A NEW CHAPTER FOR SABAH TOURISM DEVELOPMENT & ECO-SUSTAINABILITY

INNOVATIVE WASTE WATER TREATMENT APPLICATIONS FOR ISLAND & COASTAL RESORTS

OCTOBER 2011

Don E. Baker Jr.

Marine Resources & Aquaculture Consultant Email: donbjr95@hotmail.com / reefpeace@yahoo.com Trinidad SOOM / KM 129 / Bohol, Philippines 6324

INTRODUCTION

Across the Globe today the continued increase of human settlements on coastal and island regions, especially in tropical settings, the lack of properly treated sewage emanating from these communities has been suggested through research venues that it is human waste that is the cause for coral diseases that are currently devastating coral reef ecosystems (Nat. Geo. News / June 27, 2002). Land-based pollution as untreated sewage from urban areas, coastal development, island villages, and runoff from chemicals used in agriculture cause sedimentation and mass algal growth which further threatens coral reefs. Currently 22% of the worlds coral reefs are under medium to high risk from these land-based sources of pollution. Our Global coral reef ecosystems cover an area of over 280,000 km2 and support thousands of species in what many describe as the rainforests of the seas as well as supporting tens of millions of humans that rely on the same for their daily sustenance. Coral reefs benefit the environment and people in numerous ways by

Protecting shores from the impact of waves and from storms; Providing benefits to humans in the form of food and medicine; Providing economic benefits to local communities from tourism.

The chart above depicts the breakdown of component values that contribute to the global annual value of coral ecosystems (NOAA, Coral Reef Conservation Program, http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/)

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Healthy coral ecosystems support local businesses and economies, as well as provide jobs through tourism and recreation. Every year, millions of scuba divers and snorkelers visit coral reefs to enjoy their abundant sea life. Even more tourists visit the beaches protected by these reefs. Local economies receive billions of dollars from these visitors to reef regions through diving tours, recreational fishing trips, hotels, restaurants, and other businesses based near reef ecosystems. One estimate places the total global value of coral-reef based recreation and tourism at $9.6 billion of the total global net benefit of coral reefs. (Cesar, H.J.S., Burke, L., and Pet-Soede, L. 2003. The Economics of Worldwide Coral Reef Degradation.)

Well over 20% of the worlds coral reef ecosystems have been destroyed without any hope of their recovery or rehabilitation. They are lost and gone forever. Furthermore, some 24% of the worlds coral reefs are pending total collapse caused by continual human presence and development. The reefs of the nearby Philippine ARMM Province of Tawi Tawi have been ravished with species specific over harvesting. Large fishes and groupers are rare to be seen throughout the province. Sea cucumbers are mostly extinct in and around the main islands.
The future is horrific. There is no hope of reefs surviving to even mid -century in any form that we now recognize. If, and when, they go, they will take with them about one-third of the worlds marine biodiversity. Then there is a domino effect, as reefs fail so will other ecosystems. This is the path of a mass extinction event, when most life, especially tropical marine life, goes extinct. Charlie Veron, quoted by David Adam, How global warming sealed the fate of the worlds coral reefs, The Guardian, September 2, 2009

For tourism to flourish at or near a coral reef ecosystem, freshwater is the main basic need for human beings to survive, whereas, food may limited and even suspended for days at a time. However, freshwater is needed on daily basis for us to survive. With the advent of coastal and island tourism facilities in the Semporna region as a serious and pertinent example, freshwater is needed to sustain its growing industry in greater quantities to support more and more visiting tourists.

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If it were for only drinking and limited cooking, the daily basic need would be approximately 5 litres per person per day. (Bromberek, Zbigniew, 2009) Unfortunately, the majority use of freshwater is primarily used for showers, toilet flushing, and general rinsing. This puts the daily freshwater use per person to be no less than 150 L. The reuse of non-toilet waste water (grey water) is often utilized for hotel and resort landscaping but rarely for reasons of costs incurred for installing such a system. The lack of addressing adequate treatment regimens is tantamount to killing the very reefs that are meant to sustain the dive tourism industry. The water that comes out from the kitchen after cleaning the utensils etc. contains the residuals of washing powder and oil, food particles etc. The water which comes out from bathrooms also contains soap detergents dust, dirt etc. As both of them does not include urine and faecal matter (human excreta, night-soil) so termed as non-foul wastewater. The water that carries excreta along with it, i.e. from the water closets is known as foul wastewater. Actually these days the bathrooms and WCs are constructed in a single unit known as the toilet, so wastewater from a toilet is foul wastewater. The term foul here means the readily biodegradable matter that quickly degrades and results in offensive odours and gases such as methane. The common use of septic chambers is usually the first chosen waste water treatment method, whereas, it is simply a tank with varied inlet and out ports. A septic tank is a combination of sedimentation and digestion mechanism where the sewage is held for 24 or more hours (retention time). During this period the suspended solids are biologically liquefied and those that are not settle down to the bottom. The direct outflow of the sewage is restricted by the provision of baffle walls or inner chambers. As the tank is built or installed underground and there is no oxygen (and sunlight) so the anaerobic digestion of settled solids (sludge) and sewage takes place. The bacteria decompose even the dissolved organic matter and thus reduce the BOD. This results in the reduction in the volume of sludge and release of gases like carbon dioxide, methane and hydrogen sulphide. Appropriate arrangement for the ventilation of the septic tank is often made but also often neglected.

(Dr Frank Wilson Diagram) 4|Page WASTE WATER TREATMENT MBBR-HTS 2011

The effluent of the septic tank, although clarified to a large extent, will still contain appreciable amount of dissolved and suspended putrescible organic solids and pathogens. Therefore the effluent of septic tanks should be carefully disposed of but often it is not treated further and injected into an underground leach field which creates further problems with regards to ground water resources, freshwater wells, rivers, streams, and other water shed features. Septic tanks are difficult to properly maintain in tropical environments and require desludging on an annual basis. Effluent even from properly maintained septic tanks is high in nutrient constituents, high in pathogens-bacteria, and extremely harmful to coral reef ecology; causing suspended algae blooms as well as aiding in benthic macro-algae to compete with live coral coverage. Though commonly used in island villages and resorts in the Semporna region, septic tanks are primarily designed for in ground use where the effluent is injected into the ground-soil via a leach field. Septic effluent water should never be directly discharged to the sea or water sheds. Water is a very good carrier of many diseases producing organisms (pathogens); be it fresh or salt water. If urine or faecal matter (excreta) is mixed in a body of water and the person contributing it has some disease like cholera, gastroentitis, infectious hepatitis jaundice, typhoid, etc., it will infect the same water medium. Anybody using, swimming, diving in that water without treatment (disinfection) is liable to catch the same disease.

(Chia, L.S. 2000. Overview of Impact of Sewage on the Marine Environment of East Asia: Social and Economic Opportunities. EAS/RCU Technical Report Series No. 15.)

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Human faecal contamination of near shore and off-shore coral reef environments has been clearly demonstrated in the Florida Keys and elsewhere in the Caribbean and is associated with waterborne disease in humans. In response, the state of Florida passed legislation to improve water quality in the Florida Keys by requiring the upgrade of all wastewater facilities, including in-ground receptacles, to the best available technology or to advanced wastewater treatment at an estimated cost of $939 million.
(Sutherland KP, Shaban S, Joyner JL, Porter JW, Lipp EK (2011) Human Pathogen Shown to Cause Disease in the Threatened Eklhorn Coral Acropora palmata.)

(Chia, L.S. 2000. Overview of Impact of Sewage on the Marine Environment of East Asia: Social and Economic Opportunities. EAS/RCU Technical Report Series No. 15.)

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Within Asia, some 90 per cent of sewage is untreated and is discharged directly into freshwater bodies and the sea. There are many problems encountered in the implementation of sewage management including inadequate waste management legislation and regulations, ineffective enforcement of regulations, insufficient or inadequate waste management facilities and services, and lack of skilled human resources and equipment in the public and private sectors. (Chia, 2000) The fundamental requirements of an effective sewage management programme are a comprehensive set of legislation and well-endowed environmental institutions empowered by law. In general, there is no separate legal provision for dealing with sewage in all of the countries reviewed. The control of sewage pollution is covered under the overall environmental law or legislation governing water pollution. Most countries reviewed have expressed concern with the problem of sewage because of the impact on human health and quality of life more than as a concern for environmental degradation and resource damage. Application of the polluter-pays principle and the adoption of environmental impact assessments are directed at business enterprises. A review of the use of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) requirement as a means to address the control of sewage pollution in the countries surveyed is given. EIAs are mandated in seven of the countries reviewed in this report. In the cases of Cambodia and Singapore, EIAs are required on an ad hoc basis. Details of the application of EIAs in Malaysia where they have become an accepted practice are presented notwithstanding shortcomings and difficulties. Most cities in the East Asian region have master land-use plans for residential, commercial and industrial and other uses. With few exceptions, there is a general lack of physical planning and adequate financial and technical resources to implement modern large-scale sewerage and wastewater treatment plants. (Chia, 2000) Without doubt, the key causes of coral reef decline in Sabah have been the overdevelopment of the coastal areas and the over-use & abuse of coral reef resources. Migration to coastal areas for reasons of growing populations, aquaculture enterprises, and tourist developments has created a surge in land use expansion leading to clearance of important coastal ecosystems such as mangroves and sea grass beds. Unregulated inland and coastal construction, such as hotels, malls, and oil palm plantations has increased sedimentation in the coastal waters and is destroying Sabahs reefs as light levels in the water column are reduced and reefs are smothered. Though overfishing and destructive fishing practices have also decimated coral reef fish populations and their habitats, unregulated land clearance for agriculture can cause massive coral reef die-offs through rain caused sediment and chemical run-off from land to the reef. Untreated sewage and chemical agriculture run-off (e.g. pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers) have caused nutrient loading into Sabahs coral reef waters, leading to algal blooms and eutrophication that continues to adversely affect the States coral reef ecosystems. Sewage emanating from the off shore tourist developments can be a model for change and rectification for all of Sabah if there is a will to address the problems and issues and not put it at the back of the house; out of sight and out of mind.

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THE PROBLEMS AT PRESENT

Pulau Mabul, located on the east coast of Sabah, Malaysia, is a good example of unrestricted housing and tourism development that has undergone from being a simple offshore island with a limited Bajau community to its present 21st century state as a refugee colony of illegal immigrants from the Philippines alongside several resorts operations.

From a well wooded island in years past, Pulau Mabul has undergone almost total deforestation of its coconut trees to allow / accommodate the massive influx of human inhabitants; water villages, over water resorts, island villages, island resorts. For the past nearly three decades, Pulau Mabul has undergone a massive environmental change brought on by a series of social events that have include war in the Philippines to the evolutionary development of Sempornas regional tourism industry. The latest event was the removal of all private resort operations from Pulau Sipadan and putting the same island under strict visitor controls managed by Sabah Parks. The Asian dive Mecca of Sipadan started to become internationally known in the 1970s after Jacques Cousteaus visit there. As a result of this event, dive business operators brought out their own building materials and support equipment and planted their own flags. By the turn of the century, Sipadan was a maze of self-supporting resorts; from high class types to simple backpacker arrangements. Solid waste & trash started to collect behind some of these resorts. Sewage to some was but a cement block lined pit situated behind the rooms with a semi rotten piece of plywood covering it. Generator waste oil and lubricants were also haphazardly dumped in the islands interior forest or jungle. By 2005, the environmental situation at Sipadan became acutely untenable after years of international complaints for tourist facilities operating independently, inefficiently and often competing for additional island space. The Malaysian Government finally issued orders for all private resorts to remove their facilities completely from the island. Today, P. Sipadan, managed by Sabah Parks, can only be visited via permits issued to no more than 120 tourists per day, be they divers, snorkelers, or simply visitors. Though the islands groundwater is still contaminated from years of waste oil, associated human use chemicals, the vegetation is returning as well as the bird populations that once thrived there 40 to 50 years ago.

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Will the P. Sipadan scenario noted above happen to P. Mabul? What is P. Mabuls current state with regards to efficient planning for infrastructures along with the installation of adequate solid and liquid waste receiving and treatment systems? Philippine refugees originally from the MNLF & AFP war in the 70s & 80s brought in large population of documented families and people. Today, the influx of Filipinos continues now for reasons of seeking better economic opportunities in Sabah, Malaysia as well as family members wishing to stay with the older refugees. Almost overnight, water villages came into being, whereas, building over the water was more feasible for reasons of native land rights & titles for the island itself preventing refugees from building on the island. The basic necessities of food were obtained through fishing and seafood harvesting off the islands reefs. Drinking water was collected from roof water catchments as well as from dug island wells to tap into the ground water lens system. Fish catches were eventually traded for nonseafood type food and commodities brought in from the mainland; rice, soaps, detergents, oils, fuel. Life became routine and sustainable with families growing to become their own clans. Unfortunately with a rise in human population there is an equally rise in human waste; both solid and liquid. Washing clothes as well as dumping waste water be it cooking oils, food, or human excrement & urine into the water around and beneath the water villages has greatly affected the shallow water reef flats around the entire island with classic eutrophication conditions of dense algae and unnatural macro-algae growth. Even though a few of the small water village dive resorts have installed septic tanks beneath their chalets, the same septic chambers discharge directly into the shallow water beneath and around the same chalets. Perhaps through a lack of alternative sewage treatment applications available to resort and hotel operators, Sabahs tourism industry has consistently utilized septic technology as the main primary treatment. As noted in the preceding Introduction, the effluent discharge from septic tanks is still considered sewage; packed with high level constituents of nitrogen, phosphates, and pathogens.

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Septic tanks commonly utilized beneath chalets / rooms Water Village type Resorts

Septic tanks by themselves are ineffective at removing nitrogen compounds that have potential to cause algal blooms in receiving waters; this can be remedied by using a nitrogenreducing technology, or by simply ensuring that the leach field is properly sited to prevent direct entry of effluent into bodies of water.

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MOVING BED BIO-FILM REACTOR TECHNOLOGY

A fixed biomass system which has recently aroused interest in the field of wastewater treatment is the MBBR technology (Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor). Its principle working feature is the growth of a fixed biofilm on plastic elements or carriers which move freely in the aerated biological reactor chambers. Originally of Norwegian technology, the Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor or MBBR process is based on the aerobic biofilm principle and utilizes the advantages of activated sludge and other biofilm systems without being restrained by their disadvantages. MBBR are a hybrid of activated sludge and biofilter processes. Unlike most fixed film bioreactors, MBBR utilize the whole chamber volume for the biomass by generating continual movement within the aeration chamber by means of the carefully designed aeration system. However, contrary to an activated sludge reactor, MBBR does not need return activated sludge (RAS); the recycling of activated sludge can be difficult to control and is the main reason so many sewage plants in Sabah are inoperative. MBBR achieves its treatment strategy by having a biomass grow on high surface area plastic carriers that move freely in the water volume of the reactors and kept within the reactor volume by a sieve arrangement at the reactor outlet to prevent their loss. At the bottom of the tank, a large bubble aeration system assures mixing and floating of the plastic carriers with their attached biomass. The basis of the process is the biofilm carrier elements that are made from polyethylene with a 20 year plus life expectancy. The elements provide a large protected surface area for the biofilm and optimal conditions for the bacteria culture to grow and thrive. The biofilm that is created around each carrier element protects the bacterial cultures from operating excursions to yield a very robust system for those industrial facilities loaded with process fluctuations. The biofilm also provides a more stable home for the bacteria to grow, so there is less space required compared to other biological systems and far less controls.

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In the MBBR biofilm technology, the biofilm grows rapidly within well protected engineered plastic carriers, which are carefully designed with high internal surface area. These biofilm carriers are suspended and thoroughly mixed throughout the waste water phase by a multitude of air bubbles. With this technology it is possible to handle extremely high loading conditions without any problems of clogging, and treat industrial and municipal wastewater on a relatively small footprint. The plastic carriers have a diameter around 1-2 cm with a similar length and a density very close to that one of water. Only 40-70 % of the tank volume is filled by carriers. Unlike other fixed biomass systems (trickling filters and submerged biofilters), MBBR systems show no clogging problems and a lower head loss. Compared to activated sludge systems, MBBR systems have no bulking problems which result from inadequate control of the recycled sludge. MBBR systems can operate with more reactors in series with a more selected biomass for each treatment step. Moreover no sludge recycling is needed and management is easier (Rusten et al. 1997). MBBR is generally set in two stages: the first stage basically aims at organic substance removal, whilst the second one is specialized in nitrification. Essentially nutrient levels and DO levels are the only control points for the system. MBBRs can be designed for new facilities to remove BOD/COD from wastewater streams or for nitrogen removal. Existing activated sludge plants can be upgraded to achieve nitrogen and phosphorus removal or higher BOD/COD capacity (up to 500% increases have been obtained). In the MBBR biofilm technology the biofilm grows well protected within engineered plastic carriers, which are carefully designed with high internal surface area. These biofilm carriers are suspended and thoroughly mixed throughout the water phase. With this technology it is possible to handle extremely high loading conditions without any problems of clogging, and treat industrial and municipal wastewater on a relatively small footprint.

The plastic carriers have a diameter around 1-2 cm and a density very close to that one of water. Only 50-70 % of the tank is filled by carriers. Compared to other fixed biomass systems (trickling filters and submerged biofilters), these systems show no clogging problems and lower head loss. Compared to activated sludge systems, MBBR systems have no bulking problem and can operate with more reactors in series with a more selected biomass for each treatment step. Moreover no sludge recycling is needed and management is easier (Rusten et al. 1997).

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MBBR was set in two stages, thus the first one basically aims to the organic substance removal, whilst the second one is specialised in nitrification.

Essentially nutrient levels and DO levels are the only control points for the system. MBBRs can be designed for new facilities to remove BOD/COD from wastewater streams or for nitrogen removal. Existing activated sludge plants can be upgraded to achieve nitrogen and phosphorus removal or higher BOD/COD capacity (up to 500% increases have been obtained).

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The newly designed Tomher Infinity Enhanced Bio-Filtration Sewage Treatment System BIOSOLV combines two very recent developments in waste water and sewage treatment technology, and the resulting combination has a synergistic effect on the overall speed of the waste water treatment cycle, from influent raw waste water to effluent treated water. In addition, the BioSolv system requires a much smaller foot print than conventional waste water treatment facilities; installed for a variety of treatment requirements and purposes. The BioSolv, as shown in the above simplified flow diagram, uses two separate aerated treatment reactor chambers which utilize enhanced micro-nutrient technology, a plastic media, and a patented aeration application. The aeration action provides air bubbles that are only 3mm in diameter compared to the normal 20mm which results in more rapid addition of oxygen to the waste water being treated and giving much greater processing/treatment control of the dissolved oxygen levels ranging above 4.0 mg/L and values of around 8mg/L have been measured. This is unique to BioSolv and is a major development in efficient aeration and encourages more rapid digestion of the BOD resulting in smaller reaction chambers. The control of dissolved oxygen is critical in any aerated waste water plant and can be a problem if levels are not sufficient enough to maintain the living bacterial components that thrive on the moving plastic media carriers. The tiny air bubbles are generated on specifically designed grids fitted above the base of the reactor tanks to ensure that a constant aeration action keeps the plastic media carriers continually moving / flowing in a circular rotating manner similar to a convection current to ensure efficient oxygen transfer throughout the entire reactor tank The core of the process is the suspended media, or bio-film carrier elements, which are made of polyethylene with a density slightly below that of water. The elements are designed to provide a large protected surface area for bio-film growth. This process allows for operation at a higher biomass inventory per m3 of reactor volume than would be achievable with a conventional activated sludge process (ASP), without additional solids loading on the secondary clarifiers. This results in a significant reduction in the footprint size of the facility relative to a conventional ASP system. 14 | P a g e WASTE WATER TREATMENT MBBR-HTS 2011

The biomass in the Infinity BioSolv system is resilient against factors such as temporary limitation of nutrients, toxicity spikes, pH changes, and temperature changes. These factors may reduce the biological capacity of the biofilm system temporarily, but will not significantly affect the biomass in the reactor. The process will adjust itself to normal performance in a very short time after the shock. Since the biomass is attached to the moving plastic media, which is maintained in the reactor vessels, the suspended/attached growth process is less susceptible to solids washout during peak wet weather flows than conventional ASPs. Looking at the flow diagram above, in the first aeration chamber the BOD of the incoming sewage is significantly reduced. It is possible to calculate the volume of plastic carriers required to digest the incoming BOD and convert this into a vessel volume for R1. From the vessel volume the aeration required can then be determined. In the second aeration chamber R2, ammonia is converted into nitrate. The bacteria that achieve this work better in an environment where the BOD reduction bacteria do not exist or are at very low levels. The final effluent produced is around four times better than the Malaysian standard A and all the ammonia is converted to nitrate and the phosphate is converted to inorganic phosphate. These two components are the basis of many fertilisers and hence makes the final effluent an ideal feed for hydroponics

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Tomher BioSolv Modular Unit Design

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Lankayan Island Dive Resort / Test Effluent Parameters from the Tomher BioSolv Unit

LANKAYAN ISLAND STAFF BRIEFING / TRAINING On the Tomher INFINITY BIOSOLV

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WHAT IS BIOFILM CARRIER ALL ABOUT?

The biofilm carrier is made of high density, durable Polypropylene - plastic (0.92 g/cm3) and shaped as small cylinders with a cross on the inside of the cylinder and fins on the outside. Various shapes and sizes are introduced by numerous manufacturers. One of the important advantages of the moving bed biofilm reactor is that the filling fraction of carrier in the reactor can be subject to sewage loads.

By increasing the filling fraction (increase the % of carriers in a given volume space) one can increase surface area and capacity of the reactor to reduce BODs without additional tanks. It shall be noted that oxygen demands also increases simultaneously, whereas, a larger air blower may be required.

Microorganisms growing on the carrier media are also much more resistant to pH and toxic shock as well as fluctuations in BODs. Produced bio-solids are also easy to separate and dewater. The bacterias /activated sludge grow on the internal surface of the carriers. The bacteria break down the organic matter from the waste water. The aeration system keeps the carriers with activated sludge in motion. Only the extra amount of bacterias growth, the excess sludge will come separate from the carriers and will flow with the treated water towards the final separator.

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SUB SURFACE MODULAR HYDROPONICS WASTE WATER TREATMENT

In many cases, the use of a septic tank is not the best or eco-friendly application, whereas, there may be insufficient land space for an adequate drain or leach field to discharge/treat the effluent. In these cases, an alternative type of waste water treatment is warranted. In addition, water village communities and resorts located on small, sandy or rocky islands will require alternative applications rather than relying exclusively on septic tanks/chambers. In 1997, an innovative waste water treatment system was designed in Sabah, Malaysia for a water village type resort to adequately treat septic tank discharge/effluent rather than allowing the same untreated waste water to enter the coastal shoreline waters in and around the resort itself. This design was incorporated from pre-existing sub-surface flow constructed wetland designs; SSF.

To reduce costs, the design allowed the existing septic tanks to remain beneath each unit of two room chalets. Rather than having the septic tanks directly discharging into the shallow seawater shoreline, the effluent was piped to strategically placed collection tanks in which ozone was applied. Ozone aids in the sterilization process as well as helping to decompose complex dissolved organic matter. This same ozone treated waste water was then pumped to an inventive modular subsurface wetland / hydroponics design that scrubbed out nutrients and reduced bacteria before being discharged into the coastal water. The discharge water from the system was clear, odourless and low in E. coli bacteria counts; similar to small stream/river waters. Wetlands are defined as land where the water surface is near the ground surface long enough each year to maintain saturated soil conditions, along with the related vegetation. Marshes, bogs, and swamps are all examples of naturally occurring wetlands. A constructed wetland is defined as a wetland specifically constructed for the purpose of pollution control and waste management, at a location other than existing natural wetlands. There are two basic types of 19 | P a g e WASTE WATER TREATMENT MBBR-HTS 2011

constructed wetlands, the free water surface wetland and the subsurface flow wetland. Both types utilize emergent aquatic vegetation and are similar in appearance to a marsh. Physical, chemical, and biological processes combine in wetlands to remove contaminants from wastewater. An understanding of these processes is fundamental not only to designing wetland systems but to understanding the fate of chemicals once they enter the wetland. Theoretically, wastewater treatment within a constructed wetland occurs as it passes through the wetland medium and the plant rhizosphere. A thin film around each root hair is aerobic due to the leakage of oxygen from the rhizomes, roots, and rootlets. Aerobic and anaerobic micro-organisms facilitate decomposition of organic matter. Microbial nitrification and subsequent denitrification releases nitrogen as gas to the atmosphere. Phosphorus is precipitated with iron, aluminium, and calcium compounds located in the root-bed medium. Suspended solids filter out as they settle in the water column in surface flow wetlands or are physically filtered out by the medium within subsurface flow wetland cells. Harmful bacteria and viruses are reduced by filtration and adsorption by biofilms on the rock media in subsurface flow and vertical flow systems.

Modular Sub-Surface Engineered Wetland Treatment System

Pacific Hydro Technologies Sdn. Bhd. (PHT)

Sub Surface Flow (SSF) wetlands are basically gravel - or soil- based wetlands in which the wastewater passes through the porous substrate rather than above an impermeable substrate. The large surface area of the media and the plant roots also provides ample sites for a myriad of microbial activity. SSF systems use many of the same emergent plant species as Surface Flow / Pond (SF) systems. When treating an equivalent volume of flow, gravel-based SSF wetlands especially use less acreage than SF constructed wetlands. Also, gravel-based SSF systems are relatively low in maintenance requirements and are less likely to have odour and mosquito problems than are SF 20 | P a g e WASTE WATER TREATMENT MBBR-HTS 2011

lagoons. When properly designed, gravel-based wetland systems have high efficiency rates for removing biodegradable organic matter and nitrate-nitrogen from wastewater. Subsurface-flow wetlands can be further classified as horizontal flow and vertical flow constructed wetlands. Subsurface-flow wetlands move effluent (household wastewater, agricultural or mining runoff, tannery or meat processing wastes, or storm drains, or other water to be cleansed) through gravel, stone or sand medium on which plants are rooted. In subsurface-flow systems, the effluent may move either horizontally, parallel to the surface, or vertically, from the planted layer down through the substrate and out. Subsurface horizontal-flow wetlands are less hospitable to mosquitoes, (as there is no water exposed to the surface) whose populations can be a problem in surface-flow constructed wetlands. Carnivorous plants have been used to address this problem. Subsurface-flow systems have the advantage of requiring less land area for water treatment, but are not generally as suitable for wildlife habitat as are surface-flow constructed wetlands.

Modular Sub-Surface Engineered Wetland Treatment System

Pacific Hydro Technologies Sdn. Bhd. (PHT)

The subsurface flow (SSF) constructed wetland concept, incorporated as an easily expandable modular system with the PHT design application, can accommodate increase waste water volume loads with business or home expansions.

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The PHT modular design application can offer high performance treatment for reducing BOD5 and TSS levels at relatively low costs for construction, operation and maintenance.

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The odor and vector control offered by the SSF concept make it attractive for systems which are in close proximity to the public or home. Use applications range from single family dwellings to larger developments, resorts, community water villages, and other public facilities. Ammonia removal in non-modular, non-aerated SSF systems is often noted as being significantly deficient. The reason is the lack of oxygen in the gravel / soil media bed profile combined with an inadequate hydraulic retention time (HRT) to complete the nitrification reactions to remove nitrogen; especially in the form of ammonia NH3 and nitrite NO2. PHT modular hydroponics type SSF design incorporates a high rate of oxygen injection via an innovative / simple flow design. Water entering successive modular tanks is highly oxygenated to greatly aid in fostering deep plant root penetration which, in turn, aids in nutrient uptake, nitrification reactions, and antibacterial conditions. The modular tank application also gives per liter of waste water volume longer hydraulic retention time (HRT) which further aids in both nutrient removal / scrubbing and antibacterial affection.

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CONCLUSIONS NOTED WITH THE PHT / HTS SSF Design

The modular subsurface flow (SSF) constructed wetland concept can offer high performance levels for BOD5 and TSS at relatively low costs for construction and operation and maintenance. It is particularly well suited for small to moderate sized installations where suitable land and media are available at a reasonable cost. Ideally the PHT HTS well suited for water village type communities and resorts. The odour and vector control offered by the PHT HTS SSF concept make it attractive for systems which are in close proximity to the public. The PHT design applications range from single family dwellings to larger developments and public facilities. The cost effectiveness of the PHT HTS SSF wetland systems as compared to free water surface (FWS) wetlands for the same water quality goals will depend on the local availability of land and the cost for land and for the media used in the SSF concept. Ammonia removal in most of the past older generations of operating SSF systems is deficient; for lack of oxygen in the bed profile and a too brief HRT to complete the nitrification reactions. The PHT HTS SSF design incorporates a strong aeration application in each of the reactor tanks and is highly effective for ammonia removal through the simple equation noted below.

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 Older, SSF methods were used to induce and maintain root penetration in order to enhance this oxygen source for nitrification. About a six-day HRT (hydraulic retention time) would be necessary for significant nitrification with a fully developed root zone and warm weather conditions. The PHT HTS SSF design incorporates a strong aeration application that efficiently removes ammonia as well as reducing the HRT to 2 to 3 days. Reduction of fecal coliforms indicates that SSF systems are capable of about a one- or twolog reduction with sufficient HRT. In most cases that will not be sufficient to reach the commonly applied limit of 200/100 ml, so some form of final disinfection may be necessary. The PHT HTS SSF design incorporates a final ozone treatment to eliminate bacteria prior to landscape water use, ground injection.

HTS SSF Trimming of Plants

Trimming Compost Unit

Modular Sub-Surface Engineered Wetland Treatment System

Pacific Hydro Technologies Sdn. Bhd. (PHT)

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Non-Aerated SSF Systems Summary

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APPLICATIONS FOR SABAHS RESORTS

PRIMARY TREATMENT SYSTEMS - MBBR

Design Example for a PE 200 System: PE 200 (with PE02) Daily Flow (m3/d): Peak flow (4DWF) BOD (kg/day) Suspended solids Ammonia (kg/day) Nitrate from NH3 Phosphate Total Balance tank (m3) Total Reactor #1 (m3) Total Reactor #2 (m3) Settlement tank (m3) (Tank Volumes according to designs) WIEDA TANKS for this example: Balance Tanks (2): Reactor 1 Tanks (2):
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5.0 Cubic meters 40 6.7 12.0 high 1.1

=>

4,500 M2

[Achievable Output] <20mg/l <50mg/l <1mg/l <20mg/l ~16mg/l (2 / 10 m3 tanks) (2 / 4 m3 tanks) (2 / 4 m3 tanks) [1 Tank]

16.1 6.3 6.0 5.8

R 99CC / 9,900 Litres R 55CC / 5,400 Litres

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Reactor 2 Tanks (2): Settlement Tank (1):

R 55CC / 5,400 Litres R 72CC / 7,200 Litres

Working Water Level in R1 / R2 / Settlement Tanks:

1.5 Meters

(In consideration of Air Blower use and max water depth capable to pump air)

R 55CC / 5,400 L @ 1.5 meters Ht 5.0 Cubic meters Bio-Carriers / 4 tanks 3.8 / 1.25

= = = =

2.11 Meter High 3.8 cubic meters space 1.25 cubic meters per R Tank 30% fill to avail. water space

(Note: IF Carriers increased to 40% => PE 250 to 300)

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FINAL TREATMENT HYDROPONICS APPLICATION Gayana Resort Prototype System Design

Construction Phase
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Construction Phase

Planting the HTS Reactor Tanks with local species

The first hydroponics waste water treatment design, coined by the proponent designers as HTS, was undertaken out at Pulau Gaya, Gayana Resort in 1997. The first system design was specifically installed at The Reef Project for reasons of demonstrating a simple but viable system that could remove nutrients from human waste water prior to discharge into the sea. Serving two (2) toilets at The Reef Project, data was assessed from staff daytime use and guest visits during the evening hours to 9PM.

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Volume output from a septic tank (2,400L) located beneath the main build was an average of 1,400L / 24 hours. Water volume retention in the septic was within or better than manufactures guidelines and noted as approximately 30 hours. As the The Reef Project facility was public, with limited operational hours, the PE was noted as 15 with an average daily use for guests and staff. Septic tank effluent water was collected in a 1,000L HDPE tank in which ozone was injected from 6AM to 12AM or during the period of toilet use and retention period in the septic chamber itself. From the collection tank, ozone treated water was transferred every 20 to 30 minutes during day / night use via a level control float switch which activated a water pump. The HTS was installed with one (1) header tank, one (1) covered reactor tank, and three (3) planted reactor tanks. Water quality effluent from the septic tank was within the standards for the same as follows: The Header tank received heavy aeration to eliminate the ozone injected into the septic tank effluent collection tank. From the header tank, the waste water entered the first covered tank to undergo ammonia to nitrite as per the following simple equation. After conversion to nitrite, the same water was injected every 20 to 30 minutes per volume into the next three (3) HTS reactor tanks that were planted with a variety of mature plants. Water flow into each HTS reactor tanks is at the very bottom of each tank. The successive 20/30 minute injections traveled upward to finally drain into the heavily aerated central pipe. Water will then travel downward through the aeration (counter flow action) and flow out of the tank at the bottom of the central pipe and then into the bottom of the next HTS reactor tank. Water that enters the bottom of the HTS tank has been highly aerated as it travels downward in the central pipe of the former HTS reactor tank. This action is the key feature that allows the design to efficiently function with minimum tanks for adequate hydraulic retention time (HRT) to be able to change the nitrite to nitrate and have the plants absorb the same into their root systems. Each HTS reactor tank was filled with aggregate gravel; averaging 1.5 to 1.75 inch diameter.

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As this was a mock-up / testing system, the following tests were undertaken, whereas, TP1 is the covered NH3-NO reactor tank and the next tanks as TP2 to TP4. TP4 is the last HTS Reactor tank prior to effluent into the sea.

It is worth noting that the highly aerated HTS system design clearly removed AmmoniaNitrogen 100% when reaching TP3.

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Prior to the introduction of the HTS design to Gayana Resort, Pulau Gaya, Sabah, the above map shows septic tank effluent direct discharge into the coastal water at and even beneath the water village type resort was tested as follows. Water quality test sites were designated and the following conditions were found.

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Comparison of Septic & BioSolv System Applications for a PE 30 Unit HTS SEPTIC TANK EFFLUENT PE 30
-

(9 Tanks)

HTS Tank Configuration @ 1 reactor tank and 8 plant tanks => 9 Tanks HTS Tank working liquid volume @ 1,200 L for a TH400 /1,800 L tank HTS Tank working total liquid volume @ 9 X 1,200L => 10,800 L PE Use water use @ 200L / person PE Per Tank Unit => 3.5 / X 9 Tanks => 31.5 PE Total

HRT (Hydraulic Retention Time) => 10,800L / PE30 X 200L => 1.8 Days

BIOSOLV EFFLUENT PE 30
PE Per Tank Unit => 7.5

(4 Tanks)

HTS Tank Configuration @ 4 (TH400) plant tanks only HRT => 4,800L / PE30 X 200L => 0.8 days or 19 hours

BILLIAN ISLAND HTS UNDER CONSTRUCTION - 2010

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REFERENCES CITED & FURTHER INFORMATION

Anon. Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual. EPA/625/R-00/008 February 2002. Office of Water Office of Research and Development U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Anon. 2000. Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet Wetlands: Subsurface Flow. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Water. Washington, D.C. EPA 832-F-00-023 Burke, L., Selig, E., and Spalding, M. 2002. Reefs at Risk in Southeast Asia. Washington DC: World Resources Institute. Bromberek, Zbigniew, 2009. Eco-Resorts: Planning and Design for the Tropics. Elsevier Ltd., London. 255p. Bryant, D., Burke L., McManus J., and Spalding M.. 1998. Reefs at Risk: A map-based indicator of threats to the world's coral reefs. Washington DC: World Resources Institute. Cesar, H.J.S., Burke, L., and Pet-Soede, L. 2003. The Economics of Worldwide Coral Reef Degradation. Cesar Environmental Economics Consulting, Arnhem, and WWF-Netherlands, Zeist, The Netherlands. 23 pp. Chia, L.S. 2000. Overview of Impact of Sewage on the Marine Environment of East Asia: Social and Economic Opportunities. EAS/RCU Technical Report Series No. 15. 82 pp.
Gawler, M., Cripps, S., Drijver, C., Jorge, M. and Morris, B. (eds.). 2000. CoralWeb - Coral Reef Ecoregions in Action, 2000-2005: Framework Document. WWF Action Network, Zeist, The Netherlands. 205 pp.

Longmuir. S. 2000. ENGINEERED REED BEDS - AN EFFECTIVE POLISHING METHOD FOR WASTEWATER. WSL Consultants Pty Ltd. 35pp. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005. Implementation of the National Coral Reef Action Strategy: Report on U.S. Coral Reef Task Force Agency Activities From 2002-2003. Silver Spring, MD. 124 pp. Nellemann, C. and Corcoran, E. (Eds). 2006. Our precious coasts Marine pollution, climate change and the resilience of coastal ecosystems. United Nations Environment Programme, GRID-Arendal, Norway, www.grida.no Pforr,C., Macbeth,J., Clark,K.,Fountai. J, and Woo. D,.2007. THE DYNAMICS OF A COASTAL TOURISM DEVELOPMENT; attitudes, perceptions and processes. Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism CRC for Sustainable Tourism Pty Ltd. 150pp. Rusten, B., Kolkinn, O. and degaard, H. (1997). Moving bed biofilm reactors and chemical precipitation for high efficiency treatment of wastewater from small communities. Wat. Sci. Tech., 35(6), 71-79.

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Siti Haryani Chek Ranil. S.H.C. 2000. Overview of Subsurface Constructed Wetlands Application in Tropical Climates. Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Skudai, Johor Bahru, Malaysia. Sutherland KP, Shaban S, Joyner JL, Porter JW, Lipp EK (2011) Human Pathogen Shown to Cause Disease in the Threatened Eklhorn Coral Acropora palmata. PLoS ONE 6(8): e23468. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0023468 UN-HABITAT, 2008. Constructed Wetlands Manual. UN-HABITAT Water for Asian Cities Programme Nepal, Kathmandu. 250p.

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