China's Fifth Modernization: Education Author(s): John J. Cogan Source: The Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 62, No.

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China's
No one

Fifth Modernization:

Education
of China. in

Text and photography by John J. Cogan

the power more deeply than the rulers appreciates of education count on to school modernization achieve the 'four modernizations" They and science and technology. agriculture, industry, military defense,

"It is imperative to train a large intel contingent of working-class lectuals and greatly to raise the scientific and cultural " level of the
entire Chinese nation. ? Deng Xiaoping,

long-time comments

observer of modern China, further on this debate:

the greater the voluntary efforts the to learn science should make students and culture for the revolution.3

22 April

1978

of this struggle [con education is both revolution], If politics crucial and controversial. in command is to mean then anything, tinued must of millions seriously econo and political study philosophy . . . texts Confucian my. Replacing texts does with Marxist not in itself cause people's to come to grips brains with the real world. That is why Mao so often that knowledge has stressed hundreds and has from practice that everyone take part in class ? that is, day-to-day political ? in order to master politics. alent comes insisted struggle struggle

In the context

The important aspect of this statement

is that redness, the correct political orien

tation, is mentioned
expertness come of ness. How the

as primary and that

out logical conscious har

is a necessary and correct political well these two

The
uing

revolutionary process in the Peo ple's Republic of China is a contin

one. Major changes have occurred in

concepts

all areas since 1949. Education has always played an important role in these changes, either through its presence or its absence. education is a critical and Consequently, essential component of the current drive
toward the "four modernizations" in agriculture, and science defense, industry, military ma Without and technology.

monize in practice will be one of the most to watch in the important phenomena next decade. Some level of harmony be
tween tinued the two will toward be essential modernization. to con progress

This is only one of the many issues fac ing Chinese education as this nation, with
one-quarter decade of our planet's toward population,

But politics in command is not equiv to politics in all. . . . Liberated

jor shifts in educational policy now being

to attain cannot China hope implemented, The its modernization goals. importance was of education in this process summed

and taking hold of technology raise the level of production. levels of production form a ma Higher terial base for further revolution. In this people, science, whole of process, technology the step-by-step mastery and science is vitally im

enters the decade of the 1980s, a critical

in the drive Chinese so modernization. and better To

This article will look at some of the issues

facing leaders, intertwined the to take educators that we with our can government understand

this nation, whose

issues more a brief structure

destiny
own. the

is increasingly
understand necessary educa and the

up by Vice-Premier
speech above. to the National Further

Deng Xiaoping
Educational

in a
Work

portant.2

Conference

on 22 April
excerpts:

1978, quoted

The obvious dilemma is to find a mid dle ground where both the "red" and the
are integrated. "expert" been accomplished well This task has not in the past. Party Every

clearly, look at of the

it is first current

tional

country

of the quality improve [W]e must and raise the level of teaching education in science and culture so as to serve pro better. letarian politics We must train workers with high at in science and culture tainments and in build a vast army of working-class tellectuals expert. . .J who are both red and

role of intellectuals in China during the past 31 years. The latter is crucial to
understanding current trends.

time the Party

the masses there would

leadership worried
from renewed

about
dogma, on for

straying be a as

"redness," a "great

in Chairman revolution."

emphasis Mao's call Now,

Educational

Structure*

cultural

after

the devastation of that decade which brought the development of the country
to a virtual valued. again halt, "expertness" Critics charge is once that Deng

Throughout the 31-year history of the People's Republic there has been a debate
the importance concerning versus i.e., "expertness," of "redness" between the

Xiaoping has diluted the role of politics and ideology in his drive toward modern
ization. Perhaps so, yet Deng's own

concept of "politics in command" (ideol ogy) and scholarship (the mastery of sci
ence and culture). William Hinton, a

words

suggest

an attempt
posture:

to find

middle-of-the-road

Institutionalized education in China is about 3,000 years old. Schooling in the country prior to 1949 was limited; the ma jority of students came from privileged and wealthy families. School enrollment was at about 20% of the total school-age population, and illiteracy ranged between 80% in urban centers to 95% in rural areas. With the coming to power of Mao Zedong and his forces in October 1949,
education of the masses became dictated Reforms were priority. First National Conference a high at the

JOHN J. COGAN (University of Minne sota Chapter) is associate professor of educa tion, University Minneapolis. of Minnesota, He visited the People's last Republic of China a special study of popular year and has made and China. research ? 1980, now literature coming John J. Cogan. out of

Mao explicitly Chairman pointed out that the main task of students is to to learn book study, i.e., knowledge, science and culture. Students must give first place to firm and correct political but this does not exclude orientation, the study of science and culture. On the con the higher their political contrary, sciousness, the harder the efforts and

on Education,

Much of the material in this section is from a of Education in speech titled "The Development China over the Past 30 Years," by Ming-yuan Gu, director general, Beijing Normal University, China, at the Fourth World Congress of Comparative Educa tion Societies, Tokyo, 8 July 1980.

268

PHI DELTA KAPPAN

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held lished

just his

two

months

after

Mao

estab as

Communist The

revolutionaries tasks

the governing

body of the new People's

major fac government the cultural 1) raising planners level of

of China. Republic and ing educators were seen as

the people; 2) training and advancing qualified personnel in key posts; 3) elimi
nating the feudal, compradore (imperial

ist), and fascist ideologies; and 4) popu larizing the ideal of working for the peo
ple. Significant gains levels of education ance were Their with these established task was The for have since been 1949 made at all in accord

directives. children to equip

Kindergartens ages 3 to 7. mentally

children also

and physically
years.

for

the primary
serves

school
as a

kindergarten respect 67 before for times

socializing force in the collective spirit and

generates authority. the peak In 1979, Middle schools graduates take only school. that and take two school students 1979 there at work. were students in China. universities

8,790,000
preschools, enrollment Primary at

children were enrolled in these

preschool generally to provide that pre the in chemistry mid for the in basic being 1949. professional dle school those senior cludes courses studied, medicine. settings varying year ondary 1,199,000 that middle junior years of 1,020,000 regis Eighty and de re

begins children pares

which education, is designed age 7, a basic with education for of takes the middle secondary five years which curriculum

tered for higher education

educational nine tail of these research later). education attention the of after institutions were "key" (discussed institutes

in 633 higher

them

equivalent It China. primary universal.

schools, education to

graduates The curriculum

school, The

complete is compulsory and includes the

politics, in the area

and literature, of specialization

in more also

e.g., engineering, work Practical is also

of the Chinese mathe study language, fine and arts, music, matics, physical are Natural education. and politics science studied urban most The In 90%, from schools the fourth foreign foreign is 9Vi grade onward. instruc In language language months of

according is 10 months professional

required, to specialty.

agriculture, in appropriate the proportion The school

Postgraduate ceived renewed suspension tion. The ranges most tions

has

during

a period of Revolu Cultural study of the in

In 1979 the sec long. some schools enrolled five times the enroll

period two from

students,

significant this area is the establishment regarding academic

postgraduate to four years. One recent developments of

tion begins at age 3. Today English

prominent school year 1979

is the

ment

studied. in length. was

Higher
diversified. leges, schools. train ers.

in 1949. education
It includes and institutes, The goal

the regula by the degrees

in China
universities, higher

is also
col

Standing Committee of the National Peo in February 1980. The ple's Congress
regulations mentation and become Much and vision broadcasts some now and time. registered Television kinds doctoral effective set of a process forth a baccalaureate, degree-granting 1 January is also education more for imple to master's, system 1981. to adult given in China. Tele attention as an radio

school primary an attendance with six times There and

enrollment

students, ferentiated. schools nical and General

146,630,000 the enrollment in 1949.

students

of higher as senior professional for higher to their

professional is to education work are on na were also education scores which must

Secondary

education
are

in China
general

is dif
(tech is

secondary

Applicants chosen according tional entrance several reinstituted

attention is receiving tool. have Some

secondary professional schools. normal) secondary school education

examinations, in 1977. Applicants other requirements: old or younger, been some

nonformal

meet must

1) They

educational

Educational

five years in length and is divided into two

three years of junior middle school stages: two years and at the senior level. The task is to prepare for students primary or further education. higher lum includes the Chinese tics, mathematics, ology, phy, tion, nine ondary 59,050,000 enrollment Secondary foreign agriculture, music, months and physics, languages, The language, chemistry, history, curricu poli bi

recently

be 26 years there have

for rule, especially to the countryside

although to this exceptions sent of the youth the from Cultural senior

used for effectively are students 280,000 the Central Radio through which was es

been

during graduated or must means of

University, of

Revolution;

age 30 is the cutoff point; 2)

demonstrate an educational a senior middle hard Many research On to four and

tablished in 1979. In addition,

numerous factory-run 863,000 training colleges. students teachers

there are
and were

have they must middle schools some through level equivalent is school other

part-time colleges In 1979 there in for part-time secondary teachers. 161 training teachers which teachers these

physical hygiene, art. The school In 1979 enrollment nearly

geogra educa year sec at the train in mod

schools schools

to that was

long. students, in 1949.

school

general stood 60 times

graduate. education Higher

and
particularly Revolution. and shut to

1,375,000
primary part-time

students
school the teacher

in schools

for
pro col en

hit during the Cultural of the colleges, universities, were institutes completely ly now education to two five to for three are they is from for

training These grams leges Qualified receive whereas selected

down. return

supplement and normal

universities, school in one of

professional

schools roles are

beginning two to five and and

rolled 310,000
training

teacher trainees in 1978.

must schools, are teachers schools.

for professional personnel ernized There production. professional culture, economics, and teacher primary schooling schools forestry, physical training medicine,

their assigned tasks. The period of higher

universities schools. colleges The ? years institutes

secondary

secondary agri and arts, and

in engineering, finance the

education, (for

fessional

pro higher varies curriculum

primary qualified from normal secondary

Since there is still a shortage of qualified

secon at both teachers the primary and the inservice of teach levels, dary training ers is currently as critical. viewed

school

teachers). to four is three

preschool The of period for those years

one of the 800 special to which according ties is being in but it always undertaken, cludes the study of political In economy.

DECEMBER 1980

269

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The of to power architect made

death

of Mao

and

the overthrow

the Gang

of Four, once again the drive of Under is once role

of

with the rise coupled of Deng Xiaoping, to modernize China, much more ex the re

the

intellectuals Deng's again intellectuals policy

promising. pertness policy vised. establish The a

leadership, and valued, has toward been China's

toward

current

25 million

intellectuals
close

is "to
who Thus

firmly
between learn prog men of with

and mental physical and make from each other ress within the cause the whom in their in our /I Chinese school class studies English. from Premier the sci Zhou socialist of the working furthering state. Many were

relationship workers class."

common

tal labor is equated with physical labor in

the construction intellectuals

I spoke

outlook, and policies since lives will

cautiously optimistic the sudden changes given intel toward attitudes that for a pro the

primary not

are hopeful 1949. "We be good and productive said one university very long time," one never when knows "But fessor. lectuals may change again."

winds Successes turmoil. The in education have been

achieved without much attention

periods of considerable
press has given

ton) entific

attended and

by literary

intellectuals circles, that peasants

popular

Enlai said he believed that they had been

accused, wrongly with workers and three zon for a groups seemed short intellectuals constituted people. The but along the hori only Cul

Education
of

and Modernization
is the primary drive the relations topic for with

to the diminished

role of

of in the plight and especially education Cul the of decade the tellectuals during role of the The 1966-76. tural Revolution,

in China Everywhere conversation any Now Japan realize have and

of working once bright time. In began,

modernization. the U.S.

that been

intellectual
somewhat

in China
ambiguous

since 1949 has been

and ever-changing.

1966

again, the Great

tural Revolution

ushering

in a dec

ade of turmoil and humiliation The Role

In China used case cludes writers, ers, and knowledge more

for intel

of Intellectuals
the term "intellectuals" than is normally The category engineers, schoolteach is the in

as witnessed lectuals, a normal school spoke at some

from by this account with whom I teacher during a visit to

more the Chinese is in terms their country underdeveloped have a great deal models. of Western They for moderni the plans about of optimism zation. naivete plexity Yet about of the in some respects the massiveness undertaking. there and The is a real com intel

normalized, than ever how

length

inclusively societies. inWestern professors, factory other

China

in 1979:

scientists, technicians, with workers

in addition

professional skills. to physical

At

the time of the founding of the Peo ple's Republic of China in 1949 there were
about there The changed three are million toward time intellectuals. intellectuals Today has nearly policy each 25 million. have winds the political re has always the goal to make them part of During and of from the period remold them the old them to of fol intel were socie

at In 1969 I left my college because as were all intel that time Iwas accused, lectuals. We were called class enemies to I didn't want of Four. by the Gang So I left my college. All teach anymore. left also. All my students my colleagues were told by the Gang of Four to give us to what we trouble, not to pay attention like myself who understood said. Those of be a foreign language were accused ing foreign slaves. A school that conversation teacher the abuses also. with a former middle

lectuals with whom I spoke in 1979 be lieved that if China could only receive
capital and technology from the Western

powers,
War

as Japan did following World

their goals by the reach II, they could I asked them about Yet when year 2000. of such a side effects the possible negative massive unemployment (e.g., program caused ing by over

shifted, mained

although the same: class.

tak and machines technology out by carried jobs previously "We the standard was, response people), these time to solve have We will manage. But problems." can accomplish The role of modernization plan have taken and enthusiasm optimism so much. only for in the drive education must be substantial if the

the working was

lowing the liberation in 1949, Party policy

to unite, educate, most because lectuals, intellectuals goal was intellectuals policy to make dedicated turned Mao of to one had the took heavily future

schooling lish.

near Shanghai confirmed at other levels of occurred of Eng She was a teacher

is to succeed.

bourgeois ty. The class But

working socialism. outright a in con

this

hostility during the period of the "Great

Forward." Leap assessment critical order struction. seriously, 1960s. socialist, 1962, at to encouraged Revolution socialist this

I taught for only one like it at all, because my to learn. The Gang want students not to study, to

I didn't year. students didn't of Four urged

policy been

place. intellectuals toward to include is once the can

many changes Already the As noted earlier, has them as recently an im

improve Intellectuals only to be

challenge criticized by anti Then (Can in

the Party during the late 1950s and early

It labeled bourgeois a meeting them "anti-Party, rightists." in Guangzhou

I It was very tion. and they students would say ? to my would say ah. So I quit and looked for were But intellectuals another job. the nine as one of labeled stinking and so it was by the gang, categories I could to find a job where very difficult use my skills. People didn't want to hire me because they feared trouble from the gang.

disrupt educa to teach. difficult

changed factor portant tion. Expertness

in the drive

for moderniza

Chinese ments for only from education

leadership in each of

The valued. again that advance realizes four be areas targeted

modernization

through significant intellectual the community. takes

accomplished contributions Thus in at

the People's from all levels, postgraduate

on a special importance of China today Republic schools primary Examinations work.

through have

270

PHI DELTA KAPPAN

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is and will continue to be one of ". . .[Education the cornerstones in the Chinese Communist Party's drive in the latter part of this century." for modernization
been reintroduced at all levels. The

"key"

school concept has been reestablished at the primary, middle school (secondary), and college and university levels to train themost gifted students in areas of needed
expertise.

pertness if they are to keep their valued places in the eyes of both the people and
the regime. Failure to keep a perspective

ing restored after the chaotic years of the

Cultural once Revolution. again being used Examinations as a means are of

as members of the working class could prove very troublesome, as it has in the
past.

and research institutes, Universities shut many of which were completely down during the Cultural Revolution, are open again and rapidly moving to train needed research scholars and specialists. Eighty-nine institutions have been desig
nated as "key" their faculty universities exchange abroad. universities efforts in and those research

Second, and closely related, there is a tendency toward conventional as opposed

to revolutionary education in China to

checking on studies and the efficacy of teaching. Centralized administration of programs has been restored also in the hope of improving educational quality.
This orientation toward more conven

education is formal day. Conventional and structured and takes place primarily in the school setting. Under Maoist revo lutionary education, the school was but
one of many educational agencies; T. formal H. E.

institutes
concentrate Increased Chinese are major universities

in given disciplines.
exchanges are being

They will
areas. between pushed, as with are

and
blurred. fornia

nonformal
Professor elaborates:

education
Emeritus

lines were

Chen of the University

of Southern Cali

tional education will continue so long as plans for modernization remain in effect. Third, the emphasis is and will con tinue to be on academic study. Nothing is more indicative of this trend than the reinstitution of "key" schools at the primary and middle school levels. At the National Conference on Education held from 22 April to 16May 1978 in Beijing,
the then minister of to play education, a major Liu role Hsi

agreements scholars Senior

yao,
Conventional acquisition education puts education values the "key of knowledge; revolutionary a premium on action.

called
schools"

for the reestablishment

of

now

being received by institutions of higher learning in the U.S., Europe, and Japan while simultaneously Western scholars are being invited to Chinese uni
versities. in order English-language programs are

in im

being developed
to prepare

throughout
scholars

the country
to go abroad,

in Conventional education defines terms learning; academic revolutionary education is essentially nonacademic on the and sees learning opportunities and farm, in the factory, education Conventional premise learned graded that knowledge in the streets. on acts the can best be

proving educational quality. Key schools were first established in the 1950s, but fell victim to the leaders of the Cultural Revo lution as being "revisionist," the training grounds for an intellectual elite. The
schools are now intended to serve as

receive visiting scholars, read scientific journals and books, and generally update their knowledge. Education in China to
day is clearly education for development.

Chinese

Education

in the '80s

Given this background, and in the light of recent policy changes, let us explore five of the major trends in Chinese educa tion for the coming decade. First, education is and will continue to be one of the cornerstones in the Chinese
Communist Party's drive for moderniza

tionary in the name of and rigid requirements; it favors ad hoc learning to "practice," of help solve the immediate problems as and production political struggle In conventional educa soon as possible. are practically study and books but in revolutionary edu synonymous; cation actual in production experience more and political is deemed struggle valuable than book study. Book knowl to is decried. unrelated edge Theory to in is discredited. practice Opposed tellectual educa elitism, revolutionary on the basis of tion rejects selectivity tion, ac academic standards. Nonacademic tivities dominate; nonacademic qualifi cations like production records and ideological-political more in weight achievement.4 acceptability the evaluation carry of

by systematically mastering levels of subject matter. Revolu scorns prerequisites education

models for others. They are to identify and train intellectually talented students who are both red and expert. These key schools are the best equipped
and have the best teachers. They receive

special government supplements and draw from the total school population in an area, not just from the local neighbor hood. Admission is by examination. Once
selected, key school students are given ac

celerated programs and special tutoring to advance them as quickly as possible, to meet the scientific and technical skill
needs of the developing of into the society.

tion in the latter part of Undergirding modernization

need, often stated by policy

this century. plans is the

makers, in

Coupled with
reappearance ing" students

this development
practice of fast, medium, schools, to their and

is the
"track slow are abili

cluding Deng Xiaoping himself, to quick ly and substantially develop the expertise of the Chinese intellectual community,
especially nology, in and the areas of agriculture. tech science, Recent changes

groups. Within
some grouped regular according

the key schools, and in

students academic

in the Party hierarchy further insure that those favorable toward the drive to mod ernize are firmly in command. (At the re cent National People's Congress in Bei jing, Party Chairman Hua Guofeng stepped down from his premier's post in favor of Zhao Ziyang, who is supported by Deng, the architect of the four mod ernizations.) China will not be able to meet its stated goals without a scientific
community tuals' well educated in current scien

ty. Chinese officials reject the notion that this will create an intellectual elite. Here is what a middle school principal told me in 1979:
We view our society as an egalitarian one which is comprised of three levels: very able students, average students, and poor students who need extra help. to The very able students will contribute the development of our society in one the others will contribute in way while other ways. All will be working for the same goals; all will be equally impor are no classes tant. There in Chinese society. No one is privileged.

the school system in Accordingly, China is once again regularized and more
conventional in form. There are clearly ar

ticulated levels of schooling: primary, middle (secondary), and higher. Com

pulsory many 10-year urban schooling but will has been set as a

goal for 1985. This is already attainable in

areas be much more

tific thought

and

technology.
will again maintain of redness be

Intellec
valued. and ex a balance

contributions

however, They must, the concepts between

difficult to realize in rural China. Discipline, which totally broke down during the Cultural Revolution, has been restored at all levels of schooling. The authority of and respect for teachers is be

Yet

university

students

and

faculty

DECEMBER 1980

271

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are a

now

to to

be

given

increased and

time

to

work on their projects. Deng Xiaoping,

speech scientists technicians conference and work, tech tending a national science

in
at in

March
follows: nicians

of
to

1978, emphasized
"To enable scientists on concentrate

this need as
their at

least five-sixths of their work time should be left for their scientific and technical
work."* It is obvious from this pronouncement

that theoretical study is highly valued. This is a major shift from the past decade. The Chinese Academy of Sciences has
gained renewed prestige and a new Acad

emy of Social Sciences has been created (1977). Scientists are being sent abroad to
conferences; on research scholars from abroad are be new texts

ing brought to China to lecture and advise

projects; and many

and scientific journals are being pur industrialized na chased from Western
tions.10 Kindergarteners in Naiying offer a warm welcome. the enrollment and of daytime has An enormous placed burden upon of Chinese been expectations scientists.

often spoke to me of the privileges that being a respected intellectual would bring them in the future. When I asked if this did not put them in an elite position in
some said, society, we are so, because not our /ninds, must tradiction shift same "Yes, and contributing The obvious bodies." be dealt with rightfully our with con or a

to encourage

only students
night colleges, courses. dence

(nonresidential),

television

correspon schools, remain these measures But

inadequate.
China

The

problem
the to be 1980s, clearly enough

will
because

plague
rest

Can they live up to it?Will the knowledge gap be closed quickly enough to keep modernization efforts moving? Will tech nicians be trained quickly enough? Will
the nation rency fection have to purchase of study? cur the necessary foreign for mod the hardware

throughout

less youth are not easily placated by what

to them appears alternatives. For those attend second-rate to be ad

carefully, of

ernization? What
scientists Put ther

is the potential
sent abroad way, toward other in another what

for de
for fur level new re the

the policy toward intellectuals could easily

again. concern: Clark Kerr, chairman

fortunate one of

1978 study group

in China,

reflects the

mitted
will now sities"

to higher education,

the very best

univer

of defection
still maintain goals? main ever. In closing, These

can the Chinese

progress and many We

tolerate and
their

the 89 "key

to be both for mod It is not possible but and against meritocracy, ernization of a to avoid development it is possible for "new class" with special privileges and their children. The real its members a meritocracy is be issue is not whether ? or it is? but whether ing developed not this meritocracy will "new class."5 privileged evolve into a

"where the country, throughout a richer cur find better teachers, they will and libraries better laboratories, riculum, financial Another aid."8 major change in higher educa

unanswered.

questions know should

answers by the end of this decade, how

I should underscore what

and

tion is the reduction

weeks labor ? A wider cepted, students close to students now must about

in the number of

Fourth, along with the changes in primary and middle school education, major reforms are taking place in higher
education for admission restored those in as well. 1977. for Entrance examinations were for fully univer ad to the universities Competition the examinations "The

variety and many, perhaps can the complete their homes the or labor

in productive spend four weeks annually. is ac of work experiences even most, In is requirement universities. requirement

appear to be the two biggest educational issues facing China in this decade. They
are related, and they are critical in a Marx

ist state: how to provide for equality of educational opportunity and how to maintain an intellectual community that is
both and "expert." "red" use our opportunities we must Finally, are now who the Chinese to learn from

institutions many than little more

symbolic.

sity admission
sitting

is grim. Only 4% to 5% of
are

mitted
practice aimed in the about

each year. The rationale for this

is coldly at pragmatic: princi

Fifth, one of the biggest challenges fac ing the country is the major drive to close the gap quickly between China's level of science and technology and that of the in dustrialized world. Closing this gap is cen
tral to successful industry, levels has modernization and national culture, at all senior study. quires in agri defense.

living and studying inAmerica. After all,

they inhabiting represent our one-quarter planet. of the people

ple of matriculating

the best examinees

is

out competent personnel turning But what time."6 shortest possible ? the 6.7 the other side of the issue

Thus the study of science and technology

the domestic Besides become primary. of large numbers emphasis, to sent abroad are being scholars re and is very This costly policy of foreign exchange, large amounts

million senior middle school graduates who do not gain admission each year? The shortage of places in higher education is a major problem that must be faced quickly if China is to develop the talent pool nec
essary to proceed with modernization.

which
other and sion

is in short supply and is needed in

areas, e.g., to purchase of to industrial The deci is un advanced technological to send large students and equipment. numbers abroad the risks

1. Deng Xiaoping, "Speech at the National Educa tional Work Conference" 1978), Peking (22 April Review, 5 May 1978. in foreword to Ruth Gamberg, 2. William Hinton, in the People's Republic Red and Expert: Education of China (New York: Schocken Books, 1977). 3. Deng, op. cit., p. 7. 4. Theodore H. E. Chen, "Changes inChinese Edu cation," Current History, September 1978. on the Relations Be 5. Clark Kerr, Observations tween Education and Work in the People's Republic of China: Report of a Study Group (Berkeley, Calif.: Carnegie Council on Policy Studies in Higher Educa tion, 1978). 6. Beijing Review, 28 July 1978, p. 19. 7. Beijing Review, 28 July 1980, p. 19. 8. Chen, op. cit., p. 80. 9. Chen, op. cit., p. 81. 10. Kerr, op. cit., p. 6. D

Chinese officials deplore the shortage of places at the university level, blaming
lack of residential and libraries, stitutions.7 space, lecture halls are now laboratories, in at major being made

graduate precedented, able. Scientists,

study are consider

Attempts

researchers,

and

technicians

272

PHI DELTA KAPPAN

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