Power Transformer

Thermal Ratings
Tim Raymond
2003 IEEE Transmission & Distribution Conference
Dallas, Texas PN06 Tuesday, 9-Sep-2003
Transformer Loading
Limit
In general, transformer capacity
limited by equipment (winding & oil)
temperatures.
Design limits (110C hot spot) not
necessarily operational limits

Nameplate Rating
Nameplate rating is not
necessarily operational limit
Based on 30C (40C Max.)
ambient
Continuous load at rated
current
Conservative hot spot temp of
110C
Results in overly conservative
ratings
Transformer Cooling
Insulating oil acts as cooling medium
Oil flow is either natural thermosiphon
flow (no pumps) or forced flow
(pumps).
Heat exchangers or radiators transfer
heat from oil to environment
Fans may be used to increase forced
convection over radiator fins
Oil Flow Within Winding
Core & Coils
Transformer Cooling
Thermal Model
Simple lumped parameter model


Oil temperature rise function of total loss
Winding temperature rise function of current
( )
( )
m
i R HS i HS
n
i
R TO i TO
K
R
R K
2
, ,
2
, ,
1
1
A = A
(

+
+
A = A
u u
u u
Steady-state Temperatures:
2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , HS TO A HS
u u u u A + A + =
Thermal Model
Thermal Model
Oil thermal time constant:
For OA and FA (ONAN and OFAF) the thermal capacity,
C, equals:
C = 0.0272 * W
CC
+ 0.01814 * W
Tank
+ 5.034 * V
Fluid
For DFOA and NDFOA (ODAF and OFAF) the thermal
capacity, C, equals:
C = 0.0272 * W
CC
+ 0.0272 * W
Tank
+ 7.305 * V
Fluid
The thermal time constant of the bulk oil at rated
temperature equals:
t
O,R
= C * Au
TO,R
/ P
T,R


Thermal Model
( )
( )
n
U
R TO U TO
R
R K
(

+
+
A = A
1
1
2
, ,
u u ( )
1 , 1 , , 2 ,
1
TO
t
TO U TO TO
O
e u u u u
t
A +
|
|
.
|

\
|
A A = A
A

m
U R HS U HS
K
2
, ,
A = A u u
( )
1 , 1 , , 2 ,
1
HS
t
HS U HS HS
W
e u u u u
t
A +
|
|
.
|

\
|
A A = A
A

2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , HS TO A HS
u u u u A + A + =
Top oil temperature rise at time t
2
= t
1
+At
Hot spot temperature rise at time t
2
= t
1
+At
Hot spot temperature at time t
2
= t
1
+At
Risk
Any energized transformer has finite
risk of failure
Risk increases with operating
temperatures
Overload is possible, if risks are
considered and mitigated to
acceptable levels
Risks
Three areas of risk:
Long-term (insulation aging)
Short-term (bubbles, oil expansion)
Ancillary components (bushings, LTCs,
CTs)

Long-term Risk
Insulation ages at any temperature
Rate of aging increases with
temperature (roughly doubling for
every 6C rise)
Effects mechanical strength of paper
Insulation Aging
Oil and paper adversely affected by
heat
Oil is replaceable, paper is not
Paper ages at any temperature
Pyrolysis, hydrolysis, oxidation
Break bonds in cellulose chain,
decreases mechanical strength
Insulation Aging
Arrhenius Reaction Rate


A is reference hot spot
A=95C for 55C insulation
A=110C for 65C insulation
Integrate F
AA
over time to get equiv. aging
Life end point difficult to determine
Based upon moisture content of 0.5% and
low O2

|
|
.
|

\
|
+

+
=
273 273
, HS R HS
A A
AA
e F
u u
Insulation Aging
Source: IEEE C57.91
Short-term Risks
Reduction in dielectric strength due to
bubble formation (>140C)
Function of moisture content, gas
content, pressure & temperature
Bubble Formation
Source: EPRI Report RP 1289-1
Bubble Prediction
2 models available
Complex model by Rouse et al., sum of
instantaneous partial pressure of gas and
water vapor vs. static pressure
Empirical model by T. V. Oommen relates
moisture content, gas pressure and static
pressure to onset temperature
Bubble Prediction
(Oommen)
( ) 273 -
30
V

P
-
W
1.4495 + 22.454
6996.7
=
1.585
g
)
W
0.473 (
pres WP
bubble
WP
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

O EXP
ln ln
Where:
O
bubble
is bubble onset temperature
W
WP
is moisture content of paper (% by wgt)
P
pres
is static pressure
V
g
is total gas concentration (% by vol)
Additional Risks
Expansion of oil beyond capacity of
tank
Deterioration of gaskets and seals
Delamination of composite insulating
materials
Reduced mechanical strength of
conductor bonding materials
Ancillary Components
Bushings
LTCs
DETCs
Leads
Bushing CTs
Bushings
Oil-impregnated, paper-
insulated, capacitance-graded
bushings
Designed with 105C bushing
hot spot limit at rated load and
95C top oil temperature
average over 24 hours
Overload is possible
Bushing (cont)
Overload risks of bushings include:
Pressure build-up due to oil expansion
Deterioration of gaskets and seals
Thermal deterioration of paper insulation
Increase in dielectric loss, possibly
resulting in thermal runaway
Gas evolution at extreme hot spots
Bushing (cont)
Overload limits:
40C ambient
110C transformer top oil temperature
2x rated bushing current
150C bushing hot spot temperature
Load Tap Changer
Designed with a contact rise over
oil of less than 20C at 1.2 times
rated load
Designed to break twice rated
current at least 40 times

Load Tap Changer (cont)
Overload risks of LTCs include:
Increased contact wear and ablation with
increased load during break operations
Increased contact temperatures increases
probability and rate of coking of contacts
(>120C)
Higher overloads result in prolonged arcing
during break operation. Dragging the arc across
the contacts could result in short-circuiting the
regulating winding
Load Tap Changer (cont)
Overload limits:
120C contact temperature (higher is OK,
but may result in greater maintenance)
2x LTC rated load current (limit breaking
operations at high load level to few
times/year)
Other
DETC similar in rating to OLTC
Leads can be a concern. Same hot
spot limits apply for leads as for
windings. However, leads are usually
not limiting.
Bushing CTs are limited by
transformer top oil temperature.
Maintaining a top oil < 110C should
avoid excessive temperatures
Example Lead Heating
Operation Concerns
Difference between tested rises and
design limits
Age & loading history
Prior operational records (maintenance
history)
Overall Condition (moisture, DGA, oil
quality)
Uprating
Add fans and pumps
Practical maximum
Caution must be exercised to avoid large hot
spot gradient
Increase size of heat exchanger
Same caveats as above
Water spray during peak loading
Careful to avoid excessive local mechanical
forces and steam may cause flashover of
bushings