Effects of heavy-resistance training on hormonal

response patterns in younger vs. older men

WILLIAM J. KRAEMER,1 KEIJO HÄKKINEN,3 ROBERT U. NEWTON,4
BRADLEY C. NINDL,2 JEFF S. VOLEK,2 MATTHEW MCCORMICK,2
LINCOLN A. GOTSHALK,2 SCOTT E. GORDON,2 STEVEN J. FLECK,6
WAYNE W. CAMPBELL,5 MARGOT PUTUKIAN,2 AND WILLIAM J. EVANS5
1Human Performance Laboratory, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana 47306;
2Center for Sports Medicine/Noll Physiological Research Center, Pennsylvania State

University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802; 3Department of Biology of Physical

Activity, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland; 4School of Exercise Science
and Sport Management, Southern Cross University, Lismore, New South Wales, Australia;
5Nutrition, Metabolism, and Exercise Laboratory, Donald W. Reynolds Department

of Geriatrics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, North Little Rock, Arkansas 72114-1706;
and 6Department of Sport Science, Colorado College, Colorado Springs, Colorado 80913

Kraemer, William J., Keijo Häkkinen, Robert U. New-
ton, Bradley C. Nindl, Jeff S. Volek, Matthew McCor-
mick, Lincoln A. Gotshalk, Scott E. Gordon, Steven J.
Fleck, Wayne W. Campbell, Margot Putukian, and
William J. Evans. Effects of heavy-resistance training on
hormonal response patterns in younger vs. older men. J.
Appl. Physiol. 87(3): 982–992, 1999.—To examine the adapta-
tions of the endocrine system to heavy-resistance training in
younger vs. older men, two groups of men (30 and 62 yr old)
participated in a 10-wk periodized strength-power training
program. Blood was obtained before, immediately after, and
5, 15, and 30 min after exercise at rest before and after
training and at rest at ⫺3, 0, 6, and 10 wk for analysis of total
testosterone, free testosterone, cortisol, growth hormone,
lactate, and ACTH analysis. Resting values for insulin-like
growth factor (IGF)-I and IGF-binding protein-3 were deter-
mined before and after training. A heavy-resistance exercise
test was used to evaluate the exercise-induced responses (4
sets of 10-repetition maximum squats with 90 s of rest
between sets). Squat strength and thigh muscle cross-
sectional area increased for both groups. The younger group
demonstrated higher total and free testosterone and IGF-I
than the older men, training-induced increases in free testos-
terone at rest and with exercise, and increases in resting
IGF-binding protein-3. With training the older group demon-
strated a significant increase in total testosterone in response
to exercise stress along with significant decreases in resting
cortisol. These data indicate that older men do respond with
an enhanced hormonal profile in the early phase of a resis-
tance training program, but the response is different from
that of younger men.
endocrine; aging; sarcopenia; strength; muscle; andropause;
somatopause; growth factors
NORMAL AGING IS ASSOCIATED with declines in fat-free
mass, particularly muscle mass (i.e., sarcopenia), and
subsequent decrements in muscle strength and func-
tional abilities (18–20, 44, 60, 62). With age, plasma
concentrations of circulating anabolic hormones and
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982 8750-7587/99 $5.00 Copyright r 1999 the American Physiological Society
growth factors [e.g., growth hormone (GH), testoster-
one, and insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I] are also
diminished (i.e., somatopause and andropause) (4, 11,
16, 22, 33, 42, 46, 56, 61, 62). Over the last 15 years,
resistance training has been a primary intervention
used to offset the effects of aging by minimizing age-
related declines in strength, fat-free mass, and func-
tional abilities (2, 14, 18, 20, 54). Campbell et al. (2)
demonstrated that resistance training can positively
enhance nitrogen retention and whole body muscle
protein metabolism in older men. Enhanced protein
turnover favoring the growth of muscle tissue is under
the homeostatic interactive regulation of the endocrine
system (5, 6, 17, 31, 32, 50, 70). The hormonal changes
produced by weight-training exercise may be an impor-
tant stimulus in older men, contributing to the preven-
tion of sarcopenia, loss of strength, and loss of func-
tional abilities. However, data on the effects of strength
training on the acute response patterns of hormonal
changes with resistance training in older men are
limited (5, 18, 54).
Heavy-resistance exercise has been shown to be a
potent stimulus for acute increases in circulating hor-
mones in younger men (5, 23, 24, 30, 36–38, 40, 41, 59).
In contrast, heavy-resistance exercise has not been
shown to elicit the same magnitude of hormonal re-
sponses in older men (i.e., ⬎60 yr of age) (5, 23, 54, 59).
The importance of circulating hormones resides in the
fact that lower amounts of circulating anabolic hor-
mones are thought to influence the age-related decline
in muscle mass and its associated strength capabilities
observed in the sixth decade of life (4, 17, 61, 62).
Because it has been observed in younger men that the
alterations in hormonal concentrations may take place
in the early phase of training (67), the question arises
whether older men can engage similar hormonal mecha-
nisms in the early phase of a resistance training
program. Such changes, however, have not been typi-
cally observed (5, 18, 20, 54). This might be due to the
type of resistance training program utilized, inasmuch
as some protocols have not appeared to be as effective in
stimulating hormonal responses because of lower inten-
sity, small muscle mass involvement, and/or longer rest
http://www.jap.org
 AGING, HORMONES, AND HEAVY-RESISTANCE TRAINING
between sets and exercises (16, 24, 34, 36, 38). Further-
more, only a few studies have presented data on an
entire ensemble of anabolic and catabolic hormones
and acute and chronic responses of resistance exercise
and training (23, 54).
If the proper resistance training program (e.g., a
periodized program) could enhance the resting and/or
exercise-induced responses to resistance exercise, then
it might be of therapeutic value for addressing endo-
crine changes in aging men. The primary purpose of
this investigation was to examine the pattern of changes
in resting and exercise-induced blood hormonal concen-
trations in younger and older men before and after a
periodized resistance training program designed to
enhance muscle size and strength.
METHODS
Subjects. Eight younger [30-yr-old (30Y)] and nine older
[62-yr-old (62Y)] men volunteered to participate in this
investigation, which was approved by The Pennsylvania
State University Institutional Review Board for the Use of
Human Subjects. The risks and benefits of the study was
thoroughly explained to all subjects, and written informed
consent was subsequently obtained. Before inclusion in the
study, all subjects were medically screened and approved by a
physician as being healthy (i.e., free from any orthopedic,
endocrine, or medical problems). None of the subjects was on
any medications during the study. All subjects were physi-
cally active but had not been involved in any previous
structured resistance training programs. Activity question-
naires were utilized and revealed that all subjects were
involved in recreational sports and jogging. Pretraining char-
acteristics of the experimental subjects were as follows: for
the 30Y group, age was 29.8 ⫾ 5.3 yr, body mass was 90.0 ⫾
12.8 kg, height was 177.2 ⫾ 5.3 cm, and percent body fat was
18.3 ⫾ 4.6%; for the 62Y group, age was 62 ⫾ 3.2 yr, body
mass was 84.3 ⫾ 13.4 kg, height was 177.0 ⫾ 7.3 cm, and
percent body fat was 20.4 ⫾ 4.6%. From the information
collected, it was observed that physical characteristics and
activity background of these subjects were essentially similar,
with the only significant (P ⱕ 0.05) difference between the
two groups being age.
Body composition. Body composition was assessed using
skinfolds. All anthropometric measurements were obtained
by the same investigator on the right side of the subject’s
body. Skinfold thicknesses were obtained with a Harpenden
skinfold caliper (Country Technology, Gays Mills, WI; 10
g/mm constant pressure) at the chest, midaxilla, abdomen,
suprailium, subscapula, triceps, and thigh following the
procedures previously described (45). Repeated trials were
performed until two measures within 1 mm were obtained,
with the mean of these two measures being utilized. A
seven-site skinfold equation was used to estimate body den-
sity (29), and percent body fat was subsequently calculated
using the Siri equation (66). There was no significant differ-
ence in percent fat between the groups.
Muscle cross-sectional area. Thigh bone-free muscle cross-
sectional area (MCSA) of the dominant leg was assessed
before and after the resistance training program by means of
a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) 0.5-T superconduction
magnet (Picker International, Highland Heights, OH) with
MR6B software. Images were obtained by alteration of the
spin-lattice or longitudinal relaxation time (T1). T1-weighted
images were obtained using repetition time of 500 ms, echo
time of 13 ms, radio frequency of 90°, and power absorption of
983
0.028 W/kg. MCSA was analyzed from the MRI scans by a
gradient echo technique, which allows the greatest delinea-
tion and distinction between muscles. Once the subject was
positioned within the magnet, the thigh of the dominant leg
was supported under the knee to be parallel to the MRI table,
and the feet were strapped together to prevent rotation. A
sagittal image of the thigh was obtained. A 15-slice grid was
placed over the sagittal image, and transaxial images were
obtained. Fifteen 1-cm-thick transaxial images were obtained
equidistantly between the base of the femoral head and the
midknee joint of the thigh. All MRI images were then ported
to a Macintosh computer for calculation of total and indi-
vidual MCSAs with a modified National Institutes of Health
(NIH) image software package. For the MCSA, slice 8 was
used (slice 1 being the base of the femoral head). Tissue
cross-sectional area was obtained by using the NIH 1.55.20A
Image Analysis pixel-counting program. The same investiga-
tor made all area measurements, and the test-retest reliabil-
ity intraclass correlation coefficient for this measurement
was R ⫽ 0.99 (21).
One-repetition maximum test. Maximal strength was as-
sessed using a concentric-only 1-repetition maximum (RM,
i.e., the heaviest load that could be correctly performed once)
squat test on the Plyometric Power System (Norsearch,
Lismore, Australia) from a 90° knee angle (37, 73). Warm-up
consisted of a set of 5–10 repetitions at 40–60% perceived
maximum. Subjects then rested for ⬃1 min and performed
some light stretching. Thereafter, three to five repetitions
were performed with 60–80% of the perceived maximum.
Three to four subsequent attempts were then made to deter-
mine the 1 RM, with 3–5 min of rest between lifts. Proper
technique and a complete range of motion were required for
each successful 1-RM trial. No injuries were observed during
the 1-RM testing. The test-retest reliability coefficient for this
test was R ⫽ 0.97.
Acute heavy-resistance exercise test. Each subject was famil-
iarized with the experimental acute heavy-resistance exer-
cise test (AHRET) and performed the AHRET before and at
the conclusion of the 10-wk training program. The AHRET
consisted of four sets of 10-RM squats with 90 s of rest
between sets. If because of fatigue on any given set, the
subject failed to perform 10 repetitions, the load was subse-
quently adjusted (e.g., lightened) to allow the completion of 10
repetitions on the following set. The squats were performed
with the Plyometric Power System, as previously described
(73).
Blood collection and analyses. For the AHRET, blood was
obtained preexercise, immediately postexercise (IP), and 5,
15, and 30 min postexercise via an indwelling cannula kept
patent with a saline lock 1 wk before training (pre) and at the
conclusion of the training program (post). In addition, resting
blood samples were drawn with similar sterile techniques at
⫺3 wk (3 wk before the start of training) and at 0, 3, 6, and 10
wk during training. The blood samples drawn before training
were obtained to serve as control comparisons, and for the
ease of illustration, only the 0-wk values are depicted in
RESULTS. Resting blood samples drawn at ⫺3 and 0 wk were
indistinguishable (P ⬎ 0.05). Blood samples were obtained at
different times of the day among subjects but at the same
time of day for each subject during the experiment to limit the
influence of any diurnal variations (1, 11, 28, 64). Blood was
drawn after an overnight fast, and dietary intake was moni-
tored and recorded across time points. Over the course of the
resting baseline time line, blood was drawn from two 30Y
subjects and one 62Y subject outside the 90-min window from
week 0 (within 2.5 h). Blood was centrifuged at 1,500 g at
⫺4°C for 15 min. All serum and plasma samples were then
984 AGING, HORMONES, AND HEAVY-RESISTANCE TRAINING
distributed to appropriate preservative tubes and stored at
⫺84°C until analysis. Serum was obtained for total testoster-
one (TT), free testosterone (FT), cortisol, GH, and lactate
analysis, whereas heparinized plasma was obtained for ACTH
analysis. Resting values for serum IGF-I and IGF-binding
protein-3 (IGFBP-3) were determined only pre- and posttrain-
ing.
Hematocrit was determined in triplicate using a standard
microcapillary technique. Hb was determined colorimetri-
cally in duplicate using the cyanmethemoglobin method
(Sigma Chemical, St. Louis, MO). All hormones were ana-
lyzed in duplicate using various RIA techniques. To eliminate
interassay variance, all samples were analyzed within the
same assay batch, and all intra-assay variances were ⬍5%.
Serum testosterone (TT) and FT and cortisol were analyzed
by single-antibody (solid-phase) 125I-RIAs, whereas a double-
antibody assay was used for plasma ACTH and serum GH
(Diagnostic Products, Los Angeles, CA). Total IGF-I was
analyzed with 125I liquid-phase double-antibody RIA with an
octadecasilyl-silica preliminary column extraction to sepa-
rate IGF-I from its binding proteins (INCSTAR, Stillwater,
MN). IGFBP-3 was measured using a two-site immunoradio-
metric 125I assay (Diagnostic Systems Laboratory, Webster,
TX). Antibody sensitivities were 0.14 nmol/l for TT, 0.52
pmol/l for FT, 0.19 pmol/l for ACTH, 5.5 nmol/l for cortisol, ⬍2
nmol/l for IGF-I, 0.5 ng/ml for IGFBP-3, and 0.9 µg/l for GH.
An LKB model 1272 Clini gamma counter and on-line data
reduction system (Pharmacia LKB Nuclear, Gaithersburg,
MD) were used to determine immunoreactivity values. Whole
blood lactate concentrations were measured in duplicate
using a lactate analyzer (Sport Lactate Analyzer 1500, Yellow
Springs Instruments, Yellow Springs, OH). Plasma volume
changes were calculated using hematocrit and Hb values and
the methods described by Dill and Costill (7). Hormonal
concentrations were not corrected for plasma volume changes.
The plasma volume changes in this study pre- to post-AHRET
(IP) were ⫺11.4 ⫾ 6.2 and ⫺14.0 ⫾ 5.6% pretraining and
⫺10.4 ⫾ 5.2 and ⫺12.0 ⫾ 4.6% posttraining for the 30Y and
62Y groups, respectively. No significant differences in plasma
volume changes were observed between groups or with
training.
Periodized strength-power resistance training program. All
subjects were carefully familiarized with all the exercise
protocols used in the study. In addition, all exercise sessions
were individually supervised. The periodized resistance train-
ing program consisted of a nonlinear, multiset, multiexercise
periodized program performed three times per week for 10 wk
(12, 13). The daily workouts were alternated by varying the
resistance (intensity) and the volume (sets ⫻ repetitions ⫻
load) over the week. On Monday, sets were performed at 3–5
RM with 2–3 min of rest between sets. On Wednesday, sets
were performed at 8–10 RM with 1 min of rest between sets.
Finally, on Friday, the load was ⬃12–15 RM; however, only
6–8 repetitions were performed with the intention of perform-
ing these exercises with greater power output or in an
explosive manner. Between sets, 1–2 min of rest were al-
lowed. The program consisted of the following exercises:
squats, knee extensions, lower back extensions, lat pull
downs, leg curls, calf raises, bench presses, seated rows,
military presses, and arm curls.
Statistical analysis. Data were analyzed using a two-way
repeated-measures ANOVA, and a Fisher least significant
difference post hoc test was used to find differences in the
pairwise mean comparisons when appropriate. Statistical
power calculations for this study ranged from 0.78 to 0.80.
The significance level for this investigation was set at P ⱕ
0.05.
RESULTS
Strength and hypertrophy. The 30Y group had greater
1-RM squat strength and total mean thigh MCSA than
the 62Y group before and after the training program.
After 10 wk of the periodized resistance training pro-
gram, 1-RM squat strength increased from 139 ⫾ 22 to
163 ⫾ 23 kg and from 102 ⫾ 34 to 113 ⫾ 37 kg for the
30Y and 62Y groups, respectively. Thigh MSCA in-
creased from 186 ⫾ 16 to 204 ⫾ 18 cm2 and from 159 ⫾
22 to 169 ⫾ 26 cm2 after 10 wk of the periodized
resistance training program for the 30Y and 62Y
groups, respectively. No significant changes were ob-
served for body mass or percent body fat after training
for either group. Figure 1 shows the percent increases
in 1-RM squat strength and MCSA. The 30Y and 62Y
groups experienced similar percent increases for the
1-RM squat (⬃15%), but the 30Y group experienced a
greater amount of MCSA hypertrophy than the 62Y
group (10.1 ⫾ 3.7 and 5.9 ⫾ 2.9% for the 30Y and 62Y
groups, respectively). Also, an increase of 8.4 ⫾ 4.6%
(P ⱕ 0.05) in the MCSA calculated separately for the
hamstring muscle group in the 30Y group was greater
(P ⱕ 0.05) than 3.6 ⫾ 3.3% recorded for the 62Y group,
whereas the increases of 12.2 ⫾ 3.6 and 8.4 ⫾ 4.6% for
the quadriceps femoris did not differ significantly be-
tween the groups.
Serial resting hormonal concentrations. Figures 2–4
depict the changes in serial resting concentrations of
TT, FT, ACTH, and cortisol at 0, 3, 6, and 10 wk and for
IGF-I and IGFBP-3 at pre- and posttraining. For TT
(Fig. 2A), no significant differences were noted for age
or for training. However, interaction effects indicated
higher TT concentrations at 6 and 10 wk in the 30Y
than in the 60Y men. Significant age and interaction
effects were observed for FT responses (Fig. 2B). At 0
wk, there were no differences in FT between the 30Y
and 62Y men, but significant differences appeared by 3
wk and persisted throughout the duration of the train-
Fig. 1. Percent change (mean ⫾ SD) from pre- to posttraining for
younger (30Y) and older (62Y) men for 1-repetition maximum (RM)
squat and total thigh muscle cross-sectional area (MCSA). l Signifi-
cantly different (P ⱕ 0.05) from corresponding pretraining value;
# statistically significant difference (P ⱕ 0.05) between 30Y and 62Y
men.
 AGING, HORMONES, AND HEAVY-RESISTANCE TRAINING 985

TT (Fig. 5A), significant main effects were observed for

age. The means for the main effects due to age were
20.3 and 15.7 nmol/l for the 30Y and 62Y men, respec-
tively. Before training, elevations above baseline were
observed immediately after the AHRET and at 5 and 15
min of recovery for the 30Y men and immediately after
the AHRET and at 15 min of recovery for the 62Y men.
At 30 min of recovery, TT concentrations for both
groups were similar to preexercise values. The 30Y
men demonstrated elevations immediately and 5 min
after AHRET. The 62Y men demonstrated elevations
immediately after AHRET and at 5 min of recovery.
Interaction effects for the 62Y men also indicated that
the posttraining 5- and 30-min recovery time points
were greater than the corresponding pretraining val-
ues.
For FT (Fig. 5B), significant main effects for age,
recovery times, and training were observed. The means
for the main effects of age were 80 and 60 pmol/l for the
30Y and 62Y men, respectively. The means for the main
effects due to training were 66 and 74 pmol/l before and
after training, respectively. For the main effect of
recovery times, significant elevations above baseline
were seen immediately after the AHRET and for 5 and

Fig. 2. Serial resting concentrations (means ⫾ SD) for total testoster-

one (A) and free testosterone (B) during 10 wk of periodized strength
and power training. l Significantly different (P ⱕ 0.05) from corre-
sponding value at 0 wk; # statistically significant difference (P ⱕ 0.05)
between 30Y and 62Y men.

ing program. In addition, for the 30Y men, resting

serum concentrations for FT were elevated at 10 wk
compared with 0 wk. For the 62Y men, FT remained
unchanged throughout the training program. No age,
training, or interaction effects were observed for plasma
concentrations of ACTH (Fig. 3A). For cortisol (Fig.
3B), significant interaction effects were apparent, indi-
cating lower concentration at 3 and 10 wk than at 0 wk
for the 62Y group.
For GH (Fig. 4A), no age, training, or interaction
effects were evident. Figure 4, B and C, shows pre- and
posttraining assessment of serum IGF-I and IGFBP-3.
Serum IGF-I (Fig. 4B) was higher for the 30Y than for
the 62Y men pre- and posttraining. In addition, IGF-I
did not change for the 30Y or 62Y men from pre- to
posttraining. IGFBP-3 concentrations were higher in
the 30Y than in the 60Y men before and after training
(Fig. 4C). However, the 30Y men, but not the 62Y men,
demonstrated an increase in serum IGFBP-3 after 10
wk of resistance training.
Hormonal responses to the AHRET. Figures 5–7 Fig. 3. Serial resting concentrations (means ⫾ SD) for ACTH (A) and
depict the hormonal and lactate recovery responses cortisol (B) during 10 wk of periodized strength and power training.
after the AHRET before and after 10 wk of training. For l Significantly different (P ⱕ 0.05) from corresponding value at 0 wk.
986 AGING, HORMONES, AND HEAVY-RESISTANCE TRAINING

Fig. 4. Serial resting concentrations (means ⫾ SD) for growth hormone (A), insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I; B),
and IGF-I-binding protein (IGFBP-3; C) during 10 wk of periodized strength and power training. l Significantly
different (P ⱕ 0.05) from corresponding value at 0 wk; # statistically significant difference (P ⱕ 0.05) between 30Y
and 62Y men.

15 min, but not for 30 min into recovery. Interaction
effects revealed differences between the 30Y and 62Y
men at all time points, except for the pretraining
preexercise value. Also, elevations above preexercise
values were observed at IP and at 5 and 15 min
post-AHRET for the 30Y men pre- and posttraining. In
the 62Y men the FT values were higher than preexer-
cise values at IP and 15 min post-AHRET pretraining
and at IP and 5 min post-AHRET posttraining. For the
62Y men the pre-AHRET FT value posttraining was
greater than the pretraining value.
Compared with pretraining, for ACTH (Fig. 6A)
significant reductions after the AHRET were observed
posttraining. In the 30Y men, ACTH was elevated
pretraining at IP and at 5 and 15 min; however,
posttraining elevations were evident only at IP. In the
62Y men, ACTH was elevated pretraining at IP and at 5
min, but only at IP for posttraining. In addition, in the
30Y men the posttraining values were lower than the
corresponding pretraining values at IP and at 5 and 15
min. For the 62Y men the value was lower at IP
posttraining than pretraining. Cortisol was elevated
above pre-AHRET values at every time point for both
age groups pretraining (Fig. 6B). Posttraining, cortisol
was elevated above baseline at all time points in the
62Y men. In the 30Y men, cortisol was elevated over
preexercise values at 15 and 30 min. Their IP and 5 and
15 min of recovery time points posttraining were lower
than the corresponding pretraining values. Differences
between the 30Y and 62Y men were observed posttrain-
ing at IP and 5 min of recovery.
Lactate was significantly elevated above baseline
values after the AHRET for the 30Y and 62Y men
before and after the training program (Fig. 7A). Lactate
values were higher for the 30Y than for the 62Y group
at every time measured, except at 30 min post-AHRET
posttraining. Posttraining lactate values were lower
than the corresponding pretraining values for the 30Y
group at IP and at 5 and 15 min post-AHRET. The 62Y
men demonstrated no elevations in GH (Fig. 7B) above
pre-AHRET pre- or posttraining. The 30Y men demon-
strated elevated values pretraining for 5, 15, and 30
min of recovery. Posttraining, in the 30Y men, values
were higher at IP and at 5 and 15 min into recovery
than corresponding preexercise baseline values. For
the 30Y men the 30-min recovery value posttraining
was lower than the corresponding pretraining value.
 AGING, HORMONES, AND HEAVY-RESISTANCE TRAINING 987

function with exercise training remains an attractive

hypothesis, which could help ameliorate the age-
related declines in muscle tissue mass and strength. In
this study we examined the early-phase adaptations of
circulating hormones to a periodized heavy-resistance
training program targeted at increasing muscle size
and strength. Although the early phases of resistance
training are characterized by considerable neural adap-
tations (e.g., increased activation of the agonist
muscles), adaptations intrinsic to muscle also take
place in the early phases (67). In a prior study of
younger men, early-phase training adaptations in-
cluded transformations in muscle fiber type and in-
creases in strength that were associated with early-
phase increases in serum testosterone and decreases in
serum cortisol (67). Unique to the present study was
the use of a periodized heavy-resistance training pro-
gram, which was effective in eliciting increased muscle

Fig. 5. Responses (means ⫾ SD) of total testosterone (A) and free

testosterone (B) after an acute heavy-resistance exercise test (AHRET)
before and after 10 wk of periodized strength and power training for
30Y and 62Y men. * Significantly different (P ⱕ 0.05) from correspond-
ing preexercise value; # statistically significant difference (P ⱕ 0.05)
between 30Y and 62Y men; l statistically different (P ⱕ 0.05) from
corresponding pretraining value. Pre, preexercise; IP, immediately
after exercise; 5, 15, and 30: 5, 15, and 30 min after exercise.

DISCUSSION

The hormonal responses in this study reflect adapta-

tional changes in a very active and fit group of 60-yr-old
men who were capable of undertaking a very aggres-
sive whole body resistance training program. The effi-
cacy and associated adaptations of such a resistance
training program in less-fit 60-yr-old men or older
populations require further study. However, total body
resistance training programs have been used for older
adults and may just require proper progression to
ensure appropriate toleration of more advanced proto-
cols (13). Fig. 6. Responses (means ⫾ SD) of ACTH (A) and cortisol (B) after
Decreases in anabolic hormonal concentrations (e.g., AHRET before and after 10 wk of periodized strength and power
training for 30Y and 62Y men. * Significantly different (P ⱕ 0.05)
testosterone, GH, and IGF-I) with age can influence the from corresponding preexercise value; # statistically significant differ-
reduction in muscle size and strength observed with ence (P ⱕ 0.05) between 30Y and 62Y men; l significantly different
aging (32, 50, 63). Restoring an endocrine gland’s (P ⱕ 0.05) from corresponding pretraining value.
988 AGING, HORMONES, AND HEAVY-RESISTANCE TRAINING
Fig. 7. Responses (means ⫾ SD) of lactate (A) and growth hormone
(B) after AHRET before and after 10 wk of periodized strength and
power training for 30Y and 62Y men. * Significantly different (P ⱕ
0.05) from corresponding preexercise value; # statistically significant
difference (P ⱕ 0.05) between 30Y and 62Y men; l significantly
different (P ⱕ 0.05) from corresponding pretraining value.
size and muscle strength in just 10 wk. A major finding
of the present study was that the younger men demon-
strated a significantly greater increase in the size of the
whole thigh, yet the relative gains, at least in strength
of the knee extensors, were not different between the
older and younger groups. The ability of the younger
men to elicit a greater relative hypertrophic response in
10 wk of training in this study appears to be associated
with the differences in the resting and exercise-induced
adaptational patterns of the hormones. The other pri-
mary finding of this study was that the endocrine
system demonstrated a ‘‘plasticity’’ for adaptational
changes in older and younger men in the early phase of
a periodized heavy-resistance training program.
In men, testosterone is a potent anabolic hormone
that mediates protein accretion and also enhances
neural function (6, 51, 70). In general, exercised-
induced concentrations of testosterone [e.g., exercise
main effects for TT (20.3 vs. 15.7 nmol/l) and FT (80 vs.
60 pmol/)] were significantly higher in the 30Y than in
the 62Y group. In addition, area-under-the-curve analy-
sis revealed a greater magnitude of increase in the
exercise-induced responses of FT to a resistance train-
ing stimulus in younger men. These data support the
maintenance of an ‘‘andropause,’’ which is character-
ized by a decrease in testicular Leydig cell numbers,
reductions in secretory capacity, and a decrease in
resting episodic and stimulated gonadotropin secretion
(69–71). Staron et al. (67) demonstrated that resting
concentrations of TT in men averaging 23.5 yr of age
increased over baseline values after just 4 wk of
training. However, other studies have not shown a
training-related increase in resting concentrations of
testosterone. This indicates that, in young men, testos-
terone may exhibit a dynamic homeostatic hormonal
response pattern to resistance training. However, in a
study by Nicklas et al. (54), no alterations in resting
concentrations of TT were observed over 16 wk of
progressive training in men averaging 60 yr of age.
Häkkinen and Pakarinen (25) observed a similar nonre-
sponse in 70-yr-old men. Despite the lack of changes in
hormonal concentrations, they reported significant rela-
tionships between testosterone concentrations and
change in strength with training in the 70-yr-old men
(r ⫽ 0.61). In the present study, although no changes in
resting testosterone were observed with 10 wk of
training in the 62Y men, the 62Y group did demon-
strate an enhanced adaptational ability to stimulate
TT after resistance exercise. This finding is unique and
may be related to the periodized training program;
however, the exact reasons and the physiological mecha-
nism(s) mediating this adaptation remain speculative.
The mechanism(s) that mediate such an adaptation
in exercise-induced serum testosterone concentrations
in older men could be due to classic increases in
luteinizing hormone (LH) pulsatility or production (34,
46, 51, 69, 71). However, Lu et al. (47) reported that
increased testosterone concentrations in male rats dur-
ing exercise were at least partially the result of a direct
(LH-independent) stimulatory mechanism of exercise,
with lactate influencing the secretion of testosterone by
increasing testicular cAMP production. Recent evi-
dence also implicates nitric oxide (via vasodilatory
mechanisms) and blood flow patterns impacting testos-
terone release at the level of the testis (49). The impact
of these exercise-induced changes in the older men
remains unclear but could have contributed to the
increases in muscle size and strength observed in this
study. One might speculate that in older men such
adaptational increases in testosterone may have contrib-
uted to a greater extent to the similar relative changes
in strength by the potent influence of testosterone on
neural mechanisms (e.g., increased neurotransmitter
synthesis) (36, 51). Neural factors have been demon-
strated to be very important, mediating strength in-
creases with short-term resistance training in older
men (19, 52, 53). In fact, the similar relative changes in
strength of the knee extensors with lower magnitudes
of increases in cross-sectional size of the whole thigh
 AGING, HORMONES, AND HEAVY-RESISTANCE TRAINING
(and also of the quadriceps femoris, although not
statistically different from the 30Y group) in older men
appear to support the theory that neural factors play a
great role in explaining 1-RM force production (19, 52,
53, 58). More specifically, both age groups demon-
strated smaller increases in the size of the hamstrings
than that observed for the quadriceps femoris, and the
62Y group showed a smaller training-induced increase
in the hamstring muscle than the respective increase
recorded for the 30Y group. Consistent with the present
data, smaller increases in the size of the hamstring
muscle group than in the quadriceps femoris have been
demonstrated in older individuals (65). Because
strength of the knee flexors was not recorded, it was not
possible to evaluate the contribution of neural factors
to strength development of the hamstrings between the
30Y and 62Y men in this study.
Resting FT concentrations were higher in the youn-
ger men through most of the training period, and the
younger men again showed the ability to elicit a higher
exercise-induced response of FT than the older men.
Häkkinen and Pakarinen (25) previously demonstrated
the importance of biologically active FT for trainability
in younger men. Testosterone circulates in a bound
form in the blood primarily with sex hormone-binding
globulin or albumin. Although the free hormone (FT is
considered both the testosterone that is circulating
unbound and the testosterone that circulates bound to
albumin) has been thought to be regulated by TT, the
bound testosterone complex, with a larger molecular
weight, has been shown to be unable to traverse the
capillary endothelium and penetrate the plasma mem-
brane to interact with the regulatory elements of the
nucleus (27, 36, 48, 57). Thus higher FT in the blood
appears to indicate an improved ‘‘bioactivity status’’ for
the younger men (51, 55, 56). Overall, a greater andro-
genic environment for the younger men at rest and
after exercise sessions appears to support the higher
overall magnitude of the observed increase in thigh
muscle size. In addition, these data give potential
insights into the age-related differences in the develop-
ment of muscle tissue with short-term training pro-
grams, although this difference may not hold true to the
same extent for all muscles or muscle groups. Thus
there appears to be an age-related advantage in FT-
mediated mechanism(s) to respond to a resistance
training program in the early phases of training.
Another important finding of this study was that the
amount of cortisol produced at resting levels was
reduced and the response to the resistance exercise
stress was lower in the older men. The decrease in
resting concentrations of cortisol throughout the train-
ing program in the older men without significant
changes in the ACTH concentrations indicates that the
ACTH receptors in the adrenal gland may have been
‘‘downregulated’’ (27, 35). With training, reductions in
the response of cortisol to resistance exercise stress
were observed in only the younger men. In an earlier
study, Staron et al. (67) showed a similar response in
younger men. These changes in exercise-induced corti-
sol responses observed after exercise are apparently
989
mediated by a reduction in ACTH responses to the
resistance exercise stress. The reductions in cortisol
have been thought to provide one possible mechanism
by which protein accretion via reduced degradation in
type I muscle fibers is enhanced (8, 36). Older men may
also rely on hypertrophy of type I muscle fibers to elicit
total muscle hypertrophy due to a loss of type II muscle
fibers with the aging process (43). Thus the importance
of these changes in cortisol cannot be minimized,
especially in the older men, as a mechanism related to
tissue hypertrophy and force production abilities. Col-
lectively, these data indicate that the older men can
elicit a reduction in the catabolic hormonal responses,
resulting in a more favorable anabolic environment for
reduced protein degradation or increased protein syn-
thesis.
In this study no significant changes in GH were
observed for resting concentrations throughout the
training program for younger or older subjects. This
result is supported by similar findings in the literature
(5, 15, 25, 26, 54, 67). The lactate response to exercise
was lower in the older than in the younger men with
use of the same relative exercise stress. The younger
men also demonstrated a slightly reduced lactate re-
sponse to the same relative exercise intensity after
training, and this may partially explain the trend for
some of the postexercise GH values to be lower, inas-
much as acid-base mechanisms have been shown to be
related to GH release (15). Although no changes have
typically been observed for resistance training studies
in GH adaptations of older men, GH responses follow-
ing constant exercise responses after endurance-type
training are reduced (72). Because of the pulsatile
nature of GH, single resting measures must be inter-
preted cautiously, especially in younger men, who show
a much more prominent pulsatile secretion (11, 71).
Our data are consistent with the findings of other
resistance training studies of GH in older and younger
men (5, 25, 54, 67). In general, significant increases in
the pattern of exercise-induced GH after resistance
exercise were observed for only the 30Y group. This is
in agreement with previous studies in which exercise
did not induce a GH response in older men (5, 54) and in
which the GH response was reduced after resistance
training at some but not all times of recovery (63).
These results may be in part due to differences in age of
the subjects or differences in the training programs
(i.e., total sets, repetitions, rest periods, and exercises).
There is only a rudimentary understanding of the
effects of exercise and aging on the physiological mecha-
nisms underlying ‘‘somatopause’’ (i.e., the diminish-
ment of the GH-IGF-I system) (4, 61). Because this
endocrine axis has been thought to be of great impor-
tance in maintaining the integrity of the musculoskel-
etal system, it is conceptually pragmatic to suggest that
exercise regimens should attempt to target it. GH also
exhibits a great deal of molecular heterogeneity, and
the standard RIA focuses on the 22-kDa variant (3, 10,
68). This is an especially important point for future
studies, when it is considered that the higher molecular
weight species of GH could possess greater biological
990 AGING, HORMONES, AND HEAVY-RESISTANCE TRAINING
activity and that the lack of changes or reductions in
the immunoreactive GH may not present the complete
picture of the adaptational responses of GH variants to
resistance exercise training (3, 10, 15, 68).
Similar to other studies, IGF-I was lower in the 62Y
than in the 30Y group (4, 54). Ten weeks of training did
not affect this age-related difference, and therefore
short-term training does not appear to be effective in
altering IGF-I concentrations (54). However, unique to
this study was the finding that resistance training
significantly increased IGFBP-3 in the younger group.
In addition, the concentration of IGFBP-3 was higher
than in the older group pre- and posttraining. IGF-I
and IGFBP-3 are thought to be released from the liver,
yet few studies have examined the effects of chronic
resistance training on the components of the IGF
system. In endurance training studies, IGFBP-3 has
been shown to be independent of IGF-I responses and
potentially have its own biological activity at the level
of the cell (32). Recently, Elikiam et al. (9) showed that
muscle IGF-I concentrations can increase with endur-
ance training, despite lack of change in muscle IGF-I
mRNA or serum IGF-I. Lack of change in serum IGF-I
with training may suggest that IGF-I in the circulation
may not be a meaningful marker of the implicit activity
of the GH-IGF-I system. IGF-I may operate in more of
an autocrine/paracrine fashion in muscle, or increased
secretion from the liver may be quickly sequestered by
the tissue in an effort to maintain a homeostatic
balance of IGF-I in the systemic circulation. IGF-I
exerts a negative inhibition on GH secretion at the level
of the hypothalamus and the pituitary. Tissue sequester-
ing of IGF-I could serve to augment its mitogenic
actions and, at the same time, protect the system from
a decline in hypothalamic and pituitary GH release.
In summary, this study has demonstrated differences
in hormonal concentrations between men averaging 30
and 62 yr of age. However, periodized resistance train-
ing is very effective in producing initial gains in muscle
size and strength. These adaptations are associated
most likely with early neural adaptations of the trained
muscles and also with changes in the endocrine system
in older and younger men. The inability to engage
similar hormonal mechanisms in response to heavy-
resistance exercise training indicates that the plastic-
ity of the endocrine system in older men has been
altered or impaired. However, this study was the first to
demonstrate that older men can make physiological
adaptations in the endocrine system with resistance
training. Whether longer periods of periodized resis-
tance training in older men will continue to produce
further hormonal adaptations that are associated with
further changes in muscle size, strength, and func-
tional abilities remains a provocative hypothesis for
further study.
We thank Dr. Arja Häkkinen, Dr. J. Michael Lynch, the graduate
students, and the laboratory staff for their help and support of this
project. We also thank a very dedicated group of subjects who
participated in the investigation and made this project possible.
We gratefully acknowledge the support of this project by a grant
from the Ministry of Education in Finland.
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: W. J.
Kraemer, Human Performance Laboratory, Ball State University,
Muncie, IN 47306 (E-mail: wkraemer@bsu.edu).
Received 10 August 1998; accepted in final form 7 April 1999.
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