Literature Review and Final Paper Amy Walker Introduction to Adult Learning December 4, 2012

As seen in our studies, more and more adults are joining formal learning environments each and every year, whether required by an organization, or by personal choice. As such, educators need to be aware of best practices when it comes to guiding adults in their learning process, making this is an important topic to study. For adults, learning is a process that is greatly affected by internal influences, such as attitudes, motivations, and previous knowledge and experience, as well as external factors, such as cost, time constraints and family responsibilities. These all need to be taken into consideration when educating adults, in order to create a supportive, productive and successful learning environment. This literature review will examine several ways that educators can assist adults in their learning, based in the context and themes of this course. First, it will look at the importance of studying adult education theories regarding the workplace and professional development, as in a quickly changing world, which is where a lot of learning is now occurring. Next, it aims to examine the significance of promoting reflection in the adult learning process. Finally, it will discuss the role that learning communities, as seen in situated and experiential learning theories, play in adult education and the workplace. In considering these themes, educators will be better equipped to promote growth, success and satisfaction in the adult learner. To begin, workplace learning and professional development are areas of adult education that requires attention in todays rapidly changing job market and economy. Learning activities in the workplace are becoming more commonplace, as increased knowledge and skill are both expected and in demand from employees (Fenwick, 2001).

Other factors affecting workplace expectations such as globalization, privatization and specialization also put pressure on employees to acquire further knowledge, skill and credentials that may even exceed the requirements for their jobs (Fenwick, 2001). This is occurring despite the fact that traditionally, organizational knowledge does not change quickly nor is it accessible to all employees (Fenwick, 2001). Boud and Hager would agree as they discuss the popular view that knowledge is increasingly seen as a measurable commodity to be acquired by professionals, who are coerced into learning activities to maintain their status or designation (2012). Daley writes that professional practice is inherently linked to the context in which the relevant knowledge is constructed and utilized, and that this is important to consider when teaching adults in a work environment (2000). As discussed in class, these compulsory learning activities are often not designed with the learners needs, previous knowledge or applications in mind. Additionally, Daley finds that often, information provided in training sessions is absorbed or used in a different way than intended (Daley, 2000) and should be considered when designing workplace training. The notion of constructivism is also prevalent in adult learning theory, and pertains to workplace education in that adults connect new information to existing knowledge through meaning-making and applicability in their environment or practice (Boud & Hager, 2012). This then connects to the theory of transformational learning, which for Mezirow, means that critical analysis and reflection of our existing worldviews or frames of reference may change when new knowledge has been encountered, constructed, understood and connected to our previous experience, current situations and potential usage (Boud & Hager, 2012). These concepts may be of great use in designing and implementing educational tools and settings that work best for

adult learning processes, especially when learning takes place in a workplace environment or for professional development. Next, the author will examine the significance of promoting reflection in the adult learning process. According to Boud (2001), reflection is essentially a way of exploring experience in order to learn new things from it (p.10), which can be done informally for personal reasons or within a formal environment, such as in an educational or professional setting. Boud elaborates on Mezirows theory and writes that because learning requires connecting previous experience or knowledge to new information, reflection is an important process (2001). As discussed in class, Schon, a major proponent of reflection in the learning process, suggests that reflection can be done before, during or after an experience, which can then help to shape our knowledge (class 4 powerpoint). Also as considered in our course, reflection can be done at various times, using a variety of methods, including journaling, writing logs or diaries and perhaps, even meditation. Through the reflection process, it is believed that adults begin to question the meanings they have come to understand and attach to their realities, contributing to the aforementioned transformational learning process (Mezirow, 1981). Meanings and norms are regularly socially and culturally constructed, negotiated and transferred on, which makes it difficult to be critical of these assumptions. It is often when adults encounter a difference that challenges their current frame of reference that this process occurs (Mezirow, 1981). Mezirow writes that perspective transformation and the ability to reflect critically on these constructions is unique to adults, who seek the answers to why we act, believe or know in certain ways (1981). Procee similarly discusses the concept of reflection in depth and states that ultimately, critical reflection will encourage

empowerment, confidence, professionalism, self-awareness and should be considered complementary to formal education processes (2006). Given this, reflection should be encouraged by adult educators as a means of learning. Lastly, the role that learning communities play in adult education and the workplace requires some examination, as they have proven to be important in the learning process. There is considerable agreement that learning communities play a vital role in the success of adult education, as learning is viewed as a social activity (Hansman, 2001). As discussed in class, learning communities are powerful structures that can demonstrate the significance and relevance of locally constructed and applicable knowledge. Hansman (2001) writes, From a situated view, people learn as they participate and become intimately involved with a community or culture of learning, interacting with the community and learning to understand and participate in its history (p. 46, citing Lave and Wenger, 1991; Fenwick, 2000). Boud and Hager extend on this and write that by learning through collective reflection, group members are taking charge of their own personal development as well as contributing to the success of their organizations (2012). Marsick and Watkins might concur with this statement when recommending that organizations create learning opportunities through encouraging employees to work together and collaborate on learning activities, either formally or informally (2001). However, in addition, Marsick, Watkins and Fenwick state that we must also be aware that this may create a situation where organizations control knowledge, values and access, and people are not aware of their role in the power dynamics of the learning group and do not question values embedded in this exchange of knowledge (Marsick & Watkins, 2001; Fenwick, 2001). Despite this fact, Hansman

writes that participating in communities of practice or cognitive apprenticeships is a great way for adult members to encounter new information, construct, share and reevaluate their own knowledge and participate in the creation of their own learning environments (Hansman, 2001). Fenwick (2001) would agree, as the author also states, knowing is inventive and entwined with doing (p. 6), which echoes Kolbs sentiment that learning and coming to know are processes, not outcomes or results (as cited in Class 2 Theories of Adult Learning Powerpoint). All of this demonstrates that experiential and situated learning through relationships and communities is also an integral factor in adult education and is something that adult educators should keep in mind when designing and teaching adult learning programs. Through this discussion of issues and principles of adult education, this literature review has demonstrated that there are several ways that educators can assist adults in their learning, based in the context and themes of this course. By acknowledging that adult education theories can and should play a significant role in workplace learning and professional development, that reflection is integral to the education process, and that learning communities are beneficial to adult learners, educators will be able to implement more informed programs designed to promote growth, success and satisfaction in the adult learner.

For the reflection portion of this final paper, I would like to connect personal course learnings with key concepts of adult education, as identified in the literature review. To begin, this reflection will look at the importance of studying adult education theories, as understood through many class examples.

This course has been extremely valuable in laying critical groundwork of adult learning principles, in which to base further education and possible career choices. An increasing number of adult learners are entering online educational programs, for a number of distinct reasons and motivations, as is represented in our class. Some adults must pursue education to receive or maintain accreditation, while others, such as our classmate Michael, enjoy learning and seeking out knowledge, challenges, interaction and dialogue for personal fulfillment. In addition, consumerism and globalization come into play, as people want to maximize their capabilities, marketability and earning potential in a increasingly competitive global job market. As discussed in the literature review, adult learning theories take into account that all adults are influenced by a number of stresses in their lives that impact their learning, and given what we have seen in this course, this needs to be considered when planning for a successful education experience. Knowles model of andragogy is also important to look at as it recognizes that adults have accumulated a reservoir of life experiences that is a rich resource for learning, learning needs closely related to changing social roles and are interested in immediate application of knowledge (Merriam, 2001, p.5). In class, some of our peers discussed the impact of children and families on their learning, several mentioned the stress of working full time while attending school and some pointed out other pressures such as time and travel commitments and cost. In each situation, individuals often weigh out their constantly changing external and internal loads and powers, as McCluskey suggests in the Theory of Margin, discussed in our second class (1970, as cited in Class 2 Theories of Adult Learning Powerpoint). This will help assess whether the learner has enough power, particularly in the form of support,

finances and skills, to take on the learning process (McCluskey, 1970, as cited in Class 2 Theories of Adult Learning Powerpoint). When technology is highly relied upon in a program, patience and support while dealing with technical difficulties are also important. This is evident in how our class handled such issues through troubleshooting and sharing knowledge. With flexibility and understanding built into the learning environment, it may make it easier for adult learners to be successful in their educational endeavours while managing other responsibilities in their lives. Also evident in the variety and richness of learning experiences that classmates shared during class discussions, case studies and narrative presentations, is the importance of a positive and enriching educational setting in which adults can learn and be successful. As discussed in class, this is another factor seen in adult learning theory; Dalozs sentiment that the learning environment must be a safe and open place, where change is encouraged and accepted (Merriam, 2005, p.11). Sharing narratives and case studies was a successful experience, as our environment was one where hopefully, people felt valued, supported and comfortable expressing their views and collaborating with peers. In summary, it is clear that this course illustrated Illeris Three Dimensions of Learning, as was discussed in our second class; first, cognition, thought and reasoning, second, emotion and feeling and third, environment and community (2002, 2004, as cited in Class 2 Theories of Adult Learning Powerpoint). In my interpretation of this adult learning theory, the course was designed to encourage new ways of knowing, by reflecting on previous experience and emotion, in a supportive and challenging

environment that promotes community and collaboration. Next, this reflection will discuss the role that the learning community played in our course. The narratives and case studies also demonstrate how a diverse community of very unique individuals, connected by distances bridged only through weekly online synchronous class, can come together under positive leadership to help foster and encourage each others learning. In our online classroom, where students may only know each other virtually, the void created by a lack of face-to-face interaction seemed to be filled by sharing stories to forge personal relationships, which allowed for the opportunity to develop deeper understandings and interpretation of the course material through collaboration. As each person has come to know something as part of their individual context, I feel this brings valuable diversity to the learning environment, in the form of different perspectives and opinions. As examined in our course, while some people may prefer to work asynchronously for a variety of reasons, such as time constraints and learning preferences, a sense of community and meaningful interaction with classmates is still desirable, but more difficult to accomplish outside of a synchronous environment. With an open interpretation of assignments and few restrictions stipulated, every classmate took a different approach to describe their personal stories, using a variety of technological platforms, which provided deeper insight into numerous motivations, learning styles and methods, and the impact of reflection, all while allowing for the presenters and their audience to form connections to previous knowledge and experience. This type of assignment also allowed for the possibility of self-directed learning, as several classmates mentioned learning how to use new tools for their presentations. With Dans message representing the importance of embodied learning, Bavinas story

demonstrating the significant role of family and culture in learning opportunities and processes, Michaels account of his experiences with learning to fly, and Eliscias reflection on overcoming adversity to transform and refocus her life, extremely important concepts of adult learning are apparent in the sharing of narratives in a community of learners. Finally, the significance of reflection in the adult learning process will be examined. As seen in the previous sections examples, reflection is an integral part of adult learning. Merriam writes that, Boud, Keogh, and Walker (1985) define reflection as those intellectual and affective activities in which individuals engage to explore their experiences in order to lead to new understandings and appreciations (Merriam, 2005, p. 9). Reflection can also promote knowledge construction and transformational learning by connecting new information to existing knowledge and experience, with critical and analytical lenses. Two of the major projects in this course were based on relating assigned readings and material to personally relevant understanding and knowledge, which required a great deal of reflection and sharing with classmates. As Mezirow stated, reflection encourages adults to question the meanings and labels they have constructed and assigned to their realities, which can in turn, alter ones frame of reference and transform their worldviews (1981). Through engaging with peers and listening to their stories, reflections and perspectives, our eyes have been opened to different ways of seeing things. For me, this was very clear when Charlie was giving his narrative presentation and sharing his artwork; I am not very artistically inclined, but seeing how he interpreted his world and meanings through his art was an interesting and valuable experience.

Personally, the reflection component of this course significantly impacted my learning process and how I engaged with the material and my peers and has made a lasting impression on me; perhaps, an example of transformational learning. Critical reflectivity, as Mezirow wrote about, has transformed the way I think about not only what I know and how I know, but has also lead me to question why my reality is the way it is, and search for deeper meaning (Mezirow, 1981). This is a much different course format than what I have encountered previously in formal education, but was an interesting and enriching experience. All of these in-class experiences and discussions are a clear demonstration of Kolbs theory that learning is a continuous, life-long process and not a final outcome (1984, as cited in Class 2 Theories of Adult Learning Powerpoint). I have come to recognize that by understanding how we learn as adults, we can engage with materials, our peers and instructors in a way best suited to our needs, which will change over time, with reflection and according to circumstance. While I acknowledge that our course has covered much more than the theories and ideas discussed above, these are the concepts that have made the biggest impression on my learning this semester. Educators must also remember that these factors need to be respected when designing and teaching a course intended for adult learners, so that flexibility, collaboration, reflection opportunity and feedback are built-in and understood to enhance the learning environment. In considering these factors of adult education, educators will be better equipped to promote development, success and fulfillment in the adult learner.

References: Boud, D. (2001). Using journal writing to enhance reflective practice. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2001(90), 9-18. doi: 10.1002/ace.16 Boud, D., & Hager, P. (2012). Re-thinking continuing professional development through changing metaphors and location in professional practices. Studies in Continuing Education, 34(1), 17-30. doi: 10.1080/0158037X.2011.608656 Daley, B. J. (2000). Learning in professional practice. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2000(86) doi: 10.1002/ace.8604 Fenwick, T. (2001). Tides of change: New themes and questions in workplace learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2001(92), 3-18. doi: 10.1002/ace.36 Hansman, C. A. (2001). Context-based adult learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2001(89), 43-52. doi: 10.1002/ace.7 Marsick, V. J., & Watkins, K. E. (2001). Informal and incidental learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2001(89), 25-34. doi: 10.1002/ace.5 Merriam, S. (2001). Andragogy and self-directed learning: pillars of adult learning theory. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 89 (Spring) 3-13. Merriam, S. (2005). How adult life transitions foster learning and development. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 108 (Winter), 3-13. Mezirow, J. (1981). A Critical Theory of Adult Learning and Education. Adult Education 32(1), 3-24. Procee, H. (2006). Reflection in Education: A Kantian Epistemology. Educational Theory, 56(3), 237-253. doi: 10.1111/j.1741-5446.2006.00225.x Class 2 Powerpoint: Theories of Adult Learning, Wendy Barber