Math231 Class Notes Unit 2 Page 1

Unit 2. Limits and Continuity

Definition: A function is continuous at a point if:
a) a function exists at this point ( is defined for a given value of x)
b) any small change in x produces only small changes in f(x).

Graphically in means that there is no breaks, jumps, asymptotes at this
point.
A function is said continuous over the interval if it is continuous at each
point on the interval.

Polynomials are continuous everywhere.



For example y = x
2
-1
(parabola shifted 1 unit down)
is defined everywhere, x can
take on any value.
There are no breaks, its
smooth:
when x gradually changes,
y changes also gradually.




Math231 Class Notes Unit 2 Page 2
Types of Discontinuity

1. Asymptotic ( infinite)

This function is not defined at x
=2.
When x approaches 2, the
function increases infinitely.
The vertical line x = 2 is called an
asymptote. The graph cannot
touch it or cross it.







2. Hole
) 2 (
) 2 )( 3 (

+
=
x
x x
y

There is one undefined point
at x = 2 on otherwise linear graph y = x +3
its shown as an hollow circle
a hole



3. Jump
Piece-wise function

>
s
=
1 6
1 3
2
x for
x for x
y

The function exists for all
values of x(defined
everywhere)
But the left portion of the graph
is a parabola y = 3x
2
, f(1) = 3
while the right portion
horizontal line y = 6.
2
y = x + 3
Math231 Class Notes Unit 2 Page 3

Small change in x when close to 1 produces a sudden jump 3 units up.
Math231 Class Notes Unit 2 Page 4
More examples of discontinuity (or not)
1.

s
> +
=
2 4
2 3 2
x for
x for x
y
Jump

2.

>
< +
=
1 1 2
1 4
2
x for x
x for x
y

Discontinuity jump at x = 1







Math231 Class Notes Unit 2 Page 5
3. Piece-wise functions are not necessarily discontinuous.

If both functions produce the
same value on the border of
the interval of existence,
there will be no break in the
graph.



This function is continuous.






4.
) 1 (
) 1 )( 2 (
1
2 3
2

+
=
x
x x
x
x x
y


Discontinuity hole at x = 1





5.

) 1 )( 2 (
) 1 (
+ +
+
==
x x
x
y

For all points other than x = -1
the bracket (x +1) can be
cancelled and the function turns
into
2
1
+
=
x
y
that has an
asymptotic discontinuity at x = -
2.
1
2
2
Math231 Class Notes Unit 2 Page 6
At x = -1 function is not defined, therefore - discontinuity hole
Math231 Class Notes Unit 2 Page 7
Limits as x approaches a number

The symbol means approaches to
Writing xa means x is as close to a as you wish, but never x = a
We are interested in the function behaviour in the vicinity of a certain
value of x.
Definition: The limit of a function is that value which the function
approaches as x approaches given value a.

L is a limit.



Example 1. y = 2x + 1
x2
Its obvious from the table of
values that the closer x is to 2, the closer y is to 5. Therefore:
5 ) 1 2 ( lim
2
= +

x
x

Generally, if the function is continuous, limit can be found by direct
substitution of the approaching x value into the function:
) ( ) ( lim a f x f
a x
=

It is possible that a function is NOT continuous at some point, f (a)
cannot be found, but the limit still exists and can be determined.

Example 2.
3 4
3
) (
2
+

=
x x
x
x f

This function is
discontinuous at x = 3
since f(3) is not defined.
Lets examine the function From the table you can easily
behaviour when x3 infer that the function tends to
reach value of
0.5 when x is getting closer
and closer to 3 regardless from the
smaller values side or greater
x 1.9 1.99 1.999
y 4.8 4.98 4.998
x 2.9 2.99 2.999
y 0.52632 0.50251 0.50025
x 3.1 3.01 3.001
y 0.47619 0.49751 0.49976
L x f
a x
=

) ( lim

5 . 0 ) ( lim
3
=

x f
x
Math231 Class Notes Unit 2 Page 8
values side
For discontinuous functions we have to find limits (if they exist)
without f(a). For some types of discontinuity limit does not exist:
Consider
1
1

=
x
y
when x1. Values of y will increase without any
tendency to any number. Therefore
exist not does
x
x
=

1
1
lim
1


One-sided Limits
Writing xa
+
means approaching a from the greater values, called
right-hand side limit.
Writing xa
-
means approaching a from the smaller values, called
left-hand side limit.
xa assumes both.

Existence of a limit
L x f
a x
=

) ( lim

requires that both one-sided limits exist and are equal:

=
=

L x f
L x f
a x
a x
) ( lim
) ( lim

The table in Ex.2 shows that both right-hand side limit and left-hand side
limit exist when x3 and equal to 0.5. Thats why the general limit is0.5

Finding Limits for

) (
) (
) (
x Q
x P
x f =









Substitute x = a, get
the answer (works for
continuous functions)
Substitute x = a, if the
answer is
0
number

limit does not exist,
asymptotic discontinuity
Substitute x = a, if the answer
is
0
0
(called uncertainty)
limit may exist, (hole
discontinuity). Use
factoring or rationalizing
Math231 Class Notes Unit 2 Page 9
Examples:
Factoring
8 ) 4 ( lim
) 4 (
) 4 )( 4 (
lim
0
0
4
16
lim . 1
4 4
2
4
= + =

x
x
x x
x
x
x x x


2
1
1
1
lim
) 3 )( 1 (
) 3 (
lim
0
0
3 4
3
lim . 2
3 3
2
3
=

=
+

x x x
x
x x
x
x x x


. . .
0
1
1
1
lim
) 1 )( 1 (
) 1 (
lim
0
0
1
1
lim . 3
1 1
2
1
e n d or
x x x
x
x
x
x x x

(

=
+
=
+

Rationalizing
2
1
1 1 0
1
) 1 1 (
lim
) 1 1 (
1 ) 1 (
lim )
) 1 1 (
1 ) 1 (
lim
) 1 1 (
) 1 1 )( 1 1 (
lim
) (
) 1 1 (
) 1 1 (
0
0 1 1
lim . 4
0
0
2 2
0 0
0
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
+ +
+
=
+ +
+
=
+ +
+ + +
=
+ +
+ +

(

=
+

x x
x
x x
x
x x
x
x x
x x
conjugate by multiply
x
x
x
x
x
x x x
x


4
1
0 4 2
1
) 4 2 (
lim
) 4 2 (
) 4 ( 4
lim )
) 4 2 (
) 4 ( 2
lim
) 4 2 (
) 4 2 )( 4 ( 2
lim
) (
) 4 2 (
) 4 2 (
0
0 4 2
lim . 5
0
0
2 2
0 0
0
=
+
=
+
=
+

=
+

=
+
+
=
+
+

(

t t
t
t t
t
t t
t
t t
t t
conjugate by multiply
t
t
t
t
t
t x t
t


Math231 Class Notes Unit 2 Page 10
Simplifying Complex Fraction
4
1
) 0 2 ( 2
1
) 2 ( 2
lim
) 2 ( 2
) 2 ( 2
lim
0
0
2
1
2
1
lim . 6
0 0 0
=
+

=
+

=
+
+

+

h h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h h h
Expanding

4 0 4
) 4 (
lim
4
lim
4 ) 4 4 (
lim
0
0 4 ) 2 (
lim . 7
0
2
0
2
0
2
0
= + =
+
=
+
=
+ +

=
+

h
h h
h
h h
h
h h
h
h
h h h h

Practice:
2 3
8
lim . 1
2
3
2
+

x x
x
x


1 2
2
lim . 2
2
2
1
+
+

x x
x x
x


3 5 2
9 4
lim . 3
2
2
5 . 1
+

x x
x
x


9
2 6
lim . 4
9

x
x
x


x
x
x
x

2
4
lim . 5
2


4
6 2
lim . 6
2
2
2



x
x x
x

Math231 Class Notes Unit 2 Page 11
Limits as x approaches Infinity.

Infinity symbol is .
Note: is not a real number, algebraic operations cant be applied to it.

When x getting very big or very small, (x) we can figure out end
behaviour of the functions.
Example: exponential function (see graph)





Basic limits for algebraic functions:
0
1
lim =

x
x
Both results can be understood as

value small very
value big very
=
1



Possible answers:
L x f
x
=

) ( lim . 1

Horizontal asymptote y = L



0 ) ( lim . 2 =

x f
x

Horizontal asymptote y = 0


=

) ( lim . 3 x f
x


No horizontal asymptote



) 0 ( 0
1
lim > =

r
x
r
x
.) . . ( lim
0 lim
e n d or e
e
x
x
x
x
+ =
=
+

y = L
y = 0
Math231 Class Notes Unit 2 Page 12
Tool: divide numerator and denominator over the highest power that
appears in the expression.

Examples:
2
2
4
1
2
8
4
lim
1 2
8 4
lim
1 2
8 4
lim . 1
2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2
2
= =

x
x
x x
x
x x
x
x
x
x x x





.) . . (
4
1
2
4
lim
2 4
lim
2 4
lim . 2
3
3
2
3 3
3
2
3
e n d
small very
x
x
x
x
x x
x
x
x
x x x
= =

=
+




0
2
0
7
2
5 2 1
lim
7 2
5 2
lim
7 2
5 2
lim . 3
3
3 2
3 3
3
3 3 3
2
3
2
= =

+
=

+
=

+ +

x
x x x
x x
x
x x
x
x
x
x
x x
x x x


Shortcuts:

1. If the highest powers in the numerator and denominator are the
same, the limit is the ratio of the coefficients of these powers.

2. If the power of the numerator is lower than that of denominator,
the limit equals to zero.

3. If the power of the numerator is higher than that of denominator,
the limit does not exist the function increases infinitely.



0
0
0
0
0
Math231 Class Notes Unit 2 Page 13