Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 11: Muscular system

Naming Muscles Location- (Tibialis anterior- anterior aspect of tibia) Size- (Gluteus Maximus- biggest gluteal muscle) Number of attachments- (biceps (2); triceps (3)) Location/direction of fibers (transversus abdominus- transverse fibers going across abs) Attachments- (origin- where it originates proximally& insertion- where it asserts distally) Muscle action- (Levator Scapulae/Adductor Magnus/Tensor Tympani) Combination of above (Fibularis longus- runs along fibula bone-and is bigger/longer) TABLE 11.2

-Muscles exert forces on tendons, which attach to bones, which create movement. -Ligaments are bone to bone connections -Tendons are muscle to bone connections -For a muscle to create movement around a joint, one bone will be stationary, and the other will move. -The origin will be attached to the proximal bone (stationary bone) -The insertion will be attached to the distal bone (moving bone) Biceps- origin-Scapula -Insertion- Radius -Action- pronate and flex the arm -Certain muscles are also capable of reverse muscle action (RMA). This means that during specific movements of the body the actions are reversed and therefore the positions of the origin and insertion of a specific muscle are switched.

Musculoskeletal LeversLever- magnify speed of movement or force Bones act as levers Joints act as fixed point where we get the movement Effort (E) - contraction of biceps brachii Load (L) (resistance) weight of object plus forearm Fulcrum (F) elbow joint (acted on by 2 different forces- effort/load) -The relative distance between the fulcrum and load and the point at which the effort is applied determine whether a given lever operates at a mechanical advantage or a mechanical disadvantage Mechanical advantage- load is closer to the fulcrum and the effort farther from the fulcrum, then only a relatively small effort is required to move a large load over a small distance Mechanical disadvantage-the load is farther from the fulcrum and the effort is applied closer to the fulcrum, then a relatively large effort is required to move a small load (but at greater speed)

-First-class levers (Think EFL.) -Produce mechanical advantage/disadvantage depending where load is to fulcrum -Fulcrum is between effort and load (scissors/see-saw) -Second-class lever- (Think ELF.) - (Work like wheelbarrow) sacrifice speed and range of motion-more force -Load is between fulcrum and effort -Produce most force of any of the systems Third-class lever- (Think FEL.) - (most common in body) almost always have a mechanical disadvantage -Effort between fulcrum and load (forceps/ tweezers) - favor speed and range of motion over force Coordination among muscles -Movements are often the result of several muscles acting as a group -Most skeletal muscles are arranged in opposing (antagonistic) pairs at joints -Within opposing pairs, the prime mover or agonists (the leader) is the muscle primarily responsible for causing the desired movement. -Synergists- muscles used to prevent unwanted movements at intermediate joints -Fixator- special types of synergists that steady the proximal joints of a prime mover. -In the limbs, a compartment is a group of skeletal muscles, their associated blood vessels, and associated nerves, all of which have a common function. In the upper limbs, for example, flexor compartment muscles are anterior, and extensor compartment muscles are posterior.

Table 11.2 Characteristics Used to Name Muscles NAME MEANING EXAMPLE FIGURE

DIRECTION: ORIENTATION OF MUSCLE FASCICLES RELATIVE TO THE BODY'S MIDLINE Rectus Transverse Oblique Parallel to midline Perpendicular to midline Diagonal to midline Rectus abdominis Transversus abdominis External oblique 11.10c 11.10c 11.10a

SIZE: RELATIVE SIZE OF THE MUSCLE Maximus Minimus Longus Brevis Latissimus Longissimus Magnus Major Minor Vastus Largest Smallest Long Short Widest Longest Large Larger Smaller Huge Gluteus maximus Gluteus minimus Adductor longus Adductor brevis Latissimus dorsi Longissimus capitis Adductor magnus Pectoralis major Pectoralis minor Vastus lateralis 11.20c 11.20d 11.20a 11.20b 11.15b 11.19a 11.20b 11.10a 11.14a 11.20a

SHAPE: RELATIVE SHAPE OF THE MUSCLE Deltoid Trapezius Triangular Trapezoid Deltoid Trapezius 11.15b 11.3b

Serratus Rhomboid Orbicularis Pectinate Piriformis Platys Quadratus Gracilis

Sawtoothed Diamondshaped Circular Comblike Pearshaped Flat Square, foursided Slender

Serratus naterior Rhomboid amjor Orbicularis couli Pectineus Piriformis Platysma Quadratus efmoris Gracilis

11.14b 11.15d 11.4a 11.20a 11.20d 11.4c 11.20d 11.20a

ACTION: PRINCIPAL ACTION OF THE MUSCLE Flexor Extensor Abductor Adductor Levator Depressor Supinator Pronator Sphincter Tensor Rotator Decreases joint angle Increases joint angle Moves bone away from midline Moves bone closer to midline Raises or elevates body part Lowers or depresses body part Turns palm anteriorly Turns palm posteriorly Decreases size of an opening Makes body part rigid Rotates bone around longitudinal axis Flexor carpi radialis Extensor carpi ulnaris Abductor pollicis longus Adductor longus Levator scapulae Depressor labii inferioris Supinator Pronator teres External anal sphincter Tensor fasciae latae Rotatore 11.17a 11.17d 11.17e 11.20a 11.14a 11.4b 11.17c 11.17a 11.12 11.20a 11.19b

NUMBER OF ORIGINS: NUMBER OF TENDONS OF ORIGIN Biceps Triceps Quadriceps Two origins Three origins Four origins Biceps brachii Triceps brachii Quadriceps femoris 11.16a 11.16b 11.20a

LOCATION: STRUCTURE NEAR WHICH A MUSCLE IS FOUND Example: Temporalis, muscle near temporal bone. ORIGIN AND INSERTION: SITES WHERE MUSCLE ORIGINATES AND INSERTS Example: Sternocleidomastoid, originating on sternum and clavicle and inserting on mastoid process of temporal bone. 11.3a 11.4c

Major Muscles- (know origin/insertion/action) Look At Slides on Previous Pages The muscles of facial expression -move skin rather than bones around a joint. -Orbicularis oris-Masseter (muscle of mastication) -Digastric -MylohyoidMuscles that move the Eyes -Extraocular muscles-6 muscles (3 pair) Muscles that move the head-Sternocleidomastoid (SCM) Muscles that move the back-Pectoralis major-Pectoralis minor-Deltoid Muscle-

-Trapezius-Latissimus dorsiAbdominal Muscles-Rectus Abdominus-External Oblique-DiaphragmUpper Extremity-Biceps brachii-Brachialis-Triceps brachii-Brachioradialis-Thenar-HypothenarLower Extremity-Gluteus Maximus-Quadriceps group (rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus intermedius, and vastus medialis)-Hamstring group (Biceps femoris, semitendinosus, and semimembranosus)-Tibialis anterior-Extensor digitorum-Flexor digitorum longus-Gastrocnemius longus and soleus-

Imbalances of HomeostasisExercise-induced muscle damage- muscle fibers physically gets larger Spasm- a sudden involuntary contraction of a single muscle within a large group of muscles (usually painless) Cramp- Involuntary and often painful muscle contractions Disease states and disordersFibrosis (myofribrosis) replacement of muscle fibers by excessive amounts of connective tissues Myosclerosis-hardening of the muscle caused by calcification Aging- muscle strength at 85 is about half that at age 25

11.1 How Skeletal Muscles Produce Movements 1. Skeletal muscles that produce movement do so by pulling on bones. 2. The attachment to the more stationary bone is the origin; the attachment to the more movable bone is the insertion. 3. Bones serve as levers, and joints serve as fulcrums. Two different forces act on the lever: load (resistance) and effort. 4. Levers are categorized into three typesfirstclass, secondclass, and thirdclass (most common) according to the positions of the fulcrum, the effort, and the load on the lever. 5. Fascicular arrangements include parallel, fusiform, circular, triangular, and pennate. Fascicular arrangement affects a muscle's power and range of motion. 6. A prime mover produces the desired action; an antagonist produces an opposite action. Synergists assist a prime mover by reducing unnecessary movement. Fixators stabilize the origin of a prime mover so that it can act more efficiently. 11.2 How Skeletal Muscles Are Named 1. Distinctive features of different skeletal muscles include direction of muscle fascicles; size, shape, action, number of origins (or heads), and location of the muscle; and sites of origin and insertion of the muscle. 2. Most skeletal muscles are named based on combinations of features. 11.3 Principal Skeletal Muscles 1. Muscles of the head that produce facial expression move the skin rather than a joint when they contract, and they permit us to express a wide variety of emotions (see Exhibit 11.A). The muscles of the head that move the eyeballs are among the fastest contracting and most precisely controlled skeletal muscles in the body. They permit us to elevate, depress, abduct, adduct, and medially and laterally rotate the eyeballs. The muscles that move the eyelids open the eyes (see Exhibit 11.B). Muscles that move the mandible play major roles in mastication (chewing) and speech (see Exhibit 11.C). The muscles of the head that move the tongue are important in mastication and speech, as well as deglutition (swallowing) (Exhibit 11.D). Muscles of the anterior neck that assist in deglutition and speech, called suprahyoid muscles, are located above the hyoid bone (see Exhibit 11.E). Muscles of the neck that move the head alter its position and help balance it on the vertebral column (see Exhibit 11.F). Muscles of the abdomen help contain and protect the abdominal viscera, move the vertebral column, compress the abdomen, and produce the force required for defecation, urination, vomiting, and childbirth (see Exhibit 11.G). Muscles of the thorax used in breathing alter the size of the thoracic cavity so that inhalation and exhalation can occur and assist in venous return of blood to the heart (see Exhibit 11.H). Muscles of the pelvic floor support the pelvic viscera, resist the thrust that accompanies increases in intraabdominal pressure, and function as sphincters at the anorectal junction, urethra, and vagina (see Exhibit 11.I). Muscles of the perineum assist in urination, erection of the penis and clitoris, ejaculation, and defecation (see Exhibit 11.J). Muscles of the thorax that move the pectoral (shoulder) girdle stabilize the scapula so it can

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function as a stable point of origin for most of the muscles that move the humerus (see Exhibit 11.K). Muscles of the thorax that move the humerus originate for the most part on the scapula (scapular muscles); the remaining muscles originate on the axial skeleton (axial muscles) (see Exhibit 11.L). Muscles of the arm that move the radius and ulna are involved in flexion and extension at the elbow joint and are organized into flexor and extensor compartments (see Exhibit 11.M). Muscles of the forearm that move the wrist, hand, thumb, and digits (fingers) are many and varied; those muscles that act on the digits are called extrinsic muscles (see Exhibit 11.N). The muscles of the palm that move the digits (intrinsic muscles) are important in skilled activities and provide humans with the ability to grasp and manipulate objects precisely (see Exhibit 11.O). Muscles of the neck and back that move the vertebral column are quite complex because they have multiple origins and insertions and because there is considerable overlap among them (see Exhibit 11.P). Muscles of the gluteal region that move the femur originate for the most part on the pelvic girdle and insert on the femur; these muscles are larger and more powerful than comparable muscles in the upper limb (see Exhibit11.Q). Muscles of the thigh that move the femur and the tibia and fibula are separated into medial (adductor), anterior (extensor), and posterior (flexor) compartments (see Exhibit 11.R). Muscles of the leg that move the foot and toes are divided into anterior, lateral, and posterior compartments (see Exhibit 11.S). Muscles of the foot that move the toes (intrinsic muscles), unlike those of the hand, are limited to the functions of support and locomotion (see Exhibit 11.T).

Chapter 10: Muscle Tissues

Functions of Muscular Tissue-Nervous tissue and Muscular tissue are classified as Excitable- have a reaction to a stimulus -Muscle tissue is contractible (shorten in length) -Muscle tissue are extensible (extend or stretch) -Muscle tissue is elastic (going back to original shape) Create motion- contracting and expanding -Work with nerves and skeletal system to produce movements Posture- stabilize body position and help maintain posture Sphincters- help store substances within body Peristaltic contractions- help move substances through body (digestive system) Heat- muscles generate heat 1. Producing body movements. Movements of the whole body such as walking and running, and localized movements such as grasping a pencil, keyboarding, or nodding the head as a result of muscular contractions, rely on the integrated functioning of skeletal muscles, bones, and joints.

2. Stabilizing body positions. Skeletal muscle contractions stabilize joints and help maintain body positions, such as standing or sitting. Postural muscles contract continuously when you are awake; for example, sustained contractions of your neck muscles hold your head upright when you are listening intently to your anatomy and physiology lecture.

3. Storing and moving substances within the body. Storage is accomplished by sustained contractions of ringlike bands of smooth muscle called sphincters, which prevent outflow of the contents of a hollow organ. Temporary storage of food in the stomach or urine in the urinary bladder is possible because smooth muscle sphincters close off the outlets of these organs. Cardiac muscle contractions of the heart pump blood through the blood vessels of the body. Contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle in the walls of blood vessels help adjust blood vessel diameter and thus regulate the rate of blood flow. Smooth muscle contractions also move food and substances such as bile and enzymes through the gastrointestinal tract, push gametes (sperm and oocytes) through the passageways of the reproductive systems, and propel urine through the urinary system. Skeletal muscle contractions promote the flow of lymph and aid the return of blood in veins to the heart.

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Generating heat. As muscular tissue contracts, it produces heat, a process known as thermogenesis (thermJENesis). Much of the heat generated by muscle is used to maintain normal body temperature. Involuntary contractions of skeletal muscles, known as shivering, can increase the rate of heat production.

Three types of Muscular TissueSkeletal- located on skeleton (for movement) (voluntary) (striated, multi-nucleated, parallel fibers) Cardiac- located in heart (pump blood continuously) (involuntary) (striated, single nucleus) -builtin rhythm is termed autorhythmicity Visceral (smooth muscle) - G.I. tract, uterus, eye, blood vessels (peristalsis, BP, pupil size, Erects hairs) (involuntary) (no striations, one central nucleus)

Skeletal MuscleMyoblasts- cellular unit (fuse to form larger fibers) Muscle Fiber- functional unit (really long fibers/ large cells) -Among the biggest cells in our body. Epimysium- outside Perimysium- around Endomysium- inside (Continuous with tendons/ muscle fascia) Muscle fascia- connect muscles to other muscles (to form groups of muscles)

Organization of Muscle Tissue Epimysium- outer layer of dense irregular connective tissue (encircle entire muscle) Perimysium- dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds groups of 10-100+ muscle fibers (bundles) Fascicles- bundles of muscle fibers (10-100+ muscle fibers) Endomysium- penetrate interior of each fascicle (separates individual muscle fibers from one another) (made mostly of reticular fibers) Fascia- Epimysium becomes thicker (groups many muscles together)

-helps group/categorize different muscles (superficial/ deep) Fascia lata- found in leg (covering over entire group of quadriceps muscles) Aponeurosis- really thick fascia that connects two muscle bellies -Epicranial Aponeurosis (connects belly of occipitofrontalis muscle and frontal belly) Arteries/veins/nerves- Muscles are very metabolically active (found in deep fascia) Plasma membrane- beneath Endomysium (called sarcolemma) Sarcoplasm- (cytoplasm of muscle fibers) filled with contractile proteins that are arranged in myofibrils Sarcolemma- plasma membrane (outside covering) of sarcomere Sarcoplasmic reticulum- provide feedback and control (balance process of calcium storage/release/ reuptake of muscle tissues) TABLE 10.3 Sarcomere- (basic functional unit of a myofibril) made of thick and thin filaments- sandwiched together by 2 Z-discs Thick filament system- composed of myosin proteins (connected from M line to Z disc) connected titin Thin filament system- composed of actin proteins (actin monomers are bound to nebulin- involved with tropomysoin and troponin) (more thin then thick) Z-disc- tell apart sarcomere (made of dense protein materials)-pass through center of I-bands A-band- darker middle part of sarcomere- often extend the length of thick filaments. I-band- lighter/less dense area- contains rest of thin filaments (no thick filaments) - z disc passes through it H-zone- narrow center region of A-band- contains thick filaments, but no thin filaments. M-line- runs down the middle of a sarcomere (formed by supporting proteins that hold thick filaments together at the center of the H-zone) Know both diagrams for Sarcomere

Muscle ProteinsContractile proteins- generate force during a contraction Regulatory proteins- help switch contractions on and off Structural proteins- keep thick and thin filaments in proper alignment/ link myofibrils to sarcolemma Actin- thin filaments (strung together beads) (anchored to Z-disc) (slightly twisted into a helical shape) (each actin molecule will have a myosin binding site) Myosin- thick filaments (golf clubs wound together- club parts are myosin heads) (tail ends of myosin point to M-line in the middle of the sarcomere) (myosin head- extend toward thin filaments- so they can grab onto thin filaments) Troponin- help hold Tropomyosin on (changes shape) Tropomyosin- cover all the myosin binding sites on actin can move on or off binding sites if calcium ions are there or not) Calcium floods into system- starts muscular contraction

Titin- structural protein (one of the larger proteins) (sometimes known as connectin) important in contraction of striated muscle (very plentiful) each titin molecule spans half of the sarcomere from Zdisc to M line (help stabilize thick filaments) they account for a lot of the elasticity in myofibrils Dystrophin- (muscular dystrophy- Dystrophin is absent)

Type Of Protein Contractile proteins Myosin

Description Proteins that generate force during muscle contractions.

Contractile protein that makes up thick filament; molecule consists of a tail and two myosin heads, which bind to myosinbinding sites on actin molecules of thin filament during muscle contraction. Contractile protein that is the main component of thin filament; each actin molecule has a myosinbinding site where myosin head of thick filament binds during muscle contraction. Proteins that help switch muscle contraction process on and off.

Actin

Regulatory proteins Tropomyosin

Regulatory protein that is a component of thin filament; when skeletal muscle fiber is relaxed, tropomyosin covers myosinbinding sites on actin molecules, thereby preventing myosin from binding to actin. Regulatory protein that is a component of thin filament; when calcium ions (Ca 2+) bind to troponin, it changes shape; thisconformational change moves tropomyosin away from myosinbinding sites on actin molecules, and muscle contraction subsequently begins as myosin binds to actin. Proteins that keep thick and thin filaments of myofibrils in proper alignment, give myofibrils elasticity and extensibility, and link myofibrils to sarcolemma and extracellular matrix.

Troponin

Structural proteins

Type Of Protein Titin

Description Structural protein that connects Z disc to M line of sarcomere, thereby helping to stabilize thick filament position; can stretch and then spring back unharmed, and thus accounts for much of the elasticity and extensibility of myofibrils. Structural protein of Z discs that attaches to actin molecules of thin filaments and to titin molecules. Structural protein that forms M line of sarcomere; binds to titin molecules and connects adjacent thick filaments to one another. Structural protein that wraps around entire length of each thin filament; helps anchor thin filaments to Z discs and regulates length of thin filaments during development. Structural protein that links thin filaments of sarcomere to integral membrane proteins in sarcolemma, which are attached in turn to proteins in connective tissue matrix that surrounds muscle fibers; is thought to help reinforce sarcolemma and help transmit tension generated by sarcomeres to tendons.

Actinin

Myomesin

Nebulin

Dystrophin

The Contraction Cycle

At the onset of contraction, the sarcoplasmic reticulum releases calcium ions (Ca2+) into the sarcoplasm. There, they bind to troponin. Troponin then moves tropomyosin away from the myosinbinding sites on actin. Once the binding sites are free, the contraction cyclethe repeating sequence of events that causes the filaments to slidebegins. The contraction cycle consists of four steps (Figure 10.6): 1. ATP hydrolysis. The myosin head includes an ATPbinding site and an ATPase, an enzyme that hydrolyzes ATP into ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and a phosphate group. This hydrolysis reaction reorients and energizes the myosin head. Notice that the products of ATP hydrolysisADP and a phosphate groupare still attached to the myosin head. 2. Attachment of myosin to actin to form crossbridges. The energized myosin head attaches to the myosinbinding site on actin and releases the previously hydrolyzed phosphate group. When the myosin heads attach to actin during contraction, they are referred to as crossbridges. 3. Power stroke. After the crossbridges form, the power stroke occurs. During the power stroke, the site on the crossbridge where ADP is still bound opens. As a result, the crossbridge rotates and releases the ADP. The crossbridge generates force as it rotates toward the center of the sarcomere, sliding the thin filament past the thick filament toward the M line. 4. Detachment of myosin from actin. At the end of the power stroke, the crossbridge remains firmly attached to actin until it binds another molecule of ATP. As ATP binds to the ATPbinding site on the myosin head, the myosin head detaches from actin.

Excitation-Contraction Coupling Excitation-Takes a muscle action potential propagating along sarcolemma to t tubules. Contraction-Sliding filament mechanism Increase in calcium ion concentration in sarcoplasm (start muscle contraction- need ATP and calcium present) When a muscle fiber is relaxed-very low concentration of calcium ion in sarcoplasm Excitation- sarcoplasmic reticulum membrane opens and that membrane releases calcium ion. When the channels open in SR (sarcoplasmic reticulum)-calcium ions will flow into sarcoplasm (troponin/myosin floats around) When we have a muscle action potential opens a channel- calcium ion concentration ions raise tenfold in sarcoplasm. Length-Tension Relationship- how the forcefulness of a muscle depends on the length of a sarcomere and its many sarcomeres within a muscle before a contraction begins. (If the overlap of thin and thick filaments is too great there will be no tension) Zone of overlap- more tension from contractions when there is optimal overlap (2.2 micrometers)

Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ) Connection between nerves and muscles Neurons that excite skeletal muscle fibers are called somatic (body) motor (moves) neuron Each somatic motor neuron is going to have an axon (from brain or spinal cord towards a group of muscles Muscle fibers are going to contract from one or more action potentials propagating along the sarcolemma along the t tubule system. Action potential will arise along NMJ Synapse between motor neuron and skeletal muscle fiber. Pre-synaptic membrane- before the synapse (on neuron) Post-synaptic membrane- on motor endplate of the muscle cell -The two membranes are separated by synaptic cleft (space between the two membranes) Synapse- a region where we get communication between two neurons or a neuron and a target cell Action potential cannot jump from nerve to muscle- so there must be a connection- so neurotransmitters exist (chemicals released by nerve that allow communication between nerve and muscle cell) Skeletal muscle is voluntary, therefore you must have conscious thought to move a muscle- results in activation of somatic motor neuron- release of neurotransmitter (acetylcholine- ACh) Acetycholinesterase- enzyme that breaks down ACh after a short period of time. Synaptic vesicles are membrane enclosed sacs that hold the ACh. Motor-end plate is enriched with ligand-gated channels (ligand-gated sodium channels) Sodium channels respond to available ACh When ACh is available- the channels open and sodium comes into the cell.
1. Release of acetylcholine. Arrival of the nerve impulse at the synaptic end bulbs stimulates voltagegated channels to open. Because calcium ions are more concentrated in the extracellular fluid, Ca2+ flows inward through the open channels. The entering Ca2+ in turn stimulates the synaptic vesicles to undergo exocytosis. During exocytosis, the synaptic vesicles fuse with the motor neuron's plasma membrane, liberating ACh into the synaptic cleft. The ACh then diffuses across the synaptic cleft between the motor neuron and the motor end plate. 2. Activation of ACh receptors. Binding of two molecules of ACh to the receptor on the motor end plate opens an ion channel in the ACh receptor. Once the channel is open, small cations, most importantly Na+, can flow across the membrane. + 3. Production of muscle action potential. The inflow of Na (down its electrochemical gradient) makes the inside of the muscle fiber more positively charged. This change in the membrane potential triggers a muscle action potential. Each nerve impulse normally elicits one muscle action potential. The muscle action potential then propagates along the sarcolemma into the system of T tubules. This causes the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release its stored Ca2+ into the sarcoplasm and the muscle fiber subsequently contracts. 4. Termination of ACh activity. The effect of ACh binding lasts only briefly because ACh is rapidly broken down by an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase, or AChE (astilklinESters). This enzyme is attached to collagen fibers in the extracellular matrix of the synaptic cleft. AChE breaks down

ACh into acetyl and choline, products that cannot activate the ACh receptor.

Sources of Muscle EnergyCreatine Phosphate- ATP forms from it (provides energy) ATP from anaerobic (oxygen not needed) glycolysis (break-down of muscle glycogen- breaks down into glucose- provides energy) Aerobic (requires oxygen) cellular respiration

The term oxygen debt refers to the added oxygen, over and above the resting oxygen consumption, that is taken into the body after exercise. This extra oxygen is used to pay back or restore metabolic conditions to the resting level in three ways: (1) to convert lactic acid back into glycogen stores in the liver, (2) to resynthesize creatine phosphate and ATP in muscle fibers, and (3) to replace the oxygen removed from myoglobin.

Cardiac muscle with contract 15-20 times longer than skeletal muscles (without rest for the course of your entire life) To meet this constant demand- cardiac muscle will have a very rich supply of oxygen. Generates ATP through aerobic cellular respiration Smooth muscle is involuntary Doesnt need as much ATP as cardiac muscle (low capacity for generating ATP) Gets energy through anaerobic glycolysis.

The motor unit- composed of a motor neuron plus all the muscle cells it innervates. High precision motor unit- fewer muscle fibers per neuron (1 neuron goes to a few fibers) -laryngeal/Extraocular muscles -Need extreme precision (rapid movements of eye) - small motor units (1-4 muscle fibers per neuron) Low precision motor unit- 1 neuron goes to many muscle fibers (muscles in thigh-quadriceps)

Different types of Muscle fibers -skeletal muscles are different in appearance and function Red Muscle fibers (apparent in bird and fish) - high myoglobin content/a lot of mitochondria/ more energy stored White muscle fibers- less myoglobin/fewer mitochondria/ not as much energy stored/blood supplied. Slow oxidative fibers- small/ appear dark red/ least powerful (fatigue resistant) important for endurance- running a marathon. Fast glycolytic fiber- large/ white/ very powerful (suited for intense anaerobic activities of short duration) Olympic sprinters Fast oxidative-glycolytic fiber- intermediate in size/ darker color/ moderately resistant to fatigue (important for walking around) -In humans skeletal muscles are a mixture of these fibers (majority are slow oxidative fibers) In a motor unit all skeletal fibers are same type Different motor units are recruited in a specific order depending on task being performed Muscle contraction (twitch) - occurs when muscle fibers generate tension through the action of actin and myosin, performing their crossbridge cycling. While under tension a muscle may lengthen, shorten, or remain the same.

-Twitch is recorded when a stimulus results in a contraction of a single muscle fibers (measured in milliseconds)

Latent period- a brief delay as the action potential sweeps over the sarcolemma and calcium ions are released from sarcoplasmic reticulum Contraction period- When we are actively contracting our muscle Relaxation period- as our calcium ions are going back to the sarcoplasmic reticulum (myosin binding sites (on actin) are being covered up by Tropomyosin) Refractory period- temporary loss of excitability- all muscle fibers in a motor unit will not respond to a stimulus (short resting phase)

Wave summation- multiple action potentials (more force) Unfused tetanus- smooth curve with multiple action potentials Fused tetanus- a sustained contraction in which individual twitches cannot be detected

Hypotonia (hpTna; hypo = below) refers to decreased or lost muscle tone. Hypertonia (hperTna; hyper = above) refers to increased muscle tone and is expressed in two ways: spasticity or rigidity.

Muscle ContractionIsotonic contraction- result in muscle movement Concentric contraction- Muscles shorten to generate force (picking up a book) Eccentric contraction- muscles with lengthen (lowering a book) Isometric contraction- No movement (muscle force and resistance are equal) (holding a book steady)

Imbalances of Homeostasis-Exercise-induced muscle damage- torn sarcolemma or disrupting Z discs Spasm- usually painless (sudden involuntary contraction) single muscle twitch within large animals Cramp- often very painful muscle contraction (involuntary) - caused by inadequate blood flow to muscles (dehydration)/ overuse or injury to a muscle group/ abnormal blood electrolyte levels.

Development of Muscle
Except for muscles such as those of the iris of the eyes and the arrector pili muscles attached to hairs, all muscles of the body are derived from mesoderm. As the mesoderm develops, part of it becomes arranged in dense columns on either side of the developing nervous system. These columns of mesoderm undergo segmentation into a series of cubeshaped structures called somites (Smts). The first pair of somites appears on the 20th day of embryonic development. Eventually, 42 to 44 pairs of somites are formed by the end of the fifth week. The number of somites can be correlated to the approximate age of the embryo. The cells of a somite differentiate into three regions: (1) a myotome (Mtm), which, as the name suggests, forms the skeletal muscles of the head, neck, and limbs; (2) a dermatome (DERmatm), which forms the connective tissues, including the dermis of the skin; and (3) a sclerotome (SKLEr tm), which gives rise to the vertebrae (Figure 10.17b, c). Cardiac muscle develops from mesodermal cells that migrate to and envelop the developing heart while it is still in the form of endocardial heart tubes.

Disease states and disordersFibrosis (myofribrosis) - replacement of muscle tissues with excessive amounts of connective tissue (from trauma or metabolic disorders) Myosclerosis- hardening caused by calcification (from trauma or metabolic disorders)

AgingDecrease levels of activity- result of many things (college student who walks a lot- to sitting at a desk for 40 hours a week) Aging humans go under a slow progressive loss of muscle tissue (replaced with connective tissue) Muscle mass at 85 is about half of when 25 Maintaining activity level can help stop this As we age we start to lose some muscle fiber types (as you get older- some fibers for sprinting are not there anymore)

Chapter Review and Resource Summary

Review Introduction 1. Motion results from alternating contraction and relaxation of muscles, which constitute 4050% of total body weight. 2. The prime function of muscle is changing chemical energy into mechanical energy to perform work. 10.1 Overview of Muscular Tissue 1. The three types of muscular tissue are skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. Skeletal muscle tissue is primarily attached to bones; it is striated and voluntary. Cardiac muscle tissue forms the wall of the heart; it is striated and involuntary. Smooth muscle tissue is located primarily in internal organs; it is nonstriated (smooth) and involuntary. 2. Through contraction and relaxation, muscular tissue performs four important functions: producing body movements; stabilizing body positions; moving substances within the body and regulating organ volume; and producing heat. 3. Four special properties of muscular tissues are (1) electrical excitability, the property of responding to stimuli by producing action potentials; (2) contractility, the ability to generate tension to do work; (3) extensibility, the ability to be extended (stretched); and (4) elasticity, the ability to return to original shape after contraction or extension. 10.2 Skeletal Muscle Tissue

The subcutaneous layer separates skin from muscles, provides a pathway for blood vessels and nerves to enter and exit muscles, and protects muscles from physical trauma. Fascia lines the body wall and limbs that surround and support muscles, allows free movement of muscles, carries nerves and blood vessels, and fills space between muscles. 2. Tendons and aponeuroses are extensions of connective tissue beyond muscle fibers that attach the muscle to bone or to other muscle. A tendon is generally ropelike in shape; an aponeurosis is wide and flat. 3. Skeletal muscles are well supplied with nerves and blood vessels. Generally, an artery and one or two veins accompany each nerve that penetrates a skeletal muscle. 4. Somatic motor neurons provide the nerve impulses that stimulate skeletal muscle to contract. 5. Blood capillaries bring in oxygen and nutrients and remove heat and waste products of muscle metabolism. 6. The major cells of skeletal muscle tissue are termed skeletal muscle fibers. Each muscle fiber has 100 or more nuclei because it arises from the fusion of many myoblasts. Satellite cells are myoblasts that persist after birth. The sarcolemma is a muscle fiber's plasma membrane; it surrounds the sarcoplasm. Transverse tubules are invaginations of the sarcolemma. 7. Each muscle fiber (cell) contains hundreds of myofibrils, the contractile elements of skeletal muscle. Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) surrounds each myofibril. Within a myofibril are thin and thick filaments, arranged in compartments called sarcomeres. 8. The overlapping of thick and thin filaments produces striations. Darker A bands alternate with lighter I bands. Table 10.1 summarizes the components of the sarcomere. 9. Myofibrils are composed of three types of proteins: contractile, regulatory, and structural. The contractile proteins are myosin (thick filament) and actin (thin filament). Regulatory proteins are tropomyosin and troponin, both of which are part of the thin filament. Structural proteins include titin (links Z disc to M line and stabilizes thick filament), myomesin (forms M line), nebulin (anchors thin filaments to Z discs and regulates length of thin filaments during development), and dystrophin (links thin filaments to sarcolemma). Table 10.2 summarizes the different types of skeletal muscle fiber proteins. Table 10.3 summarizes the levels of organization within a skeletal muscle. 10. Projecting myosin heads contain actinbinding and ATPbinding sites and are the motor proteins that power muscle contraction. 1. 10.3 Contraction and Relaxation of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 1. Muscle contraction occurs because crossbridges attach to and walk along the thin filaments at both ends of a sarcomere, progressively pulling the thin filaments toward the center of a sarcomere. As the thin filaments slide inward, the Z discs come closer together, and the sarcomere shortens. 2. The contraction cycle is the repeating sequence of events that causes sliding of the filaments: (1) Myosin ATPase hydrolyzes ATP and becomes energized; (2) the myosin head attaches to actin, forming a crossbridge; (3) the crossbridge generates force as it rotates toward the center of the sarcomere (power stroke); and (4) binding of ATP to the myosin head detaches it from actin. The myosin head again hydrolyzes the ATP, returns to its original position, and binds to a new site on actin as the cycle continues. 3. An increase in Ca2+ concentration in the cytosol starts filament sliding; a decrease turns off the sliding process. 4. The muscle action potential propagating into the T tubule system causes opening of Ca2+ release channels in the SR membrane. Calcium ions diffuse from the SR into the

5.

6. 7.

8.

sarcoplasm and combine with troponin. This binding causes tropomyosin to move away from the myosinbinding sites on actin. Ca2+ active transport pumps continually remove Ca2+ from the sarcoplasm into the SR. When the concentration of calcium ions in the sarcoplasm decreases, tropomyosin slides back over and blocks the myosinbinding sites, and the muscle fiber relaxes. A muscle fiber develops its greatest tension when there is an optimal zone of overlap between thick and thin filaments. This dependency is the lengthtension relationship. The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is the synapse between a somatic motor neuron and a skeletal muscle fiber. The NMJ includes the axon terminals and synaptic end bulbs of a motor neuron, plus the adjacent motor end plate of the muscle fiber sarcolemma. When a nerve impulse reaches the synaptic end bulbs of a somatic motor neuron, it triggers exocytosis of the synaptic vesicles, which releases acetylcholine (ACh). ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to ACh receptors, initiating a muscle action potential. Acetylcholinesterase then quickly breaks down ACh into its component parts.

10.4 Muscle Metabolism 1. Muscle fibers have three sources for ATP production: creatine, anaerobic cellular respiration, and aerobic cellular respiration. 2. Creatine kinase catalyzes the transfer of a highenergy phosphate group from creatine phosphate to ADP to form new ATP molecules. Together, creatine phosphate and ATP provide enough energy for muscles to contract maximally for about 15 seconds. 3. Glucose is converted to pyruvic acid in the reactions of glycolysis, which yield two ATPs without using oxygen. Such anaerobic cellular respiration can provide enough energy for 3040 seconds of maximal muscle activity. 4. Muscular activity that occurs over a prolonged period of time depends on aerobic cellular respiration, mitochondrial reactions that require oxygen to produce ATP. 5. The inability of a muscle to contract forcefully after prolonged activity is muscle fatigue. 6. Elevated oxygen use after exercise is called recovery oxygen uptake. 10.5 Control of Muscle Tension 1. A motor neuron and the muscle fibers it stimulates form a motor unit. A single motor unit may contain as few as 2 or as many as 3000 muscle fibers. 2. Recruitment is the process of increasing the number of active motor units. 3. A twitch contraction is a brief contraction of all the muscle fibers in a motor unit in response to a single action potential. 4. A record of a contraction is called a myogram. It consists of a latent period, a contraction period, and a relaxation period. 5. Wave summation is the increased strength of a contraction that occurs when a second stimulus arrives before the muscle fiber has completely relaxed after a previous stimulus. 6. Repeated stimuli can produce unfused (incomplete) tetanus, a sustained muscle contraction with partial relaxation between stimuli. More rapidly repeating stimuli produce fused (complete) tetanus, a sustained contraction without partial relaxation between stimuli. 7. Continuous involuntary activation of a small number of motor units produces muscle tone, which is essential for maintaining posture.

8. In a concentric isotonic contraction, the muscle shortens to produce movement and to reduce the angle at a joint. During an eccentric isotonic contraction, the muscle lengthens. 9. Isometric contractions, in which tension is generated without muscle changing its length, are important because they stabilize some joints as others are moved. 10.6 Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 1. On the basis of their structure and function, skeletal muscle fibers are classified as slow oxidative (SO), fast oxidativeglycolytic (FOG), and fast glycolytic (FG) fibers. 2. Most skeletal muscles contain a mixture of all three fiber types. Their proportions vary with the typical action of the muscle. 3. The motor units of a muscle are recruited in the following order: first SO fibers, then FOG fibers, and finally FG fibers. 4. Table 10.4 summarizes the three types of skeletal muscle fibers. 10.7 Exercise and Skeletal Muscle Tissue 1. Various types of exercises can induce changes in the fibers in a skeletal muscle. Endurance type (aerobic) exercises cause a gradual transformation of some fast glycolytic (FG) fibers into fast oxidativeglycolytic (FOG) fibers. 2. Exercises that require great strength for short periods produce an increase in the size and strength of fast glycolytic (FG) fibers. The increase in size is due to increased synthesis of thick and thin filaments. 10.8 Cardiac Muscle Tissue 1. Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart. Cardiac muscle fibers have the same arrangement of actin and myosin and the same bands, zones, and Z discs as skeletal muscle fibers. The fibers connect to one another through intercalated discs, which contain both desmosomes and gap junctions. 2. Cardiac muscle tissue remains contracted 10 to 15 times longer than skeletal muscle tissue due to prolonged delivery of Ca2+ into the sarcoplasm. 3. Cardiac muscle tissue contracts when stimulated by its own autorhythmic fibers. Due to its continuous, rhythmic activity, cardiac muscle depends greatly on aerobic cellular respiration to generate ATP. 10.9 Smooth Muscle Tissue 1. Smooth muscle is nonstriated and involuntary. 2. Smooth muscle fibers contain intermediate filaments and dense bodies; the function of dense bodies is similar to that of the Z discs in striated muscle. 3. Visceral (singleunit) smooth muscle is found in the walls of hollow viscera and of small blood vessels. Many fibers form a network that contracts in unison. 4. Multiunit smooth muscle is found in large blood vessels, large airways to the lungs, arrector pili muscles, and the eye, where it adjusts pupil diameter and lens focus. The fibers operate

independently rather than in unison. 5. The duration of contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle is longer than in skeletal muscle since it takes longer for Ca2+ to reach the filaments. 6. Smooth muscle fibers contract in response to nerve impulses, hormones, and local factors. 7. Smooth muscle fibers can stretch considerably and still maintain their contractile function. 10.10 Regeneration of Muscular Tissue 1. Skeletal muscle fibers cannot divide and have limited powers of regeneration; cardiac muscle fibers can regenerate under limited circumstances; and smooth muscle fibers have the best capacity for division and regeneration. 2. Table 10.5 summarizes the major characteristics of the three types of muscular tissue. 10.11 Development of Muscle 1. With few exceptions, muscles develop from mesoderm. 2. Skeletal muscles of the head and limbs develop from general mesoderm. Other skeletal muscles develop from the mesoderm of somites. 10.12 Aging and Muscular Tissue 1. With aging, there is a slow, progressive loss of skeletal muscle mass, which is replaced by fibrous connective tissue and fat. 2. Aging also results in a decrease in muscle strength, slower muscle reflexes, and loss of flexibility.

Chapter 12: Nervous Tissue

Neurology- the study of nerves Nervous system- detects environmental changes that impact the body -works in concert with the endocrine system (allows us to respond to senses) -Nervous system is responsible for behavior/memories/movement (muscle innervation) -Able to do all these things because it is excitable (muscle like muscle tissue) allows us to have nerve impulses (action potentials) -Everything done in the nervous system involves 3 fundamental steps

Sensory function- Sensory receptors detect internal stimuli, such as an increase in blood pressure, or external stimuli (for example, a raindrop landing on your arm). This sensory information is then carried into the brain and spinal cord through cranial and spinal nerves. Integrative function- The nervous system processes sensory information by analyzing it and making decisions for appropriate responsesan activity known as integration. Motor function- Once sensory information is integrated, the nervous system may elicit an appropriate motor response by activating effectors (muscles and glands) through cranial and spinal nerves. Stimulation of the effectors causes muscles to contract and glands to secrete. Central Nervous system (CNS) - brain, spinal cord Peripheral Nervous system (PNS) - cranial nerves, spinal nerves, ganglia, enteric plexuses, sensory receptors in skin. Neuron- a nerve cell (basic unit of nervous system) (thinking cells of the brain) -Receive, process, and transmit information (transmit by emitting the flow of charges) The Schwann cell- one of the 6 types of neuroglia Neuroglia- (glial cells) major role in support and nutrition of brain/not manipulate information. Help maintain internal environment so neurons can do their job. Neuroglia-smaller than neurons, more numerous than neurons 50 to 100 times more than neurons (support system and maintains neurons)

Somatic Nervous Center (SNS)-

Somatic sensory (afferent) convey information from sensory receptors in head, the body wall, or limbs towards CNS Somatic motor (efferent) conduct impulses away from CNS toward skeletal muscle Interneurons- any neurons that conduct impulses between afferent or efferent neurons within the CNS. Autonomic Nervous system (ANS) - predominantly efferent neurons) regulate respiration reflexes, baroreceptors/chemoreceptors- heart rate and blood pressure. Sensory neurons- convey information from autonomic sensory receptors primarily located in visceral organs. Motor neurons- involuntarily controlled, conduct nerve impulses from CNS to smooth muscle, to cardiac muscle, and glands Sympathetic divisionParasympathetic divisionEnteric Nervous system (ENS) - many neurons from enter plexus function independently of autonomic nervous system. (Brains behind stomach) involuntary control of gastro-intestinal propulsion (how substances are moved through GI tract) -ENS also controls acid and hormonal conduction of digestion. -Consists over 100 million neurons that spans most of GI tract

Ganglia- small masses of neuronal cell bodies. (Outside brain and outside spinal cord- associated closely with cranial and spinal nerves) Neurons- functional unit (form complex processing networks within brain and spinal cord- all work together to control our body under CNS) -longest cells in body are neurons (a meter long-3 feet) -several types of neurons that have different functions -Most neurons have a cell body, axon, myelin sheath, axon terminal, dendrites -Works by gathering information at dendrites (dendro=tree), process it at dendritic tree found in cell body, transmits information down axon, to axon terminals. -Dendrites- receive information, conduct information towards cell body. -Cell body- information from dendrite to cell body (had nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm) -Neurons contain organelles such as lysosomes, mitochondria, Golgi complexes, smooth ER -Rough ER in Neuron is called Nissl body (has granular appearance-occurs in cell body/dendrites, but not axon) -Does not have a mitotic apparatus present (no replication) Axon- conducts information away from cell body towards another neuron -Axon hillock- axon joins the cell body -Initial segment- beginning of axon

-Trigger zone- junctions between axon hillock and initial segment. (Triggering of information) Axon terminal- end of axons (branches called spider web processes) highly branched to increase surface area- they interact with dendrites of another neuron -Synaptic end bulbs- ends of axon terminals (bulbs) Synapse- site of communication between 2 neurons or neuron and effector cell Synaptic cleft- space between pre-synaptic and post-synaptic side Synaptic vesicles- (stored in pre-synaptic neuron) carry neurotransmitters -Neurotransmitter- in synaptic vesicles in pre-synaptic neuron -Many neurons carry more than 1 neurotransmitters (have different effects on post-synaptic cell) Action potential- electrical impulse (cannot propagate across synaptic cleft without neurotransmitters) Transport systems- ways substances are moved from cell body to axon terminals -Slow axonal transport- move axoplasm in only one direction. (From cell body to axon terminals) -Fast axonal transport- move materials in both directions -Anterograde-forward direction (move materials from cell body to axon terminals) -Retrograde- Backward direction (move materials from axon terminals to cell body) (this is the way we get some of the chemicals, like nerve growth factor back to the cell body/ toxin can be transmitted throughout the nerve) (tetanus/rabies/polio use retrograde transport system) Classifying NeuronsSize and shape- Classified by number of branches -Multipolar neurons- several dendrites and only one axon (found throughout brain and spinal cord) (a large proportion of neurons in body are considered multipolar because most neurons are in the brain) -Bipolar neurons- one main dendrite and one main axon, but they are very distinct from cell body (used to convey the special senses- like sight, smell, hearing, and balance) We find them in the body were these special senses are important (retina of eye, inner ear, olfactory area of brain) -Unipolar neurons- contain one process that extends from the cell body that divides into central branch that functions as axon and has a dendritic root on top of it. (Used for sensory neurons that convey information about touch/stretching sensation) (Found widely in integument and muscular system) Function- based on electrophysiological properties (how the neuron excites or inhibits activity and on direction that the neuron is going in relation to the CNS) -Sensory or afferent neurons- take action potentials TO central nervous system (travel through cranial/spinal nerves) (often unipolar) -Motor or efferent neurons- take action potential AWAY from central nervous system to effectors (travel through cranial/spinal nerves) (most often multipolar) -Interneurons (association neurons) - mainly in CNS (are connection between sensory and motor neurons) job is to process incoming information from sensory neurons and elicit a motor response- by activating appropriate motor neurons (most often multipolar)

Neuroglia (glia=glue)- do not generate or conduct nerve impulses (support system for the neurons) support by forming blood-brain barrier (responsible for forming myelin sheaths- nerve insulation) (responsible for forming cerebrospinal fluid- fluid that surrounds brain and spinal cord) (participates in phagocytosis) In central nervous system-Astrocytes- (star looking) support neurons in central nervous system- help maintain chemical environment -Oligodendrocytes- produce myelin in CNS (nerve insulation) -Microglia- cells that participate in phagocytosis -Ependymal- form and circulate cerebrospinal fluid. In peripheral nervous system-Satellite cells- support neurons in PNS -Schwann cells- produce myelin in PNS Myelination- process of forming the myelin sheath (done by Oligodendrocytes/ Schwann cells) -insulates nerves/ increase speed of nerve impulses (transmitting information) Nodes of Ranvier- gaps in myelin sheath -Each Schwann cell wraps one axon segment (can be 1mm long and hundreds of layers) -Amount of myelin that you have on your nerve increases from birth to maturity (late teen/ mid 20s) -More myelin- more speed in nerve impulses (more coordinated and faster movements)

Neuronal Regeneration- cell bodies of neurons lose mitotic ability at birth (can only repair neuronsregeneration) -Largely dependent on Schwann cells in PNS -Do not really get regeneration in CNS -Neurolemma- outermost layer of the nerve fiber in PNS (rich in Schwann cells) -not going to degenerate -after a nerve has been cut or crushed it will become a hollow tube- allows regeneration of nerve fiber) Demyelination- the loss or destruction of myelin sheath -can be the result of diseases or medical treatment (radiation/chemotherapy) -To have any regeneration at all- a neuron must be in PNS and have an intact cell body

White matter- found in brain and spinal cord (accumulation of myelinated axons) -usually white because of high concentration of lipid Gray matter- look gray because it doesnt have myelin in it -Found in brain and spinal cord -formed from neuronal cell bodies and dendrites -No myelination

Electrical signals in neurons-Graded potential- short distance communication

-Action potentials- allow communication over long distances -Resting membrane potential- created by ion gradient (controlled by a variety of ion channels opening and closing with response to a stimulus) -Ion channels-present in the plasma membrane in all cells of the body -especially prominent in the nervous system -job is to allow ions to pass in or out of cell -when ion channels open they allow specific ions to move through -move from areas of high concentration to low concentration. -Electrochemical gradient- (chemical)-move from areas of high concentration to low concentration. (Electrical) positive ions move toward negative charged area Ligand-gated- respond to neurotransmitter and mainly concentrated at synapse Voltage-gated- located along axon respond to changes to transmembrane electrical potential Mechanically-gated- response to mechanical deformation (pressure to receptor) Leakage channels- open/close randomly (not active)
TYPE OF ION CHANNEL DESCRIPTION LOCATION

Leak channels

Gated channels that randomly open and close. Gated channels that open in response to binding of ligand (chemical) stimulus. Gated channels that open in response to mechanical stimulus (such as touch, pressure, vibration, or tissue stretching). Gated channels that open in response to voltage stimulus (change in membrane potential).

Found in nearly all cells, including dendrites, cell bodies, and axons of all types of neurons. Dendrites of some sensory neurons such as pain receptors and dendrites and cell bodies of interneurons and motor neurons. Dendrites of some sensory neurons such as touch receptors, pressure receptors, and some pain receptors. Axons of all types of neurons.

Ligandgated channels Mechanically gated channels Voltagegated channels

Graded potentials- (short distance potentials) Depolarizing graded potential- start with resting membrane potential -stimulus causes cell to become less negatively charged Hyperpolarizing graded potential- cell becomes more negatively charged -voltage variable -Occur mainly in dendrites and cell body of neuron (not traveling along axon) -Do not have a refractory period (no limit in numbers of reproduction)

Action potentials- (long distance potentials) travel down length of neuron Threshold- if a neuron reaches its threshold stimulus, a full strain action potential will occur An Action potential has two main phases: Depolarizing/repolarizing phase 1) Resting state2) Depolarizing phase- voltage gated sodium channels are activated (open) 3) Repolarizing phase begins- potassium channels open and sodium channels become inactivated 4) Repolarization phase continues-Absolute refractory period- period of time when cell cannot generate another Action potential. Places a limit on Action potentials that can happen in a second (depends on cell) -Relative refractory period- period of time during which a second action potential can be initiated, but only by a larger than normal stimulus (threshold is higher)

Continuous conduction- unmyelinated axon (gray matter) (20 meters/second) Saltatory conduction- occurs in myelinated axons (white matter) (100 meters/second) -Action potential jumps from one node of Ranvier to the next

Speed of Action potential is affected by: -Diameter of axon -amount of myelination -Temperature Frequency- (how often we receive that stimulus) important in determining how we receive a stimulus and response to that stimulus Number of neurons recruited- (motor unit)

Fiber types A fibers- very large/ fast (approximately 130 meters/second)/myelinated/ generally carry touch/pressure sensations/motor neurons B fibers- medium in terms of size and speed/ (15 meters/second)/ myelinated/ myelination of visceral sensory neurons and autonomic neurons C fibers- smallest/slowest (2 meters/second)/ unmyelinated/ sensory or autonomic motor neurons -C to A fibers there is a 50 fold increase in speed

Synaptic Transmission

-Presynaptic neuron (before synapse) start from top cell body down axon -convert electrical signal (action potential) to chemical signal (release of Neurotransmitter) -Postsynaptic neuron (after synapse) -receives chemical signal (neurotransmitter) and generates electrical signal (postsynaptic Action potential)

1) Nerve impulse 2) Calcium ions move down cell 3) Neurotransmitters in synaptic vesicles 4) Neurotransmitters in synaptic cleft 5) Ligand-gated channels open 6) Formation of Postsynaptic action potential 7) Nerve impulse Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitter effects1) Synthesis of neurotransmitters (stimulated/inhibited) 2) Release of neurotransmitters (blocked/enhanced) 3) Removal of neurotransmitters (stimulated/blocked) Agonists- any chemical that enhances or stimulates the effects at a given receptor (natural/drugs) Antagonists- any chemical that blocks or diminishes the effects at a given receptor (natural/drugs) Neurotransmitter Clearance -Removal of the neurotransmitter- really important Diffusion- from high concentration to low concentration out of synaptic cleft Enzymatic degradation- neuromuscular junction (acetylcholine esterase breaks down ACh Re-uptake by cells Neural circuits Diverging circuit- include a small number of neurons in brain that stimulates large number of neurons in spinal cord Converging circuit- opposite of diverging circuit Reverberating circuit- impulses sent back through circuit over and over again (important for breathing/ coordinated muscle activities- running and walking/ waking up/ storage of short term memory) Parallel after-discharge circuit- In this circuit, a single presynaptic cell stimulates a group of neurons, each of which synapses with a common postsynaptic cell.

Chapter 13: The Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves

-100 million neurons in spinal cord -For every neuron there are about 50-100 neuroglia cells -Spinal cord contains reflex circuits (control and are in charge of the bodies most rapid reactionsenvironmental stimuli- putting hand on stove) -Gray matter in spinal cord is a site of integration of postsynaptic action potential -White matter in spinal cord contains major sensory and motor tracts (take info to and from brain)

Spinal cord is a continuation of the medulla oblongata (most inferior portion of brain stem) -extends from foramen magnum and continues until the conus medullaris (found at L1/L2) Spinal cord- oval in shape and slightly flattened in anterior/posterior direction -2 types of connective tissue provide stability -Vertebral column (backbone/support)

-Spinal Meninges (connective tissue that surround the spinal cord/ continuation of cranial meninges that encircle brain) Dura mater- outermost layer- tough layer that forms a sac that encloses the entire spinal cord Arachnoid mater- middle layer- delicate layer that is avascular (attached to the inside of the Dura/ forms the root of the subarachnoid space) Subarachnoid space- where circulation of cerebrospinal fluid occurs in spinal cord Pia mater- pressed up against the spinal cord/ filled with blood vessels/ provides nutrients to spinal cord -difficult to see because it is very thin and very delicate Epidural space- space between dura mater and the superficial layer-ligamentum flavum (runs along underside the lamina of bony vertebrae) Denticulate ligament- 21 pairs- attach the pia mater to the arachnoid and dura mater. -They provide stability to the spinal cord (important for stability against sudden shock or displacement of spinal cord) Filum terminale- an extension of the pia mater (extends inferiorly) blends with arachnoid and dura mater -job is to anchor spinal cord to the coccyx -Cauda equina- (horses tail) the roots of the lower spinal nerves Spinal cord has 2 enlargements: Cervical enlargement- between C4 and T1 (correlates with sensory input and motor output to upper extremities) Lumbar enlargement- between T9 and T12 (handles sensory input and motor output to lower extremities) Spinal cord changes shape along its length-Becomes smaller in cross section from superior to inferior -Moving inferiorly- less and less gray matter and more white matter (fewer sensory tracts going up and more motor tracts going down) Roots- bundles of axons (each roots connects a spinal nerve to a segment on the spinal cord) -Rootlets- smaller connections that the roots are making Posterior dorsal roots/ rootlets contain only sensory axons (conduct nerve impulses from sensory receptors in skin/muscles/ internal organs to the CNS) Posterior root- has a swelling on it (posterior dorsal root ganglion- cell bodies of sensory neurons in it) Anterior ventral root of spinal nerve- contains axons of motor neurons (sending information/ nerve impulses from CNS to effectors (muscle or glands))

Epidural Anesthesia -procedure where a needle is placed in lumbar region -Inserts a needle where it just penetrates and ligamentum flavum (remains superficial to dura mater)

-Drugs are put directly into spinal cord

Lumbar Punctures -Needle is inserted into subarachnoid space -purpose is to draw out a little cerebrospinal fluid -used for diagnostic purposes/ reduce pressure in CNS -Introduce drugs (antibiotics) or contrast agents (for imaging procedures) -Often done if CSF needs to be collected/ or diagnoses of Meningitis

Internal Cord Anatomy White matter is on outside of spinal cord (has millions of nerve fibers/ has myelin) Gray matter is found internally (surrounds central canal) (Brain is opposite is where the matter is found)

HornsAnterior (ventral) gray horn- consists of somatic motor neurons Posterior (dorsal) gray horn- consists of somatic and autonomic sensory neurons Lateral gray horns- only found in thoracic, upper lumbar, and sacral segments of spinal cord (contain autonomic motor neurons) Anterior median fissurePosterior median sulcusCentral canal- runs entire length of spinal cord (filled with CSF)

Tract- a bundle of neuron axons (all located in a specific area of the spinal cord- all going to same place (travel together)) Sensory (ascending) tract- brings sensory information to brain Motor (descending) tract- brings motor information away from brain White matter of spinal cord is divided into anterior/posterior/ later columns -has ascending sensory tracts that travel to someplace in brain -has descending motor tract that travel to another location in the spinal cord -names of tracts are formed based the origin of the tract and the place where it ends up

- (Spinothalamic tract- from spinal cord to brain/ afferent tract) - (corticospinal tract- from cortex of brain to spinal cord/ efferent tract) - (vestibulespinal tract- from area of brain to spine)

Posterior columns- afferent tracts (to brain) important for light pressure and vibration/discrimatory touch/ conscious proprioception (awareness of stretching of ligaments/joints) Spinothalamic tract- start in spinal cord and head to brain (afferent tract) transmits sensations of pain/ warmth/coolness/deep pressure/tickling/itching. Lateral and anterior corticospinal tracts- start in brain and head to spinal cord (major pathways that carry signals from cerebral cortex to spinal cord- voluntary movements of muscles- efferent) Motor tracts- coordinate visual stimuli with body movements

Dermatomes- area of skin that is innervated by a single spinal nerve (the numbers correlate with spinal nerves) -C6/C7-thumb (dexterity) -within a dermatome there are a lot of overlap and individual variations Peripheral nerves- (spinal nerves/ segmental nerves) passive communications between spinal cord and specific regions of the body -Epineurium- outer layer of nerve Perineum- surround fascicles Endoneurium- around each axon

-31 left right pairs of spinal nerves -with the exception of the first pair of cervical spinal nerves, the spinal nerves leave vertebral columns through intervertebral foramen. -First cervical spinal nerve leave through skull and top vertebrae -8 pairs of cervical spinal nerves (C1- C8) -12 pairs of thoracic spinal nerves (T1-T12) 12 intercostal nerves that run with each rib -5 pairs of lumbar nerves (L1-L5) -5 sacral pairs (S1-S5) -1 coccygeal pair

A plexus of nerves- large aggregation of nerves (made of anterior rami- from anterior to spine) (these spinal nerves contribute to a lot of different nerves) Cervical plexus- formed by the anterior rami of C1-C5 -job is to innervate the head/neck/diaphragm (Phrenic nerve innervates diaphragm-major muscle of respiration) - (C3-4-and 5 keep the diaphragm alive) Brachial plexus- formed by anterior rami of C5-C8 and T1 (divided into many more subdivisionsroots/trunks/divisions/cords/branches) -Risks Takers Dont Cautiously Behave (Roots, Trunks, Divisions, Cords, Branches) -provide shoulders and upper limb -musculocutaneous nerve/ axillary nerve/radial and ulnar nerves/median nerve

-Erbs palsy- formed from nerve damage inability to extend wrist and fingers (ex: catching self from fall/ infant-coming out of birth canal) -Median nerve palsy- median nerve is injured (can happen at plexus or anywhere distal to that) results in numbness/tingling/pain in palm of hands (carpal tunnel syndrome- repetitive activities involving hand) -Ulnar nerve palsy- ulnar nerve damage (ulnar nerve is the largest nerve not protected by body) emerge from median and ulnar nerves of body (hitting funny bone) -damaging this nerve can make it hard to adduct and abduct the 4th and 5th finger Celiac (solar) plexusLumbar plexus- formed by anterior rami of L1 through L4 (supply anterolateral wall/external genitalia/part of lower limbs) -Femoral nerve-Obturator nerveSacral plexus- formed by anterior rami L4 to L5/S1-S4 (supplies innervation to buttocks/perineum/parts of lower limbs) (gives rise to largest nerve in body- sciatic nerve) -Sciatic nerveCoccygeal plexus- formed by anterior rami of S4-S5 and coccygeal nerve (relatively small plexus that supplies a small area of skin in the coccygeal region)

Reflexes- fast, involuntary response to a stimulus Spinal reflex- integration center takes place in spinal cord- not brain Monosynaptic (sensory neuron or motor neuron) Polysynaptic-(sensory neuron/motor neuron/interneurons) Reflex arc- the pathway the nerve follows to produce a reflex Sensory receptor/sensory neuron/integration center/motor neuron/ effector (muscle/gland) Sensory receptors- (patellar reflex)

Ipsilateral- all the neurons and effectors are on same side of body (patellar reflex) Contralateral- receptors and afferent neurons are on opposite sides of the body, as the effectors and effector neurons Flexor reflex- (withdraw reflex-step on a nail- take a step back with opposite leg) Intersegmental reflex arc- a single sensory neuron can activate many motor neurons (stimulates more than one effector)

Questions Dr. Porter Asked in Class (she said to know them well) -Possibly a hint towards test questions.
What is the outer most layer of CT that surrounds the skeletal muscle? -Epimysium What is an Aponeurosis? -Tendon-like band sheet (type of tendon that is formed when Connective tissue elements extend at a broad flat layer) What would happen if an Ipsilateral and Intersegmental reflex occurred? -It will control many flexor and extensor muscles on the same side of the body as the sensor Know load/effort/muscle contraction-path it follows into muscle -Sarcoplasmic reticulum- calcium ion storage/Resorption -sarcomere- zones/bands- thin/thick filaments/titin -During actual sarcomere contraction- what needs to happen for actin to be ready to bind -processes that have to happen (ATP hydrolysis-activating myosin head -Cross bridge cycling- (contuing if ATP is in system) Neuromuscular junction- ACh Origin/insertion/action of muscles from Dr. Merediths PPT -Eyeball muscles-what they are and what they do -CNS and PNS (somatic nervous system/autonomic nervous system/enteric nervous system) Autonomic nervous system- sympathetic/parasympathetic Neuroglia cells- Schwann cells/oligodendrites- produce myelin sheath Myelin sheath is important early on in development until you are mature- then it stops Graded potentials/action potentials

Saltatory conduction (which takes place on myelinated/unmyelinated axon) Continuous conduction Neurotransmitters how to get rid of them (diffusion/enzymatic degradation/ re-uptake by cell) Spinal nerves/spinal cord- different layers of meninges Where you can find CSF (central canal of spinal cord/subarachnoid space) Spinal cord has 2 major enlargements (supply upper and lower limbs) Spinal nerves- innervates region that anterior rami come from Spinal nerves are outside spinal cord- part of PNS not CNS