CE F313

FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

Department of Civil Engineering
BITS Pilani-Hyderabad Campus


INSTRUCTOR INCHARGE
J S KALYANA RAMA
Objectives of the Course
The main objectives of the Course Foundation Engineering are

Provide an in-depth understanding regarding different types of foundations systems
for various structures and machines subjected to static and dynamic loads.
Analyze different types of foundation systems Spread, Combined, Raft, Ring, Pile,
Machine, Retaining Structures.
Understand various techniques adopted for ground improvement
Understand the suitable strengthening measures for existing and new foundations.
Computer Applications and case histories in the field of foundation engineering
Coverage of Indian Standard Codes of practice for various types of foundations and
retaining structures

CE F313-Foundation Engineering: Mr. J S Kalyana Rama 2
TEXTBOOK
Murthy, V. N. S. Geotechnical
Engineering: Principles and
Practices of Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, CRC
Press, Taylor & Francis Group, First
Indian Reprint, 2010
CE F313-Foundation Engineering: Mr. J S Kalyana Rama 3
REFERENCE BOOKS
Design Aids In Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering
Author: Shenbaga Kaniraj
Tata Mc-Graw Hill Publications
Geotechnical Engineering
Author: Manoj Datta, S Gulhati
Tata Mc-Graw Hill Publications
CRC Press
Analysis and design of
foundations and retaining
structures subjected to
seismic loads
Author: Swami Saran
I K Publishers
Indian Standard Codes as
mentioned in the
Handout-2
CE F313-Foundation Engineering: Mr. J S Kalyana Rama 4
My Personal Blog
www.atoz4civil.blogspot.in
Mail id : atoz4civilengineers@gmail.com
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CE F313-Foundation Engineering: Mr. J S Kalyana Rama 5
INTRODUCTION TO FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
Foundation is the art of selecting, designing, and constructing the elements that transfer the
weight (Weight may also include horizontal loads in addition to vertical loads) of a structure
to the underlying soil or rock. It also acts as an interface element between the superstructure
and the underlying soil or rock. The loads transmitted by the foundation to the underling soil
must not cause soil shear failure or damaging settlement of the superstructure.
The role of engineer is to select the type of foundation, its design and supervision of
construction.
Before the engineer can design a foundation intelligently, he must have a reasonably accurate
conception of the physical properties and the arrangement of the underlying materials. This
requires detailed soil explorations.
The term "foundation engineering" is used to include the design of foundations for buildings
and other structures and also for such non foundation problems as designs of retaining walls,
bulkheads, cofferdams, tunnels, and earth dams, as well as the design of natural slopes,
dewatering of soils, and stabilization of soils mechanically and chemically.
CE F313-Foundation Engineering: Mr. J S Kalyana Rama 6
construction site
Geo-Laboratory
~ for testing
Design Office
~ for design & analysis
soil properties
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REQUIREMENTS OF FOUNDATIONS:

1. Economical

2. Adequate Safety Bearing Capacity, Sliding, Overturning

3. Settlements Total and Differential Settlements

4. Seasonal changes drying, frost and heave

5. Constructional Problems Stability of excavation, bottom heave,
ground water problems, vibrations and
noise.

6. Environmental Effects Permanent lowering of ground water
level
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General Requirements of Foundation
Location and Depth of Foundation
Bearing Capacity of Foundation
Settlement of Foundation
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Location of Foundation

The following considerations are necessary for deciding the location and depth of
foundation
o As per IS:1904-1986, minimum depth of foundation shall be 0.50 m.
o Foundation shall be placed below the zone of
The frost heave
Excessive volume change due to moisture variation (usually exists within 1.5 to
3.5 m depth of soil from the top surface)
Topsoil or organic material
Peat and Muck
Unconsolidated material such as waste dump
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o Foundations adjacent to flowing water (flood water, rivers, etc.) shall be protected
against scouring. The following steps to be taken for design in such conditions
Determine foundation type
Estimate probable depth of scour, effects, etc.
Estimate cost of foundation for normal and various scour conditions
Determine the scour versus risk, and revise the design accordingly
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Depth Of Foundation

The depth to which foundations should be carried depends upon the following principal
factors:

The securing of adequate allowable bearing capacity.
In the case of clayey soils, penetration below the zone where shrinkage and swelling due to
seasonal weather changes, and due to trees and shrubs are likely to cause appreciable
movements.
In fine sands and silts, penetration below the zone in which trouble may be expected from
frost.
The maximum depth of scour, wherever relevant, should also be considered and the
foundation should be located sufficiently below this depth.
Other factors such as ground movements and heat transmitted from the building to the
supporting ground may be important.
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All foundations shall extend to a depth of at least 50 cm below natural ground level. On rock
or such other weather resisting natural ground, removal of the top soil may be all that is
required. In such cases, the surface shall be cleaned and, if necessary, stepped or otherwise
prepared so as to provide a suitable bearing and thus prevent slipping or other unwanted
movements.
Where there is excavation, ditch, pond, water course, filled up ground or similar condition
adjoining or adjacent to the subsoil on which the structure is to be erected and which is likely
to impair the stability of structure, either the foundation of such structure shall be carried
down to a depth beyond the detrimental influence of such conditions, or retaining walls or
similar works shall be constructed for the purpose of shielding from their effects.
A foundation in any type of soil shall be below the zone significantly weakened by root holes
or cavities produced by burrowing animals or works. The depth shall also be enough to
prevent the rainwater scouring below the footings.
Clay soils, like black cotton soils, are seasonally affected by drying, shrinkage and cracking in
dry and hot weather, and by swelling in the following wet weather to a depth which will vary
according to the nature of the clay and the climatic condition of the region. It is necessary in
these soils, either to place the foundation bearing at such a depth where the effects of seasonal
changes are not important or to make the foundation capable of eliminating the undesirable
effects due to relative movement by providing flexible type of construction or rigid
foundations. Adequate load counteraction swelling pressures also provide satisfactory
foundations.
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FOUNDATION AT DIFFERENT LEVELS
Where footings are adjacent to sloping ground or where the bottoms of the footings of a structure
are at different levels or at levels different from those ,of the footings of adjoining structures, the
depth of the footings shall be such that the difference in footing elevations shall be subject to the
following limitations:
When the ground surface slopes downward adjacent to a footing, the sloping surface shall not
intersect a frustum of bearing material under the footing having sides which make an angle of
30 with the horizontal for soil and horizontal distance from the lower edge of the footing to
the sloping surface shall be at least 60 cm for rock and 90 cm for soil ( see Fig. 1 ).

Fig:1 Footing in Sloping ground
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In the case of footings in granular soil, a line drawn between the lower adjacent edges of
adjacent footings shall not have a steeper slope than one vertical to two horizontal (see Fig.
2a).
In case of footing of clayey soils a line drawn between the lower adjacent edge of the upper
footing and the upper adjacent edge of lower footing shall not have a steeper slope than one
vertical to two horizontal ( see Fig. 2b ).
Fig:2a Footing on Granular Soil
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Fig:2b Footing on Clayey Soil
SPACING BETWEEN EXISTING AND NEW FOUNDATION
The deeper the new foundation and the nearer to the existing it is located, the greater
the damage is likely to be. The minimum horizontal spacing between existing and new
footings shall be equal to the width of the wider one. While the adoption of such
provision shall help minimizing damage to adjacent foundation, an analysis of bearing
capacity and settlement shall be carried out to have an appreciation of the effect on the
adjacent existing foundation.
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CE F313-Foundation Engineering: Mr. J S Kalyana Rama
Foundations Systems
Foundation Engineering/Foundation Systems
Foundation
Structures
Retaining
Structures
Substructures
Shallow
Foundations
Deep
Foundations
1. Piles
2. Piers
3. Caissons
1. Footings
2. Rafts
1. Retaining Walls
2. Sheet Pile Walls


1. Coffer Dams
2. Cut Supports
1. Tunnels
2. Conduits


1. Diaphragm Walls
2. Pavements
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Shallow Foundations
Footings Rafts
For two or more
columns in one row
For Individual
Columns
For Load
Bearing Walls
For two or more
columns in several rows
Combined Footings

Shape:
a. Rectangular
b. Trapezoidal
c. Cantilever
Independent Footings
1. Isolated
2. Spread or Pad

Shape:
a. Rectangular
b. Square
c. Circular
Continuous or
Strip Footings
1. Grids
2. Rafts

Shape:
a. Rectangular
b. Square
c. Circular
d. Annular
e. Octagonal
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Deep Foundations
Caissons Piers Piles
Box
1. Drilled
2. Excavated

Shape:
a. Circular
1. Replacement
2. Displacement
3. End Bearing
4. Frictional
5. Bored
6. Driven
7. Cast-in-situ
8. Precast

Shape:
a. Circular
b. Square
Open (Well)

Shape:
a. Circular
b. Double-D
etc..

Pneumatic
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The foundations provided immediately beneath the lowest part of the structure, near to the ground
level are known as shallow foundations. The purpose of this type of foundations is to distribute
the structural loads over a considerable base area at the foundation bed. Since spread foundations
(shallow foundations) are constructed in open excavations, therefore, they are termed as open
foundations
Shallow foundations are further classified into the following types: -
a. Spread or Isolated footings
b. Combined footing
c. Cantilever footing
d. Continuous or wall footing
e. Raft foundation
Shallow Foundations
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CE F313-Foundation Engineering: Mr. J S Kalyana Rama
Spread Footing Shapes
Spread footing foundations: An enlargement at the bottom
of a column or bearing wall that spreads the applied
structural loads over a sufficiently large soil area.
i. Square spread footings : Supporting a single
centrally-supported column.
ii. Rectangular spread footings : In cases that
obstructions prevent construction of a square footing
with a sufficiently large base area and large moment
loads are present.
iii. Circular spread footings : Supporting a single
centrally-supported column, but less common than
square footing. (flagpoles).
iv. Continuous spread footings(Strip footings) : Used
to support bearing walls.
v. Combined footing : When columns are located too
close together for each to give its own footing.
vi. Strap footing with a grade beam : Provides the
necessary moment resistance in the exterior footing
with eccentric load and a more rigid foundation
system.
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CE F313-Foundation Engineering: Mr. J S Kalyana Rama
Strap Footing
Use of strap footing to support exterior
Columns when construction cannot
Occur beyond the wall
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Spread or Isolated Footings:- They are used to support individual column. Isolated footings are
stepped type, simple type or slope type, having projections in the base concrete. To support heavy
loads, reinforcement is also provided at the base. The reinforcement provided is in the form of
steel bars and is placed in both directions
Single spread footing Stepped spread footing Sloped spread footing
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Combined Footing:- A combined footing supports two or sometimes three column in a row.
Combined footing is used when property lines, equipment locations, column spacing or other
considerations limit the footing clearance at the column locations. The combined footing can be
rectangular in shape if both the columns carry equal loads, or can be trapezoidal if there is a space
limitation and they carry unequal loads. Generally they are constructed of reinforced concrete.
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Cantilever or Strap Footing: - Cantilever footing consists of two individual footings connected
by a beam called a strap. It is also sometimes called as strap footing. Cantilever footing may be
used where the distance between the columns is so great that a trapezoidal combined footing
becomes quite narrow, with resulting high bending moments. The strap beam does not remain in
contact with soil so a strap doesnt transfer any pressure to the soil.
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Continuous or Wall Footing:- In this type of footing a single continuous reinforced concrete
slab is provided as foundation of wall and three or more columns in a row. This type of footing is
suitable at locations liable to earthquake activities. This also prevents differential settlement in
the structure.
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Raft Foundation:- A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a
structure and supports all the columns. When the allowable soil pressure is low or the structure
loads are heavy, the use of spread footings would cover more than one-half of the area, and it
may prove more economical to use raft foundation. It is also used where the soil mass contains
compressible layers so that the differential settlement would be difficult to control the raft tends
to bridge over the erratic deposits and eliminates the differential settlement.
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GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FOUNDATION DESIGN
The usual approach to a normal foundation-engineering problem is
1. To prepare a plan of the base of the structure showing the various columns, load bearing walls
with estimated loads, including dead load, live load, moments and torques coming into the
foundation units.
2. To study the tentative allowable bearing pressures allocated for the various strata below the
ground level, as given by the soil investigation report.
3. To determine the required foundation depth. This may be the minimum depth based on soil
strength or structural requirement considerations.
4. To compute the dimensions of the foundation based on the given loading and allowable bearing
pressure.
5. To estimate the total and differential settlements of the structure. If these are excessive the
bearing pressure will have to be reduced or the foundation taken to a deeper and less
compressible stratum or the structure will have to be founded on piles or other special measures
taken
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Loads on Foundation
An accurate estimation of all loads acting on the foundation should be made before it can be
properly designed. A foundation may be subjected to two or more of the following loads.
a) Dead load: - - Weight of structure
- All material permanently attached to structure
- Static earth pressure acting permanently against the structure below ground surface.
- Water pressures acting laterally against basement walls and vertically against slab.
b) Live load: - temporary loads expected to superimpose on the structure during its useful life.
c) Wind load: - lateral load coming from the action of wind. Local building codes provide
magnitude of design wind pressure.
d) Earth-quake load: - lateral load coming from earthquake motion. The total lateral force (base
shear) at the base of a structure is evaluated in accordance with local building code.
e) Dynamic load: - load coming from a vibrating object (machinery). In such case, separate
foundation should be provided. The impact effect of such loads should be considered in design.
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Selection of Foundation Type
In selecting the foundation type the following points must be considered
a. Function of the structure
b. Loads it must carry
c. Subsurface conditions
d. Cost of foundation in comparison with the cost of the superstructure.
Having these points in mind one should apply the following steps in order to arrive at a
decision.
i. Obtain at least approximate information concerning the nature of the superstructure
and the loads to be transmitted to the foundation
ii. Determine the subsurface condition in a general way.
iii. Consider each of the usual types of foundations in order to judge whether or not
a. They could be constructed under existing conditions.
b. They are capable of carrying the required load.
c. They experience serious differential settlements.
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The types that are found to be unsuitable should then be eliminated.
iv. Undertake a detailed study of the most promising types. Such a study may require
additional information on loads and subsurface conditions.
Determine the approximate size of footing or the approximate length and number of piles
required
v. Prepare an estimate for the cost of each promising type of foundation.
vi. Select the type that represents the most acceptable compromise between
performance and cost.
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Table 1. Soil Types and Foundation Consideration
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Table 2. Possible Solutions to some Problems in Foundations
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