Grammar Reference

Present Perfect Continuous

We use the present perfect continuous (have been + verb -ing): to put emphasison the duration of an action which started in the past and continues up to the present. Youhave been reading that bookall day. for an action which started in the past and lasted for some time. It maystill be continuing or has finishedalready,with the result visible in the present. Myeyes aretearybecause Ihave been
chopping onions. to express anger, irritation or annoyance. Shehas been using my perfume without asking me.

and the sun was shining. I was reading by the pool when I heard a
scream. Note: When there are two past continuous forms in a sentence with

the same subject, we can avoid repetition by using the present

participle (-ing form) and leaving out the verb to be. We were walking
along, talking about our day. (= We were walking along and we were talking about our day.)

. .

The time expressions we use with the past continuous are: while,when, as,allmorning/evening/day/week, ete

for repeated actions in the past continuing to the present. I havelearnedthepia!'o piecebecause I have beenpractising every day.

PastPerfect
We use the past perfect (had+ pastparticiple):

'The time expressions we use with the present perfect continuous are: for, since,how long ...?,all day/morning/ month,ete,lately, recently
Note; with the verbs live, work, teach and feel we can use the present perfect or the present perfect continuous with no difference in meaning. Wehave lived/have been living in Athensfor the past two years.

for an action which happened before another past action or before a stated time in the past. Judy had finished her
homework by seven o'clock. which finished for an action

in the past and whose

result was

visible at a later point in the past. Hehad heard the news a few

days earlier and he was still in shock.

for a general situation in the past.

the beginning.

Everyone

had been pleasant in

Unit 3

The time expressionswe use with the past perfect are: before,after,already, just, for,since,till/until, when,by the time, never, ete

PastSimple
We use the past simple:

.
.

PastPerfect Continuous
We use the past perfect

for an action that occurred at a definite time (stated or

implied) in the past. The football organisation fired the team's
coach yesterday.

continuous

(had been + verb -ing);

for actions that happened immediatelyafter one another in

the past. He opened
a supermarket the window and shouted to his friend.

to put emphasis on the duration of an action which started and finished in the past, before another action or stated time in the past, usually.with for or since. Thecake had been baking
in the cooker for about an hour when I realised that I hadn't added the eggs.

for habits or states which are now finished. My uncle worked in

when he was younger.

Note that used to can also be used instead of the past simple for habits/repeated actions in the past.

for an action which

lasted for some time in the past and

whose result was visible in the past. He had been travelling all night and he was exhausted.

The time expressions we use with the past simple are: yesterday,then, when, How long ago ...?, last night/week! month/year/Friday/Oetober, ete,three days/weeks, ete ago, in 1999, ete

The time expressions we use with the past perfect continuous are: for, since,how long, before, until, ete

Usedto
PastContinuous
We use the past continuous (was/were + verb -ing);
We use used to + infinitive

to refer to past habits or states.

In such cases! used to can be replaced by the past simple with no

change in meaning. When our children wereyounger, they played/used to play tennis. However, for an action that happened at a definite time in the past

for an action which was in progress when another action interrupted it. We use the past continuous for the action in progress (longer action) and the past simple for the action
which interrupted it (shorter action). We were watching the
actions in the past. I was writing the envelopes. tennis match when there was an electricity black-out. for two or more simultaneous out the invitations while Philip was addressing

we use the past simple, not used to. I cut the grassyesterday.
(NOT: Il15efl t6 (!.It the f).oilS! }'E!!;ter4e}:)
....

We use would/used to for repeated actions or routines in the past.

We would/used to go out on Saturday nights.

Time expressions to talk about the past:

for an action which was in progress at a stated time in the past. We don't mention when the action started or finished. At 7 o'clock last night, I was working out at the gym.

ago
since

(= back in time from now) is used with the past simple. The
. concert finished an hour ago.

to describe the atmosphere, setting, etc and to give

background information to a story. A light breeze was blowing

(= from

a starting

point in the past) is used with the

present perfect (simple and continuous).

I haven't been to the cinema since my son was born. 251

<_.

Grammar Reference
for (= over a period of time) is used with the present perfect (simple and continuous). hours. already I have already eaten lunch. Haveyou already paid off your car? yet is used with the present perfect in questions and negations. Haveyou spoken to the police yet? I haven't decided yet. ACTIVE They'vebeen discussing the issuefor Changing from the active to the passive:

the object of the active sentence becomesthe subject in the

passive sentence the active verb remains in the same tense but changes into a passive form the subject of the active sentence becomes the agent, and is either introduced with the preposition by or is omitted.

is used in statements and questions (to show surprise).

. . .

Subject The gardener

Verb
was watering

Object the plants.

The UnrealPast
The past simple can be used to refer to the present when we talk about imaginary, unreal or impossible situations which are contrary to facts in the present. The past perfect can be used to refer to imaginary, unreal or

impossible situations which are contrary to facts in the past.

Subject Verb Agent PASSIVE The plants were being watered bythe gardener. Only transitive verbs (verbs that take an object) can be changed into the passive. Active: I slept well last night. (intransitive verb)No passiveform: L8MR;ht was we!!s.'pt. Note: some transitive verbs (have, be,exist,seem,fit, suit, resemble,
lack, etc) cannot be changed into the passive. I have a chronic
back problem. NOT: .~ 6f:mm;c 8ack f;;eBle!'R ;! li8S BY!'Re.

PrE

PrE Cc

The past simple is usedwith:

Pa

type 2 Conditionals - If shehad themoney, shewouldbuyanAlfa Romeo. suppose/supposing - Suppose/Supposing you wereoffered the position,what wouldyoudo? wish/if only -I wish/If only I lived in my ownflat.
would rather (present) -I'd rather you invited the Smiths.

We can use the verb to get instead of the verb to be in everydayspeech when we talk about things that happen by accident or unexpectedly. He gets paid on a monthly basis. (instead of heis paid...)
By + the agent is used to say who or what carries out an

Pa

Fu

asif/as though - Joanne actedasif/as though shekneweverything.

it's (about/high) time

Irs (about/high) time you threw that junk

away.
The past perfect is used with:

If you hadn't moved

in to this building,

action. With + instrument/material/ingredient is used to say what the agent used. TheCupwaswon by Argentina.Thesteak wassprinkled with whitepepper. The agent can be omitted when the subject is they, he, someone/somebody, people, one, etc. Nobody found the answer. = The answerwasnot found. The agent is not omitted when it is a specific or important
person, or when it is essential to the meaning of the sentence. Thenovel was written by Toni Morrison.

Fu Co

PrE

type 3 Conditionals
wouldn't have met you.

PrE Co

suppose/supposing - Suppose/Supposing you had seen him taking thebracelet, wouldyouhavesaidanything? wish/if only - I wish/If only I hadn't causedsucha fuss.
Would rather (past) - I'd rather you had not told me what you - Christa didn't know anything about art, but she thought about him.

Pa

With verbs which can take two objects such as bring, tell, send, show, teach,promise, buy,sell,read, offer,give, lend, etc, we can form two different passive sentences. My employer promised me a pay rise. (active) I waspromised a pay riseby my employer.(passive,more usual) A pay risewaspromised to me by my employer. (passive, lessusual)

Pa Co

as if/as though

spokeabout Rembrant as though/as if shehad been a personal friend.

Inti

Unit4

If in an active sentence a preposition follows a verb, then in the passive it is placed immediately after the verb. The tide washed the sandcastle away. Thesandcaslte was washed away by the tide. The verbs hear, help, see and make are followed by the bare

-inl

ThePassive
We form the passive with the verb to be in the approp'tiate tense and the past participle of the main verb. Only transitive verbs (verbs which take an object) can be used in the passive. We use the passive:

infinitive in the activebut by the to-infinitive in the passive.The policeofficermade the drivermove hercar.Thedriverwasmade to move herear.
Let becomes be allowed to in the passive. Betty let the children

Ur

Fu
We

when the person or people who do the action are unknown,

unimportant or obvious from the context. A parcel was left on my doorstep. (Theidentity of the delivereris unknown.) Thefilm was made in 1903.(It's not imporfant to know who made it.) Passportsmust be presented at the border crossing.(It'sobvious that the passport holders must present their passports.)

stay up past midnight.Thechildrenwere allowed to stay up past midnight. Toask questions in the passivewe follow the samerules as for statements,keepingin mind that the verb is in the interrogative form. Haveyou booked yourappointment? Hasyour appointment beenbooked (byyou)yet?
When we want to find out who or what perforqJ.ed an action, ... by? What was the the passive question form is Who/What ulcer caused by?

. . .
.

when the action itself is more important than the person/people who do it, as in news headlines, newspaper articles, formal notices, advertisements, instructions, processes, etc. Violatorswill be heavily fined.

Causativeform
we use have + object + past participle to say that we have
arranged for someone to do something for us. The past

when

we want

to avoid taking

responsibility

for an action or when

we refer to an unpleasant event and we do not want to saywho or what is to blame. Mistakeswere made in the final copy.Theoriginal

participle has a passivemeaning. Leohad his hair dyed. (He

didn't dye it himself.)

252

documents have been misplaced.

Grammar Reference

Questions and negations of the verb have are formed with do/does (presentsimple)or did (past simple).Didyouhave the
computer repaired yesterday?

Begoing to
We use begoing to:

We also use have something done to talk about an

unpleasant experience that somebody had. Last night she had herpassport stolen. (= her passport was stolen by someone)

We can use the verb get instead of have in informal

conversation.
I'm going to get my windows washed at the weekend.

for plans, intentions or ambitions for the future. He'sgoing to

be a veterinarian when he graduates.

actions we have already decided to do in the near future. We

Note: The word order is very important. Leo liad his hair dyed and Leo had dyed his hair have very different meanings. In the first case Leo arranged for someone else to dye his hair, whereas, in the second case, he dyed it himself.

are going to buy that antique mirror wesaw. predictions based on what we can see or what we know,
especially when there is evidence that something will happen. Hefeels veryguilty;he'sgoing to tell herthetruth.

Present Simple Present Continuous Past Simple Past Continuous

Future Simple

Regular active form She mows the lawn. She is mowing the lawn. She mowed the lawn. She was mowing
the lawn. She willmow the

Causative form
Shehasthe lawn mowed. She is having the lawn mowed. She had the lawn mowed. She was having lawn mowed.
the

The time expressionswe use with the future simple and be going to are: tomorrow,the day after tomorrow,tonight, soon,nextweek/month/year/summer, etc,in a week/month, etc

FutureContinuous
We use the future continuous (will be + verb -ing):

lawn. Future Continuous Present Perfect Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Past Perfect Continuous Infinitive -ing form
Shewillbe mowing

She willhave the lawn mowed.

She

for actions which will be in progress at a stated future time. I am going to Cuba.Thistime next week,I'llbe travelling to Havanna. for actions which will definitely happen in the future as the

result of a routine or arrangement. I will be driving to the

countryside at the weekend.

the lawn. She has mowed the lawn. She has been mowing the lawn. She had mowed the lawn. She had been mowing the lawn. She should mow the lawn. Idon't mind mowing the lawn.

will be having the lawn mowed. She has had the lawn mowed.

when we ask politely about someone's plans/intentions for the

near future. Willyou be needing an extra pillow, madam?

Timeclauseswith future reference We use the present simple or present perfect, but NOT future forms, with words and expressionssuch as while, before, after, until/till, as, when, whenever, once, as soon as, as long as, by the time, etc to introduce time
clauses. By the time we get to the surpriseparty, Ella will have arrived. (NOT: By #Ie time r:e wilt get ...J

She has been having the lawn mowed. She had had the lawn mowed. She had been having the lawn mowed. She should have the lawn mowed. Idon't mind having the lawn mowed.

We also use the present simple and present perfect, but NOT future forms, after words and expressionssuch as
unless, if, suppose/supposing, in case, etc. Takeyourumbrella
in case it rains. (NOT: ... iff E65e YE/!1will Reef/it.)

We use future forms with:

Unit 5
FutureSimple
We use the future simple (will + bare infinitive) for:

when when it is used as a question word. When will the daffodils be blooming?

if/whether after expressions which show uncertainty/ ignorance,etc, such as I don't know, I doubt, I wonder, I'm
not sure, etc. I doubt whether he will get hereon time.

FuturePerfect-+ will have+ pastparticiple

We use the future perfect for actions that will have finished before a stated time in the future. Iwill have prepared supperby 7:00 pm.

decisions made at the moment of speaking. Thisroom's a mess,

I'll tidy it later.

predictions about the future, based on what we think, believe or imagine, using the verbs think, believe, expect, etc, the expressions be sure, be afraid, etc, and the adverbs probably, certainly, perhaps, etc. Shewill probably accept thejob offer. promises, threats, warnings, requests, hopes and offers. Will you lend me some money till next weekend? actions, events, situations which will definitely happen in the future and which we can't control. Ouroldestsonwill be thirty nextMay.

The time expressions we use with the futtlre perfect are: before,by,by then,by the time,until/till (onlyin negative sentences)

Future PerfectContinuous -+ will have

been+ verb + -ing

We use the future perfect

conti"uo..s

-: ~;>

duration of an action up to a cena r . ---= -

.:

Grammar Reference
future perfect continuous is used with: by...for. By the end of
September, she will have been living in Tunisia for three years.

MixedConditionals
We can form mixed conditionals, if the context permits it, by combining an if - clause from one type with a main clause from another.

Unit 6
Conditionals
Type 0 conditionals are used to express a general truth or a scientific fact. In this type of conditional, we can use when instead of if.

If-clause

Main Clause

Type 2
If the plane landed late last night,

If-clause If/When + present simple ->

Main Clause present simple

Type2
Ifyou were less impulsive,

Type 1 hewon~beonnmefurwo~ today. Type3

you wouldn't have spoken to your supervisor like that.

If/When you mix white and black paint, you get grey.

Type3
If Ihadn't drunk the bad milk,

Type2
I would be fine now.

Type 1 conditionals are used to express a real or very probable situation in the present or future. If-clause Main Clause

Wishes

If + present simple

->

future simple, imperative, cant must/may, etc + bare infinitive

We can use wish lif only to expressa wish.

Verb Tense

Use
I wish I was/were 10years old. (but I'm not) If only I were travelling with you and not alone! It would be much more fun. (but I'm not) to say that we wcx..c like something to be different about a present situation

If Ifinish thisjob before Friday, I will/might,etc go to a spa at the weekend.

+ past simple/ past continuous

When the hypothesis (if-clause) comes before the main clause, we separate them with a comma. When the main clause comes before the if-clause,then we do not use a comma to separate them. Note: with Type 1 conditionals we can use unless + affirmative verb (= if + negativeverb). I will not bein a positionto comeunlesssomeone buys my ticket.(= if someone does not buy myticket.)

+ past perfect

I wishIhad saved
[TIoremoney during

to express regret

Conditionals Type 2 (unreal present) are used to express

imaginary situations which are contrary to facts in the present and, therefore, are unlikely to happen in the present or future. We can use either were or was for all persons in the if-clause. We can also use the structure If I were you ... to give advice.

my twenties.(but I didn't) IfonlyIhadn't been so harsh to

her! We could still

about something which happenea 0 didn't happen in :'-o? past

If-clause If + past simple/past continuous

Main Clause -> would/could/might bare infinitive + present + subject + would + bare

be friends.(but I was) Iwishyou would stop spreading

Ifshe knew the answer,she would tell me. If I was travelling around Europe, I would travel by train. If Ihad a better agent, I would get better acting offers.

infinitive

rumours.
Ifonlyit would be sunny on my birthday!

to express:

apolite imperative
a desirefora
situation or

person's behaviour to change

Conditionals Type 3 (unreal past) are used to express

imaginary situations which are contrary to facts in the past. They are also used to express regrets or criticism.

Notes:

If-clause If + past perfect/past perfect continuous

Main Clause -> would/could/might bare infinitive + perfect

If he had told me about his problems, I would have helped him.

If only is used in exactlythe sameway as wish bu;: more emphatic or more dramatic. We can use were instead of was after wish a'lC only. I wishI were/wasa famouswriter! After the subject pronouns I and we, we cap ..:x could instead of would. I wishIcould studyart hisrOf"
~

If Ihadn't been working yesterday,Iwould have gone shopping.

254

Grammar Reference

Unit 7
~

Logical Assumptions/Deductions
Must: sure/certain that sth is true. Must is used in affirmative sentences and expresses positive logical beliefs. You havebeenpractisingall day, youmust beexhausted! Can't/couldn't: certain that sth is not true/real.

Inversion
No sooner had I handed in my resignation than my post was filled. There are two ways to invert the subject and the verb:

be/have/modallauxiliary

verb + subject + main verb

It is used in the following cases:

in questions.

Are you walking to work today?

Can't and couldn't are used in negations and express negative logical assumptions.Thatcan't bemy husband, he's in London.

after the following words or expressions, when the9 come at the beginning of a sentence.

Possibility
Can + present infinitive: general possibility, sth theoretically possible; not

Seldom Rarely' Little Barely Nowhere(else)

NeJ/e/" (be,ro/"e)

Only in this way Only then Hardly (ever) ... when No sooner ... than Not only... but (also) Not i//7t,#t/1I In no way In/Under no circumstances Not since, etc

used for a specificsituation. Youcan have milk orjuice. Could/May/Might + present infinitive: it is possible/likely, perhaps; used to show sth is pQssible in a specific situation. Youshould keep
//;0/ 'p/;0/7'" /7U/77Pe?'/r /778/,huf",k/o".",""""./"

Not (even) once On no account Only by

Note: we can use can/could/might in questions BUTNOT may. Doyou thinkthatyoucan/could/might givemeananswer today? Could/MightIWould + perfect infinitive: refers to the past, sth that

Never (before) have I met such an ambitious teenager.Not

only did she make it on the school's honour list but she (also) won a bursary. Seldom do I drive during a snowstorm.

was possiblebut didn't happen. Youmight have changedjobs.

Obiigation/Duty /Necessity
Must: expresses duty, strong obligation to do sth; sth is essential. We generally use must when the speaker has decided that sth is necessary. I must explain what happened. Have to: expresses strong necessity/obligation. We usually use have to when somebody other than the speaker has decided that stb IS necessary. The landlordsaidwehave to pay therenttomorrow.

BUT:Iseldom drive during a snowstorm. (There is no inversion because the word seldom does not come at the beginning of the sentence.) Note: When the expressions only after, only by, only if, only when, not until/till come at the beginning of a sentence, the inversion is in the main clause.

.
-

Onlyafter heupdatedhisskillswashe able to get a job. Only if I see it with myown eyes willi believesomething likethat. with so, neither, nor to express agreement. "I lovehot apple streudel.""Sodo I."(We use so to agree with an affirmative statement.) "I can't stand loud people: "Neither/Nor can I."(We use neither/ nor to agree with a negative statement.) He was a great composer, as was his
father/and so washis father. with should, were, had when they come at the beginning of an if-clause instead of if.

Note: must and have to have different meaningsin questions. Do I have to paythefullamountnow?(Isit necessary forme...?) Must Istayforthe wholemeeting? (Doyouinsistthat I...?)
Should/Ought to: express duty, weak obligation. These are less emphatic

than must/have to. Youshould thinkaboutit beforeyou make a finaldecision.

Need: expressesnecessity(it isnecessaryto). Youneedto workuntillate

tonight. Note: need can be used as a modal verb or as a main verb with no

Type 1: ShouldMargaret arrive beforeI come,tell herto wait.

(= If she should arrive ...) Type 2: Were I you, I would move to a new flat. (= If I were you ...) Type 3: Had I known that's what he had intended,I would have leftmonths ago. (= If Ihad known...)

change in meaning. NeedI put moreoil in my car?DoI need toput more

oil in my car?

Absenceof necessity
Needn't/Don't have to/Don't need to + present infinitive: it isn't
necessary to do sth (in the present/future). Youdon't need to drive me
home, I will take a cab.

2 main verb + subject

It is used in the followingcases:

after verbs of movement or adverbial expressions of place when they come at the beginning of a sentence. Beyond
the open fields stood the majestic mountains. In the armchair lay a sleeping cat. Here comes the star of our show. There goes another missed opportunity.

Didn't have to/Didn't need to: it wasn't necessary to do >'U' e don't know if it was done or not. Hedidn't have to.zteed to ~_ --e

newspaper. (We don'tknow ifhebought the ~

If the subject is a pronoun, there is no inversion. Here they

come. (NOT:Hen?fBmE! tRe}:) Upyou go.

0 Needn't + bare perfect infinitive: t 'a5 "0- ~.,.,., it was done. Youneedn't have bouglJt:>"3:&: '':L~-'

tJ" -= _ s-

(NOT: !/fJB rB~.) in direct speech when the subject of the introductory verb is

Prohibition
Mustn'tiCan't t IS=~":XP' you are not a!D' ~ -= X ;; the exam

a noun. "Ineed a new computer," said Sheryl. (OR:noSherylsaid.)

"I'llhaveto run sometests," said the dodor. (OR: ... the doctor said.! BUT: "Whowasthat?"heasked. (NOT: ...~, ~ecause the subject of the introductory verb is a pronoun.)

--

Grammar Reference

Criticism
Could/Should/Might/Ought to + perfect infinitive: used to criticise someone's actions or lack of action (inthe past); it would have been better ifyou had ... (past). Youcould have been on time forthemeeting.

Say - Tell

.
object

say + no personal

- Joey said

he was an actor.

say + to + personal object -Joey said to us he wasan actor. tell + personal object - Joey told us he was an actor.

Expressions used with say, tell and ask.

"Ikr

Unit 8
Relative Clauses
Relativeclauses are introduced with either a relative pronoun or a relative adverb.
Relative Pronouns

hello, good morning/afternoon, etc, something/ nothing, so, a prayer, a few words, no more, for certain/sure, etc the truth, a lie, a story, a secret, a joke, the time, the difference, one from another, somebody one's name, somebody the way, somebody so, someone's fortune, etc a question, a favour, the price, after somebody, the time, around, for something/somebody, etc

"101

no~

"Ih( nail

We use: i. who(m)/that to referto people. ii. which/that to refer to things. iii. whose with people, animalsand objects to show possession (insteadof a possessiveadjective).

Reported Statements

In reported speech, personal/possessive pronouns and possessive adjectiveschange according to the meaning of the sentence. Phoebe said,"I'mgoing to singmy latesthit song." Phoebe said(that)shewasgoing to singher latesthit song.

'Th WO

Who, which, and that can be omitted when they are the object of the relativeclause. Thatis thefilm (that)I wastellingyou
about. Whom can be used instead of who when it is the object of the relative clause. Whom is always used instead of who or that after a preposition.She's someone with whom I usedto work. Who, which, or that is not omitted when it is the subject of a relative clause. Theplay which won the TonyAward was a musical. Whose is never omitted. ThisisBruceWeber whosephotographs
you must have seen.

"Iw

We can report someone's words either a long time after they

were said (out-of-date reporting) or a short time after they were said(up-to-date reporting). Up-to-date reporting The tensescan either changeor remain the samein reported speech.

"Iv.

ton

Relative adverbs We use:

Direct speech: Reported speech:

when/that to refer to a time (and can be omitted). Thatwas theyear (when/that)my sonwasborn. ii. where to referto a place.The flatwhereI/iveisonthetopfloor.
iii. why to give a reason, usually after the word reason (why can be omitted). Thereason (why)shequit herjob isonlyto beguessed.

Monicasaid,"Istil/haven'tseenyournewhouse." Monicasaid(that)shestill hasn't/hadn't seenour new.,house.

Re
.

.
.

Out-of-date reporting

Identifying and Non-Identifying Relative Clauses

An identifying relative clause gives necessary information essential to

Certain words and time expressionschange according to the meaning as follows: now -> then, immediately today -> that day yesterday -> the day before, the previousday tomorrow -> the next/following day this week -> that week last week next week ago here come bring -> -> -> -> -> -> the week before, the previousweek the week after, the following week before there go take

the meaning of the main sentence. It is not put between commas and is introduced with who, with, that, whose, where, when, or
the reason (why). Any student who is caught cheating will be expel/ed. A non-identifying relative clause gives extra information and is not
essential to the meaning of the main sentence. It is put between commas

and is introduced with who, whom, which, whose, where, or when. A student, whowascaught cheating, wasexpel/ed.

The verb tenses remain the same in reported speech when the introductory verb is in the present, future or present perfect. <& Rosssays, "/'m handsome." Rosssays (that) he is handsome.

Unit 9
Reported Speech
Reported speech is the exact meaning of what someone said, but not the exact words. We do not use quotation marks. The word that can either be used or omitted after the introductory verb (say,tel/, suggest, etc). Rachel said(that) shewould bake a cakefor the party.

The verb tenses can either change or remain the same in reported speech when reporting a general truth or law of nature. Theteacher said,'Thetigerbelongs to thecat family." Thetea~her said(that)thetigerbelongs to the cat family.

Re

To I ord Gol He( Dor She

256

Grammar Reference
-'1e verb tenses change when the introductory verb is in the cast simple. The tenses change as follows: Direct speech Present '"'OW the secret." Reported speech

Reported Commands, Requests, Suggestions, etc

To report commands,requests,suggestions,instmctions,etc, we use a special introductory verb followed by a to-infinitive, -ing form, or that-clause, depending on the introductory verb.

Simple -> Past Simple He said (that) he knew the

secret. Present Continuous -> Past Continuous am rehearsing my speech -()'I(." Present Perfect
have given up biting my 'IOils." He said (that) he was rehearsing

Introductory verb . + to infinitive agree *claim

* demand

Direct speech

Reported speech
She agreed to lend me

his speech at that moment.

->

Past Perfect

''Alright, I'lllend you 1'eTh'O'j): "Ihave undeniable proof!" a second chance!"

\.
She claimed to have undeniable proof. given a second chance. He offered to drive him to the airport. She promised to decide what was best for the company.

He said (that) he had given up biting his nails.

"Iwant you to give me She demanded to be

"Icould drive you to the airport. " "Igive you my word of honour that 1will decide what's best for the company." "Definitely not! Iwon't

Past Simple -> Past Simple or Past Perfect

,hey gave me promotion at

offer
* promise

work."
Past Continuous

He said (that) they gave/had given him promotion at work. or Past Perfect

-> Past Continuous Continuous

"Iwas trying to open a jar."

He said that he was trying/had been trying to open a jar.

refuse

-=eo

Future (will) -> Conditional (would)

"Iwill hang the picture tomorrow." He said that he would hang the picture the next/following day.

*threaten

She refused to pay until she got the pay you until I get the negatives." negatives. "Give me my money or She threatened to take him to court if he else 1will take you to court. " didn't give back her money.

, Co ::\...

+sb+ to-infinitive

Reported Questions

advise allow

"Youhad better get a good lawyer." You may speak to him, but only for a few minutes. "

Reported questions are usually introduced with the verbs ask, inquire, wonder or the expression want to know.
When the direct question begins with a question word (who,

He advised me to get a good lawyer. She allowed me to speak to him but only for a few minutes.

--e

~e

where, how, when, what, etc), the reported question is introduced with the same question word. 'When doesthetrainleave, please?" (directquestion) He asked me when the trainleaves.(reported question)

ask beg command

"How did you find out?" He asked me how Ihad

found out. "Don'ttellanyone." "Staybehind the yellow line." 'Youshould tryfor the Olympicteam." He begged me not to tellanyone. She commanded him
to stay behind the

When the direct question begins with an auxiliary(be, do, have), or a modal verb (can, may, etc), then the reported question is introducedwith if or whether.
"00 you think we'll have a white Christmas?" (direct question) He asked me if I thought we would have a white Christmas. (reported

encourage

yellowline. He encouraged her to

try for the Olympic

question) In reported questions, the verb is in the affirmative. The

question mark and words/expressions such as please, well, oh, etc are omitted. The verb tenses, pronouns and time expressions change as in statements. CanI havesomemoreporridge, please? (directquestion) Oliveraskedme if he could have somemore porridge.(reported question) forbid

team.
'You cannot use my car She forbade us to use for the next month." her car for the following month. 'Would you like to join

invite

me fordinner this order evening?" "Getoff the private property!" 'Whateveryou do, don't feed my dog from the table."
"No one should be trusted. "

She invited him tojoin her for dinner that evening. She orderedthem to get off the private property. He reminded him not to feed her dog from the table.
She warned me not to trust anyone.

of

Reported

Orders

To report orders in reported speech, we use the introductory verbs order or tell + sb + (not) to-infinitive. Gotoyour room! (directorder) Heorderedthemto go to theirroom.(reported order) Don't move!(directorder) Shetold usnot to move. (reported order)

*remind

*warn

257

Grammar Reference
Introductory verb Direct speech Reported speech

+ -ing form
accuse sb of *admit (to) "You are withholding evidence. " "Ido envy the opportunities you've had." "I'm really sorry I dented your car." "Ihave a Jaguar convertible!" She accused him of withholding evidence. He admitted to envying the opportunities she

in the afternoon. BUT: at night, at noon, at midnight, by day/night

with historical periods/events BUT: World War II (the Renaissance, the Korean war.)

with the words only, last and first (used as adjectives). I was
the only one who was a vegetarian.

had had.
He apologised for denting her car. He boasted about having a Jaguar convertible. about having terrible pains in her stomach.

with the words station, cinema, theatre, library, shop, coast, sea (side), beach, country(side), city, jungle, world, ground, weather. Wewentfora strollalongthe beach.

apologise

for

We do not use the:

'I'f t' t I I I I

*boast about!

with uncountable and plural nouns when talking about

something in general. Chocolate is a verypopular sweet. Cats are assumed to be lessaffectionate than dogs. with proper nouns. Lynn works in a clothing factory. celebrations, colours, drinks and meals. We'llmeet on Tuesday.

of
*complain (to sb) of/about

"Ihqve terrible pains in She complained off my stomach. "

"Iknew nothing about

with the names of sports, games, activities,days, months,

*deny

He denied knowing anything about such a business deal.

with languages unless they are followed by the word language. Mary speaksGreek,English and French. BUT: The
Germanlanguage isspoken in some partsof Switzerland.
with the names of countries which don't include the word States,

such a businessdeal."

*insiston

'1must speak to the

He insisted on

Kingdom or Republic. Canada, Argentina, Morocco. BUT there

are some exceptions: the Ukraine, the Gambia, the Vatican. with the names of streets (Sherbrooke Street, Madison Avenue BUT:

editor of the newspaper." speaking to the editor of the newspaper.

the M6, the A42), squares mmes Square), bridges (London Bridge
BUT: the Golden Gate Bridge), parks (HydePark), railway stations (paddington, Grand Centra/), mountains (Kilimanjaro), individual islands (Crete), lakes (LakeMichigan) and continents (Asia).

*suggest

"How about buying Cecile a shawl for her birthday?"

He suggested (their) buying Cecile a shawl for her birthday. She explained that the medicine should take effect in five minutes. The secretary informed me that Miss Paltrow would not be in before that Thursday.

+ that clause explain 'The medicine should take effect in five minutes. " "I'm afraid Miss Paltrow won't be in before this Thursday."

inform sb

The verbs marked with an asteriskcan also be followedby a

that-clause in reported speech.

with possessive adjectives/possessive case. Thatis my computer. with the names of restaurants, shops, banks, hotels, etc which are named after the people who started them (Maey's). with the words bed, hospital, college, court, prison, school, university when we refer to the purpose for which they exist. Patrickwasill in hospital.BUT:I wentto the hospital to visithim. with the word work (= place of work). Sheleft work at six.

with the words home, mother, father, etc when we talk about our own home/parents. I wenthome at 10pm yesterday.
with by + means Qf transport (by bus/ferry/train/car, etc).
with the names of illnesses. Luke'sgot asthma. BUT: flu/the flu,

measles/the measles, mumps/themumps.

Unit 10
The Definite Article the
We use the:

Rulesfor Punctuation
A full stop (.) is used: to end a sentence that is not a question or an exclamation. Wehopeyouhavea great birthday.We wishyou theverybest. A comma (,) is used:

with nouns when talking about something specific. Nick has a

doberman. The doberman is black.

with nouns that are unique (the sun, the world, etf). with names of newspapers (the Herald), cinemas (the Odeon), theatres (the Globe Theatre), museums/art galleries (the British Museum), ships (the QueenMary), organisations (the UN). with the names of rivers (the Amazon), groups of islands (the Azores), mountain ranges (the Rockies). deserts (the Saharah), oceans (the Indian), canals (the Panama), countries when they include words such as States, Kingdom, Republic (the Czech Republic), names or nouns with of (the House of Parliament), in geographical terms 'such as the AntarctidArctidequator, the
South of France, the North/ South/East/West. with the names of musical instruments/dances (the bass, the tango). with the names of families (the Browns)/nationalities ending in -sh, -ch or -ese (the Dutch).

to separate question tags from the rest of the sentence. Bruce andDemihaven'tgot a divorce yet,havethey? A question mark (7) is used: to end a direct question. What is the reason for such behaviour? An exclamation mark (!) is used: to end an exclamatory sentence. Wow!!can't believe it! Quotation marks (" " ") are used: ~

to separate words in a list. I've been to Italy. Greece and Slovenia.

to separate a non-identifying relative clause from the main clause. Elton John, who is performing tonight in London, is my favourite singer. when if-clauses begin sentences. Ifyou go, I'llgo.

258

in direct speech to report the exact words someone said.

"Could I speak with you in private?" he asked her. "He has left," said

Antonia. 'They left without paying," said the waiter.

A colon (:) is used:

with titles (the Ambassador, the Prime Minister) but not with titles including a proper name (Princess Diana). with adjectives/adverbs in the superlative form (the best pizza I have evereaten), but when most is followed by a noun, it doesn't take the (most people enjoy listening to music).
with the words day, morning, afternoon and evening. It was late

to introduce a list. You'llneed: garlic, onions and olive oil. An apostrophe (') is used:

in short forms to show that one or more letters or numbers

have been left out. He's (= He is)... in '66. (= 1966)

before or after the possessive-s to show ownership or the

relationship between people. my son's friend.

---

:\;' 'night ron war.) :5 j was

IrregularVerbs
..
be bear beat become begin bite blow break bring build burn burst buy can catch choose come cost cut deal
dig do

l
lain lit lost made meant met paid put read ridden rung risen run said seen sought sold sent set sewn
shaken shone

,.
lie light lose make mean meet pay put read ride ring rise run say see seek sell send set sew
shake shine

: coast, ground,

: about

Cats are onths, !Sday. : word

J'i: The

States, there
c.E BUT: " Bridge ldual lllpUter. . -hich

""'tions

was bore beat became began bit blew broke brought built burnt (burned) burst bought could caught chose came cost cut dealt
dug did

been born(e) beaten become begun . bitten blown broken brought built burnt (burned) burst bought (been able to) caught chosen come cost cut dealt
dug done

lay lit lost made meant met paid put read rode rang rose ran said saw sought sold sent set sewed
shook shone

;chool, exist.
"'1.
I

dream drink drive

eat

dreamt (dreamed) drank drove

ate

dreamt (dreamed) drunk driven

eaten

shoot show shut

sing

shot showed shut

sang

shot shown shut

sung

e talk

W).

ffu,

..

1"".(1
icuse.
I

....,';J

520 SU,..;;
I

CE'5

I \

-e

fall feed feel fight find flee fly forbid forget forgive freeze get give go grow hang have hear hide hit hold hurt keep know lay lead learn leave lend let

fell fed felt fought found fled flew forbade forgot forgave froze got gave went grew hung (hanged) had heard hid hit held hurt kept knew laid led learnt (learned) left lent let

fallen fed felt fought found fled flown forbidden forgotten forgiven frozen got given gone grown
hung (hanged)

had heard hidden hit held hurt kept known laid led learnt (learned) left lent let

sit sleep smell speak spell spend split spread spring stand steal stick sting stink strike swear sweep swim take teach tear tell think throw
understand

wake wear win write I

sat slept smelt (smelled) spoke spelt (spelled) spent split spread sprang stood stole stuck stung stank struck swore swept swam took taught tore told thought threw understood woke wore won wrote

sat slept smelt (smelled) spoken spelt (spelled) spent split spread sprung stood stolen stuck stung stunk struck sworn swept swum taken taught rn told thought thrown understood woken worn won written .259

Appendix
Unit1
Unit6
get across= convey get ahead = succeed/make progress get around = overcome/avoid (a difficulty/an obstacle) get sb down = depresssb work into = find time for work off = eliminate work out = calculate/solve (a problem) work up = causeto be upset

carry off = manage(a victory) carry on = continue carry out = follow carry over = continue to exist carry sth through = manageto accomplish wear away = erode/becomeeroded wear down = weaken wear off = decrease wear on = pass(of a day) wear sth out = damagethrough use

Unit 7
Unit 2
put aside = save(money) put back = replace put down = criticise put off = postpone put sb through = causesb to endure(pain, hardship) put up = construct, assemble put up with = tolerate set sb back = cost set in = continue, develop set off = embark(on a journey) clear away = remove clear out = empty clear up = cure(an infection/a skin problem) hold back = suppress hold off = delay hold out = extend hold up = rob

UnitS
drag sb down = causesb to fail/be destroyed drag in = inappropriatelymention drag on = continue unnecessarily drag out of = manageto elicit keep back = reserve keep sb on = continue to employ keep to = adhere keep up with = stayon the samelevelas

Unit 3
bring about = cause bring in = introduce bring over = convey bring round = revive stand by = support stand for = represent stand in for = replace stand out = be obvious

Unit9
go on = continue go over = examine go under = fail/go bankrupt go up = increase pick at = nibble pick on = bully pick out = select pick up = collect

Unit4
cut back = reduce cut down = decrease cut in = interrupt cut off = sever,separate passaway = die passon = giveto the next person passout = faint passover = ignore

Unit 10
call for = demand call off = cancel call up = telephone call upon = request draw in = involve draw on = use(an ability/ a resource) draw out = lengthen (a process) draw up = write (a plan/a contract)

Unit 5
send back = return send for = summon send on = forward send out on = order take back = admit to an error/withdraw a statement take in = understand take on = accept take up = begin doing sth

'i?

260

Personal opinion:

In my opinion/view, To my mind, To my way of thinking, I am convinced that, It is my firm belief that, I am inclined to believe that, It seems to me that, As far as I am concerned, I think that our efforts will meet with success. One advantage of, Another advantage of, One other advantage of, A further advantage of, The main advantage of, The greatest advantage of, The first advantage of having a pet is that they are fantastic company. One disadvantage of, Another disadvantage of, One other disadvantage of, A further disadvantage of, The main disadvantage of, The greatest disadvantage of, The first disadvantage of having a pet is that they need a lot of care.

To list advantages and

disadvantages:

To list points: To list points:

Firstly, Firstof all, In the first place, Secondly,Thirdly,Finally,Tostart/begin with, we have to

make both sides feel comfortable before talks can continue.
BEGINNING - First,Tostart/begin with, Firstof all, make sure you have all the necessaryingredients.
CONTINUING
CONCLUDING

- Secondly,After this/that, Afterwards, Then,Next, mix all the ingredients in a bowl.

- Finally,Lastly, Last but not least, bake the cake in a medium oven. Apartfromthis/that, Inaddition (to this),Moreove
Besides (this),...not to

To add more points to the same topic:

Whatis more, Furthermore,

mention the fact that the Internet has made a major impact on education, which will greatly influence the way we teachand learn. Not only has the Internet made a major impact on education, but it will also greatly influence the way we teach and learn.

The Internet is both having a major impact on education and is something that will influence the
way we teach and learn.

To refer to other sources: To expresscause:

With reference to, According to recent statistics, the number of unemployed is increasing. Thehousewasdemolishedbecause, owing to the fact that, due to the fact that, on the grounds that, since,as theyaregoing to build a block of flats there. In view of, Because of, Owing to the fact that they are going to build a block of flats there, the house was demolished. Theyare going to builda block of flats there; for this reason, the house was demolished. Seeing that they are going to build a block of flats there, the house was demolished.

To expresseffect: To express purpose:

Herhealthwasfailingandshewanted moretimewithherfamily; thus, therefore,so, consequently,as a result,as a consequence, shedecideqto retire.

Shequit herjob, so that she could travel around the world.
She quit her job, so as to/in order to travel around the world.

Ibought a new bicycle with the purpose/intention To emphasise a point:

To express reality:

of cycling to work in the mornings

Indeed, Naturally, Clearly, Obviously, Of course, Needless to say, the extent of his talent guaranteed that he would be a great actor. It is a fact that, In effect, In fact, As a matter of fact, The fact of the matter is (that), Actually, In
practice, Indeed,

failing to watch your diet willlead to your gaining weight.

Togiveexamples:

For instance, For example, by providing flexible working hours, businesses can encourage employees to"be more productive. By providing incentives suchas,like flexibleworking hours, businesses can encourage employees to

be moreproductive. If employees areto be more productive, then the provision of incentives, particularly, in particular, especially flexible working hours, is essential. To make general the statements: To make partially true statements: To express limited knowledge: To state other people's opinions:

you let As a (general)rule,Byand large, Generally,In general, On the whole, the moredecisions a childmakeon hisown, the moreself-sufficient he will be.
Up to a point, Toa certain extent/degree,Tosomeextent/degree,In a sense,In a wgy,Toa limitedextent,thisistrue butserious athletes willalways need thesupport oftheir coach andteam-mates. Tothe best of my knowledge,Asfar as I know, Tony hasalreadysentthe letters. It ispopularly believed that, Peopleoften claim that, It is often alleged that, Somepeople argue that, Many argue that, Most people feelthat, Somepeoplepoint out that homeopathic remedies canbemoreeffectivethan conventionalmedicine.

Contrary to popular belief, conventional medicine isnotalways aseffective ashomeopathic remedies. 261

[
Personal opinion:

'1~~:f:J.1'

Appendix
In my opinion/view, To my mind, To my way of thinking, I am convinced that, It is my firm belief that, I am inclined to believe that, It seems to me that, As far as I am concerned, I think that our efforts will meet with success. One advantage of, Another advantage of, One other advantage of, A further advantage of, The main advantage of, The greatest advantage of, The first advantage of having a pet is that they are fantastic company. One disadvantage of, Another disadvantage of, One other disadvantage of, A further disadvantage of, Themain .disadvantage of, Thegreatest disadvantage of, The first disadvantage of having a pet is that they need a lot of care.

To list advantages and

disadvantages:

To list points: . To list points:

Firstly, First of all, In the first place, Secondly, Thirdly, Finally, Tostart/begin with, we have to make both sides feel comfortable before talks can continue.

BEGINNING - First,Tostart/begin with, Firstof all, makesureyou haveall thenecessary ingredients.

CONTINUING-

Secondly, Afterthis/that,Afterwards, Then, Next,mixall theingredients ina bowl.

CONCLUDING. Finally,Lastly, Lastbut not least,bakethecakein a mediumoven. To add more points to the same topic:

Whatis more, Furthermore, Apart from this/that, Inaddition (tothis), Moreove, Besides (this},... not to mention the fact that the Internethasmadea major impact on education,which will greatly influencethe waywe teachand learn. Not only hasthe Internetmadea major impact on education,but it will also greatlyinfluencethe way we teachand learn. TheInternetis both havinga major impact on educationand issomethingthat will influencethe way we teachand learn.
With referenceto, According to recentstatistics,the numberof unemployedisincreasing.

To refer to other sources: To expresscause:

The house wasdemolished because, owing to the fact that, due to the fact that, on the grounds
that, since,as theyaregoing to build a blockof flats there. In viewof, Because of, Owing to thefactthat theyaregoing to builda block of flats there, the house wasdemolished.

They aregoingto builda block offlatsthere; forthisreason, thehouse wasdemolished. Seeing that theyaregoing to builda block of flatsthere, thehouse wasdemolished.
To expresseffect To expresspurpose:

Herhealthwasfailingandshewanted moretimewithherfamily; thus, therefore,so, consequently,as a result,as a consequence, she decided to retire.
Shequit herjob, so that shecouldtravelaroundthe world. Shequit herjob, so as to/in order to travelaround the world. I boughta newbicyclewith the purpose/intention of cyclingto work in the mornings Indeed,Naturally,Clearly,Obviously,Of course,Needless to say,the extent ofhistalent guaranteedthat he would bea greatactor. It is a fact that, In effect,In fact, Asa matter of fact, Thefact of the matter is (that), Actually,In practice, Indeed, failingtowatch yourdietwillleadtoyourgainingweight.

To emphasise a point To express reality: To give examples:

Forinstance,For example, byproviding flexible working hours, businesses canencourage

employees to-bemoreproductive. Byproviding incentives suchas,like flexible working hours, businesses canencourage employees to be moreproductive. If employees areto bemoreproductive,then theprovisionof incentives, particularly, in particular, especiallyflexible working hours, isessential.

To make general the statements: To make partially true statements: To expresslimited knowledge: To state other people's opinions:

As a (general)rule, Byand large, Generally,In general, On the whole, themoredecisions you let a child makeon hisown, the moreself-sufficient he will be. Up to a point, Toa certain extent/degree,Tosomeextent/degree,In a sense,In a w.qy, Toa

limited extent, thisistrue butserious athletes willalways need thesupport oftheir coach andteam-mates. Tothebestof myknowledge, AsfarasI know,Tonyhasalreadysentthe letters.
It ispopularly believedthat, Peopleoften claim that, It is often alleged that, Somepeople argue that, Many argue that, Most people feel that, Somepeoplepoint out that homeopathic remedies canbemoreeffectivethan conventionalmedicine. Contraryto popular belief,conventional medicine isnot alwaysaseffective ashomeopathicremedies.

261

Tomakecontrasting points:

It isa well-known factthatwearing seatbelts saves lives; yet,however, nevertheless, but,evenso,still,nonetheless, large numbers ofdrivers refuse to wearthem. Although,Even though,Regardless of thefactthat,Inspiteof thefactthat,Despite thefact that, Whilewearing seatbelts isknownto save lives, largenumbers of drivers refuse to wearthem. Opponents of animaltestingargue,claim,believe that experiments canbeconducted in other ways withoutlosing theirefficacy. Whileit istrueto saythat thegovernment isinvesting inretraining schemes, in factthe unemployment rateisstillhigh.: Thefactthat there arestillnorecycling binsin myareacontradicts thebelief/ideathat thetown council careabouttheenvironment. Neithermysister nor mybrother have ever travelled abroad. Mysister hasnever travelled abroad; nor,neitherhasmybrother. Mysister hasnever travelled abroad, andmybrother hasn'teither. Hehasvisited every European country apartfrom,but,except (for)one. Inotherwords, Thatis to say, To put it anotherway,ifyoutreatpeople withrespect theyarefor morelikely to treatyouwithrespect. Makinga listbefore yougoshopping isimportantifyouwant tosave money; similarly, likewise, in thesameway,buying products thatareonsale alsohelps youstaywithinyourbudget. We could(either) go to Maltaor Tunisia. We couldgo to Malta.Ontheotherhand,Alternatively, wecould go to Tunisia. You mayusethisroomon conditionthat,provided(that),providing(that),aslong asyoukeep quiet.You mayusethisroomonlyifyoukeep quiet. In theeventof anemergency, Intheeventthat,If anemergency arises, callsecurity. Incase ofemergency, callsecurity. Doyouhappen to knowwhether Sandra works athomeor not? Get yourtickets earlyotherwise, or (else) youmightnotgetin. Thesun is getting increasingly more dangerous; consequently, as a result, I nevergo out between midday andthree. I'mhopingtogetbacktoday; if so,/'1/ come see you,if not,otherwise, /'1/ give youa call. Finally, Lastly, All in all, Taking everything into account/consideration, Onthewhole, All things considered, Inconclusion, Onbalance, Fortheabovementioned reasons, To sumup,it isfeltthat youwouldnotbesuitable fortheposition. The green lightcomes onwhen,whenever, before, afterhumidity reaches 90%. Waituntil,till thecrustisa golden brownbefore removing thepie. Therehas been no newsof the child sincefive o'clockyesterday evening. She spotted themasshewasgettingonthebus. She sawherwhileshewaswaitingfora taxi. I never see hernowthat shehasmoved to thecity. I amwritingto request moreinformation regarding, concerning theposition advertised inSunday's edition ofThe Times. I amwritingwithrespect/regard/reference to,in regard/reference to theavailability ofproduct no.127492. Inshort,Briefly, To put it briefly, I'venever meta nicer person!

Toexpress balance(the other sideof the argument):

Negativeaddition:

Toexpress exception: Toclarify/rephrase: Toexpress similarity: Togivean alternative: Toexpress condition:

Toexpress consequence: Toconclude:

Time:

Reference:

Summa rising:

262