The elusive skill: How can we

test L2 listening validly?

J ohnField, J ohnField, J ohn Field, J ohn Field,
CRELLA, University of Bedfordshire, UK CRELLA, University of Bedfordshire, UK
F l f Ed i C b id U i i F l f Ed i C b id U i i Faculty of Education, Cambridge University Faculty of Education, Cambridge University
Picking up some themes
The importance of the test taker The importance of the test taker
Local Local vs vsinternational testing international testing
Testingfor learning Testingfor learning Testing for learning Testing for learning
Testing along a developmental continuum Testing along a developmental continuum
An evidence An evidence--based approach to testing based approach to testing
Th t t t k The test taker (OSullivan, 2011)
Individual characteristics
Ph i l h l i l i i l Physical, psychological, experiential
Cognitive Cognitive
Processes Resources
(Behaviour) (Knowledge)
Expertise pe se
An expert p
Is somebody who can use a skill in way that is Is somebody who can use a skill in way that is
rapidandthat doesnot demandagreat deal of rapidandthat doesnot demandagreat deal of rapid and that does not demand a great deal of rapid and that does not demand a great deal of
forethought. forethought.
A gooddriver doesnot havetothinkabout the A gooddriver doesnot havetothinkabout the A good driver does not have to think about the A good driver does not have to think about the
process of changing gears. process of changing gears.
A goodspeaker constructsandproducesa A goodspeaker constructsandproducesa A good speaker constructs and produces a A good speaker constructs and produces a
sentence without having to pause to think about sentence without having to pause to think about
thewordsor grammar beingused thewordsor grammar beingused the words or grammar being used. the words or grammar being used.
A test of a language skill should not assess A test of a language skill should not assess
knowledgeof language but expertiseinusingthat knowledgeof language but expertiseinusingthat knowledge of language, but expertise in using that knowledge of language, but expertise in using that
language. language.
Predictive testing
Many high stakes language test scores are Many high stakes language test scores are
employed employedpredictively predictively: e.g. toshowthat an : e.g. toshowthat an employed employed predictively predictively: e.g. to show that an : e.g. to show that an
individual is capable of performing in a individual is capable of performing in a
particular job classor academicsetting particular job classor academicsetting particular job, class or academic setting. particular job, class or academic setting.
This places a responsibility on the test This places a responsibility on the test
designer to ensure that the test elicits designer to ensure that the test elicits
behaviour similar to the behaviour that behaviour similar to the behaviour that be v ou s o ebe v ou be v ou s o ebe v ou
happens in a real happens in a real--world context. world context.
Cognitivevalidity(Glaser 1991) Cognitive validity (Glaser, 1991)
Clearly we cannot reproduce the Clearly we cannot reproduce the
circumstances of a real listening event in the circumstances of a real listening event in the
artificial environment of a test. artificial environment of a test.
But cognitive validity requires us to find out But cognitive validity requires us to find out
if the if themental processes mental processesthat atest elicits that atest elicits if the if the mental processes mental processes that a test elicits that a test elicits
from a candidate resemble the processes from a candidate resemble the processes
that he/shewouldemployinnon that he/shewouldemployinnon--test test that he/she would employ in non that he/she would employ in non test test
conditions. conditions.
At issue: At issue: How valid is the test as a predictor How valid is the test as a predictor At issue: At issue: How valid is the test as a predictor How valid is the test as a predictor
of real of real--life performance? life performance?
The elusive skill eeusves
With writing and speaking, we have evidence of With writing and speaking, we have evidence of
how test takers perform. Listening and reading take how test takers perform. Listening and reading take
place internally, so we have to teach and test them place internally, so we have to teach and test them
indirectly indirectly by asking questions. by asking questions.
This brings teaching and testing closely together. This brings teaching and testing closely together. g g g y g g g g y g
But we should never forget that the results we But we should never forget that the results we
obtaintell usabout the obtaintell usabout theproduct product of listening not the of listening not the obtain tell us about the obtain tell us about the product product of listening, not the of listening, not the
process (how the test taker arrived at the answer). process (how the test taker arrived at the answer).
Soit isdifficult tomakeuseof test scoresto Soit isdifficult tomakeuseof test scoresto So it is difficult to make use of test scores to So it is difficult to make use of test scores to
diagnose and deal with a classs listening problems. diagnose and deal with a classs listening problems.
The elusive skill 2
Testing listening usually has to involve Testing listening usually has to involve
other skills other skills most often reading most often reading
Thisraisesquestionsof construct validity. Thisraisesquestionsof construct validity. This raises questions of construct validity. This raises questions of construct validity.
To what extent are we testing listening and To what extent are we testing listening and
towhat extent arewetestingreading? towhat extent arewetestingreading? to what extent are we testing reading? to what extent are we testing reading?
Distribution
50
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
10
90
Construct validation
These results from piloting a test show that it These results from piloting a test show that it
di i i t ll b t l It i ht di i i t ll b t l It i ht discriminates well between learners. It might seem discriminates well between learners. It might seem
to test the construct (let us say listening) well. to test the construct (let us say listening) well.
But supposing it is a test of listening with an easy But supposing it is a test of listening with an easy
recording but very complicated comprehension recording but very complicated comprehension
questions? questions?
It is possible that the result mainly represents It is possible that the result mainly represents
learners reading skills and not their listening learners reading skills and not their listening
skills skills
Th dt d t d h t i b i The need to understand what is being
tested
Weir (2005) argues strongly that we need to have Weir (2005) argues strongly that we need to have
aclearer ideaof theconstruct wearetesting aclearer ideaof theconstruct wearetesting a clearer idea of the construct we are testing a clearer idea of the construct we are testing
before designing a test. before designing a test.
Inthecaseof atest of listening weneedtoknow Inthecaseof atest of listening weneedtoknow In the case of a test of listening, we need to know In the case of a test of listening, we need to know
1. How does an expert listener behave (what is 1. How does an expert listener behave (what is
thetarget behaviour learnersareworking thetarget behaviour learnersareworking the target behaviour learners are working the target behaviour learners are working
towards?) towards?)
2 What dotest takersactuallydoinalistening 2 What dotest takersactuallydoinalistening 2. What do test takers actually do in a listening 2. What do test takers actually do in a listening
test? How closely does it resemble natural test? How closely does it resemble natural
listening? listening? listening? listening?
Establishing cognitive validity
In designing tests, testers need to know more In designing tests, testers need to know more
b t h t li t i i lik f th li t b t h t li t i i lik f th li t about what listening is like for the listener: about what listening is like for the listener:
44 About the About the speech signal speech signal that reaches a listeners that reaches a listeners
ear, and the problems it might cause to an L2 ear, and the problems it might cause to an L2
listener. listener.
44 About the About the processes processesthat an expert listener uses that an expert listener uses
in normal circumstances and the way they in normal circumstances and the way they
might vary in the case of an L2 listener. might vary in the case of an L2 listener.
Weneedtoavoideasy We need to avoid easy
comparisonswithreading comparisons with reading
The input is very different in reading The input is very different in reading
44Spelling is fixed and does not vary much Spelling is fixed and does not vary much
44Thereareregular gapsbetweenwords Thereareregular gapsbetweenwords 44There are regular gaps between words There are regular gaps between words
The process of reading is very different The process of reading is very different
44A reader can look back to check A reader can look back to check
44A reader canspeedupor slowdown A reader canspeedupor slowdown 44A reader can speed up or slow down A reader can speed up or slow down
Howtofindout what listening How to find out what listening
reallyis? really is?
Psychologists have built up quite detailed Psychologists have built up quite detailed
accounts of all four language skills. accounts of all four language skills.
Theydrawuponhardevidenceobtainedin Theydrawuponhardevidenceobtainedin They draw upon hard evidence obtained in They draw upon hard evidence obtained in
their research. So we are not just using their research. So we are not just using
intuitiontoguesswhat theskill consistsof intuitiontoguesswhat theskill consistsof intuition to guess what the skill consists of intuition to guess what the skill consists of
((cf cf the sub the sub- -skills approach). This is an skills approach). This is an
id b d id b d hh evidence based evidence basedapproach approach
A cognitive framework for listening (Field, 2008) g g( )
INPUT DECODING
Language
knowledge: INPUT DECODING knowledge:
Phonology
Lexis
Co-text
PARSING
Syntax
Text-so-far
MEANING
CONSTRUCTION
World
knowledge
1. Decoding 1. Decoding 1. Decoding 1. Decoding
D di Decoding
INPUT LANGUAGE INPUT LANGUAGE INPUT LANGUAGE INPUT LANGUAGE
* ! + > / ^
THE+ SUN + IS
RISING
Phoneme (?) Phoneme (?)
Syllable Syllable yy
Word Word
Phrase / clause Phrase / clause
Th i t f d di The importance of decoding
l h h i f li i l h h i f li i An early approach to the testing of listening An early approach to the testing of listening
focused heavily on this level of the process, focused heavily on this level of the process,
making use of dictation and even minimal making use of dictation and even minimal
pair discrimination pair discrimination
In a later change of thinking, decoding was In a later change of thinking, decoding was
dismissed as irrelevant. dismissed as irrelevant. ds ssed s eev . ds ssed s eev .
But the fact is that many failures of But the fact is that many failures of
comprehensionoriginateat thelevel of comprehensionoriginateat thelevel of comprehension originate at the level of comprehension originate at the level of
decoding. decoding.
Challenges to accurate decoding
Unlike in reading, there is a high level of variation Unlike in reading, there is a high level of variation
intheformtakenby intheformtakenby in the form taken by in the form taken by
Phonemes Phonemes
((Cl l ff db h h b f d f ) Cl l ff db h h b f d f ) ((Closely affected by the phonemes before and after) Closely affected by the phonemes before and after)
Words in connected speech Words in connected speech
(often compressed so as to stress the most important (often compressed so as to stress the most important
word in the group) word in the group)
Thevoicesof speakers Thevoicesof speakers The voices of speakers The voices of speakers
(high (high vs vslow, fast low, fast vs vsslow, accent, precision) slow, accent, precision)
Knowledge and recognition g g
Testers of listening often choose recordings on the Testers of listening often choose recordings on the
groundsof language: thetranscript showsit tobe groundsof language: thetranscript showsit tobe grounds of language: the transcript shows it to be grounds of language: the transcript shows it to be
at or slightly above the linguistic level of the at or slightly above the linguistic level of the
target candidate target candidate gg
But the issue is not what the candidate knows but But the issue is not what the candidate knows but
what he/she can recognise when it occurs in what he/she can recognise when it occurs in gg
connected speech connected speech..
1. Testers need to work from the recorded 1. Testers need to work from the recorded
material, not just the transcript. material, not just the transcript.
2. They need to be sensitive to the perceptual 2. They need to be sensitive to the perceptual y p p y p p
prominence of words and structures in a given prominence of words and structures in a given
recording recording
Dowestill test decoding? Do we still test decoding?
Itemwriterstendtostatethat theyarenot Itemwriterstendtostatethat theyarenot Item writers tend to state that they are not Item writers tend to state that they are not
concerned with testing decoding skills; their concerned with testing decoding skills; their
target iscomprehension target iscomprehension target is comprehension . target is comprehension .
T i h ? Testing what?
E I f h f f I E I f h f f I -- Excuse me. Im waiting for the ten fifteen train. Is Excuse me. Im waiting for the ten fifteen train. Is
it on time? it on time?
N b l N b l -- No, its running about seven minutes late. No, its running about seven minutes late.
1. She is waiting for a train that should arrive at 1. She is waiting for a train that should arrive at
a. 10.50 b. 7.15 c. 10.15 d. 7.50 a. 10.50 b. 7.15 c. 10.15 d. 7.50
2. a. She is not in time for the train 2. a. She is not in time for the train
b. She is seven minutes too late for the train. b. She is seven minutes too late for the train.
c. Shewill needtowait alittlelonger for thetrain c. Shewill needtowait alittlelonger for thetrain c. She will need to wait a little longer for the train c. She will need to wait a little longer for the train
3. The train will arrive at: a. 10.57 b. 10. 22. c. 10.07 3. The train will arrive at: a. 10.57 b. 10. 22. c. 10.07
Dowestill test decoding? Do we still test decoding?
Infact, manyitemstarget wordandphrase Infact, manyitemstarget wordandphrase In fact, many items target word and phrase In fact, many items target word and phrase
level recognition level recognition
Thi i ti l lid B t it i i t t t Thi i ti l lid B t it i i t t t This is entirely valid. But it is important to This is entirely valid. But it is important to
ensure a balance between this type of focus ensure a balance between this type of focus
and higher level meaning construction and higher level meaning construction
Sometest formatssuchasgapfilling Sometest formatssuchasgapfilling Some test formats such as gap filling Some test formats such as gap filling
encourage a heavy dependence upon decoding encourage a heavy dependence upon decoding
d l d th t f li t i d l d th t f li t i and exclude other aspects of listening. and exclude other aspects of listening.
2. Parsing 2. Parsing 2. Parsing 2. Parsing
Listening as on-line processing
What is the speaker saying? What is the speaker saying?
Parsing Parsing
a. The heavy fall a. The heavy fall yy
clumsily. clumsily.
b Th l h d b Th l h d b. The actor learnt the words b. The actor learnt the words
had been written by Shakespeare. had been written by Shakespeare. y p y p
c. The rescuers discovered the plane c. The rescuers discovered the plane
had crashed. had crashed.
d. Thelawyer questioned d. Thelawyer questioned d. The lawyer questioned d. The lawyer questioned
by the judge admitted lying. by the judge admitted lying.
A conclusion
Listening in L1 or in L2 is a very Listening in L1 or in L2 is a very
i t i hi h i t i hi h approximate process in which approximate process in which
44A listener forms hypotheses of what the A listener forms hypotheses of what the
speaker is saying and is about to say speaker is saying and is about to say
44The listener often changes the hypotheses The listener often changes the hypotheses 44 e ste e o te c a gest e ypot eses e ste e o te c a gest e ypot eses
as more evidence comes in. as more evidence comes in.
L2listenersaremuchlesswillingtochange L2listenersaremuchlesswillingtochange L2 listeners are much less willing to change L2 listeners are much less willing to change
hypotheses than L1 ones. hypotheses than L1 ones.
Sample 1
You hear an explorer talking about a journey You hear an explorer talking about a journey
hesmaking Howwill hetravel onceheis hesmaking Howwill hetravel onceheis hes making. How will he travel once he is hes making. How will he travel once he is
across the river? across the river?
b hi l b hi l A. by motor vehicle A. by motor vehicle
B. on horseback B. on horseback
C. on foot C. on foot
((FCE Handbook FCE Handbook, 2008: 60) , 2008: 60)
Recording 1 (FCE Sample Test 1:1)
The engines full of water at the moment, its very The engines full of water at the moment, its very
d btf l if f th t k t th d btf l if f th t k t th doubtful if any of the trucks can get across the doubtful if any of the trucks can get across the
river in this weather. The alternative is to carry all river in this weather. The alternative is to carry all
th t ff i th ldf tb id hi hi th t ff i th ldf tb id hi hi the stuff across using the old footbridge, which is the stuff across using the old footbridge, which is
perfectly possible and then use horses rather perfectly possible and then use horses rather
th t k f th t f th t i ll th th t k f th t f th t i ll th than trucks for the rest of the trip all the way than trucks for the rest of the trip all the way
instead of just the last 10 or 15 kilometres as was instead of just the last 10 or 15 kilometres as was
i i l i t ti W l i k th i i l i t ti W l i k th our original intention. We can always pick up the our original intention. We can always pick up the
vehicles again on the way back down vehicles again on the way back down
Recording 1 (FCE Sample Test 1:1)
The engines full of water at the moment, its very The engines full of water at the moment, its very
doubtful if anyof thetruckscanget acrosstheriver doubtful if anyof thetruckscanget acrosstheriver doubtful if any of the trucks can get across the river doubtful if any of the trucks can get across the river
in this weather. The alternative is to carry all the stuff in this weather. The alternative is to carry all the stuff
acrossusingtheoldfootbridge whichisperfectly acrossusingtheoldfootbridge whichisperfectly across using the old footbridge, which is perfectly across using the old footbridge, which is perfectly
possible and possible and then use horses rather than trucks then use horses rather than trucksfor for
therest of thetripall thewayinsteadof just thelast therest of thetripall thewayinsteadof just thelast the rest of the trip all the way instead of just the last the rest of the trip all the way instead of just the last
10 or 15 kilometres as was the original intention. We 10 or 15 kilometres as was the original intention. We
canalwayspickupthevehiclesagainontheway canalwayspickupthevehiclesagainontheway can always pick up the vehicles again on the way can always pick up the vehicles again on the way
back down back down
Recording 1 (FCE Sample Test 1:1)
The engines full of water at the moment, its very The engines full of water at the moment, its very
doubtful if any of the doubtful if any of the trucks truckscan get across the river can get across the river doub u a yo e doub u a yo e uc s uc sca ge ac oss e ve ca ge ac oss e ve
in this weather. The alternative is to in this weather. The alternative is to carry carryall the stuff all the stuff
across using the old across using the old foot footbridge, which is perfectly bridge, which is perfectly gg g , p y g , p y
possible and possible and then use horses rather than then use horses rather thantrucks trucksfor for
the rest of the trip all the way instead of just the last the rest of the trip all the way instead of just the last p y j p y j
10 or 15 kilometres as was our original intention. We 10 or 15 kilometres as was our original intention. We
can always can always pick up the vehicles pick up the vehiclesagain on the way again on the way yy p p p p g y g y
down down
Recording 1 (FCE Sample Test 1:1)
[[CCThe engines full of water at the moment], [ The engines full of water at the moment], [CCits its
very doubtful if very doubtful if any of the any of the trucks truckscan get across the can get across the
river in this weather]. [ river in this weather]. [CCThe alternative is to The alternative is to carry carry
all the stuff across using the old all the stuff across using the old foot footbridge], [ bridge], [CC
which is perfectly possible which is perfectly possible] [ ] [CCand and then then [[use use
horses rather than horses rather thantrucks trucksfor the rest of the trip] [ for the rest of the trip] [CC
all the way all the wayinstead of just the last 10 or 15 instead of just the last 10 or 15
kilometres] [ kilometres] [as was the original intention]. [ as was the original intention]. [We We
can always can always pick up the vehicles pick up the vehiclesagain again on the way on the way
down down] [ ] [11] ]
Double parsing
It can be quite difficult for learners to hold a series It can be quite difficult for learners to hold a series
f d i th i i df l h til th f d i th i i df l h til th of words in their mind for long enough until they of words in their mind for long enough until they
can recognise the grammatical pattern in them can recognise the grammatical pattern in them
But a traditional test is even more difficult than But a traditional test is even more difficult than
real life. real life. The listener has to parse twice The listener has to parse twice once to once to
identify the grammar structure and once to check identify the grammar structure and once to check
if the group of words relates to the item or not. if the group of words relates to the item or not.
3. Meaningconstruction 3. Meaningconstruction 3. Meaning construction 3. Meaning construction
a. Enriching meaning a. Enriching meaning
b. Handling information b. Handling information
What is comprehension?
Testers tend to characterise tests of second language Testers tend to characterise tests of second language
listeningasmeasuring'comprehension'; without listeningasmeasuring'comprehension'; without listening as measuring comprehension; without listening as measuring comprehension; without
clearly defining the construct. However, they are clearly defining the construct. However, they are
quite often sensitive to the need for a mixture of quite often sensitive to the need for a mixture of qq
Local Local questions versus questions versus global global questions questions
Extracting Extractinggist gist versusextracting versusextractingdetail detail Extracting Extracting gist gist versus extracting versus extracting detail detail
Extracting Extracting fact fact versus interpreting speaker versus interpreting speaker intentions intentions
Handlingarangeof comprehension Handlingarangeof comprehensiontasktypes tasktypes Handling a range of comprehension Handling a range of comprehension task types. task types.
h i f h h ld h b ? h i f h h ld h b ? But what proportion of each should there be? But what proportion of each should there be?
In what ways are the processes different? In what ways are the processes different?
A model of meaning construction g
(Field 2008)
PROPOSITION
ENRICH ENRICH
MEANING
MEANINGREPRESENTATION
HANDLE INFO
DISCOURSE REPRESENTATION
Implications for testing
Questions may be asked at three levels: Questions may be asked at three levels:
Proposition Proposition: : local factual information local factual information
Meaning: Meaning: requiring the listener to relate what the requiring the listener to relate what the gg q g q g
speaker says to the context or to draw conclusions speaker says to the context or to draw conclusions
which are not explicitly expressed which are not explicitly expressed p y p p y p
Discourse: Discourse: showing a global understanding of showing a global understanding of
what wassaid(includingspeaker intentionsetc.) what wassaid(includingspeaker intentionsetc.) what was said (including speaker intentions etc.) what was said (including speaker intentions etc.)
Phase1Proposition->meaningrepn Phase 1 Proposition meaning repn
From the speech signal, the listener extracts From the speech signal, the listener extracts p g , p g ,
a proposition a proposition a literal meaning a literal meaning
He/ shethenhasto: He/ shethenhasto: He / she then has to: He / she then has to:
44 Relate the meaning to its Relate the meaning to its context context
44 Enrich Enrichthe meaning (drawing upon the meaning (drawing upon
world knowledge) world knowledge)
44 Make Make inferences inferences
44 Resolve Resolvereference reference(she it this did so) (she it this did so) 44 Resolve Resolve reference reference(she, it, this. did so) (she, it, this. did so)
44 Interpret Interpret the speakers intentions the speakers intentions
Phase2: meaning->discourse Phase 2: meaning > discourse
Handling information Handling information
Choose Choose Is it important? Is it relevant?
Connect Connect
p
How is it linked to the last utterance?
Connect Connect
CC
How is it linked to the last utterance?
Is what I think I heard consistent
Compare Compare
Is what I think I heard consistent
with what was said so far?
Construct Construct
What is the overall line of argument?
Structure building (Gernsbacher, 1990)
Skilled listeners construct a hierarchical Skilled listeners construct a hierarchical
t ti f di t ti f di representation of a recording representation of a recording
Structurebuilding Structure building
Unskilled listeners focus their attention at local Unskilled listeners focus their attention at local
l l l l level. level.
They build a linear structure. They build a linear structure.
A t t b ildi t k A structure building task
Threetypesof pollution Three types of pollution
1....
a. Example:.
b. Solution:
2. .
a. Cause: ..
b. Result: Climate change
3. .
a. Result:..
b. Solution: ..
Why is information handling omitted in y g
present test design?
Choose: Choose: the tester chooses which information points the tester chooses which information points
to focus on to focus on sometimes choosing points that are not sometimes choosing points that are not
l h di l h di central to the recording central to the recording
Connect Connect: Much testing focuses on single points, with : Much testing focuses on single points, with
i h b f d f i h b f d f no connection to those before and after no connection to those before and after
Compare: Compare: Tests rarely ask learners to check Tests rarely ask learners to check
i f i (f l i f i f i (f l i f information (for example, comparing two accounts of information (for example, comparing two accounts of
an accident) an accident)
C t t C t t T t l kf id th t l T t l kf id th t l Construct. Construct. Tests rarely seek for evidence that learners Tests rarely seek for evidence that learners
can construct an outline based upon macro can construct an outline based upon macro- -and micro and micro
points/ headingsandsubheadings points/ headingsandsubheadings points / headings and subheadings points / headings and subheadings
The inflexibility of high stakes tests
Largescalehigh Largescalehigh--stakestests stakestestshavemajor havemajor Large scale high Large scale high stakes tests stakes tests have major have major
constraints which prevent them from testing constraints which prevent them from testing
listeninginawaythat fullyrepresentstheskill listeninginawaythat fullyrepresentstheskill listening in a way that fully represents the skill. listening in a way that fully represents the skill.
Rater Rater reliability and ease of marking reliability and ease of marking
Highly controlled test methods, using Highly controlled test methods, using
traditional formatsthat thecandidateknows traditional formatsthat thecandidateknows traditional formats that the candidate knows traditional formats that the candidate knows
Little attention possible to individual Little attention possible to individual
variation or alternative answers variation or alternative answers
Theadvantageof morelocal tests The advantage of more local tests
Local smaller Local smaller- -scale tests scale testsafford the possibility of afford the possibility of
t ti id f li t i ith t ti id f li t i ith testing a wider rage of listening processes with: testing a wider rage of listening processes with:
More open ended questions More open ended questions
More scope for testing information handling More scope for testing information handling
Markingonanindividual basis Markingonanindividual basis Marking on an individual basis Marking on an individual basis
Possible acceptance of alternative answers Possible acceptance of alternative answers
Progress testing
Properly designed, progress tests might enable the Properly designed, progress tests might enable the
tester to diagnose specific listening problems. tester to diagnose specific listening problems.
In a follow up (ideally soon after), the In a follow up (ideally soon after), the
teacher/tester can ask: teacher/tester can ask: Why did you give that Why did you give that
answer? What do you think you heard? answer? What do you think you heard?
In this way, a test can help to determine which In this way, a test can help to determine which
aspects of listening should be focused on in later aspects of listening should be focused on in later
small small--scale practice exercises. scale practice exercises.
In other words, this kind of test can be formative In other words, this kind of test can be formative
rather than just judgemental. rather than just judgemental.
Somereferences Some references
Field, J . (2008): Field, J . (2008): Listening in the Language Classroom. Listening in the Language Classroom. , ( ) , ( ) g g g g g g
Cambridge: CUP Cambridge: CUP
Field, J . (2009) A cognitive validation of the lecture based Field, J . (2009) A cognitive validation of the lecture based
ti i th IELTSli t i ti i th IELTSli t i IELTS R h R t IELTS R h R t question in the IELTS listening paper. question in the IELTS listening paper. IELTS Research Reports IELTS Research Reports, ,
Vol Vol 9 9
Field J (forthcoming) Cognitivevalidity InTaylor L and Field J (forthcoming) Cognitivevalidity InTaylor L and Field, J (forthcoming) Cognitive validity . In Taylor, L. and Field, J (forthcoming) Cognitive validity . In Taylor, L. and
Geranpayeh Geranpayeh, A. , A. Examining Listening Examining Listening. CUP . CUP
Gernsbacher,L Gernsbacher,L- -A. (1990) A. (1990) Language Comprehension as Language Comprehension as
Structure Building Structure Building. Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum . Mahwah, NJ : Erlbaum
Shaw, S & Weir, C. (2007) Shaw, S & Weir, C. (2007) Examining Writing Examining Writing. . Cambridge: Cambridge:
CUP CUP CUP CUP
Weir, C. (2005) Weir, C. (2005) Language testing and validation: an evidence Language testing and validation: an evidence- -
based approach. based approach. Basingstoke: Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan Palgrave Macmillan pp pp gg gg
Contact details
john.field@beds.ac.uk john.field@beds.ac.uk
Withgrateful acknowledgementstothe Withgrateful acknowledgementstothe With grateful acknowledgements to the With grateful acknowledgements to the
British Council and CRELLA for British Council and CRELLA for
i hi lk i hi lk supporting this talk supporting this talk