by light

black

colour

being acquiredby the metallic

with
a.
a

oxide.

6. Characters written

solution

sal-ammoniac, have copper and invisible when cold.

7. Write
8.

equal parts of sulphateof heated,but are i/eUowcolour when

of The

with

is invisible when
.

dilute solution of chloride of copper. cold, but yeUow when heated.

a

writing

Write

with

a' dilute

solution

of

chloride Moisten

of

gold,and
the

writingin the
of
a

dark" bit

it will be

invisible.
with
a

dry the paper, by means

"

feather

or

of sponge,

solution of chloride of tin

the

a purplecolour,occasioned writingwill then assume by the presence of of Gassius,a compound of a minute portionof the purple precipitate

tin and

gold.
with
a

9. Write invisible.'
"

solution of nitrate of bismuth the paper The water

to be in water
"

"

^the writingwill be be white

Immerse

the

characters will then

causes
a

legible.Eattonale.
compound of bismuth
"

and decomposes the salt, in a solid form. precipitated

10.

Expose
the

paper

bismuth,
"

to the vapour

which* you have written with nitrate of upon of water gen hydroimpregnated with sulphuretted black.
It is the

writing will become

affected bismuth.
a

property of bismuth
black
substance

to

be

thus

by sulphuretted hydrogen. The

upon

is

of sulphide
11.

Let
be

of potash the writing prussiate will assume colour ; cyanideof bismuth being formed. a beautiful i/eUow Write with a solution of sulphate of copper 12. ^no writingwill be visible. Wash the paper with solution of prussiate of potash ^the writing will then get a reddish-brown colour; cyanideof copper being solution of
"

bismuth

paper moistened

which

you

have

written

with

nitrate

of

with

"

formed.
of lead the writingwill be 13. Write with a solution of acetate invisible. Hold the paper over a saucer sulphuretted liquid containing like hydrogen the writingwill become, firstblack, and then glittering
"

"

gen, hydrodecomposed by the sulphuretted of lead. sulphide let fire-screen there be drawn of winter, a a representation 14. Upon with trees destitute of foliage, and ground covered with snow. Let, however, every part of the picture which, if the scene represented
which

silver.

The

metallic salt is here

produced black

'

summer,

would

by
mixture

green, be zaflfre or dissolving muriatic

be

of nitric and

with the sympathetic ink, produced in is a cobalt which impure aqua regia, acids. Draw, for instance, leaves on the

covered

the ground. These marks will not be visible ; the grass on will stillbear the aspect of winter. But, let the fire-screen be picture

trees, and

placed for
verdure of

short

time

near

summer.

When

then the view will exhibit all the the fire, allowed to cool, the verdure disappears ; but

CHEMIST'BY

TOB

HOLIDAYS.

45 and that before, often

it may
as

is

againrevived,by the same desired,provided the paper be

be
too

means

as

as

not
assume

heated
a

beyond

certain brown

point;
colour.

if heated for, A
as

much, the
and
not
a

ink will

permanent
The

solution it

of pure
blue

chloride of cobalt will not

green of arsenic and clear The

answer

the above

purpose,
tint is

givesa

sympatheticink.
iron among
water.

green

due

the presence 15. A jar is filledwith

to

the A

impure

cobalt.

piece

of white

is put pasteboard

into

from taken

view.

A fiber a

out, and
of

found

may be then covered few minutes, the white pasteboardis it in blue to have an inscription upon
it.

whole

lett^.
iodide

: Explanation

The

clear

w^ater

is

weak

solution of

with a few drops of sulphuric mixed potassium, acid. The white pasteboardhas had the writingpreviously starch paste. Such writing is invisible it with made upon but in the experiment, blue comwhite^ on a pound pasteboard ;
is formed

by

the combination will

of iodine and

starch.

'^*

readers My youthful few other examplesof

not probably

take it amiss

if I add

here

Chemistry Such
how

fob

Holidays. like to know

in

of them
can

as

visit the

Institution; Polytechnic may

wonderful

they

imitate

the for

exploits performed

that and

few of these public entertainment; some popularexperimentsdo not depend solely principles, upon philosophical It is not my business of hand. but are aided in some degreeby ^leight similar establishments
to

teach the

art

of

but conjuring,

it is

impossibleto explain these

of the which trickery forms

experimentswithout
part of them.
The when
is
a

the extent 'describing ^The

bottle from which conjuror's you pour blue dye, port wine, sherry, or water, milk, champagne, required, popularexperiment,akin to these depending on such chemical Enchanted Bottle,
"

changes as (lave been

a

described

in the

but section, preceding

aided

by

littletrickery. As the conjurorseems to pour performed, experiment is usually black bottle into different wine-glasses, all the above the same the
the order in which

from

in liquors

the audience
one

demands

themi
is
a

The

bottle contains

but actually

which liquor,

solution of

both protosulphate, and persulphate, and sulphateof iron, containing This mixture acid. is put into a black wine little free sulphuric a because bottle,
see.

it has

brown

colour, which

the audience

ought
are

not

to

The

with the is chiefly trickery small

of quantities

in which wine-glasses,

placed
"

such chemical reagentsas suffice to pro* beforehand of colour. Tliese reagentsare as follow : duce the desired changes

46

CHEMISTBY

FOB

HOLIDA.TS.

colour of the liquor For ioater, is not recognized nothing. The slight in the wine-glass. For mUk, a solution of chloride of calcium, or chloride of barium.
of

For blice dye^solutions of red and For

solution of

yellow prussiate

of potash mixed. port wine, a sulpho-cyanide of the same. For chamr a very small quantity potassium. For sherry, pagne, a solution of bicarbonate of soda. All these solutions should be as strong as possible, the entire inside of the glass should be wetted with them, justbefore the experimentis
of the reagents left but there should be as littleas possible performed, of the hand that holds in the glasses, and that should be hid by a finger the glass. Duplicates of each prepared glassshould be ready,in case a second glassof any one sort should be demanded by the company. ITie volatile plum-pudding,
"

At

dinner,when

the

cover

is removed rises to the

irom

the

plum-pudding,the
"

pudding
is
a

leaves its dish and

of the dining-room. ceiling Eicplanatvm, ^The pudding

sham

one,

of consisting

globular
a

balloon,about

six inches

in

diameter, paintedwith

spots like

plum-

pudding,and filledwith hydrogengas. Under the head of Hyurogen, I shall give full instmctions the gas, and filling for preparing balloons. contains charcoal. Place a largetest glassupon a plate. Loaf-sugar Half fill the glass them with lumps of loaf-sugar and put over
"

as

much
about

hot water
a

as

will
a

moisten thoroughly

them.

Then

add

quarter of

fiuid

ounce

of oil of vitriol. The

mixture

soon

smokes,
a

becomes

black, and
It sometimes

may

stir it with

glassrod.
pan.

You froths up. the edge rises over

of the

J^JT^in
CZS^
15.

^^^

which is the glass, plateor a stoneware into

reason

that you
an

must

put the glass

When black
water.
mass

the ejServescenoe is at
a

largeglass jar,and
seen

It will be

to

contain

the may wash stir it up with a pint of of black powder. quantity

end, you

Let this settle ; then pour powder with fresh water.

and washed be
on a

off the acid

If the

and wash the liquor, powder is then collected

filterin charcoal.

and afterwards dried,it will funnel,

found

to

be

The
a

method

of

proving it

to

be

charcoal will be decided

in

consists of carbon, oxygen, vitriol converts the oxygen and

Sugar

subsequent experiment (page 59). and hydrogen. The oil of

hydrogen
the

into

water, and

leaves the carbon

16.

and free, (or charcoal)

this substance

being

is insoluble,

from easily separable

of the liquidproducts
charcoal and that
can

decomposition.
Cambric
and finelace consist of handkerchiefs
cotton water,
"

The

compositionof
contain

and

linen is
and

analogous to

They
Fix

carbon, oxygen,

hydrogen,and

they

of sugar. be composed de-

by warm of porcelain capsule

like sugar,

oil of vitriol.

about

3 inches in diameter

on

retort

CHEHISTBY

TOB

HOIiIPATS,

43

stand, fig. 17, and put into it about half a fluid ounoe acid. Place a spirit of strong sulphuric lamp below it
to
vxirm

it,but do not make

is
a

of

acid sulphuric

because the boiling boilj and the acid dangerousoperation,

it

warmed. for this experiment requires onlyto be gently Put into the acid some small pieces of calico or hnen

cloth,and
The

stir them

about
soon

with

six-inch

glassrod.

decomposed by the acid, in the precedingexperiment. A the sugar was as is product, from similar black mixture which, by in a large of water, and aftenvards on washing, quantity the be obtained in powder. charcoal can a filter, If hard dry wood, ^7" is contained in dry wood, Vinegar for of is heated even oak, or a to redness piece dry cambric, example, tube closed at one in a glass described in a sub* end, in the manner of vegetable substances, sequent set of experiments on the identification the wood fibrewill be decomposed, and a hquor will be expelled from it which contains vinegar, while charcoal in the solid form will remain behind in the glass tube. See pages 58 to 64. A metal that takes fire when it touches cold water, This is a property which is extracted from the alcalipotash. of the metal called potassium, than water, and as brilliantas silver. It is This metal is soft, lighter mineral in fiom the air naphtha,a Uquid which contains no preserved A about small a globule,. quarter of an inch in diameter,being oxygen.
cloth will very be
^
" "

thrown

upon

the surface of

water

contained

in

fiat pan of 9

to

12

takes fire and bums with a violet"coloured immediately about flame and a hissingnoise, swimming rapidly the liquorand In this with a slight explosion. experiment, the potassium ending hydrogen which burns with flame, decomposes the water, sets free some and combines with the oxygen and part of the hydrogento produce caustic potash,which dissolves in the water and renders it alcaline, of red litmus test paper, which it tunis blue. be shown by means as may A Fountain of Fire" formed hy Phosphuretted Hydrogen Gas, of 6 and Put 15 grains zinc, finely granulated grainsof phosphorus, cold water, into a conical glass. under cut into small pieces of sulphuric Mix, in another glass, a drachm by measure acid, into with two drachms of water. Now, take the two glasses
inches diameter,
"

dark

room,

and

there

pour

the

diluted
in
a

acid

over

the zinc

and

in the other phosphorus

: glass

short time

hydrogen
bluish fiame the liquid, A
mixture

gas

will be

and produced, all parts of

beautiful

phosphuretted jetsof
of the

will dart from

smoke
is
a

the surface
a

will be quite luminous, and

will rise in very
a

beautiful luminous

column

from

of quantity the glass.

'8.

Fountain

of Fire

apt

name

for the appearance

take
care

-.^t^

that is

produced.

The

performed,and experiment is very easily

not to

is

stj^^K

very beautiful one.

But the operatormust

bum

him-^^^

48 self. The

CHEHIBTBY

POB

HOLIDAYS.

be touched

from it are Coloured

It must must not phosphorus alwaysbe kept in cold water. the when unless it is covered Bums by fingers by cold water. a nd difficult heal. to painful

Flames. wick

"

Coloured

alcohol

flames

are

best
in
a

forming
communicate
a

of asbestus

filaments,fixingit

produced by glasstube,and
to

moisteningit with the

concentrated

saline solution that is intended A

cotton

the colour to the

burningalcohol.
be also made
use

wick soaked in
case

wick

strong solution of the salt can is to be put into a conimon

The solutions which of oxygen

of.

In either

the

of glassspiritlamp, containing spirits

colour to flame
are

wine.

give a

those of chloride of

strontium, boracic acid, chloride of

A
stream manner,
an produces
"

barium, nitrate and muriate

gas directed upon a intense coloured flame.

of copper. lamp,coloured in this spirit

The Fire Chud.

nitrate of copper. these mixed salts.

Saturate about Put this into

a

^Mix 5 parts of chloride of strontium with i part of with a pint of alcohol or py ix"xilic spirit
a

metallic fountain,condensing into it small the mixture jetbeing affixed,

to

of quantity
out pressed
a

air

by

syringe.

is

room,

playupon the roof of flre is produced. brilliant cloud of variegated and there kindled,a
BrtUiant

with considerable force.

If allowed

Use Deflagration.
"

the

apparatus
of
a

shown

in the

following vignette.
It is

It consists

thin hard Bohemian

i nearly

tube, 3 inches long and glass

inch wide.

crook of
into

tin-plate, c, fixed
socket sliding when'
of

supportedby a narrow of a cork, by means a,

a

the

6. tube-holder,
as

As

much
inch

nitrate of

is used potash

fills about half-an-

of the tube

melted.

The

heat of

small When
the

lamp spirit

is sufficientfor this

quantity.
the

the nitrate of
a

is in fusion, remove potash basin of

a

lamp, and put tube: then, by means

pour combustion splendid In be
into

of water

below

the tube

small

d, slipof tin-plate, of well-dried quantity

your hand tube

charcoal
a

powder.
in the

Remove tube.

instantly:
breaks,die

will

occur

If the

contents

fallinto the water

same

and

do

no

harm. of phosphorus, or sulphur, may

the

manner

small bit of

The deflagrated.
In these

lattershould not exceed the

combustible

eighthof

an

inch in

diameter.

the experiments,

bodies combine

with the oxygen

that is set free from the fused nitrate of

energetically potash.

The

amusements holiday
our

being

over,

we

return

to

the

philosophical

consideration of

science.

EXAMPLES

OF

CHEMICAL

OPERATIONS.

SOLUTION.

Take

two-ounce

flat-bottomed
tion

sola-

bottle, fig. 19.

ioto it
a

Put of
in
an

quarter
of alam

onnee coarse

powder.
an

Add
'

half

ounce,

by
water.'

measure,

of

Light lamp.
the wick is

your
Posh

spirit
down

till
not

the
an

flame
same

above

inch

long.
with
as

If

yon

ose

gas, hand

make
two
on

the
or

flame three

ijf the inches of

size.

Hold flame.

the
As it with

bottle

your
see

right
dew

above

the

soon'
a

you

formed

the

bottom

the

bottle, wipe
cloth. botde
agiuu Move to
over

dry
the and dew.

Again
the

hold

(^Z^q
O

_^

flame,
oif

^'*^"-_
q
q

J q
'-

wipe
the

the

bottle the
one

continually
flame from

keep

heating
which
to

spot
caase

only,
the

would break,
stone-

tp

bottle

Q '''te"

*" n

-j^
31, 31.

Now
ware

place
furnace

the

cylinder
Q%lUs
over
a

round the

the

lamp,
the

to

make

the
and

flame
the

bum

steadily.
upon
the

Put

the

wire

upon

top of

cylinder,
bottle the

bottle

trellis, exactly
shake
it with

the

lamp.
motion,

Lift
to

the

occasionally, and powder

in

gently

circular

agitate

the

liquid.

'

For

the

weighing

of

solids, you
and

will

require
For
a

set

of

small

apothecaries'
glass
measure

scales

weights.
from

measuring
to
an

liquids,a
ounce

graduated

drachm

(eight dmchma).

66
In
a

SOLTJTIOK.

short time

the water

and boils,

dissolves the alum. say, the water the solution to cool. of the lamp. Allow the cover
While
it is

disappears ; that is to the flame by putting on Extinguish

the alum
you
a

I will explain to cooling,*

few

chemical

terms

in of solution. A solid which thus disappears to the operation relating in it. The liquidin which it dissolves is is said to be sdvbh a liquid

called the When

is

solvent

or

menstruum.
as

The

the solution contains when

great a

liquidis a solution. resulting quantityof the solid matter as it

A
same

capable of

it is saturated. dissolving,

solution is known

to

be

saturated remains

fresh solid matter When Take

diameter. kitchen and
a

of the
saturated

undissolved.

sort, on being put into it, with pure solution is mixed

two
an

water, it is said

to be diluted.
a

small Put

mortar, porcelain
into it
a

inches in
ounce

quarter of
water

of

salt.

Half

fill the Inortar

with

water,
latter
a

grind the

salt in
will But

the
be

till the
case

is saturated,which

the

in

very

few minutes. the

23*

if all the salt disappear^ during add

more

grinding, you

must

to the same

till you
to

find the water

more

to be

and saturated,

watef^ unable

dissolve any Allow

salt. the clear pa]*t capsuleof porcelaiii evaporating

to

the mixture of it into

a

settle. Pour

3 inches diameter.
it 24.

Only half fillthe capsule. Put round lamp. Lightyour spirit

furnace

the

cylinderthe Let all Put the capsulein the perforation.

tillthe solution boilsi
Then

cylinder.Place on the iron plate, 2 J. perforated fig.

rest

thus

put
see

into the solution

dry
see

powdered boihng solution.

if it diminishes

kitchen

salt,and
Watch

if it dissolves in the
to

the salt at the bottom

in

bulk^and watch
"

also the solution at

ij,

the top, to see if any changetakes iTou will observe two results : tional salt does
not
"

placethere,

df the solution diminishes in H is We

by

dissolve ; the salt evaporation,

ist. That the addi'2Dd, That as the vfAtst dissolved previously

time

reproducedin the solid form.

now

return

to

the solution of

alum, which

some

dgo Wd"

left to cool. If it is cold,yoti will find that

in the solid state;
a

of the alum pdrtion ditiw the

is

illii deposited

We
*

are

enabled teacher is

by these. experimentsto

foUowing^-^

The

the

and the students to be persupposed to be dictating, forming of this section. experiments phraseology ; hence the peculiar

BVAPOBATIOK.

"

PBECIPITATIOK.

"

TESTING.

61
Salt,

the Solvbility Inferences respecting of Alum

a.

and

Alum

dissolves in
in cold.

larger quantityin
well equally
in

hot
a

water

than it does

b. Kitchen
water

salt dissolves

hot

and

cold water.
this difference of
a solubility

You

perceivein

chemical character from kitchen salt.

whereby alum

is

distinguished

EVAPORATION. It is necessary
solid alum Take
to prove
to you

that when

hot

saturated solution of alum the whole of its alum.

of a quantity deposits does it not deposit upon becomingcold,

of window-glass inch wide and an slip six inches long. Hold this by one end in a flat, Place the other end, a position. upon it, near drop of distilledwater, so as to make a mark about
a
.

half the

an

inch in

diameter,as

now

show

you,

[see

mark/ in the margin.] Lightyour lamp, and warm

no

the drop of water,

It will

over

the flame till it all fliesofl' in steam.

leave

solid residue. the

same

Upon

glass slip, put

rests

similar

drop of
in

the clear liquor that

the solution bottle.

above

the solid alum

LI/ "^^y f^f^y/^

16.

Warm
substance

this

drop

over

the

lamp
that
a

till the

is again dry. You will observe glass

solid white
was

is left upon

the

glasswhere

the

drop ot

solution
In the

warmed.

This solid white substance is alum.

in a liquid* operationof solution,a solid is made to disappear In the operation is the case ; for here a liquid the reveirse justperformed, is made in it
to

disappear by

means

of

resumes

its visible form.

dissolved the solid that was i md heat, is termed evaporation. This ope^ration

PRECIPITATION..

-TESTING*

You
Take

can

prove conical

iH liquor by another experiment, that the supernatant alum.

a

the solution bottle contains

a

test

and glass

glassrod*

Pour into the

to it

a glass

few

from the drops of the liquor a f^vf drops at a time, and addition of ammonia. smells glass
*

Liquid Ammonia,, rod After each stir the mix ttut'e with a glass in the testthe liquor When, after beii 3g stirred,
solution bott ;le. Add

of ammonia, student

enough of
must

the latter has been

care

added.*
incatt-

The young

take

not

to sn^eil a% ammonia

as it may tioosly, producemuch

pain.
1!

52

BOLYEirr

poweb

of

liquids.

Observe

that

the effect prodaced

to contain

by

the addition of

ammonm a

to

the

presumed liquor having a white colour

to the bottom

alum,
a

is the

productionof

soUd

substance

^nd

consistence,which gelatinous

sinks

slowly

of the test

glass.

produced is alumina, and its appearance proves clear the crystals stillcontains alum. the above that liquor the substance of any given chemical This application to prove phenomenon to take place, by causinga particular presence of another,
The substance

thus

is termed
a

Testing,The
Beagent.
When

substance

thus

added

is termed

Test,sometimes
it is in

this product happens to be, as the solid solid substance, the operation is called |"rectpiYa^ian, a case, and the liquid a precipitate, employed to produceit,a produced thus, precipitant. There is another test by which the presence of alum in the clear liquid manifest by precipitation. be made can Take a conical test glass and a glassrod. Pour into the glass a few above the cr}'stals of alum in the^ution drops of the clear liquor resting to it a few drops of a clear solution of Chloride of Barium, bottle. Add Stir the mixture with the glass rod. You will observe that a white of of this powder is sulphate powder is produced. The chemical name barytes.

the

DISSOLVING Take
a

POWER
I

OF
now
an

DIFFERENT show

LIQUIDS.
six inches Put
into

test

tube of the form

an

and long,

half

inch

wide.

Fill

you, in size about inch of it with water.

3
27.

pieceof camphor the size of a pea. Lightyour spirit lamp. Hold the mouth, by tbte thumb the tube near of the right and second finger the mouth close hand, the of the forefinger. Hold by the .application bottom of the tube about thr ee inches above the flame of the lamp. Gradually bringit down till it touches the top of the flame. Keep it
it a

there for The

one

minute. tube

of the closing

by

i 'he
n a

must forefinger

take

placebeforeyou
The
use

apply heat.
to retain
a

It is too late whe of quantity

the heat is

applied.

of it is This

certain

ah- becomes and if the

the tube, above the condensed at the to p of the tube, by the steam keeps the tube cold enough to be held by the
ir in

liquid.

that is produced,

fingers. But
steam

is removed forefinger

for is
mi

"

an

instant,the
too

rushes forth, and

The

the tube

ide

hot

to

escapes, hot be held.

air

not dissolv e in the hot water. Pour off the water. Add to* the camphor, as much wine as fills inch of the tube, and again an expose it to

camphor will

of strong spirit
a

heat. boiling

OBYBTA'"LISATIOS'.

58

The

Add Close
then

of wine. camphor dissolves ra the spirit twice its bulk to the solution of camphor,in alcohol, of the tube with the foreGnger the mouth ; shake the will observe

of water.
mixture
;

let it settle.

You

that the

that camphor is precipitated,

in

is to saj, is

in the solid state. reproduced Hence cafnphor is insoluble

water, soluble
into

in

but insoluble alcohol,

in diluted alcohol.

Take
mixture

similar

test

tube.
an

Put

it half the bulk

of

pounded alum.
over

Fill half

inch of the tube with

will not

alcohol.

pea of Boil the

the

lamp. spirit
dissolve.
water.

You

will find that the alum

Yet you

found that alum

a

dissolved

in readily

Here, then, is
respect
You
to

chemical

difference dissolves
not

between
in

alum but

and
not

camphor,in
in alcohol.

Alum solubility.

water,

but Camphor dissolves in alcohol, will observe

in water. it to

that these experiments show

to name substance, its

speakingof the
is soluble ; and

of a solubility
in

the

necessary, in in which it liquid

be

speakingof
at

in any particular solubility quantityof

the
at

whether temperature the solution is effected, the usual temperature of the air,or at a boiling heat.
to liquid,
name

what

CRYSTALLISATION.
end of it a drop,as large as a upon one solution of kitchen salt, preparedin a former

Take

^t

glass plate. Put

of the saturated sixpence, lamp. Hold the drop of solution (p.50). Lightyour spirit experiment the of the till the flame over drop begin to look white and diy, edges

then

remove

it from

the flame and

let it cool.

the water fliesoff in steam, will observe,that in proportion as the kitphensalt resumes the solid state, in the form of cubes or dice.

You

drop of the liquor produced of in the former hot solution a alum, prepared by cooling experiment this instant of for the Boil solution over an (p.49). drop spirit lamp,
Take

another

plate. glass

Put

upon

it

tiben remove

it -and let it cool.

You will observe that the salt will be deposited in the solid state, in in the form of square and triangular larger size than the little pyramids, dice deposited by the kitchen salt. Powder eighthpart of an inch in diameter. a it,and put it on the end of a flat glassplate. Add drop of water, the wide sufficient nitre. to spreadas over as a sixpence, [See letters in p. 51.] Apply below it the flame of a spirit e and /in the figure lamp. The nitre will soon dissolve and form a solution. Retain the heat tillit begins to look dry at the edges. solution in a moderate Take
a

bit of nitre,the

Then

remove

it from

the flfimeand let it cool.

in this case, deposited,

You

will observe that the salt will be

under

61

OBTSTALLIBATIO^T

OF

EITCHZK

SALT.

botlt form, differiog

"om

that of the

kitchen

salt and

of the alum. centres,

as

It do

like many of fibres, all radiating from will appear masses the spokes of a wheel, or the bones of a lady'afan. I recommend you
to

repeat these
and salts;

esperiments at

yoar

leisure, upon give you

of the three largerquantities the

for this purpose, Take half

I shall

followingdirections;
OF

"

CBYariLusATios salt.
Dissolve
as was

Kitchen

Salt.

"

an

ounce a

of kitchen

it in

water, iu
a

mortar,
from
the

done
into

former

io water by grinding Pour experiment (p.50).

it with

porcelaio
settle to
into
a

the solution

mortar

glasstumbler,

Eiod let any poor

the

solid clear

matter

the bottom.

Then

solution

porcelaincapsule of 4 inches diameter. Light a small oil lamp,' containing with and the sweet oil, wick that it burns without cut so short, smoking. Put the furnace cylinder around the lamp, and the fix tJie the cylinder Iron plate perforated upon ; 's, capsnle in the The flame
of the the

perforation.
not

lamp
heat

should
will

be

much

more

than

half

an

inch

otherwise long,'

be

too

strong, and

the

e\-aporationtoo

rapid. The object to be gained,is to evaporate the water continually, but slowly. Kitchen salt being equallysoluble in hot and cold water, it can only be separated from of its water. The its solutions by the evaporation and^he slower this evaporation takes place,the larger more complete in their form are the solid piecesof salt,the dice before spoken, which ace of the The solid of determinate the in. produced course pieces process. form thus produced in aqueous of the abstraction in consequence solutions, of part of the water, in chemical are language termed crystals. They are geometricalfigures, sessing posDumber of and certam a plane surfaces, quently conseof edges and certain number a angles. The form which when is assumed by kitchen salt, slowly from its solution, is that of the dice or 01^ separated

19.

which

now

show

you.

'

The
i

above

figure represents a stoneware evaporations, b represents

part is
a

oil the

lamp,

useful

for alow
At

wick-holder.

the

Supper
JHZ
*"
.

cup

foi

the collecting

oil that overfiowa

-^

during the combustion, and for returning it,by the hole the into lamp. _^f a, The annexed of efiecting figureexhibits a mode a slow evaporation shown : b Is the lamp, c tlie wick-holder apart,/ the perforatediron-plate, restingon the lamp and cylinder, a. supporting an extra stoneware cylinder 1^1 The capsulecontaining the solution to be evaporated is
marked

[J.

OBTBTAUflSATIOV

OT

iimi.

SS

OBTSTAtLiSATion

OP

Aldm, and

"

In the

same
a

laaoner

as

directed
an

in the of

article, prooeding prepare

alnm. Be

evaporate

Kolation

of half

ounce

careful to evaporate slowly, and do not allow the solaagwa the evaporation has lieen carried so far that a thin tion to boil. When
to film,or sliia,begins to appear on the surface of the solution, you are tie lamp, and set it aside upon a thick woollen tlie capsulefrom remove

oloth The
tJon

or

cushion

to cool.

film whfch

appears

upon
the
at

solution

when

by satur^ed with
water, such
aolvHU
to coot
a

marks evaporation, the

salt,and
to

stage which, if deprived of

salt less

at which

the hot

undergoing ooncentraliqnor is perfectly

it will

begin
if the

deposit a
in

of iU more any At correspondingquantity of its salt

a

stage,

solution than

contains

in aoid vMter

hot, it will, if allowed

salt and of

a slowly,depositin crystals quantityof

to equivalent

the

reduction the
more

temperature,

perfectin proportion the cooling is stance is a subpermitted to take place. Now, alum if its solution of this character, and is of and state concentration, brought to a proper ''" cool with to a d^;ree of slowpermitted proper which to the figure bearing a resemblance ness, it will prodnce crystals I now unlike show you two a Egyptian pyramids joined figure not octaJiedron. base to base, and which in sdentific language is called an It is an approximation, more less near, to this form, which produces or 'the little and triangularpyramids which appear when a drop of square solution of alum is evaporated upon a slipof glass (p. 53). Tou find, in 1^ resiut afforded by the careful crystallisation therefore, of alum and kitchen salt, another character which to distinguish serves substances another. these from two one Namely, that whereas the those of the crystalsof faces of the crystalsof alum are triangular, ^t whereas of alum kitchen salt are square ; and a perfectcrystal sesses pose^ht faces, a perfectcrystal of kitchen salt possesses only six. first is an octahedron,the last a cube. The solution of alum I showed a hot was cooled,a certain you that when deposited,but not all that the water held in soluquantityof alum was resnlt in similar operations. The ji("). This is a constant liquorleft above of crystals mass a or by cooling a hot produced by concentrating
to

these

will be crystals
the slowness

with

which

"

all cases, Still a of question; for only so much

solution,is,in

cold the in

saturated
salt

solution in

of

the

salt in the

separates
at

from crystals

coolingliquidas
and

cannoD

be

held

solution

the

diminished of

ture. tempera-

liquorfrom a mass crystals, pouring second and to cooling, a again evaporation crop of be procured from And it. crystab can by carrying as (ai aa possible this alternate heatingand cooling of the solution, separate in you may subjectingit to

on Consequently,

off the

56

ZFrLOBESOENCE.

"

S7FEBTES0E17CE.

the nearly crystals technical

term

whole
a

for

quantityof the salt held in solution* The of crystals, is the poured off from a deposit liquid
of half crystallisation
manner as an

'

mother4iquor.

By
alum,
A

and the solution, evaporation,

same

ounce

of

in the nitre,performed exactly

the last

experimentwith

you similar

will obtain

of nitre in crystals

long six-sided prisms,

experiment made with sulphate of soda will producecrystals

that

are

fouV'sided prisms.
of a drop of the solution of sulphate of soda upon evaporation four-sided glassplate, produces readily prisms, mostlyso very knife-blades. In generaltheyare radiated, but not to resemble

The
a

flat

flat as
m so

decided

manner

as

the

of crystals

nitre described in

former

experiment.
EFFLORESCENCE.
If you of sulphate of dry the crystals bit of paper
an

soda

on

the
them

glassplateby
on

a pressing to dry air for

upon

hour, you
when
it to

expose will find that they will lose

them,

and

then

the

glass
parency, trans-

their

turn

white,and

fall to

It occurs efflorescence.

powder. This phenomenon is called of crystallisawhich contain water crystals tion

Most of the salts of soda
are

readily part with this kind*

diy air.

of

DELIQUESCENCE.

dry carbonate of potashand crystallised carbonate of soda,both in fine powder. Expose them in two separate to the free air for at least a day ; then weigh weighed porcelain capsules
an

Take

half

ounce

each of

them The

again. The
carbonate

carbonate

of soda have

will be found

to have

lost

weight.

of

potash

to

gainedweight.

The

air of the atmosphere

it to it to

of soda, or, as it is said, causes /rom of potash, to the carbonate causes or effloresce ; but it giveswater salts are difficultto crystallise and easy deliquesce. Deliquescent

takes water

the carbonate

to dissolve.

EFFERVESCENCE.
Take
it two
a

conical test

glass. Half

fillit with water.

Put

into

as pieces big as a pea of clialk or of carbonate of soda. Then add a few drops of muriatic acid. You will immediately observe of in chemical language is a sort boiling up, which termed This effect is produced by the produceffervescence. tion, and escape throughthe water, of a quantity of gas. If you of perform this experiment with larger quantities materials than is mentionerl here, it is proper to placethe conicsd glass of a fiat-bottomed glasscapsule. in the middle I In l"at case, when the acid boils over, it does not soil
.

the table.
35"

HTBinUTIOK.

SUBUMATION.
Sabliroation
is
a

process
and

by
into

heat

into vapours, In that

in

volatile by which by the withdrawal taken undersublime

sobstances
of

are

converted condensed

heat

again

solids.
to

smalt
a

experiments
will
or

prove

substance

when it

heated

close

vesseb,
a

that, when

it produces sablinies,

vapour,
that made it

kind of particular as smell, or respects jts colour or produces crystals:or in experiments ascertain whether whether volatile
or a

to
or

substance
not

is

Tokitile converted and

many

not,
into other
a

or

it

con

be

substance

cases analytical

; in these, of sublimation,

it is now

common

to tube

use

no

other apparatus
at
one

than and
formed

glass
of
very be

closed

end,

infusible

Bubstance bottom
any is is of

to

sublimed
and

the

tube,

glass. The is placed at the is then exposed to

upon

beat.
of the

The

sublimate, if
^^^
"''

produced,
examined. need

condenses
The not in

the upper
matter

part
than

tube,and
this

there

quantityof
be general
more

taken

for such

C
^""^ ^5'

esperiment

will lie upon

figure.
These
"

the general directions will enable yon to comprehend readily ibtlowiogexperiments : I, Spread a small quantity of grossly-powdered gumbenzoin the bottom of 8 porcelain basin, invert over it on of a glass tumbler, and apply to it a gentleheat by means the lamp-furnace: the gum will mell^ and dense fumes will the on immediately rise from it and deposit themselves ^ sides of the glass in beautiful silkycrystals of benzoic acid. Take a large 3. glass jar, containing at its top a sprig of

"

snch some or rosemary piece of heated iron on has

sbmb,
which
"

and

invert

it

over

flat thick

coarse

powder
benzoic

of

zoin gum-ben-

which spread in the preceding experiment, will be depositedon as rises, tiful the branches of the shrub, producing a angular and beauof hoar frost representation 3. Put a little cainphoron a tin plate. Invert a conical it test glass over lamp below. Apply the heat of a spirit ^^' The sublimes. camphor readily or glass tube, and apply 4. Put a grain of iodine into a small flask, When fill the tube. the heat Splendid violet vapours of iodine soon of iodine is effected slowly,crystals formed. sublimation are in a tube one-third of an inch wide. a grain of cinnabar 5. Sublime

just

been'

then, the

acid

58

AISTALTSIS

OP

XTSKJSfOWS

BODIES,

6. Sublime
oirial

grain of calomel
will be found

in

similar tabe.
less

These

two

merphor, cam-

compounds
Put
a

to be

volatilized than easily

into

iodine,benzoic

acid, and
oxide red

some

other substances.
mercury
is
a

grain J. apply heat till the

will condense the mouth.
on

of red

of

very

small

glass tube,
cury mer-

oxide

volatilized. Metallic entirely oxygen

the sides of the tube, and

gas escape at

DISCRIMINATION

OF MINERAL

VEGETABLE,
BODIES.
of

ANIMAL,

AND

A.

"

Some

of

the

properties FROM

Nitrate
of

of

Potash,

as

tinguished dis-

Carbonate follows
half
an ;
"

Potash.
a

Preparethe
in

nitrate of
into

potashas
a

Take

test

of spoonful*
or

it

powder.
add

Pjit it
two

test tube

inch wide heat

by 3

4 inches

long;

drachms

of water, and

apply

by

means

of the

spirit

lamp.

If the solution thus

a

supportedin paper filter,

luted.
I
.

filter it througha small produced is turbid, filter ring laid on beaked tumbler. The a
to

filteris not

be washed,

nor

the solution to be

di"

Put
.

a a

few

drops of
There

the solution of nitrate of

potashinto
drops of
and
no

conical test

glass. Add
will be
no

two

or

three

nitric acid.

effervescence,
a glass, bonate car-

visible change.
2.

Put

into

a a

similar conical test

concentrated

few

drops
of

of

solution of
or a

potash.
and
a

Add

two

three

d|X)ps

of nitric acid.
41.^

There

will be

vescence, strong effer-

of discharge
acid gas.

colourless inodorous

carbonic

The

German

spoon silver. The inch, in

test

is

made

of

bowl
a

of it is

and hemispherical, of
39.
can an

about

quarter
A
test

diameter. of without

spoonfulis as
in this spoon

much

be

liftedand carried conveniently

I
use

anythingas spilling any

a
^'

of it.

this term

instead

of the. more

indefinite term,
into
a

small

J* quantity
serves

The

handle

of the test spoon

is formed

and spatula,

for mixingpowders with

"c. in blowpipeexperiments, fiuxes,

sisTurauiSHnra

pbopsbties

of

chabcoaji.

59

3. Put a conical test lime.

few

drops of
Add with

the solution
or a

of nitrate

of

potash into

glass.
a

two

three

Stir the mixture

rod. glass

dropsof a solution of nitrate of No change will take place.

glassa few drops of a solution of t^ree drops of a solution of nitrate carbonate of potash. Add two or Stir the mixture of lime. An abundant white with a glass rod. Add will appear. a few drops of nitric acid, and precipitate again stir the mixture. The white precipitate and will eifervesce disappear. is this The student Results furnished with a Experiment, of 5. carbonate of potash from process by which he can always distinguish
similar conical test
"

4. Put into

nitrate of

potash.

The

use

of this will be shown

presently;

B.

"

Some

of

the

Propebties
a

of

Charcoal.

'

lamp. Lightyour spirit

Warm
a

glasstube of this size : [represented end. by the engraving, fig.42.] Hold it by the open it over the flame to dry it. Take a piece of charcoal the size of
Take
bulb
a

pea, that is to say,

ball of

quarterof

an

inch in diameter.

Put

it

42.

into the tube.

Hold
a

the tube with the thumb

or so. nearly position,

and middle

of finger

the

righthand

in

horizontal

Close the mouth

of il

and heat the bulb with your forefinger, red hot. becomes
1.

over

the flame till the charcoal

Now
That

observe.
water

That
2.

appears upon the charcoal remains

a narrow

the inner sides of the neck of the tube.

unaltered. apparently
test paper

Push the
.

of blue htmus slip

water.
a

into the tube

so

as

to

become

wetted
same

by the
with

Do

slipof red litmus

or

of

yellowturmeric

test

paper. Observe

that the water

these
is neither

change

in

by heat from charcoal produces no expelled colours. It is, in fact,merely hygroscopic vegetable
acid
nor

moisture, and
3. Take
a

alcaline.
one

small thin

porcelain cup

inch in

and diameter,

fix it

eb

DTSTHTGUISHIKGh

PBOPEBTIIS

OP

CHABCOAL.

upon
a

thin wire

over triangle

the flame of

lamp. spirit

Instead of the

you
at

a very use may the bottom, or

porcelain cnp, short glasstube closed still better, a platinum

cup one-third of an inch or half an inch in If the latterhas a handle,it may diameter. be held
43-

by

means

of the small be

tongs, p. 6i.
a

If

not

it may

supported on

very thin

iron

triangle.*
a

Into this vessel put

test

spoonfulof
the
nitrate

nitrate of

potash.
into

fall lamp potash bring fusion. Then, without removing the Hame, add to the 44. each as big as a pin's melted nitre a few pieces, head, of the will observe You heated the tube. in charcoal that was glass previously that is to say, explosion takes place, that Deflagration accompanied red hot on that about and the charcoal swims within the by fire, cup ; the nitre,and finally disappears.

Light

the

and

of

4. When
water, and

the
the

porcelain cup
water
to

is become

nearlycold,half
a

fillit with

boil the

produce

solution of
nitre. and

the

substance,
use a

afibrded

by

of the chai*coalin the deflagration

can

If you

platinum cup,
5. Put
a

be put into a solution in the Filter the resulting

it

tube glass
manner

boiled with the water.

at

described

Exp. A,

page

58.

drops of this solution into a conical test glass. Add There will be a strong effervescence. three drops of nitric acid. two or 6. Put a few drops of the solution into a conical test glass. Add There will be a white two or three dropsof a solution of nitrate of lime. three drops of nitric acid, and stir the Add or to this two precipitate.
few
mixture

with

rod. glass
*

The precipitate now

dissolveswith effervescence.

of the cup at a proper distance above fixing of the retort holder^ the flame,is effected by means metal rod, a wooden which consists of a perpendicular The

foot,and
at

a one

horizontal end
on

arm a

of

thin

brass

wire,

minated tera

by

and triangle,

at the other

by

^
45

which coil,
can

runs

the

rod, and perpendicular

the size of the

which

be

fixed

at

pressure

upon be diminished can

any heightabove the triangle.The I

foot,by simple

triangle of very by smaller triangles

now

fine wire, bent

and The

as

show

yon

(fig. 46),

triangle. placedacross larger also be fixed above can porcelain cup of of the cylinder the spirit lamp by means is the lamp furnace. A flat iron top put on and a fine iron triangle the cylinder, placed
it. The cup
is

the

46.

upon

then fixed in the

triangle.

DIBCBIMIKATIOK

OF

YEGDTABIiS

BODIES.

61

of the same Supporta splinter the or near blowpipe,' edge of the it on a piece lamp ; holding spirit of platinumfoil, in a platinum or

7.

charcoal before the flame of the

by cup held spoon-fashion of the platinum tongs.

Observe
in size,and

means

47*

that the charcoal bums ash.

without
a

diminishes flame,gradually of quantity

a

finally disappears, except

very small

white

incombustible JResidt,
"

to 5, prove

with ExperimentsA, B, 3 "bo 6, in conjunction Experiments of nitre with charcoal changes that the deflagration
into Carbonate
"

Nitrate

of Potash
C.

of Potash,
Vegetable
an a

Nature

of

Bodies. Crush it up inch square. glasstube, such as that in

Take
a

pieceof dry writing paper

the size of
a

into
*

lump

pea.

Put

it into

The

sort

in the
1"

sented blowpipe to be used in these experiments is reprefollowing figm'e.For instructions as to the method of of

j^i
48.

using it, I refer you

wherein
I make I have
no

to

my

"

Treatise

on

Chemical
use

Manipulation"

treated

of comprehensively

the

of this instrument.

of the blowpipe the use thus apology for introducing of an elementarycourse experiments, that such because I am cannot course a persuaded and unless the be carried on cheaply conveniently blowpipe is made to replacethe furnace as oflen as

early into

fe

there is no reason Besides, why the use possible. of this instrument ought to be deferred. The presumed it is of to use difliculty learning quite
as imaginary,

I do not

doubt

it will be found

by

all
-

who

take the trouble to consult the work

to which

h
49*

I have referred.

lamp the margin (fig. 49).

The

used for

with the experiments

blowpipe is

in represented

62

piscBiicDrATioiir

of

te0etab"e

bodies.

the piece of charcoal, Exp. B. Take of blae '^hichyon ignited a slip litmiis test paper, and a slip of yellow tormeric test paper, and slightly both of them of the water with clean water, by means moisten bottle, Now ignitethe piece of paper by holdingthe bnlb of the page 31. tnbe in the flame of the spiritlamp. As see a white as soon yon smoke in the tube, dip into it the blue test Afber a moment paper. take oat the blue paper and pat in the yellow paper. heated in the tube is converted 2, Observe, that the white paper into a black substance, preservingthe same size and shape. the sides of the tabe. is deposited on oilyliquid 3* That a brown

4. That the blue

remains

paper turns red, and that the yellowtest papet in the volatile matter unchanged, given off during the ignition*
test
a

of a wire the spirit over porcelain triangle, cup, by means melted three of hot in it into the nitre. Throw lamp. grains of the paper nitre,part of tlieblack substance produced by the charring Melt
in the tube.

5. Fix

substance^ after swimming about in the nitre red hot, finally precisely disappears, do the charcoal was in Exp. B, observed to as 3. Boil the in water by porcelain 7. cup to dissolve the salt produced it divide Filter the solution without and the deflagl^tion. diluting it^ into two in conical test glasses. poiidons 8. Add to one a few drops of nitric acid, which will occasion portion
and is produced, deflagration
an

6. Observe

that

that the black

effervescence.
to

of nitrtte of a few drops of a soltitioti portion will produce a white pi*ecipitate add a few drops of ; then nitric acid, and stir the mixture with a glassrod, whereupon the white will effervesce and re-dissolve. precipitate 9. Add lime, which
the

other

10.

Support the
flame. Hold

remainder
it upon

of the black substance

in the

pipe before the blowSee

or platinum foil,

platinum cup.

B,7.
11.

Observe
very small

that

it bums

away

without

flame,and leaves nbthing

ashels.

but

a-

of quantity

incombustible

white

the Inferences respecting

on hy these experiments

Nature
"

exempltfied as Bodies^ of Vegetable proof of

this fact is aflbrded

paper

a.

They

contain

charcoal.

The

by the
the

propertiesof the mixed

paper is
in ignited

black substance which

of

when is left: acid

close vessels.
a

h.

They

contain

the

elements

volatile acid,which

they
This

produce when
acid is

to the red heat in dose vessels. subjected

vinegar.

This, experiment will also enable you to understand the nature of the fixed process by which vinegaris made from wood. Large iron vessels,
in
a

filledwith wood, and then shut close, are with the excepfurnace,

DISCEIMIWATION

OF

AIHMAL

BOBISS.

68
fireis then

tion of in the

pipe that

is fixed into

each of them.
are

The
red

lighted
issues
are

and furnace, the

the iron when

vessels
it

made

hot.
the

Vinegar
iron

from

pipes, and

is all

passed out,

vessels

opened, and the wood is found to be converted into charcoal. The vinegarthus produced is not in a pure state, but is mixed with the brown liquidthat you found to condense on the sides of the oily It is freed from this glass tube during the ignition of the paper. liquid by subsequentoperations.
D"
1
.
"

Nature

of

Animal
a

Bodies.
a

Take

dried cochineal insect,or

bit of

feather. Put it into

Prepare moistened slipsof blue and yellowtest papers. Ignitethe insect by holdingthe tube in the flame of the spirit lamp, and put into the tube during the ignition, firstthe blue test paper, and than one need not last longer then the yellow The ignition test paper.
minute*
2.

tube. jDjlass

Observe

that the

insect ignited

is converted

into

black substance

like charcoali

3. That 3. That

brown

is deposited on liquid oily

the sides of the tube. hartshorn. the

4. That there
the

is A

strong smell of burnt

remains

oil and

blile test paper paper ttirns btown* 6. Fix a porcelain cup upon

and unaltered,

yellowtest Iftmpi spirit

thfe wire
Throw

over triangle

the

Melt

in it three

of grstins

nitre.

the black Observe

substance

that

produced by is produced,and deflagration

the inelted nitre part of of the cochineal. the ignition

into

that the black sltbstanc6

disappears; if dissolved and filtered will bfe ^, The productof the deflagration, found, by tiie process formerly given, section C, Nos. 7, 8, 9, to con^ tain carbonate of potash, 8. Hold the rest of the black substance in the pilatinum spoon before the blowpipeflamei Observe that it biirlisaw^y trithout flame, jltidleaves only a very
of white ashes. quantity the Nature respecting 9. Inferences fiedby the cochineal insect,
a.

small

of Animal

as Bodies^

exemplU

Thfeycontain chdrcoal, They contain the elements

produce when
enable you experiments
or more

o^
to
a

volatile

which alcali, the nature

alcali

they

subjected
to

red heat in close vessels.

These

understand

of the.process

which spirits fcy of hartsJiom

is made.

is ignitedin comuoionlythe bones of animals, the of iron vessels, shut quiteclose, with exception a pipe to carry off of What vessels the out is the during th^ ignition, gases. passes

Hartshorn,

volatile alcali, ammonia, in company

with

the brown

oil which

in your

64
is

CHA.BACTEBI8TTCS

07

OBGAKIO

BODIES.

experiment

of deposited on the sides of the glasstube. Spirits such The volatile alcall, mixtore. hartshorn is just a ammonia, is of oil. brown of hartshorn its deprived spirits fetid smell produced in your experiment,arises not so much The from the brown from the alcali, as oil,which contains a varietyof
odorous

compounds.
fixed matter that remains
It is
in the

The

iron into

is of

black colour.

ground

the

name

of bone

blacky

or

animal

charcoal.

afber this operavessels, tion, and sold under powder, When in the open igiiited leaves
away
a

air,this black substance bums

away

and partly,

white

residue^
The
.

commonly
white

called bone ash.

The

part that bums

lime.

is charcoal.

residue is
is not
not

phosphate of
a

This

is the

solid matter

of all

bones, but
".
"

component part of flesh.

to

pursue farther ; but the following facts I

1

^Ido

intend

the

of Organic Bodies Analysis

to bear in recollection :
"

any

A
.

substance

that
a

beg you off volatile matter gives

residue that

tube, and
is almost
2.

leaves

charred

in a glass ignited with melted nitre, deflagrates

when

If the volatile matter

litmus

of organicorigin. invariably turns disengagedduring the ignition the almost of substance is red, always vegetable origin.

blue

turns yellow turmeric brown, the substance 3. If the volatile matter is almost always of animal origin, if not so, it is one of those vegeor table

bodies

that contain

nitrogen.

in a glass tube, nor ignited 4. A substance that does not char when off volatile with melted is nor nitre, certainly deflagrate give matter,

derived from

the mineral

kingdom.
a

5. If
a

substance that

residue

tube,givesoff volatile matter, and affords with nitre,yet will not bum deflagrates entirely away
chars in
a

when

heated in

organic,and v^etable
with
a

platinumcup in free air,then substance ; partlyof an inorganic

combined with
an

it consists as, for

of partly

an

example,

of

acid

earth,or
water

of

metallic acid combine4

alcali. vegetable mineral bodies

6. Several when

give off
substance

in the

tube, or
all the

turn

black

with nitre, heated,or deflagrate or

no

bum
can

entirely away
exhibit

in the open

air; but
which
^

singlemineral

phenomena

have been

bodies.' characteristic of organic as described,

to

^The Experiment," the of of some give following quantities for examination substances this to chalky Alum, salt, according process. red lead,starch, of ground rice,gum kino, pounded peroxide manganese, of lead, fibres of asbestns, fibres of cotton, acetate charcoal,sulphur, fibres of silk, acetate of copper, with or any kind of dried vegetable

Substances

be

given

as

Mcercises

on

this

teacher may

the student

small

animal

substance.

65

QUALITIVE
I
PROPOSE

ANALYSIS
section
a

OF
OF

SALTS.
Testing

to

give in this
course

CouBSE

adapted for

beginners.
book
as

be followed by a single student, using the may his guide; but the experiments are also be persuch as can formed of students, each provided with a set of by a largenumber The all

apparatus, and
teacher.

under working simultaneously,

the

direction

of

of the compound objectproposed is to analysea certain number bodies termed Salts, embracing those of the most important Acids, Alcalies,Earths, and Metals ; and in order that the solution of the problem may not be rendered too difficult, only such salts are to be taken
as

The

will dissolve in water.

SUBSTANCES The
dissdve instructions in water,
f

TO
to

BE

SOUGHT

FOR.'

now

be

and

which
am

given applyonly to compounds which other metals^and salts of no contain no

to
name

other acids

than those I
"

about

:;
"

These
1. 2.

Metals

Potassium. Sodium.

12.

Zinc.

21.

Nickel. Chromium.

13. Tin,

protosalts-

22.

3. Ammonium. 4. Barium.

14. Aluminum.

23.

Iron,
mixtures

15. Lead.
16.

of

5. Strontium,
6. Calcium.
/

Tin, persalts.

17.
18.

7.
8.

Manganese.
Iron, protosalts.

Antimony. Mercury, proio*

salts.

with persalts protosalts. 24. Mercury, persaltsf*

9"
10. 11.

Magnesium.
Cadmium.
^

19. Cobalt.
20.

25. Gold. Iroh, persalts. 20.

27. Silver.

Copper.

Bismuth. these Classes Nitrates. Chlorates.

of

And
1.

Salts
6.

"

Sulplijdes*

1 1

Oxalates.
.

2.

7. Fluorides.
8.

12.

Carbonates.

3. Chlorides. 4. Iodides.

Phosphates^
rseDiates.

13.

Sulphates.

9* A
.

14.. Chromates.

5. Arsenites.
'

10,

Fioratesv
those wha

point the ter^t may aretoraaketheexperimen:is,

From

this

be read
.

as

ins tractions to

66

QTJALITIVE

ANALYSIS

OP

BAITS.

soluble Any singlesalt, metals and

one

in

water, and

one containing can salts,

of be

these 27

by

the method

of the acids of these 14 classes of to be described/ now

analysed

The

teacher who
are

givesont
than

the salt to

be examined
is pure,

takes

care

that

these conditions
no

that the salt fulfilled,

and

that it contains

other substances Free acids and

those I have should

not

enumerated.

bases

be

given

had

of salts ; experiencein the testing the reagents do not, until neutralized, act towards
some

until they have pupils because, in many cases, they

to

in the

same

manner

as

they are for the first time given to notice should also be given that free acids and bases may be the pupils, the substances given for analysis. found among
their salts. respective And when

LIST

OF

THE

APPARATUS
FOR

REQUIRED
SET
for

BY

EACH

STUDENT
a.

THIS

OF

EXPERIMENTS.
"

Apparatus

Indicating
Water

Tests.

Small Test

and mortar. porcelain pestle silver). spoon (Geinnan

to hold flask,
i
or

bottle to

supply water

to

tubes"

Flat-bottomed
2
ounces

of water.

Glass funnel and support. small size. 2 straight pipettes,

8 conical test 8

to 25 septems. Pipettegraduated Glass spirit lamp. Cotton wick for lamp in a box.

with spout. glasses

Small

brass tongs to trim the wick.

glassstirrers, 3 inch. Rest for stirrers and pipettes. Boilingtube,6 inches by i inch.
Handle Book Book
Pair
to

with holes. Lamp furnace cylinder Trellis top for lamp furnace. Box with
ICO

hold

the

tube boiling

while hot.
of red litmus test paper. of blue litmus test paper.

circular filters 2-i

inches diameter.
to hold the filter over Filter-ring test glass.
a

of

tubes

for

testing with
ing size,contain-

sulphuretted hydrogen.
2 oz,
"

6, p. 33),about (fig. capped bottles with pipettes solutions of the following tests :
of Soda.

Carbonate
Caustic Red

Nitrate of Silver.
Nitrate of Lead. "hloride of Calcium. Nitric Acid.

Liquid Ammonia.
Potash, of Potash;
Prussiate

Nitrate of
2

Barytes.
bottles with the following dry tests stoppered Calcium. of Potash. | Bisulphate
for
:
"

wide-mouthed

"

of Sulphide h

Apparatus

Confirming

Tests*

"

^See page

83.

BOtitBLI!

SALTS

tOB

AKAtTStS.

6?
must

That you may

have

an

idea of the

compounds with which you

salts, acids,and

show you a list of expect to meet, I now to you for analysis. may be presented Nitrate
1. 2.

bases,that

op

Chloride 31. Calcium.

of

Fluoride 60. Silver. Phosphate

of

Sulphate
88.

of

Potash. Soda.
Ammonia.

59. Potassium.

87. Chromium.
Iron, perand

32.
33.

Manganese.
Iron,proto.

3. 4. Barytes. 5* Strontidn.
6. Lime.

proto-

34. Magnesium. 61. Soda. 35. Cadmium.

of

salts mixed.

89. Iron,perox.
Chromate
of

36. Bismuth.
37. Zinc.

62. Ammonia. Arseniate

of

7.

Magnesia.

8. Cadmium.

j 38. Tin, proto.

39. Aluminum. 40. Tin, perch.

9. Bismuth. 10. Zinc.

11.

63. Potash. 64. Soda.

Borate
of

90. Potash. 91. Soda. Free

sduUe

Tin, protAlumina.

41. Ahtimony. oxide. 42. Cobalt. 43. Copper.

Bases,
in water^

65.Potash.
66. Soda.

12.

1^4 Lead. per14. Tin,"

oxide. 46. Iron, mixed

per- and pro-

44. Nickel. 45. Chromium.

67. Ammonia.
Oxalate
68. Potash.
of

92. Potash. 93. Soda. 94. Ammonia.

95.

Barytes.

15. Mercury,

96. Strontian.
97. Lime.
Free
of

protoxide.
16. Cobalt.

tocbloride.

69. Soda.
70. Ammonia.

47.

Mercury,

17. Copper.
18. Nickel.

percliloride.
Carbonate 48. Gold. 49. Iron,perch. 71. Potash.

Acids

19. Chromium*
20.

in aqueous solution^

Mercury,
peroxide,
Silver. Iodide
of

72.

Soda.

98. Nitrici
99. Chloric. Muriatic* ICX^.
of
1 01.
"

73. Ammonia.
Sulphate

Ji.

50. Potassium. 51. Sodium. COLORATB

22. OP
"

Hydriodic*
Araenious.

Potash. AnSENITE
OF

74. Potash. 75. Soda.

102.

103*

^3, Barytes.
24. Lime, Silver.

ij.

52. Potash. 53. Soda.

75. Ammonia. 77. Manganese*

79. Magnesia. 80. Cadmium.

SulphuretHydro*

ted
gen*

78. Iron,proto. 104; Hydro105.

106.

fluoric
,

Phosphoric^
Arsenic. Oxalic,

CliLORIDE

OF

SULritlDE

OF

81. Bismuth. 82. Zinc.

i26. Potassium.

54. Potassium.
55. Sodium.

107. Boracic.
1

27. S odium ." 28. Ammonium. 29. Barium. 30. Strontium.

83. Alumina. 84. Cobalt. 85. Copper.

'
'

08.

56. Aiiimonium.
57. Barium. 58. Calcium.

109. Carbonic,
no. III.

Sulphuric.
Chromic.

85. Nickel.

f2

68

FBXFABATIOK

O?

SOLUTIOV

OF

THS

SALT.

PREPARATION YofT

OF
be

SOLUTION

OF

THE

SALT.

are

now

supposed

to
a

fornished with
to

set (^

apporatos, testii^
Yon
are

and with with reagents,

salt intended

be

analysed/
a

fore there-

ready to proceed.
The firstthii^ yoo have
to

do is to make

aoiutkn

of part of the

substance hr

andysis.

PalTeri2" yoar salt in the small porcelain mortar, till it feels no longer and thtunb. between the finger Pat the half of the powder upon gritty the end of
a a

and slipof glazedwriting-paper,

or

insert it,as

now

show

into yoa,*

one-ounce

two-oance
one

flat-bottomed drachm
to

solution flask.
Add

Next^
this to
on

gradoated measore poor the powder in the flask. Be sure

outside of your if you or flask,
do

into the

of water.

not

spill any
sure

of the water

the

be it, spill

and

wipe

the flask dry.

for of dry salt supplied quantity the first experiment may be lo grains to each pupil; one half to be used in forming a solution for examination Tests ; the by the Indicating other half to be kept in the solid state for examination by th^ Blowpipe, Tests.. The salt the the be also or Confirming by presented may opon first occasion in its crystallised state, in order that the beginner may the physical derive from have the advantageof any information he can of In subsequentexperiments,the quantity of the substance. properties reduced firom lo grainsto i grain, the salts should be gradually and it
"

"

Advertisement

to Teachers.

The

should be In
some

in presented cases,

fine

powder.
the first two the lessons,
to presented

and

after perhapsgenerally

compounds for
the class in bottle
a

examination

state of

time, be may, in order to save each pupil being furnished solution,

two
or

with

small tested.

one containing

or

drachms

of the

that liquid

is to be

the solution previous prepares of the class, to the assembling observing the precaution of making the solutions of the
same

In this case, the teacher

his assistant

by prepared
the text.
"

the class

that they would have strength individually, accordingto the

been

had

they been
given in
a

instructions

of inserting powders into deep narrow wide slip of highly-glazed as writing-paper, mouth of the vessel into which the powder is to
into longitudinally
a

Method

vessels.
"

Take

long
this

as

the

diameter

of the

be inserted.

Fold

powder upon one end of it. Hold the vessel in a horizontal position, and insert the paper gutter into it,the end bearing the powder first. Then hold the vessel of upright, upon which the powder falls from the paper to the bottom
gutter,and

sort of

placethe

the vessel.

Withdraw

the paper

in

such

manner

as

not

to

soil the

deck of the vessel

PBEPAEATIOK

OF

SOLUTIOK

OF

THE

SALT.

69
is

As

and the half of your salt is 5 grains, grains, your solution will contain i in la

the.drachm

of water
'

60
is
a

of solid matter, which

for most solutions.^ good proportion lamp." Push down the wick tillthe flame is not Lightyour spirit Move the flask over the flame. it gently inch long. Hold above an round in a small circle about the flame, inch above to warm an so as all parts of its bottom, and to mix the powder with the water by the

gyration. You

will

soon

see

dew

formed

on

the

bottom

of the flask.

Wipe the dew away with a cloth. Again hold the flask over the flame. the dew. Again wipe ofi* Now round the lamp pladethe furnace cylinder ^put the wire trellis and flask the the the the trellis, over cylinder, set exactly upon upon
"

flame.
to
*

Lift the flask about the

once

minute, and gentlyshake

As

it

round,

mix

powder
"

with
As

the water.

you

have

different salts to

To the Teacher.

you

lessen the

quantityof solid matter, you

the
serve

must

become

the application of less water, else prescribe The proportionof x to 1 2 may too dilute.
more

solutions will
as
a

general

rule,though sometimes
'

water

is necessary.

and gas taughtto a number of students, is at command, be with. dispensed economically spirit lamps may if the locality A longplank, about a foot broad (or two feet broad and two inches thick, is supportedhorizontally with the permits it), surface a^ 3 3 to 36 inches above the floor. A gas-pipeis fixed upon the centre of the upper its whole side of this plank,and runs length. At 1 8 inches distance from each other there are upright from jetsrising this lesson is to be this who
the gas-pipe, stands
at
one

When

whole end

of

which

are

under

the control of the teacher, there is

a

of the
"

where plank,

to stop-cock

late regu-

the issue of the gas

'J

-g

fir
"

"

flf
3

g5

ii

50.

The

lines A

B C D

the represent the

upper

surface
g

tlie gas-pipe running down gas.

to
one

its centre;

g g gg

plank. P is represent the jets of

to
see

of the

is the

of position
in

who teacher,

is able
"

everything

that is transacted the whole

of length

the board.
on

The
sides

be

exercised

stand experimenting,

both

pupilswho are of the board,

i, 2, 3, 4, 5.

shown as opposite to every gas-light,

If stoneware

by

the numbers
to

furnaces
the jets,

over

the gas
or

(fig. , p. longgas-pipe must

2 1

49) are
under

to be used

support

vessels

be sunk

into the surface of the

plank;
jetsbe
with
a

it may

be affixed to the

surface of the Each

can

passed up plank. where the cost cock, stopseparate

throughthe

jet may

also be

plank,and tlie provided

be afforded.

70

PEBPAHATIOir

or

gOLTJTIOK

OP

THE

BAI.T,

examine, your
some

solutions will not all be

water

produced

in the

same

salts require more

I have
or

than others, and

more

time

to

time, for dissolve.

What three

now say will therefore concern tie water will boil, and four minutes

to

only some

of you. In if present in sufl5cient

two
or

quantity will dissolve the salt. But

minutes'

if the

salt,after

three
the
a

does hot dissolve, remove boiUng, you must funnel the flask, insert and let the into a lamp, cease, boiling

the flask from

add half

drachm
The

more

water.

Then

boil

again.
to be

solution
;

being thus effected is next

filtered.

Extinguish

the flame filter. Take

"above
a

let the solution cool ; funnel-holder.

Put Fix

and, in the meantime,

prepare your

the horizontal branch

branch
a

of it at six inches

the foot.

into the horizontal

a

glassfunnel
diameter.

of

J
it

inch diameter.

Take

circular filter of 2i inches

Fold

[7
Oi
\
:"

1
51.

into
it in

quadrant. Open

one

of the folds
over

so

as

to make

cone.

Place
the

the funnel,and sprinkle water tillit is made wet washing bottle,

the funnel.

the

There

must

be

and the the top of the filter be so much smaller than must

enough inch of one-eighth of an a space edge of the fimnel ; that is to say,

the funnel.
now

of by means paper to sit close to the bottom

of

between the filter

test

Place
show

conical

ounce

glassbelow the
Now
pour
in

neck

of the

I funnel, as

you.

[See the cut.]

care

the much

solution from
at a
run

the flask into the filter. Take

to

not

to

so pour the solution is all

time

as

rise above

the top of the filter. When

test

through the filterinto the

glass, you

have it

prepared for testing*

INDICATIira

TESTS

FOB

METALS.

71

CLASSIFICATION I divide Tests which

are

OF The

TESTS. First

into

two

Classes.
their

most

in general

and reactions,

comprises those which, on being applied

Class

to indicate in proper order to the solutions preparedfor testing, serve the compounds subjected the metals and acids which probably compose to

analysis.
The

tests which on 'particular comprises those more of of from the the action tests being appliedto a compound presumed, either of certain be to firstclass, to serve constituents, confirm composed of submitted the the substance to to or disprove presumed composition

Second

Class

analysis.
The

Tests firstclass are called Indicating

the second class

Confirming

Tests. I"
I shall

INDICATING

TESTS.
are

begin with
serve

the

which Tests, Indicating

of two

namely,as
as

to

point out the metals contained

in

kinds,such, and such the salts,

pointout the acids,

A." The TESTING FOR METALS. with five in
of application number, namely:
"

the

of tests always commences application These are Tests for Metals. Indicating
1. 2.

the

Carbonate

of Soda.

LiquidAmmonia.

3. Caustic Potash. 4. Red Prussiate of Potash.

Hydrogen Gas. 5. Sulphuretted

The
first four of these tests will prepare at the moment these to be tests are how
"

you have when it is

ready in solution ; the last you required. I proceedto tell you

applied. six drops of the solution of the i. Eccpervment salt into a conical test glass, unknown fig. 52. Add tp Stir the mixture it three drops of Carbonate of Soda, If no with a glass rod. precipitate appears, add three of soda. of the carbonate drops more Again stir the
Pour mixture. You

will get you

I which for

PRECIPITATE
are

or

NO

PRECIPITATE.
on

In
52,

either case,

to

record the
to

result and

the Assay

Note,

now

filling up
Teachers,

you, the blanks.i

hand

upon

which

you

will find directions

To

"

The

Assay

Note

affords an

easy and

effectualcheck
A

on

the

carefiilness and of manipulation pupil's

power

of observation.

73
If Carbonate the salt is
one

IKDICATIKa

TESTS

FOB

METALS.

of Soda

the produces no precipitate^

:

metal

contained in

of these three No.

I.

Potassium.

2.

Sodium,

or

In this case, you need for they can solution, give no

3. Ammonium. of the other apply none

Tests Indicating
You

to your

farther information.

will discriminate

of the Confirming Tests,of which I shall by means tests. speak after going through the set of indicating the carbonate of soda producesa precipitate, If,on the contrary, you write P on the Assay Note, and then proceedto applythe next test to The colour of the precipitate produced by carbonate of your solution. these three meteJs
soda
on

is of

no

importance

in the

present

case, and

need

not

be marked

the

Assay Note.
"

Pour six dropsof the unknown 2. Eocperiment and add six drops of Liquid Ammonia, test glass, the metal contained is produced, If no precipitate

solution into another Stir the mixture.

in the salt is

No.

4. Barium.

5. Strontium, or
0.

Calcium.

How
means

to discriminate

three metals,I shall show you hereafter by of Confirming Tests, You can specting get no farther information rethese any

Tests. Indicating If,however, you gat a prec^ate, with Liquid Ammonia, you write P on reagent. In the your Assay Note, and proceed to the next be the colour of the precipitate need not present case, as in the last, Note. marked on the Assay

of them

from

the

contrivance
so

of this kind is

quite essential when

cannot

the number

of

pupilsis
one

considerable that
is

the teacher

see readily are

what

every

of

them

doing. Suppose that 20 Testing. They are famished with

the list

students
20

engaged in
to
20.

simultaneous selected from

different substances
i

given

at

ps^e
are

67,

and

numbered

They
at

are

also

with printed copiesof provided

of the Lesson the
20

the
to

returned

Assay Note, which filled up and you, duly.

know beforehand

the

sion conclu-

subscribed

by
be

different
in

As analysts.

you

what

ought to

written
to

check
The

Assay Note, it is,of course, easy every vacant space either an inaccurate experiment,' deduction. erroneous or an

of each

of such a class, and the examination of the Assay superintendence Notes, can be intrusted to an assistant, providedhe be furnished with a set of Assay Notes, filled up the indications that to correspondwith would afforded be at page 67. by all the substances enumerated

73

ASSAY

NOTE,
FOR
THE

No.

TESTS

METAL.

TESTS

FOR

THE

ACID.

DiREcriONS.

marked which the

names

Against the word No. the envelopeof the salt, or upon Fill is presented to you for analysis.
"

Write
,

the nurnber

that is

upon

the bottled solution

up the blank spaces

opposite
a

of the

tests

as

follows

"

If

you

get

no

insert precipitate,

If you get a precipitate, write P, and add the colour of the o. cipher, dissolves in thus : P white,or P brovm. If the precipitate precipitate,
an excess

When spaces

P brown S, of the test, add S after the colour,as F white /S, in the the metal and the acid are indicated,write their names

providedfor that purpose.

Sign your

name

below.

Analyst,

Date

74

ISDICATISa

TESTS

FOS

XXTJLLS.

Experbmnt
ouooe-test

3.

"

Poor
Then
a

six

drops
a

of the

nnknoini
or

sofaztaon into
fluid

an

^bas.
in

take

qnantzty

(one

two

dmduns)

of

Caiutie FoUuh

show Hold ^ie tod. dioppirg tabe socfa as I now left hand, and let the pota^ fiill, diop^ng tabe in tout the into solotion under one analjsis.Stir drop at a tiate^ nxi after eadi addition of potash. the mixtme with a glass to get a ptec^HaJU^and Ton wifl, in this case, be swre what thingsto observe in respect to it first, joa. have two edmur it has, and secondly, whetiier, snbseqaentto its first of smaEL a prodoctionbj means qoantitr of potash,it can made bv adding a loryer be dissolved, or to disappear, of potash. qoantily odours of the precipitates The piodaoed by caustic
"

potashare white,blackjHue, green, yeBow, and broiau

white
are precipitates

The

into di5tii^;iiisbable
an excess

two

varieties;
those which

those which do not.

dissolve in

of

and potash,

Although it is impossibleto apply potash at this stage withoat of the analysis causingprecipitation, yet it is v^ "e in mnch of to add, too carelessness, potash at possible invisible at precipitate once, and so to render the resulting the instant of its production. This is tiie reason why I 53. tell you to add the potashgradudUy^ that yon may the see first produced,aod notice its colour before it is rewhen precipitate
dissolved* Fill up your Assay Notes accordingto what you observe, write P for of the colour, the precipitate and add S when then the name precipitate,
is soluble in I
an excess

of the

potash.

produced in this proceedto notice the different kinds of precipitates experiment, beginningwith those of a white colour. that are insdvJbU in an excess indicate The white precipitates of potash
these fi\e metals No. 7. 8"
:
"

Manganese.
Iron,its

No.

10. II.

Cadmium. Bismuth.

protosalts. 9. Magnesium.
to tell you

I have another.

now

how

to

these five metals from distinguish

one

JEJccperiment 4. Take and add two or glass,

"

solution in a test drops of the unknown three drops of a solution of Hed Prussiate of
six

Potash,
A Indicates Manganese. precipitate indicates Protosalts of Iron. precipitate No indicates Magnesium. precipitate is to be disregarded. Any other precipitate

Brown

Blue

Tin)ICATIKG

TESTS

FOB

METALS.

76

This

leaves Cadmium

and Bismuth

undiscriminated.
next test.

Fill up your

Assay
"

Note, and

proceed to the

and Experiment 5. Take a few dropsof the solution in a test glass, the into add to it a drop or two of nitric acid. the mixture end of Dip tube, h, fig. a small glass 54, so as to take up a small film of the liquor.

Expose this to
Mix

the action of

togetherone into a small glass of Potash, and insert the mixture tube, in Bisulphate The figure shows the size of the tube shown the manner by fig. 54 a. Put the tube b of salts necessary to be used. and also the quantity the tube over the mixture at a, by holding into its place, a flanse, warm mouth. into for into Th6n blow it moment a gently or by putting your
the tubes
at

Hydrogen Gas as follows : Sulphuretted of Calcium, and three parts of part of a Sulphide
"

the end

c.

hydrogen gas Sulphuretted

in the tube a, will act upon

will be

from disengaged
at

the mixed

salts
a

the solution

the end
'

of

5, and
either

throw

coloured Under black. YeUow Black

on precipitate the given circumstances

the sides of that tube.

the colour must

be

yellowor

indicates Cadmium. indicates Bismuth.

ExpeHment
caustic

6.

"

The

White

which precipitates

were

produced by
six

and potash,
"

re^dissdlved

by

an

excess

of that test, indicate

metals, namely:
No.
12.

Zinc.

No.

13. Tin, its

"

protosalts.
these
to

15. Lead. 16. Tin,

its

persalts. portion of the

To

14. Aluminum. betwixt distinguish solution, and

add

17. metals, take a

it
a

Antimony.
fresh
the

unknown Prussiate

few

drops of

solution of Bed

of Potash, indicates Zinc. Yellow-red precipitate A indicates White A Tin, protosalts. precipitate indication. useful other Any givesno precipitate
"

one

mix with it solution, Experiment 7. Take four drops of the unknown to an sphere atmodrop of nitric acid, and expose a little of the mixture related in Experiof Sulphuretted Hydrogen Gas, in the manner ment its observe colour. is produced, 5. If a precipitate indicates Aluminum. No precipitate indicates Lead. A Black precipitate indicates Persalts of Tin. A YeUow precipitate indicates Antimony. An Orange precipitate

76

nn"ICATIKO

TE8TB

70B

HXTALS.

Experiment8.

"

^The Bladt No.

1

produced hj potashindicates precipitate

8.

its protosalts. Merciiiy,

with Sometimes, however, potash produces a s^ht black precipitate These black precipitates Gold. be thos discriminated can : To fresh portion of the unknown add a few drops of a solution, Red PrussiaU of Potash. A SecUbrown indicates Mercary. precipitate No indicates Gold. precipitate
"

Experiment9.

"

The

Blve No.

predpitcUesproduced hj potash indicate and 19. Cobalt,

20.

Copper.
'

These Pom*

two

metals

are

discriminated the
over

as

follows

"

both

the solution and boil the mixture

precipitateinto

and test tube,'

or a flask, the spirit lamp tillthe precipitate a

small

changes colour.
If it turns If it turns

Red^ the metal

is Cobalt
,

Blackyit is Copper.
"

cate The Green precipitates Experiment10. produced by potashindithree metals, namely :"
-

No,

21. 22.

Nickel.

Chromium, and with protosalts. 23. Iron, mixtures of persalts

'

Most

solutions
a

of blue

cobalt have Those

or
'

red colour.
are

of copper

green.

The

aiincfxed

representsa
an a

instrament

figure tube"holder, by which

can over

tube

or

small flask

be
a a

readily supported

flame, when spirit-lamp

solution is to be boiled.
arm moves

Th^ tube

that holds round

the

in the

socket
the

that is affixed to that

in

uprightrod, so
tube
can

the

be held

any desired Another

tubes
on

position.
holder for

and flasks is shown

page

77.

iiTDiCATnra

tests

pob

metals.

77

'

You
To
a

discriminate

these three metals

the

as

follows:

"

fresh

portion of
Prussiate

unknown Potash,

solution,add
t

few

drops of

solution of Bed
"A

of

YeUow-green

indicates precipitate

Nickel.

No
A

indicates Chromium. precipitate indicates Iron. Light-blue precipitate

ii.
"

Experiment
two

The

Yellow
:^

precipitatesproduced by potash

cates indi-

metals, namely

No.

24.

Mercury, persalts.

25. Gold.
These
To
are a

discriminated

thus

"

Med
A

Prussiate

frosh portion of the of Potash.

'

sofution, add

a*few

drops of

solution of

YeUouyred

No No

indicates Mercury. precipitate indicates Gold. precipitate also indicates precipitatehowever

the

Perchloride

of

Mercury.
The you discrimination how
to

of

Perchloride I
come

of

when effect,
12.
"

to

Mercury from Gold, I shall show speak of the confirming tests.

Experiment
two

The

Brown

cate precipitatesproduced by potash indi-

metals. No. 26. Iron,

persalts.

27. Silver.
These To Red
No A you
a

discriminate

as

follows the

"

fresh

portion of

solution,add

few

drops

of

solution

of

Prussiate

Brown far

of Potash, indicates Permits precipitate indicates Silver. precipitate

have
or

of Iron.

Thus

we

considered
bases

the reactions the. salts of the

we

of the
are

which Precipitants

indicate the
next
ACIDS.

metals

of

to

specifythe

reactions

examining. I proceed which indicate their Precipitants

79
*

INDICATING

TESTS

FOR

ACIDS.

B." The
names 1. 2.

TESTING

FOR

ACIDS.
is four.

number
are
"

of

Indicating Precipitants for Acids

Their

Nitrate

of

Barytes.

Nitrate of Silver.
yon

3. Nitrate of Lead. 4. Chloride of Calcium.

in small you are to apply them similar small quantitiesof the
same manner

These

and alreadyin solution, of 4 or 5 drops at a time, to quantities have solution contained

the applied results of the
in
as

unknown

in the separate test glasses,

you
The

for the metals. indicating precipitants

testing you

will

mark carefully

down

upon

the

Assay

Note

as

you
"

proce^.
First of

Eocpervment 13.
the unknown

all, you take

add
to

in

and solution,

it

few

a few drops of glass drops of the solution of

test

Nitrate qf Barytes.
You No
A A

will observe White

one

of three

to results,

wit"
^

Precipitate*
Precipitate* Yellow Precipitate.
"

The salts which give no precipitate with Experiment 14. of six kinds, namely :-^ are Baiytes,

Nitrate of

No.

I*

Nitrates. Chlorates.

No.

4. Iodides* 5. Arsenites.
6.

2.

3* Chlorides*

To discriminate these from

and solution,
test it with

One

another,you

take

the solution

of Nitrate

Sulphides* of the a fresh portion of Silver*

indicates Niti*ates and Chlorates. precipitate White precipitate indicates Chlorides. A A Black indicates Sulphides. precipitate other is to be disregarded. Any precipitate The Indicating Tests dan give you no farther information conducive
No the discrimination
of Nitrates from

to

Chlorates.I
by
means

shall hereafter shOw

tests, confirming

you how

this discrimination td eflfect

of

Eicperiment i5.-^The Iodides and Arsenites are to be discriminated IToU test a fresh portion of the solution with a few drops of a thus :
"

solution o" Nitrate

YeUow

of Ledd^

and
.

notice the colour of the

:^precipitate

indicates Iodides.

White

indicates Arsenites.
"

Nitrate

Experiment 16. The of Barytes, of are

No.

salts which
seven

with give a white precipitate kinds, namely :

"

7. Fluorides.
8.

No.

II. 12.

Oxalates. Carbonates.

Phosphates.

9. Arseniates. Borates. 10.

13.

Sulphates.

lS"DIOATIKa

TESTS

FOB

ACIDS.
.

70
classes of salts from

To
one

proceed in the discrimination

of these

seven

the white contains another, you are to mix the solution which than its own with a few drops,or not more bulk, of Nitric precipitate with Acid, and to stir up the mixture a glass rod. This process into three classes, to wit : separatesthe white precipitates
"

Those

which which

dissolve in nitric acid without

effervescence.

Those Those

dissolve in nitric acid with effervescence.

which- do not dissolve in nitric acid.

"

Experiment 17.
Kitrate of
and
are

The

white

which precipitates Assay

Note

are

produced by
effervescence ^
P

and Barytes,

which

dissolve in nitric acid without

in

accordinglydenoted
"

your

"

by

white

S"

indicate five salts, namely : Fluorides.

Borates. Oxalates.

Phosphates.
Arseniates. To these distinguish
with

from

one

of the solution
No

Nitrate

of

another you Stlvef** Fluorides.

are

to test

fresh portion

indicates precipitate

A
A

Yellow
Brown

Ani/ other

indicates Phosphates* precipitate indicates Arseniates* precipitate is to be disregarded* precipitate

"

Experiment 18.
of the unknown

Take

in

an

ounce one

conical
of

test

glass two

drops

and add solution,

of

Calcium, Now

You

will
means

see

white

the solution of Chloride drop let whatever will be precipitate,

present.

by

of

the

water

distilled water

to the mixture test

under

31, continual stirrings tillthe

bottle,page

slowly add
precipitate

tillthe or dissolves, If

glassbecomes nearlyfull. is soluble, the precipitate the salt is a Borate*

the salt insoluble,
is
an

If it is

Oxalate.
are

The which
denoted The

white

which precipitates
in nitric

dissolve
in your

acid
"

vjith

and produced by Nitrate of Barytes, and are effervescence, accordingly white

S

Assay

Note

^byP
are

eff.
"

indicate Carbonates.
of and Barytes,

white

which precipitates

which The

do not dissolve in nitric

produced by Nitrate acid,indicate Sulphates.

are

whichyeUow precipitates No.

produced by Nitrate

of

Barytes

indicate

14. Chromates.

Such

are

the reactions of thc' indicating tests for acids.

now

view of these Indicating present you with a synoptical of them Tests, arranged in two showing the separate Tables, one for Metals^ the other the precipitants for Acids* precipitants

I shall

80

81

Before with your have had

I request proceedingfarther, Assay

you to

compare

these Tables

from the results of Notes, and to draw conclusions, in the of the substance which you nature regard to your experiments,
to

examine.
to the Metals
"

as First,

suppose

your Assay

Note

to read

thus

"

82

EESULTS

OP

XS

AITALTSIS.

Tlie

Carbonate

be as follows must interpretation Soda that P., shows of

=

"

the

metal

is

not

one

of

the

three first of those

Ammonia
to No.
=

the list of components given at page 65. of those from No. P., shows that the metal is not one
on

4
or

6 in that list.
=

Potash No. Silver,

P. "roMj", shows

that the metal p. 77.

is either

Iron, No.

26,

27.

See

Exp.

12,
=

Bed Silver,

Prussiate

of Potash

P. hro^jon^ shows

that finally

the metal

is

Next,

as

to

the Acids

"

let }our

Assay

Note

read

thus:

"

Nitrate those from

of Barytes
No.

P.

white, sol., shows

"

the

salt

to

be

one

of

Nitrate

of

7 to No. 11, in the list of salts given at page it to be a Fluoride,^ Silver.=^0, shows

65.

To

Teachers,

"

At

this

point the

teacher

may

either

collect the

Notes, and revise what has been done, or he may go on with leave the Assay Notes with the pupils,the Confirming Tests, and finished. is entirely until the testing of applying the Confirming of The teaching the methods manner of persons be regulatedby the number and the Tests must to be taught, All the students quantityof time and apparatus at command. may go each of them series of experiments, or be through the. whole may those instructed to perform only particular experiments which relate to and Acid indicated by his Assay Note. the Metal have a better set of elementary But, indeed, a student can scarcely experiments, than that which consists in tryingthe action of Tests with himself to make all the salts at his command, as so acquaintedwith the the of various colours, consistence, changeableness,Ac, precipitates
Assay which

characterise different kinds

of salts.

83

CONFIRMING When
to make

TESTS.
of

you have
detected

appliedthe
both

set

have you*

the base

Tests,and imagine that Indicating and the acid of your salt, it is proper
order to convince that yourself you have
"

use^of the
no

Tests,in Confirming

there is These with

a

mistake.

tests also are

unavoidably necessary whenever

alcali, or
an

to

do

a chlorate, an nitrate,

alcaline earth

all of

whkii

Tests which we compounds are lefl undiscriminated by the Indicating have employed. To guard againstthe possibility of error, the rule* is good, to test the unknown

substance, or or cipitants, by as many

its solution in water, with

as

many
can

diflerentpre-

different

experiments
to

as

you

conveniently
tests
as serve

employ" paying
to

attention especial

the of

action

of such

the particular elements distinguish

as

your

compound from
to

such

other

elements The
to to

most

resemble nearly
not salts,

them.
am

set of

Tests Confirming

that I

about

simple soluble
salts that
are

to mixtures

of salts, nor

give you, applies only to impure salts, nor

other metals insoluble in water, or that contain or of these Instnicacids than those that were enumerated at the beginning

(pa^e65). these ConfirmingTests presuppose the use Finally, Tests. They are consequently Confirming onlywhen with the reactions of the Indicating The Tests.
tions that acids all the characteristicsnecessary and bases are, for the sake
to

of

the

Indicating
in

taken
reason

tion conjunc-

of this is,

of the different identity not brought into this brevity, section ; but only so many as are cular necessary to accomphsh the partiend in view, namely, that of discriminating the substances tained conin the limiting tions.. Table given at the beginningof these Instrucof

fix the

(See page 65). Consfequently, you are always to begin an

Tests, and

with the Indicating analysis

conclude it with the Confirroins: Tests.

APPARATUS

FOR

CONFIRMING

TESTS.

the Confirming required for performing It is not necessary in teaching Tests of this section. a Class, to supply with student of this each a complete set stances subapparatus, because the same need not be given to all the students at the same time. Each set of apparatus for the Confirming Tests may suffice for four or six

The

apparatus

here

cited

is

pupils.
a

84 Porcelain cup Bound Retort

and
I

COKFIBMOa

TESTS

FOB

mS

TALS.

inch diameter.
i

Bottles for
2
oz.

Reagents in solution,

Stand,with

ring

with stoppers, con size,

"

triangle. Blowpipe. Blowpipe Lamp on support.

2 2

: taining'

Yellow Red

Chromate

of Potash.

Chromate

of Potash. of Potash.
"

Platinum

Blowpipe

wires.

Yellow

Prussiate

Slipsof Platinum foil for the Blowpipe. Platinum pointedtongs, fig. 6o. '^in Copper wire for Blowpipe Experiments. Box of OxidatingPastiles. of Reducing Pastiles. Box
.

Sulphateof Lime.
Antimoniate

of Potash. of Ammonia.

Molybdate SulphuricAcid, concentrated.

Muriatic

Acid.
wide

Bottles with
contain

mouths,
size
:"

to

for 3 Wires Pastiles. Hammer. Steel Anvil.

holdingBlowpipe

the
I
ounce

followingdry

Tests,

of Iron, cryst. Protosulphate Peroxide of Manganese.

3 Tubes
Box

for

hard sublimations,

Protochloride

of

Tin, cryst.

2 glass,

inches

by

i inch.

Sulphateof
Acetate

Copper, cryst.

of Books
to

Support
before

of Test papers. show sublimates

of Lead, cryst.
of

Sulphate of Magnesia,cryst.
Chloride

the

blowpipe.
in boxes
:
"

Sodium, cryst.

Blowpipe Fluxes
Boiux.
Carbonate Microcosm

The

following Tests are only It will required occaJsionailly.

i

of Soda.
ic Salt.

be sufficient if
is in the

bottle of each

Laboratory.

Bottle for
with

solution

of

Cobalt,

Chloride

of Platinum.

or longstopper. pipette

Chloride of Gold.

A."

CONFIRMING

TESTS

FOR

METALS.

Potassium,

Sodium, Ammonium.
.

Experiments,i, page 71. Take a porcelain Mix in it I cup of this size. of the dry salt, with a test spoonful a test spoonful of carbonate of soda, and a few drops of water. a Support it over lamp and apply heat. spirit If the odour of Ammonia is produced,the salt
"

See

56.
2.

contains

Ammonium.
as as large

Take

bit of the salt

a' pin'shead, fix it

on

the end

of

platinum blowpipewire, of
hold
it in
a

this size,and blue flame

small
a re-

producedby

57

coyriBMiKa

tests

fob

metaxs.

85 the

duced

gas

or

lamp flame, or spirit

in this
manner :
"

else hold

it before

blowpipe

flame oxidating

58.
If
a

strongyeUow flame is formed round the assay,

If
a

Sodium,
salt contains

Met

colour

or

no

tains d, the salt conthe colour is given to the flame,

c,

Potassium, that throughout,

tests which

will obsei-ve that I suppose, in a state of purity. The are analysis

are

You

the

salts under

I direct to be
same

applied
as

not

to qualified

act upon

mixtures

of salts in the
a

manner

upon with

simplesalts. Thus,
a

for

example, if
even

salt of Potassium
to

is mixed

salt of

Sodium, the

mixture

submitted

the last experiment,

contains

gives

only the character of

parts of Potassium

Sodium,
to
one

if the mixture

three

hundred
who

part of Sodium.
are

provides you
to he

with

the salts that

fore, person, thereand with to he analysed,

The

the tests tliat are

error

to them,must applied

guard against any

source

of

of that since

description.
the

in salts of potassiumis very common presence of Sodium and very difficult to avoid, it is direct to apply the following proper whether tests for Potassium, in eveiy analysis you make of an alcalinesalt, it

But

givesthe yellowflame

of soda

or

not.

concentrated solution of the salt, to a a 3. Add solution of Chloride of Platinum in spirit of wine. A indicates Potassium, yellowprecipitate No precipitate indicates Sodium,

drop of

4. Add
not

to

concentrated

solution of the

which salt,

must 59*

have

any

free acid,a few

of Potash.

dropsof

concentrated solution of

Antimoniate No

indicates Potassium, precipitate A white crystalline precipitate slowlyformed indicates Sodium,

Barium,
where those of of soda.
D
[LUTED

Strontium,
and

Calcium.

"

See

Experiment
are

2,

page

72,

the salts of

and Barytes, Strontian,

Lime,
of

from distinguished

a solution of carbonate Ammonia, by means Potash,Soda, salts by from the same They may also be distinguished with these Sulphuric Acid, which gives a white precipitate

Earths,but
These

not

with the Alcalies.

are

three metals

most

discriminated readily

from

one

another Potash

action by the conjoint

of solutions of Yellow

Chromate
.

of

and

Bichromate

of

Potash.

^"^^^V"

'"'

"

'

86

CONFIEMIKa

TESTS

FOB

METi^LS.

5. To
add
a

few

dropsof the concentrated solutionof the unknown

a

salt,

few

of drops

solution of Bichromate
is Barium.

of

Potash.

If you If you
Chromate

the metal get a precipitate,

get
of
a

no

test precipitate,

solution of the unknown Potash.

If you get If you get

another portion of the concentrated salt with a few dropsof a solution of Yellow

the metal is Strontium. precipitate, the metal is Calcium. no precipitate,

two

Action of the

Chromates

of Potash, with concenti-atedsolutions of the Alcaline Earths.

take place These reactions do not,however, with distinctness in dilute these metals. solutionsof 6. Take a bit of the solid saltin the platinum blowpipe tongs,moisten
it with water, and

dip it into the upper part

of the

flame,in blowpipe

60.

thismanner,

61, where fig.

; blowpipe
"

of the points represents

the

and tongs,

b the

pointof the

If it gives a If it
a gives

pale green colour

red colour to the

to the upper

as part of the flame,

at

c7,

it is Barium, it is Strontiv/m or Calcium. flame,

CONFIEMIKa

TESTS

FOB

METALS.

87

The

last two
a

metals

are

follows as distioguished
a

:"

7. To

solution of the salt, add

solation of Sulphate
in water.

of

Lime,

of Lime preparedby boiling precipitated Sulphate If it givesa precipitate, the metal is Strontium.

If not, the metal is Calcium,

Manganese. 8. Take
a

"

See

Experiment4,

page 74.

it a bit of the dry salt with mix on platinum blowpipefoil, of dry Carbonate of a test spoonful Soda, and fuse the mixture before The melted colour. the blowpipe. mass a green acquires of Borax Make wire before the blowpipe, bead the a on platinum 9. and melt in it a lictle of the dry salt. Use the outer blowpipeflame. The bead acquires See Experiment31, page 90. an amethystcolour.

Iron.

"

See

Experiments 4,
few

10, and

12,

a 10. drops of ^ solution of Yellow to a solution that contains a salt of iron.

Add

pages 74, 76, and 77. Prussiate of Potash of Iron,

of the two
to
an

A A
.

indicates precipitate dark-blue precipitate indicates white indicates pale-blueprecipitate

.

a a a

ProtosaU

Persdlt of Iron,
mixture

A
1 1

species.

Expose

solution

of

Protosalt

of Iron

atmosphere of
It

Sulphuretted
ho

Hydrogen

Gas, See Experiment 5, page 75.

as

gives

precipitate.
12.

Add

to
a

the solution of the Protosalt of Iron

much

Ammonia

as

gives it

strong smell

of

Ammonia,
Hydrogen

and Gas.

of Sulphuretted atmosphere

again expose it to the A black precipitate is

Per salt of Iron. out Witha

produced.
1

3. Treat in the

same

manner

solution of

Ammjonia^

it

gives a
See See

white

precipitate ; and with Ammonia,

page 74.

black

precipitate.
Magnesium.
Aluminum. Zinc
"

"

Experinlent 4, Experiment7,

"

page 75.

See
a a

14. Mix
charcoal in Then
nitrate

moisten

littlewater, spreadit on it before the blowpipe. flat cake of this size,^and ignite the ignitedsalt with a drop of a strong solution of
a

Experiment5, page 75. of the salt with test spoonful

^-v

of
it

When
A

and again heat it before the blowpipe to cobalt, is cold,examine the change of colour produced :
"

redness.

\J
62.

salt which

acquiresa
"

colour from this treatment flesh-red

contains

Magnesium,
If its colour is

the salt contains Aluminum. blue, Zinc.

best examined

If it is green^ the salt contains

These

colours

are

by daylight.

88 Cadmium."
1

COITFlBMIKa

TESTS

FOB

HETAtS.

See
half
a

Experiment 5, page 75.

of spoonful
on

5. Mix

test

the salt with

as

OF

Soda,

and

heat it

charcoal in the inner

dry Carbonate flame of the (reducing)

much

blowpipe.
A brown

powder will appear round the assay, upon

the method of stance exposinga subis the

the charcoal.

shows [The figure

on

charcoal to the flame of the b the

c blowpipe,

a blowpipe;

blowpipelamp,
round

the assay ujpon a

of tin-plate.] slip

disc of charcoal held

"

by a

bent

BiSMOTH. 16. Treat

See

Experiment 5, page 75.

same

the salt in the

way
a

as

the salt of

Cadmium,
A
.

in

Experiment 15.
with the charcoal, metallic bead hammer.
in

on f/eUow pouoderis perceived

the centre of it.

Wrap
You Zinc.

the bead of metal in paper and give it a stroke with will find it to be brittle. See ExperimAit19, below.
"

17. I
With

Experiment6, page 75. spokeof this metal in connection

See SuLPHUKETTED

with

Magnesium,Exper.14.

HYDROGEN,
and

zinc

givesa White precipitate.

Tin.

"

See
a

6 Experiments solution of
a

7, page 75.

tion of Tin with a few drops of a soluA purple precipitate of Chloride Gold. of appears. of a dry salt of Mix than small not bit, head, a a pin's larger 19. i\iQperoxide, ih^ protoxide with a test spoonful ox tin,either containing Place half of Borax. of dry Carbonate that of Soda, and quantity in the time the mixture and for some and heat it strongly on charcoal, 18. Mix Protosdt
inner

blowpipe flame,till the

metal

of the salt is reduced.

periment See Ex-

You struck

31, page 90. will obtain a bright white with the hammer.
from

metallic bead, which

of beads malleability

when flattens
of this

The
beads

metal,

them distinguishes

of Bismuth

ments. produced in similar experifrom Lead*

them (Exp. 16.)Their brilliancy distinguishes

Aluminum.
20.

"

See

Experiment7,
in

spoke of Experiment14.
Add
to

this metal

page 75. connection

with

Magnesium.
small

See

the

solution

of the salt of alumina

solution of Caustic Sulphuric

Acid
in

litmus paper.
mixture.

After

of Potash, or Carbonate will redden blue slight excess, so that the mixture some crystals delay, of alum will be producedin the

quantityof Potash, and then

Lead.
21.

"

See

Mix

half

Experiment7, page 75. o^ the dry salt with a test spoonful

tost

of spoonful

COlfTFIBMIira

TESTS

TOB

METALS.

89

and heat it in OF SoDA, placethe mixtare on chfilrcoal dry OAHBOiTATE the inner blowpipeflanie, till the metal is reduced. You will obtain beads of Metallic jLead,and the charcoal acquires
a

ofyeUow powder. coating

These beads differ from from those of Tin

by being convertible

into

volatile brittle.
22.

and oxide,

those of Bismuth

by beingmalleable
a

and

not

Mix
a

drop of
a

solution of lead with Acid.

test

of full glass

water,

and

add

few

drops of Sulphuric
See
a

You

will obtain
"

tohite precipitate.

Antimony.

Exjieriment 7,
spoonfulof
and

23. Mix

half

test
of

the

page 75. dry salt with

mixture
on

test

of spoonful

dry

Carbonate

Soda,

ignite the
metal from

charcoal in the smoke

inner

blowpipeflame tillthe metal

will obtain melted

is reduced.

You
If

globules of

which

thick white

will rise.
it divides antimony is thrown on the ground, several globules which of produce a thick white smoke ^(oxide
a

bead of

into mony). anti-

Mercury.

"

See
a

24. Mix
heat it
over

half the

Experiment8, page 76, of the dry salt with test spoonful

Soda.
Put

dry Carbonate

of

the mixture

into

of ispoonful littleglass tube, and

a

test

lamp. spirit

J
64.

You

will

soon

see

metallic mercury salt of

condensed

upon

the upper
a

part of

the tube.

25. Mix
Ammonia. A A

solution of

Mercury with

few

drops of

black

indicates SL'Protosalt of Mercur}'. precipitate indicates a Persalt of Mercury. white precipitate

"

Cobalt. 26.

See
a

Make

Experiment 9, glass bead with

a

page borax

76.
on a

platinumwire
cobalt,much
in

before the smaller than

and inner

blowpipe. To
a

this add

bit of the

salt of

head, and melt it into the bead. pin's

The both dark-blue colour, a glassacquires few the outer

flame. 27. Mix Prussiate You

a

drops of

solution of cobalt with

solution of Red

of

Potash.

get a browMsh-red

precipitate.

90 Copper.
28. Mix

OQlTFIBMINa

TESTS

FOB

M"TALS.

"

See
a

Experiment9,
drops of
a

page

76.
with
a

few

solution of copper

solution of Red

Prussiate
The

of

Potash.

is yelhwish'green. precipitate

of Ammojtia. 29. Mix the sohition of copper with a veri/ smcdl quantity You get a greertish which dissolves in a larger precipitate, quantityof ammonia,
and blue solution. produces a splendid

30. Mix
OF

the

solution of

Copper with

solution of Yellow

siate Prus-

Potash*

is reddish-brown. precipitate 31. Melt a small quantityof the dry salt in a borax bead before the blowpipe. In the outer flame,it givesa transparent-green glass.' In the inner flame, it givesan opaque-brownglass."

The

Nickel."

See
the

Experiment
solution of

10,

32. Mix Ammonia.

You

page 76. Nickel with

very
in

small

quantityof

get

Ammonia,
33. Mix
OF

which dissolves greenish precipitate, and givesa violet coloured solution.

a

larger quantityof
Prussiate

the solution of Nickel with

solution of Yellow

Fotash.

The
*

is palegreen, precipitate

The

shows, following figure

or

tlie method

of

exposing a

substance

to

the outer

oxidatingflame of the

blowpipe.

exhibits following figure ing blowpipeflame.

"

The

bead

exposedto

the inner

or

reduc'-

66.

CONFIEMIKO

TESTS

FOE

ACIDS.
s

91

Chromium.

"See

Experiment lo,

page

76.
of Chromium
in
a

34. Melt a littleof the dry salt of oxide bead before the blowpipe.
It

borax

glass both givesa transparent-green

^

in the

inner

flame and outer few

flame.

35. Mix
Ammonia. The

the -solution of

oxide

of Chromium

with

drops of

colour of the

is precipitate

36. Mix
OF

the solution of oxide

violet, grey^ by candle-light Pkussiate of Chromijim with Yellow

Potash. There Gold.

"

is

no

precipitate.

See

Experiments8

and

37. Mix
Iron.
A

the solution of Gold of precipitate

li, pages 7^, 77. with a solution of Protosulphate

OF

dark-hrown
Mix

metallic

gold is produced.
a

38.
of

the solution of* Gold

with

solution of Yellow

Prussiate

POTASIf;
The solution

colour. an emerald-green acquires

with
a

39.
Tin.
A

Mix

the solution of Gold

solution of Protochloride

of

is produced. purpleprecipitate
"

Silver.

See
a a

Experiment
any

12,

page

77.
a

40. Mix Acid, or of

You

diluted

solution of

with Silver,

few

drops of Muriatic

solution of

Chloride. dissolves. precipitate remains mixture the precipitate the

of

will get a white If you add Ammonia If you add Nitric

precipitate.
to the mixture

Acid

to

the

undissolved. 41. Mix the

the mixture ignite

dry salt of Silver with dry Carbonate charcoal before the blowpipe. on
on

Soda, and

Bright metallicsilver appears

the charcoal.
#

B."

CONFIRMING

TESTS

FOR

ACIDS.

Nitrates." 42. Take

a a

Experiment14, page 78. of porcelain cup, and a test spoonful

Add
a

-See

the Nitrate.

pare Pre-

solution.

acid.
iron
in

Place
the
over see

the cup

You. will
near

drops of sulphuric a sulphate of green middle of the solution. Support the spirit lamp, and apply heat. dark-brown colour produced a
of crystal cup.

few

the

brown

colour

crystals. Shake the throughthe spreads

The

67.

whole

liquor.

92

coNFiEMiira

tests

fob

aoidb.

43. Mix
of each.
the

the

of Potash, a dry Nitrate with dry Bisulphate the mixture the tube
into
a

Put

largetest

tube, and

test spoonful heat it over

lamp. spirit
will observe
to

You

to

be

filledwith

eUow gas. darkly

This

experimentserves

Nitrates from Chlorates. distinguish Add Muriatic Acid. 44. Put the dry Nitrate into a largetest tube. heat.
vapours

Apply
White paper.

of Nitric Acid
.

are

expelled.They
.

redden

litmus

Chlorates.

"

See

45. Put test tube.

A

Add

very Muriatic

Experiment 14, page 78. small quantityof the dry Chlorate

Acid.

into

l^ge

Apply

heat.

yellowish-green having a very pungent odour. gas is expelled, Take small Put into it a test spoonfulof the dry test tube. a 46.

Chlorate.
issues from

Apply

heat.

The

salt melts
a

and

oxygen

the tube.

Inflame
to

bit of wood.

Blow

gas out the The

soon

after

and light, gas

hold the

glimmeringmatch
rnatch. This

the mouth

of the tube. does

not

oxygen

re-illumes the
from

experiment

Chlorates distinguish

Nitrates.
a

47. Take

bit of ihin copper wire.

of crystal microcosmic flame

Make
salt.

melt into the coil a

.,..__..___..,___^_.___^^

and coil at the end of it, small Hold the coil over a
ceases

tillthe salt

to

effervesce,
Now

and

the wire

becomes

red hot.

press the hot bead upon a bit of the dry than a pin's Reduce the flame of your lamp not larger head. Chlorate, low as you can without extinguishing it low as to leave onlya as so
"

68.

small shall

blue

flame.

Hpld

the coil with

the Chlorate

upon

it,so that

it

him justtouch the top of the reduced flame. Thereupon sl,bright This the subject of experiment. pletely flame surrounds experiment comChlorates from Nitrates. distinguishes All substances that contain Chlorine give this Uue fiaim^and all substances that contain Iodide,treated in the same way, give a splendid green flame.

Chlorides.
I have

Experiment14, page 78. Experiment 40, of the spokenalready.

"

See

detection

of

Silver

by
by

solutions of Chlorides.
solutions The

The
same.

operation of

detectingChlorides

of Silver of

is the

of microcosmic salt and Chlorine by means detecting in treating of Chlorates, a copper wire^ explained Experiment already, is equally Chlorides. t o applicable 47, Acid in a large test 48. Mix the dry salt with concentrated Sulphuric tube, and apply heat.

method

White

vapours

of

Muriatic

Acid

are

formed.

Hold

glassrod

COKFIBHIKG

TESTS

FOB

ACIBS.

93 A thick wJute

moistened smoke
is

with

Ammonia

at

the mouth

of the tube.

produced.
a

49. Take
a

test tube.

Mix

in it

test

spoonfulof the dry salt with

and
a

drops Peroxide of Manganese,

In this
case

few

of concentrated

Sulphuric Acid

test

of spoonful

Chlorine

Apply heat. gas is disengaged. It

has

green colour and

odour. suffocating Iodides.

-

"

50. Take

salt mixed
You The

Experiment 15, page 78. Put into it a test spoonful of the dry a largetest tube. of Bisulprate Potash. with' an OF dry equal quantity
see

See

Apply Heat.
will

Vioiet
of

method

Vapours of Iodine detecting

Iodine

in the tube.

by

means

of

copper with

wire, I have
few

in explained

of the Chlorates, speaking

a

Exp. 47.
a

51. Mix of Nitric

A

few

drops of the Solution of the Iodide

add
use a a

drops

Acid, and
or

small
test

quantityof Starch

Paste

prepared

with hot water,

else

blue colour is

produced.
of

paper impregnatedwith The paper turns blue,

in which

starch.

52. Pour
Nitrate
of

the Solution

the Iodide

the has

into precipitate,

When
in it.

78, precipitate. the solution cools,brilliant flat golden-yellow crystals appear

page
a

Lead,

Experiment 15,
tube, and boil

formed

Indicating Test, a yellow

test

it with

the

Arsbnites.

"

^See

Experiment 15, page 78.

Arsenite with
a

53. Mix
OF

the solution of the

solution of Sulphate

Copper. A Green

Precipitate i^ produced.
the solution of the Arsenite
a

54. Mix

with

solution of Nitbate

of
^

Silver, and
A

very

small

quantity of Ammonia.

is produced, yellow precipitate the solution of the Arsenite the mixture to an expose Gas (See Experiment5, page

55. Mix
acid, and Hydrogen
A

drop or two of Muriatic atmosphere of Sulphuretted

with
a

75).

is produced. yellow precipitate Mix half of the dry salt with a test spoonful test of a spoonful 56. Soda. Heat the mixture Cliarcoal in the inner of on dry Carbonate

blowpipe flame.
You

Afler

hold short ignition,

the

charcoal under

your

will perceivethe odour of garlic^ nose. by which metallic arsenic is specially characterised. Be cautious of in smellingthe vapour

arsenic,as
"

it is

poisonous.
See

Sulphides.

"

Experiment 14,
Mix
in it
a

page
test

57. Take
with
a

test

tube.

78. of spoonful

the

Sulphide di*y

little Muriatic

Aci^ -^pplyHeat.

94

CONTIEMIKO

TESTS

FOB

ACIDS.

and the odour is produced, of Sulphuretted Hydro jen Effervescence Gas is perceived.A bit of white paper tuoistened with a solution of

Lead, and held

at the mouth test

of the tube, turns

Uack,

58. Heat blowpipe.

The
odour

of spoonful

the

dry Sulphideon
Gas will be 79.
in it

charcoal before the

of Sulphurous
"

Acid

perceived.

Fluorides.

See

Experiment 17,
test

page

59. Take BisuLPHATE

mcHstened

small

tube.
a

Mix

the

Fluoride Put

with
a

OF

PoTASH,

test

spoonful
into

of

each. end

dry slip of

Brazil w^ood

test

paper

the upper

of the tube.

disengagedby the mixture, and will corrode the inside of the tube^ and change the red colour of the Brazil test paper to yellow.
will be Wash and dry the tube to render
"

Apply Heat. acid Hydrofluoric

the corrosion

visible.

Phosphates. 6ow

See

a Precipitate

few

solution of filter.
outer

Acetate it.

Experiment 17, page 79. drops of the solution of the Phosphate with Collect the white precipitate Lead. of upon
it.

a a

Wash

Dry

Place it upon
of

Charcoal dark

and

melt

it in

the

flame of the
the bead

blowpipe.
cools, it will be
a

When

colour, opaque,

and
are

into numerous crystallised from the distinguished

facets. By
Arseniates. of the

this character the

Phosphates

61.
OF

Mix

solution and
a

Experiment63, page 95. Phosphatewith a solution of Sulphate

See

Magnesia,
You

add white

Ammonia.

will get
to
a

precipitate.
of the Molybdate
of

62. Add Acid add

an as

solution

Ammonia
it first

^s

much

Nitric

will redissolve

which precipitate the

small quantity of extremely

The
a

solution of

produces. Then the Phosphate,and

a

hoil the mixture.

You This other
so

operationshould be performedin
and
certain test

test tube.

will obtain
is the most
even

yellow precipitate.
delicate for acid. phosphoric

No

acid, not
other

Arsenic

acid,which

resembles

phosphoricacid in
an

in can produce this yellow precipitate particulars, acidified solution of Molybdateof Ammonia,

many

Arseniates,
In

"

See the

speakingof
which

Experiment 17, page 79. I have shown Arsenites,

can

in

what
the

manner

the

Arsenic

they contain

be detected
same

before

blowpipe (see
also with

Experiment 56, page

the Arseniates. The differences

93).

The

experiment answers
and Arseniates

between

the Arsenites

is best

shown
page

Barytes, Experiment 14, of Tests, Nitrate by the Indicating OF Silver, Experiment 1 70page 78, and Nitrate 79.

OONTIBMINa

TESTS

FOB

ACIDS.

95

The
in many

difference between
is shown respects,

the

Arseniates the

and

Phosphates,which
of

agree

by

Experiment 17,
MOLYBDATE
OF

page

79, and No.

an

Silver, with^ by the experiment just described,

61.

Test, Nitrate Indicating

AMMONIA,
in

It is also exhibited
a 63. Precipitate

experiment "which I shall now

give you.
it.

solution of the Arseniate

by
a

solution of Acetate

OF

Lead.
on

Collect

the white

precipitate
on

filter. Wash

Dry

it.

it Ignite

in the charcoal,

outer

flame of the
not

blowpipe.
into facets, as crystallised

When is the
case

the bead cools, it will with the

be found

phosphateof Lead. precipitated

of Arsermte which of Lead
in

64. Again,
flame of the You
odour

heat the fused bead thick smoke

the invj"r

blowpipe.
a

will perceive
of

you

will find to possess

the

Arsenic, and
See
a

effects are Borates.

of metallic lead. will get beads you not produced by phosphateof lead.
"

These,

Experiment i8,
tube. Mix Acid. Sulphuric

page

.65.Take
Borate, with
You 66.
a

largetest

79. in it a concentrated
Acid.

"

solution

of the

some

Boil the mixture, and

let it cool.

will Pour

flat shining of Boracic crystals perceive off the

littlecold water.
water

acid with the crystals from sulphuric liquid.Wash Then boil the Eepeat the washing several times.
in
a

with crystals
and Turmeric The The blue

test tube.

Test the solution with

Litmus

paper

paper.
litmus
is turned

Red,

yellow turmeric is turned Brown, Mix the solution of the Boracic Acid, or 67. Take a porcelain cup. else a test spoonful of the solid Borate moistened with sulphuric acid, Inflame the mixture. with a ievf drops of alcohol. You will see a green flame.
Oxalates. 68. Take
a
"

See

Experiment 18,

page

79.

dry oxalate.
a

of the largetest tube. Put into it three test spoonfuls Add of concentrated a i^w acid. drops sulphuric Apply

moderate

heat.

Effervescence
carbonic acid and
a

takes

place. The
mouth

gas

that escapes
The

is

mixture

of

carbonic oxide.
of the tube. carbonic oxide

Apply
vdth Lime.
"

blue Mix

lightto the flame,

hums

69.
You

the solution of the oxalate witii

white See

solution of Sulphate

of

will get

precipitate.
littlewater. Add few

Carbonates. 70. Muriatic

Mix the

"

dry

page 79. Carbonate with

dropsof

Acid. The gas that escapes is without odour.

takes place. JRffervescence

96 Sulphates.
71.

COJTFIBMIKa

TESTS

POB

ACIDS.

"

See page

79.
the

Mix

lest

spoonfulof
Place it
on

dry sulphate with

as

much

dry

caroonate

of soda.

of the add

to it

blowpipe. Lay a drop of water.

the fused

and heat it in the inner flame charcoal, and a mass on piece of bright silver,
a

After

minute's repose, the silver.

wash

the mixture

from

the silver. will perceivea hhick mark listexcept the

on

You
This in
our

the Sulphates from all other salts experiment distinguishes which from Sulphides, they are distinguished by

Experiment 57.
Chbomates.
"

See page 79.

test large
same

72. Take

tube.

Mix

in

it

test
of

Chromate, with the

quantityof Chloride
Acid. the tube

spoonful of the dry Sodium, and a few

filledwith
a

dr6ps of concentrated
red gas, 73. Take

Sulphuric

Apply
becomes

heat.

and takes place, Effervescence

splendid

Chromate,

large test tube.^ Mix in it a test spoonfulof the with a (ew drops of muriatic acid, and a few drops of
a

and boil the mixture over alcohol, The boilingliquor gives off

the

muriatic

spirit lamp. ether, and

acid

the colour of

it

becomes

green, the

74. Before
results
as

the salts of chromic blowpipe, See

give the

same

the salts of oxide of chromium.-

Experiment 34,

page

90.
'

Test

tubes have

been

directed frequently

to

be

used

in

the preceding

experiments.

i.mig,.j|U^iyi|^
As

in such

experiments
may add After

scrupulouscleanliness
^9*
a
'

is

I required,

few

each
the

of cleaningsuch the mode respecting filled with water, before experiment they should be words
dried be

tubes.
the

productsof
adhere,

experiment liave
may solutions of removed

they
Waste

by and acids,alcalies,
use

upon the

the

surface.
of
a

If the

matters

resembling fig.69. used in cleaning are alcohol,

bmsh

vessels. glass because Chemistry is taught onlyin Lectures, Practical it is an conveniences excellent no teaching Chemistry, for teacher his of s uch the to as are pupilsspecimens salts, give practice be their houses. enumerated at page This to at analysed own 67, is practised Universities with much method at the German success. The students apply themselves to these minute with great zeal, analyses
exist for and

To Teackers.^-^Where

skill. acquire considerable analytical rapidly

97

ON

THE

PEKFORMANCE BY MEANS

OF OF

ANALYTICAL

MENTS EXPERI-

EQUIVALENT

TEST

LIQUORS.
lihat are represented quantities their that I have atomic explained by weights. subject former The in atomic the a on weights section, theory. given in fully the table at page of each substance ; which, when 22, state a quantity in constitute what I call a Test atom. Thus, weighed English grains, the of is carbonate of and atom test soda; 664*7 grains anhydrous acid. 500*8 grainsis the test atom of anhydrous sulphuric Chemical
substances
act

upon

one

another

in

in water, and the is dissolved any substance solution is farther diluted with water tillit occupies the bulk of a deci-

When

test

atom

of

at gallon,

the

temperature of .62^ F., I

mark
it ioo".

call that

solution of one hundred

a

and I ofstrength, degrees of soda of 100^ contains

Hence,

solution of carbonate
a

664*7 g^^^s

of that salt in

solution.
the

acid

Sulphuricadd of 100" of the a decigallon m

contained "c.
same

contains

of decigallon of the anhydrous 500*8 grains

diluted acid.
same

If tvoo test atoms

of I call solution,

of
its of

dry test are strength 200",

solutions of the chemical
power

in

the

bulk

It is evident

from

this,that equalmeasures
any

degree are
each of
test

in equivalent

to

other, and
be

that taken

can a by weight by quantity off its of a con*espoudingquantity measuring

solution. Appakatus For

for

Centigrade
it is

Testing. necessary
to

operating in this way

I shall
now

be

providedwith graduatedglassinstruments
as

such

describe.

The

bottle
to
a

fig. 71
mark

in the
on

filled up
or

septems, or yg To prevent any misconception as

1000

when margin contains, neck, i decigallon, of any liquor. gallon,

the
to the

relations
ployed em-

and

of capacities
in

the

Decimal
of

Measures

CentigiadeTesting,I must
to the Tables

call the
^''

J
The lower
use.

reader's attention
Measures

Imperial Liquid
The

in presented
measures

shows table

the

page that are

98.

upper table established by Act of Parliament

I recommend

the decimal explains

system, which

for chemical
H

98 IMPERIAL
COBRBSPOXDEXCE
OF THE

LIQUID
WEIGHT

MEASURE.
AXD

MEASURE

OF

WaTER.

Temperalore 62"

F.

Barom.,

30 inches.

Weight, Avoirdupois.

The

that have figures

dot

over

them

are

inexact.

IMPERIAL

LIQUID
Divided

MEASURE.

Decimally.

APPiEATOa

FOE

CEHTIQKABE

TESTISG.

The
because

unit

of' this

system
7

of

decimal

measures,

is

callod

it contains Standard,

grains of
t'b

pure

water

at the

liamentary Par-

100 1000
'

10,000 I

Septems Septema Septems

the
name
i

'b. of water lb. of water

"

-[J, gallon.
=

i 10

y,, gallon.
=

lbs. of water Decioallon

gallon.
measure

give

of
lb. of

to

the

that

contains

water,
"

or

the

tenth

part

of

the

Imperial Gallon.
The table

itself explainsall other Centiorade

relations.

Test Fig. 72, represents a Tube, more called Aicalimeter. It is an a narrow commonly glass with which the a grooved by jar, using stopper, be x"oured out very slowly. It is graducontents can ated each into a hundred equal parts, part containing the whole 100 septem,.and a parts being equal to a the tenth part of a decigallon. or centigallon, This particular test tuba is not /on" of the centigrade and therefore be it to add essential, an proper may account instrument the of
one or

two

other d
m

varieties

of

that
presents re-

Fig. yj
Pouiet
or

the

margin invented
convenient

Buiette
is a

by

M.
wd

Gay

Lussac.

This

delicate

instrument,

but

very rather for

fragile.
commou

It is, in

workmen,

consequence, than the instrument it

two

less suited

represented by
results,
I
to

*fig.72,
have

but

gives
01

moie

precise

added

three

Ltitle conveniences
of

the pouret,which
is
a

I shall descnbe

6, Fig. 74
the ends the When of

block cylindrical
are

wood,

which

cut

at
a

rightangleswith
a

sides. the

In the front block

is

is

vertical

placed on
the tube is

groove. horizontal

table,a, Fig.

pressed against the groove, the tube in a perfectly is placed at once tical verfor the accurate position,necessary of the height of the liquorconobservation tained withm it. is a japanned tin plate, with a c with horizontal opening covered white tissue paper. When the sur"ce of the liquor in the pouret is placed agcuust this narrow screen, the height of the be observed with The lower exactness. liquorcan the the cunx f(ynned by surface of the liquor pari of
73, and
'

is taken

in all

cases

as

the true
at before

and level,

this is well

when dofinC'd,

looked

tlie screen,
H

100

APPABATUS

rOE

CENTiaBADE

TESTIKO,

at the bottom, it poaret is round foot filled to support it when reqairesa separate

As

the

with

test
c

liquor.
is

This

foot

is shown is
a

in

the

margin,
pouret
in

the
an

pduret;a
oval hole

wooden

pillar

perforatedby
an

that

supports the
tiie pouret
on

position. upright
it
can

When

has been

//
"^ I^

washed,

be inverted

the peg

to drain.

The
in 75.
was

the

tube represented by fig. centigrade 76, and delicate. It margin is equallysimple Binks. The tube
can

suggestedby Mr.
a

be

fixed in
described
a

vertical position
be

above, and

by supportedby

the

block levelling
a

mahogany

foot

of the candlestick form.

In
to

using these alcahmeters, theyshould

upper
is

be held close
a

the

end,
to

and

when

the

one

with
be

stopper,

fig. 72,
upon of
-""

used, the
must

should forefinger
it in its

firmly pressed

the

stopjper, keep
be
to

the alcalimeter
tallow and down

wax,

place. The spout of alwaysgreasedwith a mixture hinder the test liquor from
of the tube. wooden The

running
best

the

outside of

tallow is
a

a applied by means tallow-holder,represented by fig. 77.

syringe called
The
mixture

of

wax warm

and

tallow

is melted

in

porcelain cup
which
it is

into

the holder,from
In

poured forced out by

and

76.

applying the tallow to the piston as required. it should be rubbed beak of the pipette, on prettyfreely, hole should be pierced and a small round throughthe This hole regulates tallow with a needle. to some of the force the alcalimeter. stream extent the givenby
the
Another been

form of alcalimeter has

recently

invented

by

Dr.

Mohr

of

Coblentz,
mical cheIt

which, for
the
is manufactories,
more

most

of analysis than any

purposes, acids and of the

for especially
in alcalies,

useful

above
at both

forms.

consists of fixed c, is

tube, a, fig. glass straight graduated 78,open

two

ends, and

glass jet, of a caoutchouc by means connector, When the stopcock is wire stopcock, which a peculiar acts. c?, across the the the stopin remains When test tube. untouched, liquor quiet cock in singledrops, the liquor descends in a stream, or is pressed, as the of is When the be action test completed, required. quantity may scale,engraved on the liquorexpended is indicated by the centigrade between zero e and/; Jtplbe, being made at e, and 100** at/. the form of the alcalimeter, it must be divided into at Y^aJbeyer appended
to

to a support with vertically

branches,", h, b,

small

the

lower end,

'

AFFABA.Tirs

FOB

CESTIOEABE

TEaTMrO.

101

least loO
to

meafinres,
3

each
than

containing a septem.
loO

In

general
number

it is better is not
venient, con-

have

few

more

measures,

but

smaller

except
I Test-Mixer.

for

specialpurposes,
some

proceed to notice
"

other useful

Insbiiments.

Fig. 79 is a Test-Mixer,a tall narrow bottle, graduated hundred The into a equal parts, and figured from below upwards. of be it may five decigallons, according to the capacity one, two, or quantity of test liquor that may be required. For small operations, of one It must be well stoppered test-mixer decigallonis sufGcient. a and have a broad foot, that it may stand steadilyIt may 8o is nseful. teat-mixer of the form of fig. a Very frequently be contain or graduated into 100 mnat loo, 200, 250 septems, and numbered from lielow upwards, so as to have zero (0") of the divisions, In the figure,the graduation is nnmbet^d scale at the bottom. the
wrong way. This instrument
serves

to

prepare every
of

test

solutions

of graduated

for analytical of strengtji o}"eratioDs Pipettes is

a TO

description.
Test the

deuver

Fixed that

Quantities
when filled up

Liquors.
mark
a,

"

Fig- 6i
dmvers

pipetteso graduated

to

b, it

^JimK

'^fLU'?\

exactlyloO
iunor

septems of solution,withoiita-ferenceto

what blown

adheres
from

to the

surface of tho

glass.

The

last

drop

must

be

the

point

102

APPAEATirS

FOB

CENTIGEADE

TESTING.

the mouth by applying

to the upper

end of the

while tube,

the lower end

touches the inside of the

glassreceiving-vessel. of for the delivery Fig. 82 is a similar pipette,

septems
or

10

of solution. dehver such

It is useful to

have

other

pipettes to
purpose.
to

2 5 or as quantities 50 septems, for a quantity necessary given any arbitraiy

graduated Fig. 83 represents a long narrow pipette, contain of it which single septems, may conveniently
20
or

about

30.
number

The
test

smajl
any To middle

quantityof
use a

of this is, to deliver any such as i, 2, 5, 10, or liquor^

use

uneven

of septems. pipette, Hold it

"

See

also
the

fig. 87.
thumb and

the ball of your right hand ; finger of the forefinger; dip the lower end of the pipette into the liquor that is to be measured ; apply your mouth of the suck up the the end to pipette, upper the and watch its rise till it is a little above liquor, tube ; then cease to suck ; the upper orifice of the on slip 83. rapidly your fore finger it that In this firmly. going through press process, remember mark
on

by wet slightly

the

neck

of the

82,

tube, and
the test

into your mouth. not be sucked poisonousand must To prevent this accident,have a steadyhand, keep the lower point of the and cease to suck at the pipettealwaysbelow the surface of the liquor, neck of the mark the the moment on you perceive the liquorabove
are liquors

pipette.

Having thus
you, fix your
on

filledthe

eye the top of the

before above the mark, hold it steadily pipette upon the mark, gentlylessen the pressure of the finger of liquor run out, tillthe curve tube,and let the excess
tlie

Then remove by its surface touches the mark. the receiving-vessel When and deliver its contents. should be adjustedto some fig. pipette, 83, the liquor
such
as

formed

pipette to
naiTow

using the

number, specific
should required bottom be of

or

10, and

then

slowly dropped out and

such
must
a

of septems number counted as they fall. The

its contents in the middle

the

septem

pipette cannot
means

deliver

All quantities accurately. of the

therefore be measured
be

pipette.
salts,
"

By

of these instruments, solutions of desired

and acids,alcalies, the limit

at
000
a

prepared of any may of each beingthe strength

The
test

atom

smaller

number

strength degree the substance in water sdvhUity of divided into 1 of any substance can be easily of of equal parts, or any fractional quantity
is desirable

of

of the
F.
any
atom
or

62"

test

may addition of
of

be taken that
a

few

With the for any particular purpose. afForc) the means these instruments other glass vessels, many

the strength and and purityof alcalies, acids, testing in importance the arts.

articlesof

103

PREPARATION
I

OF

STANDARD

SOLUTIONS.

proceed
of

to

describe and

solutions of acids

the processes alcalies. These

prepare standard solutions form the basis of the

employed to
be

system
dissolve

centigradetesting,and
The
test atom

they must

accuracy.
one

rule to be followed is this : to form

prepared witli great a test liquor of loo^,

of tliechemical preparationin so much water as wUl make The table at page 22 a decigaUon of solution at 62^ Fahr. have to study now is What we gives the weights of the test atoms. the practical of weighingthem and bringingthem into solution ; means
so as

to

secure

the proper
of

proportion of
of

test

and

water.

Carbonate
carbonate of

Potash

100".

"

Expose

about

ounces

of pure

crucible, to a red heat over a spirit potash,in a porcelain from minutes' it. After lo lamp or gas light,to expel water the crucible from the spirit remove lamp, and let it cool,closely ignition In the meantime, (Counterpoise covered. a largethin dry and warm in weights. When the porcelain crucible, containing 864*3 g^'^i^s the ignitedcarbonate of potashis cool enough to be weighed, remove weights,and in their place put as much of the ignitedsalt as restores the equihbrium of the counterpoise. Transfer the weighed salt from the crucible into the decigallon fig. measure, 71, page 97. Add about 10
ounces more

of pure water, shake till the vessel is water

rest

the vessel

to

diffusethe heat, and

to

add

nearlyfilled up

the mark
to

a, 6.

It must

then

till the

temperature of the solution sinks

62" F,, exactly

to liquoris come that temperature, water of a dropping tube, is to be added by means till the measure the when the engraved line is completed. This is case coincides of the formed 6, with the lower part curve by the surface a, of the liquor of the bottle with a piece in the bottle. Cover the mouth of thin writing with the palm of your hand, and paper, close it tight
must

which

be tried

by

thermometer.

When

the

shake

the

bottle
a

to

mix

the

solution It

decanted

into

stopperedbottle.
'1047. It is,however,
not

thoroughly. It may then of 100", will have the strength

may
be used
in

be
or

be of sp. gr.
acids of 100".

'^^^^ solution

preparing test
of

better than solution of carbonate

soda, and is
Carbonate
of
in

more of

expensive.
Soda
of
same

100".
manner

"

A
as

normal

in the precisely potash. Expose

a

solution of this salt is pared prethe normal solution of carbonate

the pure
minutes.

about

700
red

grains of
heat

anhydroussalt,
As
soon as

it is

porcelain crucible,to a cool,weigh out 664*7 grains. Dissolve this

for ten of
it to

in distilled water a,

in

the

decigallon bottle, fig. 71,

dilute the solutionnearly to the mark

5,

bring the temperature to the mark. exactly

It is of'the utmost

62^

F., and

then

adjust the

measure

consequence

to

prepare this solution with

every

KM

BTAl^DABD

BTTLPHUBIC

ACID.

attention to accuracy, because it is to form the standard for the of your acids, and indirectly and if your normal of your alcalies,

strength
solution alcalies

of soda is inaccurate,all your in the same will be inaccurate

SuLPHtmiG

of acids and subsequent analysis

Acid

of

100". of

"

degree. Prepare a solution of carbonate of soda

100^,
of
as

described solution

under
100

that

article.

Take
means

that

septems,

by
or

of the Put
a

81 figs. pipette, centigallon

a

86.
or

it into

conical

into

wide-necked

fig. 84, mixing jar, flask, fig. 78 ^. Add

,

drops of tincture of litmus. This is of a bottle done by means most conveniently grade such as fig. 85. Fill your centipipette,
12

84.

alcalimeter

with diluted
This
water

acid sulphuric

containingi part
about be made

of oil of vitriolmixed
mixture into
a

with
is to

4 parts of water.

by putting the glassflask, adding the add and allowing the

62" F.
Neutralise with the of soda and acid
are

thin dually, gra-

to tJte water mixture to

(JOol to

solu100 septems of tion limeter, acid poured from the alca-

ascertain

required.
to

septems of many ing In doing this the followhow attended paper

to

points are
85.
or

be

carefully.
the flask Add

86.

Place
to
see

sheet of white

below
occur.

to enable jar,

you

the

changes of colour that

at
a

the acid in
a

of quantities
to

about

4 septems
The

time.
a now

Shake
time

the

jar with
a

circular motion of
a

the mixture. facilitate

becomes

After
must

the blue litmus

becomes

pale claret colour.

lamp spirit
to

until the mixture

jar boilinghot.

be The

placed over
acid colour The

is then

slowly added, one or two drops at a time, until the litmus clianges from claret red to a pale scarlet colour.
be

of the

purpose
acid

for which

the

liquoris made
acid
a

hot, is to boiling
the carbonate
of

gas

that

is liberated from

expel soda by the

a

the carbonic
action

of the

acid. Carbonic sulphuric sulphuricacid gives it

after every neutralisation,

gives to
of
one

litmus

claret

or

crimson the end and

a

tinge,
of the

scarlet-red

hue.

Towards

addition

drop
on

of the acid

agitation
rod glass
alcali is

of the
and

a drop of it liquor, to a pieceof applied

is to be taken

the fine
As

pointof
soon as excess

blue the

and neutralised, perfectly

paper, liquorcontains

litmus

the

the

least

of acid,

rod. the litmus paper turns red where touched by the wetted glass number The of septems of the diluted acid that are required to of septems of the acid that conneutralise the soda, show the number tain one-tenth

part of
forms

test

atom

of

acid,or anhydroussulphuric

that

which quantity

100

septems of solution of loo*^. The experiment

STAND

AED

OXALIC

ACID.

105
be

must

be

with great care repeated

that yoa

may

quitecertain

what

it to be 55 septems. In that case, all is. I shall suppose that it is necessaiy to do to produce sulphuric acid of ICXD^, is to put

this number

55
page
to

measures 1 01, and

of the
to add

diluted acid
as

into the
as

test-mixer,fig. 79,
measures

much

water

dilutes the 55
certain
to

TOO

measures.

This

dilution is to
100 measures

be

effected with

precautions.
1000

Supposing

of the test-mixer about

contain

septems, put in the stopper,and

add
more

at firstyou

add

water,

at two

Then 500 septems of water. Afterwards you shake the mixture. is three times, until the measure or The mixture
is left to

equal to 990

septems.

cool

to

the

temperatureof 62" F., which must be tried by a thermometer. When this temperature is attained, is slowly water added, at
first 3 or that cannot

4 septems, and
deliver above
i

the

remainder

by

tube dropping

1 000 exactly septems. be added in excess. not must one drop of water sulphuricacid of 100", prepared in this manner,

This

is drop at a time, tillthe measure because requirescare, adjustment

If the
is pure,

the sp. grav. of the solution will prove on trial to be 1*057. If impure, it will be denser, accordingto the amount of

v
87.

impurity.
Oxalic
of water Acid
of

50P.
"

test atom

of

787*5 grains.
at

This

quantityof
cannot,

the acid

oxalic acid weighs crystallised will not dissolve in a decigallon

therefore, prepare oxalic acid of 1 00" ; of solution, but, by takinghaJfa test atom for a decigallon can we pare preoxalic acid of 50". Take clean of of crystals dry pui-e 394 grains oxalic acid,dissolve them in the decigallon bottle, fig. 71, in water, and It has,then, dilute the solution, at 62^ F.,to the bulk of a decigallon. of 50" ; consequently of it will neutralise one two measures a strength
62" F,. We
measure

of carbonate standard
to be

of soda of 100". of soda and of oxalic acid may be

all bases of the entire system of tests, because solutions are prepared or tested by means

The

solutions of carbonate
the two acid and
a

considered

other alcahne
and these, for
a

of take

it is

matter

of indifferencewhich Alcalies.

of these solutions you

standard.

Solubility
cannot

qr Acids
of

and

"

^The circumstance

that

you

prepare a studyingthe action

solution of oxalic acid of

100^, shows

the

in necessity,

of ascertaining the degrees test liquors, equivalent of solubility of those chemical compounds whose frequentrecurrence renders them important. I have

degree

of any be prepared 102, that solutions may stances subof strength, with the solubility of the respective consistent

observed, at page

in water.

the Generallyspeaking, free alcalies. The

most

soluble

substances the

are

the free acids and

limits of

of solubility

most

are important of these,

stated in the tables at pages 106 and

107.

106

TABLE

OF

THE

SOLUBILITY F.

OF

ACIDS.

62^ Temperature

107

TABLE

OF

THE

SOLUBILITY

OF

ALCALIES.

Temperature62" F.

These Tables show

the limits of

of the solubility

substances

to which

theyrefer.
are

of strength are They show what degrees You have the acid in can impossible. sulphuric
2 1

and what possible,

state

vitriolof On

OCp.

You

may

have it

as

Nordhausen

of pure oil of fumingacid of 2 3 8 1".

the other

hand, you

cannot

95". It is curious to see is nearly, as the ratio of i,

Nitric Acid

than have oxalic acid of greaterstrength acids the the three mineral that of solubility

2, 3,

namely:

"

Muriatic Acid Acid Sulphuric

7520 1353^
2100P

108 Considerable
be made The of

BTANDAED

AMMOIfTA.

differences occSr also among

carbonate of soda shows

the alcalies.

Ammonia

caa

1000", but
or

sixth column

of the Tables

186". not stronger than of Test Atoms the number

the

of
the
moved, re-

eacli acid

that is equivalent to alcali, heads in the precedingcolumns. respective the numbers The seventh column
in this column

weights na(med

under

If the decimal Degbees.

of

point is

express

contains

information

preparation of dilute tests, namely,

it states

great importancefor the the quantity, in septems,

it

of each liquor which

,

appliesequallyto all the substances named found These numbers in the Tables. are by of each which dividing by the number represents the degree 100,000 The mathematical scholar find the numbers will liquor. readilyby of a table of reciprocals. means
contains
one

test atom,

and

I call this number

the Atomic

Meastjee

of

test solution.

PREPARATION

OF

EQUIVALENT
Ammonia.

TEST

LIQUORS.

Ammonia

has

the remarkable
,

the property of possessing'

It neither

same

bulk

expands nor condenses in of combining with, or being diluted by, water, in which consequence acids. differs the fixed alcaliesand the liquid from property it essentially atomic The of water volume is 16' 07 1429 septems, and its weight is 42 8 57 1 43 septems, 112*5 grains. The atomic volume of ammonia and its weight 2 1 2 '5 grains. The volume of 11 O is therefore equal
in all its combinations with
water.
*

to

i of that of N

",or the relation

a

is the

same

as

that of the volumes The

of

elementaiygases that constitute weight of 1" (thehundredth part of

at

the
test

compounds. respective

atom) of
to
an

ammonia that of

graias. Its volume

water.

62"
of

F. is

precisely equal to
added the of

125 of grains 3
places solution,dis-

is 2*

Every degree
"

ammonia,

aqueous

3 grains of y to the extent

of water, reduces
2

by "000125. gi*avity rules : practical

"

of solution a decigallon weight the specific '875' grain, and diminishes '125= From this principle proceed two important

1.

Given, the Sp, Grav,

of
the

solution

of Ammonia,
i*

to

find

its

Chemical

Strength. Deduct
"

sp.

gr. from

000000,

and

divide

The product is the chemical strength by '000125. expressedin degrees. 2. Given,the Chemical Strength of a solution of Ammonia, to find its the chemical strengthin degrees Gravity. Express Specific ; multiply it by '000125, The remainand deduct the product from i 'oooooo. der is the required specific gravity.
"

the remainder

The and

table following

shows
some

the relationbetween solutions of ammonia:

the chemical
"

strength

of specific gravity

BTANJUBD

juatomu..

SOLUTIONS Test Atom

312
"

OF

AMMONIA.

5 Grains.

Temperatuie 63"

Detenhination

of
100

tlie Chemiccd of l^e of

Strength of Liquid
to

Aitmonia. mixed eolation

The add

"

10

eeptems
Use tube

ammonia
water

be tried
12

are

with

septems
a

and

drops

of

of litmus.

wide-necked
be

88. bottle,fig.

is to centJgrade t^st sulphuric with of 100^, and the alceli is to be neutralised in relation to sulphtu-ic all the precautions described acid, page 104, excepting that, as no carbonic acid is J does not require to be heated. I present, the mixture The operationis finished when the blue mixture sud- I red. denly becomes

filled with

The
not

strongest solutions
63" F.
cannot

of ammonia
contain abotfe

at

under

temperatures 1000" of ammonia,

much of

88,

and

most In

of cal-

the

solutions liable to be
restdt

presentedfor
the 10

are analysis

weaker. of

Gulating the
acidof
I

of this

the analysis,

number

septems

sulphuric
plied multi-

oo'^ used
10.

to neutralise

septems
of

of ammonia

is to be

sulphuricacid ore required to neutralise 10 septems liquidammonia, then, 85 X 10 650, "e is the strength of ammonia in expressed d^rees. Every lOcP of ammonia is equal to 313 '5 grainsof aramouiacal contained ia the gas of solution. decigallon Ammonia 100^. of Having determined by experiment the degree by

Thus, suppose

85 septems

of the

"

of
have

your
next

solution
to find

of

ammonia,

which
measure,

I have
or

assumed

to

be

850",

you
con-

its atomio

the

quanti^

of

it,which

1.10
tains page
I
1

AMMOIQA-METEE."

KITBIC

ACID.

test

atom

of

anhydrousammonia.
=

This, as

I have

stated

in

08,

is done

degree. Now

by dividing1 00000 by the number -f- 850 1 00000 iiq'6. Hence,

have
to

that expresses
to

the
tion solu-

prepare

of 100", you

and dilute it in the test-mixer

take 117 '6 septems of the strong ammonia to 1000 septems. It is then a solution of the chemical of sp. gr.

100",
The of atomic
measure

changes with necessarily Thus,

if you
is

strengtli
'9, the

every solution.

have

ammonia

chemical

strength of which
measure,

it is the atomic

and

of 125 septems, (= ^fSrS) of solution of will produce looo septems

800", then

loo*^

or

of sp.

gr.

'9875.

See

table, page
in
a

109.

The

hydrometer

indicates the cheinical

strengthof

liquidammonia

of ammonia, mark degrees only i Twaddell's hydrometer, I have, however, recently contrived

very rough way ; for 40 degree of a scale like that of

a

meter hydrotesting
10

which

has

very

convenient

scale,when

such

mode

of

is considered

precise. suflSciently
the makes
100

I have shown

that at 62^
test

F.
The
I

of decigallon That

strongestammonia
test atoms

contains
an

atoms.

in

gallon. imperial
indicates

ammonia-meter

contains

100", each

of which

test atom

of arhmoniacal
table has been
in ammonia
at gallon

This

instrument

of solution. gas per gallon A is representedby fig.89. prepared to

; it shows

very

extended
us^

of dealers per

accompany the weight of

it for the

diy

ammonia

every

and degree,

the

ing correspond-

money

valuer of each solution. NITRIC ACID.

chemical
"

Determination
SAMPLE OF

of

the

strength
"

of
a

Nitric

Acid. of the
solution the

Process.
of water. of

Put
or

into

flask
100

of capacity

4 ounces,
12

septems

Add

drops of
of
102,

litmus,then by means graduated flg. 83, page pipette,

into

put
nitric

the

flask
is

5 septems
to

of

the

acid the

which

be

tested,and
will have
a

shake
90.

mixture,
of

whidi

centigrade strength. this To do to cP. the measure easily, Adjust accurately the above rather fill it the mark, hp of grease you may the the test tube to prevent the liquorflowing down
test tube

colour. bright-red

Fill the 100^

with solution of ammonia

of

outside, and
next

pour

the

extra

ammonia
measure

back

into

its

bottle,
The

drop by drop, tillthe proper 89. step is to neutralise the nitric acid with

is obtained.

the ammonia,

which

is to be
2
or

poured from the graduatedtube

into the flask in small

of portions

PBOCE"S

FOB

TESTING

ACIDS

AND

ALCALIES.

Ill

septerasat
shaken. little
time.

time.

When
At

After each addition of ammonia, the flask is to be the bright-red colour of the acid begins to appear a
ammonia must

the fainter,

be added

in

of quantities into

last the red colour is

suddenly converted
how many

drops at a blue,at which

2

pointthe acid is
Besult.
ammonia
"

neutralised. totally
determined
to required

Having
100" is

septems of

solution of

of

degree so found is either to Suppose '3 5 septems of ammonia

or

neutralise 5 septems of nitric acid,the be multiplied by 20, or divided by 5.

are

used, then 35
the
100

20

700 septems,
nia ammosame

3 5 -f- 5
The

7 septems.
be latter shows

The

former shows
neutralise acid is

quantityof test
of the
as

that would acid.

ammonia

requiredto
Hence

septems
times
or

nitric
as

that the

seven

strong

the

of

100".

it contains

7 test atoms,
nitric

rous 70CP, of anhyd-

nitric acid per

decigallon.
100^.
"

Nitric
test its

Acid

of

You

take

I42'9. Hence, 142*9, the of with diluted in the testwater strong acid, say, 143 septems tillit forms 1000 mixer septems, producesnitric acid of 100",
or

degreein the manner just described. the degree to be 700", you then calculate 1 00000 looooo-f700= by the degree. dividing

acid of any strength, and I assume that you find the

atomic

measure,

by

Muriatic
in the exactly is

Acid
same

of
manner

100".
as

"

Muriatic

acid

of

100*^

is

prepared

nitric acid of that other

requiredfor testinglimestones, and

and sulphuric
of

substances

strength. This acid tliat produce

iqo".
"

insoluble salts with

oxalic acids. Caustic

Caustic

Potash

100^

"

Soda
is to

of

strong
same

solution of caustic
manner as

potash,or

caustic

soda,
The is

be

tested in the been

to

the solution

of ammonia.
measure

degree having

found
loop

by

experiment, the atomic

Test

and calculated,

dilution

measures

is effected in the test-mixer.

Liquors
When

of

50^.
"

In

test atom

of each chemical

substance
are

of 50" Half a preparingtest liquors is to be made into a decigallon of

solution.

the substances

solid,such

as

carbonate

of soda,

or

oxalic crystallised

acid, half the

taken. When

atomic

page
measures

22,

is to

be

weight given in the table at half the atomic they are liquid,
septems.
for
testing

to be taken for dilution to

1000

General
OF

Observations
and

on
"

the

Acids

Alcalies.
one

One

the. Strength all the test acid is suflScient for testing

Process

and alcalies,
test acid

test alcalifor

lies between
of cheapest

much
to

the

all the acids. The choice of the testing The oxalic former is and acid. acid sulphuric the two, and I think, the whole, is preferable on of oxalic acid
can use

the latter. pure

The

solution

be

made

from directly

the

The crystals. of soda. But

former

requiresthe
a

potashor
alcali.

this is

of pore carbonate of which is onlyfelt in the disadvantage

are

of the firstsolution, since all others preparation

made

with by testing

112 The
that
in
a a

CHEMICAX

TESTIN0

IN

THE

AETS,

standard alcali may cool

a

be

either ammonia

or

caustic soda. considerable soda

I find time
not

solution of the former

of

50^, can

be

kept a

placewithout
that account.

much
It

alteration.

The

caustic

does

suffer

loss of
on

from strength,

the volatilisation of the

can

and alcali,

is preferable

onlybe used, however,

with

Mohr's

form of alcalimeter, fig. 78. None of the alcalimeters which have the is,that those spout at the top can be used with caustic soda. The reason alcalimeters require to have the spout greasedwith tallow,to hinder the test liquor the outside of the tube, and caustic from ranning down
soda washes (and caustic potashalso) When

the standard

test

the tallow away. solutions and the apparatus

are

in

good

of acids and order,the analysis

alcalies
a

of quantities
a

liquor.

5 septems of
to

eflected with very small 10 or strong solution, septems of

can

be

plan begin with 5 septems, and neutralise it of the liquor rapidly. You thus get a rough estimate of the strength ; after which you repeat the experiment carefully. In all the preceding I have given the^ method of calculating examples,
for
is procedure, general

weak

is generally solution, enough to operate upon.

'.The best

results in solutions

such of

manner

as

to

lead

to

the

preparationof
it often exact

standard

particular degreesof strength. But

that of
a

analytical processes,
component
into

substance
a

to you submitted to
some

want

know

the

happens,in weightof some

I have thrown
in which
on

examination.

the

form

of

table

examplesto
to

show

the

manner

experiments
114
and
"

of this sort

are

be

managed.
"

See the Table

pages

115.
"

or Example, Neutralise a small quantity, by weight if solid, by if liquid, of one of the acids named in the table firom i to 1 4, measure using a test alcali of 100" with an alcalimeter. Observe how many Then, under the septems of test alcali are required. Let it be 30.

head

of 3

septems
to

in

the

and table,

on

the horizontal

line of the acid

submitted

of the decimal
into

examination, you find a number, which, after the removal hand,^to convert 3 septems one placeto the right point,
the number

30,
was

"

shows

ofgrains ofthe

acid contained

in the

qvantity

that

of assay was acetic Thus, if the subject If it was tartaric acid, it contained 19*13 grains of anhydrous acid. to was acid, the quantity 24*75 grains of anhydrousacid, equivalent acid. In like manner, the weight of an alcali 28*1 3 grainsof crystallised submitted
can

to the test.

be reckoned

from
of

the
the

of quantity
principles

test acid
of

to required

neuti'alise it. Testing

to

Application
Mercantile
and

Centigrade
"

Manufacturing
as an

Operations.
easy and

The

rapidmethod to determine to direct the operationsof the manufacturing or chemist, the commercial value of his products. It is therefore used to determine the strength of the liquidacids,the purity of carbonate of soda, the bleaching powder of chloride of lime,and to the solution of numerous other technical problemsupon which my space does not permit me to centigrade testingis employed

of process of analysis,

TESTING

or

SODA,

VINE

GAB,

AND

MAUL.

113 show the

enter

into

details ;

but

I shall of such

give

two

or

three

examplesto

method

and

importance
water

operations.
of Soda.
The
it
"

Testing of Impure
soda
contains

Carbonate

Commercial
the
out

carbonate
is analysis
a

of
to

and

neutral salts.

find how

much

carbonate of soda
of the
in the

objectof contains. Weigh

at page

test

atom^

namely, 664*7g^a'^s, of solution decigallon

,

impure carbonate
described

of soda,and

make Then

with it a
measure

manner

103.
of

off

100

septems
manner

of the

and solution,
at page

test it with

acid of sulphuric

100",
of test
in the

in the

described

104.

The

number

septems
contained

acid

used

shows

the

percentage of carbonate

of soda

impure sample.
dilute it with its ^Take 50 septems of vinegar, bulk of pure water, add a few drops of litmus, and neutralise it with alcali of 100". test the number and of septems required, Observe
"

Testing of Vinegar,

The multiply that number by 2. product is the strengthof the in vinegarexpressed degrees. The value of limestone Testing of Limestone and Marls, monly comof lime the quantity of carbonate which it depends upon
"

contains.

This
in

is true, whether the blast

the

limestone
to

is to

be used

as

a or

flux
for

for ironstone
manure.

furnace,or
from sand
are

be
to

burnt

for mortar

Marls
the residue

contain usually

50
or

80

per cent, of carbonate On the carbonate

of

lime,
The

of consisting Irish limestone

clay.

contrary,fine
of lime.

English chalk

and

almost

pure

method of testing limestones is following and extremely givesvery good results. easy, The of 6

flask must
ounces

be chosen of about

the
a

of water, and

with
and

capacity cylindrical
i

neck,

about

6' inches The

or

long
but

inch in form
be

diameter.

flask may

have

the

of
=

flg. 91
at

a,

flg. 92,
to

it must

thin
a

the bottom,

bear
a

lamp. Fig,91 J, is easily up

water,
and down

a spirit exposure over that tube of thin glass,

fitsthe neck of the flask pretty close, but

; it is
a

slips
cold
c.

filled with

and
out

stopped by
on a

large cork,

91.

Weigh

watch

for analysis glass, fine

62" grains of the limestone, duced repreviously

in Put
a

mortar porcelain

to

powder.

into the flask a, ioo septems of muriatic acid of 100*^. and accuTo do this easily rately,
use a

pipette of the

form

of

graduatedto deliver 100 septems. into the prepared acid, adjust the measure, and then transfer the pipette to the flask a, without soiling the neck of the flask. Add

fig. 93, Dip this

114

the

the mixture to the muriatic acid, agitating gradually When the powder has been all of powder. after every addition of the of the neck if it about it must be washed sticks flask, added, any of a washing-bottle. Put the tube b into into the acid by means down of the spirit and applyheat to the flask by means the flask, lamp. This completes the action of the acid on the limestone and expels the which lifts up the tube b, and escapes. The disengaged carbonic acid, limestone pulverised cold water
is intended
to

condense
so

any

vapour

of muriatic
its

be

produced by
the from the

the

heat,and
been

prevent
to
a

escape

acid that may from the flask. be

When
removed
the

liquor has

raised

boilingheat, the
to

lamp.
the

The

outside

of the tube

flask may 5 is to be washed

by

and bottle, spirtitig

1

washings
of litmus of
a

added
to the

the contents

of the flask.

Add

red, and
ammonia

drops of solution then by means

or

mixture, which
add blue.
to turns

will become
solution

test tube, centigrade

of
"

soda of

of

100"

until

the

mixture
to

Result*

Every septem
mixture in the

ammonia

required
i

be of

added

neutralise the the limestone.

indicates flask,

per

cent,

impurityin

115

SOLUTIONS,

ONE

TEST

ATOM

IN
6

DECIGALLON.
8

Septems.Septems. Septems.Septems. Septems. Septems. Septems.Septems.

I

1-275
I

'500

1-913 2-250

2-550
3-000

3 -188 3

3-825 4-463
5-250

5-100
6000

-750, 4*500
4-125 5-250
2-735 4-050 4*725
2-700

5-738 6*750
6-188

3 4

i'375 1-750

2-063 2-750
2-625
2*025 1-350 3-500

3-438
4*375
2-279

4-813

5-500
7-000

6-125
3-190

I 1-350
7
8

"9116 1-367

1-823
2-700
I

7-875 3-646 4-102

6-076
7 -088

3-375

1-575
"900

2-363 3-150
-800

3-938
2-250

4*725 5-513 3-150 5-513 3-505 5'775

5-400
6-O0O

9
lO II 12

1*575
1 -002 I

2-363
I

3-150 2-003 2-453 3-300 3-750

I -100

3-938
2-504
3 '066

4'725 3-005 4-950

-502 '475

3-600 4-050 6-300 7-088 4-006 4*507

4-906
6-600

-227

1-840
2

3-680 4-293

1-650
1-875
"550 "425
I 1
"

4-125

5*519 7-425

13 14

2-813

4-688
1-375

-825

5-625 6-563 7-500 1-650 1-925 2 '200

8-438
2-475

15 17
16 18

"6375 "850 1-063

1-768
2-593 2-357 3-457 i'559 2-474 4-322 1-949 3-324

179

'729

1-488 1-700 1-275 1-913 3'536 4-125 4-7H 5-304 5-186 6-050 6-914 7-779
2-338 3-988
10-74

19
20

"7795 I -169 1-994 1-329 5*3^9 3 '579

2-728

2-659
7-159

4-653
12-53

3-118 5-318
14-32

3-508

5-983
16-11

8-949

Thus, if

20

septems

of ammonia ^

are

used, the limestone contains

are

80

The reasons per cent, of carbonate of lime. carbonate of lime, loO septems of acid of ammonia of all contain the

obvious

623 grains of septems of

100", and
test atom

100

a 100^, if of lime all carbonate are Hence, provided reagents, pure. its placeand indicates the quantity. theammonia supplies

^ part of

of the

respective

is

deficient,

Testing

of

Ammonia*"

^In the
used for

examination and

of impure

salts of ammonia,
it is necessary to

manure

ascertain

the

other poses, purof monia. quantity amin

a

The

impure compound
To determine

is, heated

flask

with

solution of caustic soda,which

in the state of gaSi

ammonia disengages of this the quantity

ammonia, you collect it in such an by fig.94, where U is a

loo

apparatus
bent tube

as

is represented

containing

with cold septems of acid of 100", and b a glass Such a quantity of the ammo-* for condensation. water

niacalcompound

must

be

operated upon

as

will liberatea

smaller quantity
I

116

MISCELLAKEOVS

EXFEBIMEITTS

WITH

TEST

LIQTJOBS.
at page is 21^

of gas ihan 114, column

loo

I,

septems of acid of ioo" can absorb. The table line 15, shows, that that quantity of ammonia
of the the excess distillation, of acid
must

grains.

At

the end

be

tralised neu-

by

test alcaliof 100^, and

beingdeducted

from 100, Thus, if 30 septems of alcaU

of septems of test alcali the number the residue shows the equivalent of ammonia.
the ammonia have neumust tralised required, to the table at page acid,and according 115,
are
'

column
ammonia

70 septems of test 7, line 1 5, that indicates the presence of 14

of guano, analysis

88

grainsof ammonia*

In the

by

the nitrogen it contains is converted into with soda and lime; but the ammonia, when ignition
be estimated
in this
manner.

can disengaged,

Miscellaneous
A small

Experiments
can

with

Equivalent

Test

LiQUons.

of salts great variety

be

and economically preparedin quickly this process, which is Solutions of the principal

for exammation quantities therefore strongly recommended

by tests, Ac.,by
to students.

and alcaline carbonates, alcalies, acids, all of lOO'* or of 50^ of strength, first are preparedby the processes described under the respective articles, with out the normal solution of carbonate of soda, described at setting Solutions of of salts should also be prepared the principal page 103. ICX5", 50**, 10" or student of strength. But a as, of such solutions, will not require so large he should be provided a quantity as a decigallon, with a centigallon (100 septems) test-mixer of the form shown by 80, page loi, or with a bottle like fig. fig. 95, which holds 100 septems when filledup to a mark on the neck. yj

To

solutions of prepare of ^^ part of a test atom

of solution.
22

100*' each

with salt is

this instrument, for required numbers

100

septems

That

is to say, the

in

requirethe decimal point to be moved one figureto the left. Thus, 152^ grains of chloride of barium will give i centigallon crystallised
the table at page of solution of 100^
bottle of this sort, graduatedto 2 50 septems, requires J of a test atom of solution." of the salt,and gives 4 fluid ounces
at 62^

F.

"

95.

When
can

the

student
a

has

prepared
10

series
as

of
:
"

such

he solutions,

proceed to make

series of other salts

follows

By

acid of 100*^ to adding lo septems of sulphuric of potashof 100^. The measure is best effected
so as

septems of solution
a

by

graduated pipette,
what adheres to the

to deliver 10

of independently septems of liquid, mixture

can product

82. tube,fig.
in which

The the The

may
be

be made

No
to

filtiration is necessary,
above
mixture

or glass lain, porceof for the lisation. crystalevaporated purpose allconsidered because the liquors are

in

of capsule

if the operationis correctly yields, formed, perof should the which quantity potash, agree with the indications of the table at add of 10 sulphuric septems page 114. of 100^. contain of anhydrous and the same acid, quantity 5 '0075 grains neutral of sulphate

be pure.

EXPEniMElJfTS

WITH

TEST

LIQTT0B6

OF

50"".

117

of anhydrousalcali. potashof loo^ contains 5*893 grains should therefore The sulphateof potash produced by their mixture 10 weigh 5 0075 +5 89 30 9005 grains. See the atomic weightof Other salts may be produced of potash, in the table, sulphate page 28.
of solution of
" '

'

"

in
a

similar way.

If

10

septems of muriatic
effervescence the
ceases,

acid of ICX3"
spar
are

are

put

into

test

tube,and 6J grainsof pure calcareous

boiled when the

added, and

the

is liquor

die

muriatic

acid should of calcium. and

be

and neutralised, entirely

10

contain neutral chloride liquor

is the looth part of
a

For

septems of acid of 100"

test atom,

6i

of calc spar is also the icx)th part of a test atom, and these are grains If the resulting solution of chloride of therefore equivalent quantities. calcium is diluted with water to the bulk of 100 septems, then the solution
"

will be of lO*' of

by
In the the
1 same

10

be exactly precipitated of of silver of of of 10^ nitrate solution strength. septems dissolve of nitric of 100^ should acid manner 10 septems and strength,
10

septems of

it should

00th

part

of

test

The of nitrate test atom producing the lOoth and thus be formed be evaporated various compounds that may can in the liquid or preserved state, or be tested by the reagents, crystallised, be converted or by double decompositioninto other salts. Thus 10 septems of chloride of barium of 100^ mixed with lo septems of sulphate of soda of 100" will be totally decomposed, producing the lOOth part of a test atom of barytes, and the icx)th part of a of insoluble sulphate of soluble chloride of sodium. test atom washing,and By filtration, in the solid evaporation to diyness,both may be obtained separately of copper.
.

atom, part of a

of namely, 4 grains,

metalhc

copper,

state.

It is

quite evident

that

vast

number

of accurate

experiments

may

thus be

performedwith
Experiments

and facility
with

great economy. Liquors

of

Test

50^.

These
in the of

experiments are
manner

to

be

performed
lO

just described. liquor

are

tems sepsured mea-

each

to

be

of a graduatedpipette, by means in to be mixed are fig. 96. The liquors

flask, tumbler, fig, glass 97, or a beaked fig.98, both thin enough at the bottom to bear heating over a spirit lamp. When
a

there is
a

it is precipitate,

to be collected

on

in a glass funnel, Bg, 99, placed paper filter and to be washed with pure water, by means of the washing-bottle, the water fig. lOO,

from when

which
you
are

is

expelled by
a.

the

tube

b^

blow into the tube

to be added
to
a

The

ings wash-

the

which solution,
98.

is to be

poured poratingbasin, and

into

small

to be

9^' eva-. porcelain directed at as evaporated

page

55, that the

118

BXPJEEIMEKTS

WITH

TESt?

LlQITOES

Ot

50^.

If you possess a microscope, a drop of salt it contains may crystallise. should be placed of the precipitated on the solution with some a salt, of lime glassslider and examined under the microscope. Sulphate

99.

100.

and

other

crystals. A
should be

characteristic and often show very precipitates after solution concentration the filtered of by heat drop also be examined thus,when the forms of the different salts will

beautiful

distinctly perceptible.
on Eocperiments

the

Composition of Salts.

1.

Mix

acid sulphuric

with

ammonia.

Evaporateand crystallise.
duct, Procrystallise.

The
2.

of ammonia. productis sulphate Mix acid and soda. sulphuric of soda. sulphate and

Evaporateand

of

acid sulphuric potash.

3. Mix

Product,sulphate potash. Crystallise.

acid and ammonia

4. In the
ammonium.

same

way,

muriatic

produce chloride of

5. Muriatic acid and soda produce chloride of sodium*

6* Muriatic acid and
Nos.

produce chloride potash

of

potassium.

the water* by slowly evaporating 5 and 6 can be crystallised acid and ammonia producenitrate of ammonia. Crystallise; 7. Niti'ic 8. Nitric acid and soda produce nitrate of soda. Crystallise. 9. Nitric acid afad potashproduce nitrate of potash. Crystallise. The salts produced by mixing caustic alcalies with acids can Id.

produced by mixing the carbonates of the alcalieswith acids, the carbonic acid being discharged in the state of gas. of an acid and an alcaline test solution of When 1 1 equalmeasures the resulting mixed the satne degree solution has only Jicdf are together, of the components. the degree acid of icxP, lOOOseptems of sulphuric
also be
.

EXPEEIMENTS

WITH

TEST

LIQTTOES

OP

50

119
.

and

septems of sulphate septems of soda of 100", produce 2000 of sulphate there is present in all only i test atom of soda of 50^ ; because
1000

of soda, and that is dissolved in Double In these

2000

septems of solution.

of Salts, Decomposition

if you prefer it,25 septems) experimentsuse 10 septems (or, The and let it cool. of each liquor. Boil the mixture are precipitates and the salts remaining in solution are to to be separated by filtration, Double eflfected by equivalent be crystallised. decomposition of salts, Sometimes of solution,is rarely quite complete. quantities part of one of the original salts is carried down : sometimes by the precipitate part dissolved the remains in mother should of what liquor. precipitate and instructive this set of experimentsgivesvery striking Nevertheless, results.

Boil. of soda and chloride of calcium. Products, sulphate in of solution. sodium of lime and chloride sulphate crystallised, Mix of soda and nitrate of lime. of Products, sulphate sulphate 13. lime crystallised, and nitrate of soda in solution. sulProducts, 14. Mix sulphate of soda and chloride of barium. of in of and sodium in chloride solution. phate barytes powder,
12.

Mix

with Phosphate Experiments of Soda of

10^.

15. Mix
calcium of
sodium
1

measures

of tins solution

with

measure

of chloride of
chloride of

50^.
5

of lime Product, phosphate

and precipitated

in solution.

6.

Mix

measures

of the

of phosphate

soda of 100", with

measure

of nitrate
nitrate

of lime

of

50".

Product, phosphate of hme

of may the
manner

and precipitated

of soda

in solution. in

These
nature

experiments give examples

and relations of saline
manures

which

the

be

explainedin schools
in their

where
The

agricultural chemistryis taught* teacher can not only show the

*'

substances
"

say, that is gypsum, demonstrate the "c," but he can proximate elements of these salts ; he can exhibit differences between acids and bases, and can the use individuals and facility of

and condition,

This

is nitrate

of soda

this is

crystallised of soda-* sulphate of the properties the experimentally the tests by which
He
can

each

class

are

identified. severally
the salts before the

then with

pupilsj sal-ammoniac^ making of corrosive acids and alcalies ; and producing insoluble by the mixture and bone-earth of limpid solutions. It by the mixture gypsum be doubted this in cannot that, schools^ experimentsof agricultural could be to kind,made, as they made, thoroughly practical intelligible of very beneficial results. The nature the pupils, would be productive would of the saline manures be better comprehended, and the cJieating
certainty compose
salt and
common

nitre,and

eyes s alts and glauber's

of the

120

IIPEBIMKITTS

WITH

TE8T

HftUOES

01

50''.
measure

practised by
No young

dealers fermer

in manures,

would

be

in
or

great
had

prevented. performed,
would
the
ever

who

had

performed,
in

seen

analytical experiments
jmy
even

described for
a

the
of
a

preceding
brickdust
mixture

pages,
and

the pay of

price
the
common

of

^ano of

mixture

price

cent,
on

salt ;
are

good examples
not

for saltpetre of

bark, or containing for^ per

spent
which
stand

agriculturaleconomy Teaching
at

record, and
farmers
are

perhaps
let their

unfrequent.
sons

induce

to

remain

school of

they
are

now

contented
as

to

do

for

the

sake

might little longer than a they acquiring what

of this sort

apt

to

r^rd

unmarketable

book

learning.

Experiments
an

with

these

equivalent test liquors might

those the
test

be

multiplied to
the action

indefinite such

extent.

Besides

which
one

depend
take
act
a

upon

of of

two
a

teat

liquors,you can, on acid,say lO septems (^j

;

hand,
and

given quantity
it with o(

atom),
you
can

upon

various

metals, oxides, carbonates. Sic,

and,
on

and

ascertain

the with

quantity
the
same

salt produced
of

the

other the

hand,

quantity
acids, and
with

test

aleali,examine
of you salt
can

saturating

powers

of various
trouble

the little of

"quantity
expense,

thus
in

produced.
this
manner

With carry

little
out a

and

very
make

extensive

series

chemical

researches.

You

do

cot,
miss the

explosions at every step, you from lecture-room, you escape

you

conflagrations and the thunder and lightning of the of holiday chemistry but hilarity ;
indeed,
the
resources, and

gradually acqnire the

chemist. philosophical

knowledge,

the

power

of

the

JOHN
CHEMICAL AND

JOSEPH

GBIFFIN,
mSTBTTUEN SQUARE, ROW,
LONDON.

FHUOSOFHICAI
10, FINSBURY

T HAZES,

MANUFACTORY,
REMOVED FROM

119, 120, BUNHILL

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Mb.
and

GBIFFIN

begs

to

announce

that lie
the his

all supplies

the APPARATUS CHEMISTRY

at

PREPARATIONS

required in
SCIENCE.
In be may

Study

of

and

EXPERIMENTAL addresses
the

establishments information

the
on

above
any
at
a

Apparatus
the

seen, and

obtained

to subject relating

distance

from

London

study or practiceof these referred to are respectfully

ef
1200

sciences.

Parties

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Preparationsfor
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Griffin, F.C.^.
and
some

Containing a Lamp
Instruments, in
a

Furnace

of the

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essential

deal box, 10s. Qd,

No. No. No.

1. In
2, In

mahogany, box, 16s. mahogany box,

deal

with lock, 31s. 6c?. This

set

See

Fig. page
a

120.

3. In

box,

with

lock.

contains

lamp furnace^

with No. 4. In
a

for qualitive 42s, apparatus and preparations analysis,

mahogany box,
apparatus and
a

with

lock.

This is

a an

very

comprehensive
course

set of

tests,adapted for

extensive

of

experimentson
No. 5. In for
a a

small scale, o2s. 6d, lock.

A for set of

See

Fig. page

1.

deal box, with

school,with
to

means

largerapparatus suitable performingthe chief experiments

lessons in

proper

illustrate

elementary

Agricultuml

Chemistry, 5?. 5s.

No. 6. In
for
a

mahogany ciise, with lock. 6L 6s, Analytical researches, mahogany

case, with

set

adapted particularly

No.

7. In

set, suitable
8^. 8s,

for

complete Analytical travelling Engineers, Metallurgists, "c.,

more

lock.

COLLECTION

OP

PHILOSOPHICAL

APPAEATTJS.

Cabinets of E^lectbicaIi Cabinets of Pkbumatio

Cabinet Cabinet 628. ed. A of Catalogue of Htdbauuc of

Afpabatus Apparatus Apparatus Powers

at 22. and at 47. at 429.

61, 5*.

48.,7/. 7a.,and lOZ. lOs.

Mechanical

and

Elementart

Machines,

at

Collections

of

Apparatus illustrated by wood-cuts,may

of Systematic Collections 1000 Specimens, either with

be had

post free for 4e7.

AND GEOLOGY. 100
"

MINERALOGY

Minerals, Rocks, and

or

FossUiS,from

to

without MAGIC

Cabinets.

LANTERNS,

and Phantasmagorias,

DissolvingViews, with

Sliders in great variety.

CHEMICAL and Pure ACHROMATIC

TESTING Tests.

IN

THE

ARTS."

Graduated

Glass

ratus Appa-

MICROSCOPES

at

5, 10, 12, 16, and

20

both guineas,

English and French.

SMALL Sliders and the

COMPOUND
all kinds

MICROSCOPES
of Materials and

at

9".,128. Bd., 24s.,31". 6d.

Preparationsfor Experiments with

Microscope.
GALVANIC,
APPARATUS." AND MAGNETIC

ELECTRICAL,
PHOTOGRAPHIC Glass

APPARATUS.

Cameras,

Lenses, Silver

Plates,

Plates, Photographic Paper, Pure

for the of Photography. practice and

Chemicals, and

everything

necessary

STEREOSCOPES

Pictiu^s Stereoscopic

on

Silver,Glass, and

Paper in great variety.

BLOWPIPE MINERALS Researches.

APPARATUS,
in the Wet

Instruments and

and

Tests

for ASSAYING

Way,

all other

for Metallurgio requisites

Graduated Thermometers, Alcalimeters, Baknces, and Weights.

HYDROMETERS,^

Measures,

APPARATUS

suitable for the

Experiments
in

at CHEMICAL

LECTURES,

adapted
Foreign.

to

operations described

all Class

Books, English and

APPARATUS
to suit

AND

PURE

TESTS
in

for

Analytical Researches

sets

the

Experiments described prices.

Chemical

Recreations, prepared for

Schools at moderate

TO
The list is

SCHOOLMASTERS,

Apparatus prepared for the use of Elementary Schools, of which a appended to the " Report on Grants to aid in the purchase ofAppa' ratus for Instruction in Science" by the Rev. Henry Moseley, M.A., Her of F.R.S., Majesty'sInspector Schools,"c., published in the " Minutes "f the Committee of Council on Educatiofn^^ in 1852-3, has been deposited the Museum of Practical Geology in Jermyn Street, where it naay be seen ; and also at Mr. Griffin's Manufactory, 119, Bunhill Row. The Apparatus for Use in Elementary Schools contains a Selection of Instruments and for the most Preparations Teaching important facts in Experimental Science namely, in Chemistry (with especialregard to Agriculture), Hydrostatics, Pneumatics, Electricity, Galvanism, Magnetism, and Optics, the and the including Microscope Magic Lantern, with
"

astronomical This

sliders. three sets,at the

Apparatus is arranged in
No. No.
1

following : prices
".
'

"

8.

d.
5 3 10

price
" "

21 12 10

13
U 12

No. 2
3 of

Other Training referred

larger sets
Schools

ISO?.,and 1502.
to, and

in prepared for use of 100?.,' Polytechnic, Institutions, at the prices Particulars of these sets are given in the Report above and

Apparatus have

also been

the

Apparatus

may

be

seen

at

Mr.

Griffin's Exhibition
120

Room, 10, Finsbury Square,or his Manufactory, 119,

Bunhill

Row.

BOOKS

ON

ELEMENTABT

SCIEKGE.

mentary preparationa series of small, cheap Books on Eleof which the First Division Recreations may {^cience, of Chemical be takes as a specimen. They will treat of the most importantdepartments of chemical and physical and be of a thoroughlypractical character, science, of fullyexplainingthe construction and use of instruments, and the means
in

Mr.

Griffin

has

and successfully conducting experimental investigations The following will soon be ready. The SECOND DIVISION OP CHEMICAL

demonstrations.

ting relaRECREATIONS, Compounds with one another. This will of Air, Water, the Gases, and the Acids. include the subjects
to the Metalloids

and

their

The Other

THIRD

DIVISION

will relate to

THE

METALS,

their

Ores,

"c. Salts, Minerals Tests ; the Blowpipe ; Useful Subjects. The Use of Chemical Pneumatic Hydraulic Apparatus ; the Microscope. Apparatus ; ; AUo^ Nearly Ready, in one volume, crown octavo,
"

CHEMISTRY, of the Science, and tracmg its Applications to detailingthe Principles Domestic Arts, Manufactures, Agriculture, Economy, and Physiology. The text of this work will be adapted either for Popular Lectures for or The Illustrations will Reading Lessons^ preparationof the Experimental
POPULAR

NOTES

IN

AID

OP

LECTURES

ON

be

minutely described

in notes.