14 Oileld Review

Spectroscopy: The Key to Rapid, Reliable

Petrophysical Answers
Dan Barson
Rod Christensen
OILEXCO Incorporated
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Eric Decoster
Caracas, Venezuela
Jim Grau
Michael Herron
Susan Herron
Ridgeeld, Connecticut, USA
Udit Kumar Guru
Cairo, Egypt
Martn Jordn
Petrleos de Venezuela S.A. (PDVSA)
Barinas, Venezuela
Thomas M. Maher
Apache Egypt Companies
Cairo, Egypt
Erik Rylander
Clamart, France
Jim White
Aberdeen, Scotland
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Bill Batzer
and Lisa Stewart, Ridgeeld, Connecticut, USA; Matt Garber,
Cambridge, England; Martin Isaacs, Sugar Land, Texas,
USA; Daniel Valois, Barinas, Venezuela; and
Richard Woodhouse, consultant, Surrey, England.
DecisionXpress, ECS (Elemental Capture Spectroscopy),
ELANPlus, GLOBAL, GLT (Geochemical Logging Tool),
Litho-Density, MDT (Modular Formation Dynamics Tester),
Minitron, Platform Express, RST (Reservoir Saturation Tool)
and SpectroLith are marks of Schlumberger.
Well-completion decisions require fast, objective and reliable log interpretation.
A new, nearly automatic method for processing data from modern spectroscopy and
conventional logging tools gives operators that information quickly. An extensive
analysis of the relationship between rock properties and elemental concentrations
in core samples provided a reliable basis for this new service.
Petrophysical interpretations comprising at
least porosity and water saturation are essential
for decisions about acquiring pressure data, col-
lecting fluid samples, running casing and
completing wells. Thus, providing reliable
answers in real time or within a few hours after
logging is of utmost importance for operators.
Although reservoir characterization studies
involve more data and time to fine-tune the
interpretation for a particular reservoir, time
and data are always in short supply. Even for
these larger studies, a fast, reliable evaluation is
useful as a starting point and as a convenient
summary of the logs.
Past attempts to provide a generalized inter-
pretation package have been plagued by the
need to manually define numerous parameters
and formation-zonation levels. Ideally, these are
selected by a skilled interpreter, or by referenc-
ing an established local database for the
reservoir or formation. Unfortunately, neither of
these options may be available at the time
required. An alternative approach is to deter-
mine many of these parameters automatically.
Now, elemental-concentration logs and the
SpectroLith lithology processing of spectra from
neutron-induced gamma ray spectroscopy tools
make it possible to estimate all matrix parame-
ters automatically with at least the same
accuracy as conventional, time-consuming tech-
niques. The number of parameters is
dramatically reduced, in the optimal case to just
one: the formation water resistivity, R
w
. At the
same time, more rigorously scientic conductiv-
ity and permeability models improve the
reliability of the results.
The combination of these techniques, known
as the DecisionXpress petrophysical evaluation
system, has been applied successfully in a wide
variety of siliciclastic reservoirs. For the time
being, this system is not applicable to carbonate
reservoirs, mainly because of the lack of good
scientific models and the difficulty of distin-
guishing calcite from dolomite in the presence
of gas. This article explains the basis for the
algorithms that allow the DecisionXpress system
to be fast, accurate and reliable, and shows
examples from several different environments,
such as Egypt, Venezuela and the North Sea.
First, however, it is useful to consider the limita-
tions of conventional techniques.
The Log-Evaluation Problem
A large part of well-log evaluation involves volu-
metric analysis. If the porosity and fluid
saturations are known, the determination of
uid volumes is trivial. Matrix permeability can-
not be measured directly by static log
measurements, but it can be estimated from
fluid and mineral volumes. The difficulty with
volumetric analysis is that there are far more
unknowns than measurements. In addition to
gas, oil and waterwhich can vary widely in
composition, density and relative abundance
from top to bottom of a hydrocarbon column
Summer 2005 15
there are many possible mineral components.
The log analyst also wants to know uid mobility,
for example whether the water in the formation
is irreducible or is free to produce.
1
Modern logging suites can provide hundreds
of measurements, but these measurements are
not all independent. For example, many mea-
surements respond strongly to porosity, but none
uniquely identies the volume of oil. Confronted
with this challenge, the log interpreter is
obliged to work with models that reduce the
number of unknowns to an appropriate quantity
for the measurements available. For example, if
a reservoir is known to be a sandstone contain-
ing oil, the interpreter can exclude anhydrite
and gas from the model. The interpreter must
choose the model, so human intervention is
required from the very beginning. Although this
choice may be simple for an adequately devel-
oped reservoir, it is likely to be difficult in an
exploration or appraisal well, or when the set of
measurements changes from those obtained in
offset wells that were used to establish the model.
Models contain parameters expressing the
response of the measurements to their compo-
nents. Some parameters are precisely defined,
for example the density of calcite. Some
responses vary widely, such as the gamma ray
response to shale. At this point, log interpreta-
tion programs take different approaches. Those
that emphasize ease and speed of use employ
simple models and allow only a few of the most
variable parameters to be set by an interpreter.
Those emphasizing accuracy offer complex mod-
els and allow most parameters to be modied by
the user (see A History of Log Interpretation
Methods, next page).
Whatever the approach, the most difficult
parameters to select are invariably those of clay
minerals. Clay type, volume and distribution
strongly affect the determination of porosity
from porosity logs, such as neutron, density and
sonic logs, and of water saturation from resistiv-
ity logs. In conventional log interpretation based
on a triple-combo logging suiteresistivity,
density porosity, neutron porosity, gamma ray
and spontaneous potentialthe volume of clay
is determined mainly from the gamma ray
response and the neutron and density measure-
ments. The subjectivity of gamma ray
1. Irreducible water saturation is the lowest water satura-
tion, S
wirr
, that can be achieved in a core plug by
displacing the water with oil or gas. This state is usually
achieved by owing oil or gas through a water-saturated
sample, or by spinning it in a centrifuge to displace the
water with oil or gas.
(continued on page 18)
16 Oileld Review
Log interpretation techniques have progressed
from the linear solutions of simple equations
in the 1940s to todays mathematical inver-
sions and neural networks (right).
1
The
development has been driven not only by
improvements in computer technology, but
also by the increasing number of well-log mea-
surements and the improved understanding of
log responses. The main goals of log inter-
pretersto determine porosity, water
saturation and permeabilityhave not
changed. What has changed is our ability to
estimate these quantities more quickly and
reliably in a wider range of formations, and to
compute other outputs, such as irreducible
water saturation and mineralogy.
The foundation of quantitative log interpre-
tation is the set of relationships introduced by
G. E. Archie in 1941.
2
At that early stage,
interpretation was a sequential processrst
determine porosity from a sonic, neutron or
density log, and then nd water saturation
using the resistivity log. This process was
accomplished with charts and nomograms,
which became increasingly complicated as
more porosity logs became available and as
the effects of clay and of the invaded-zone
fluids were recognized and quantified. Log
interpretation was no longer a simple
sequential process, but one with many
options and iterations.
Such iterations were no problem for the cal-
culators and computers being introduced at
that time. By the end of the 1960s, complex
programs, such as the SARABAND system,
could use all existing log measurements, esti-
mate clay volume from a variety of sources
and calculate the uid saturations in both the
invaded and uninvaded zones.
3
These pro-
grams operated sequentially, for example rst
estimating clay volume, then porosity and
nally water saturation, but iterated exten-
sively to rene the answer. Programs were
tailored for particular types of formations, for
A History of Log Interpretation Methods
>
The development of interpretation methods for multiple logging tools since the 1940s.
Single logging-tool interpretation is not shown.
Sequential or Deterministic Methods
Complex logic with iterative
loops
Limited model flexibility
Explicit parameters:
few or many
Few parameters
Simple models
Few or no parameters
Simultaneous or Statistical Methods
Constrained inversion through
minimization of uncertainty
Greater flexibility in model
Usually many explicit
parameters
1
9
4
0
s

t
o

1
9
5
0
s
1
9
6
0
s

t
o

1
9
7
0
s
1
9
8
0
s

t
o

1
9
9
0
s
1
9
9
0
s

t
o

2
0
0
0
s
Minimal number
of parameters
Charts and Nomograms
Step-by-step, manual process
Simple models
Overlays
Curves presented on selected
scales and read with
transparent rulers
Neural Network
Inputs mapped to outputs
based on training datasets
Implicit model (inputs, outputs)
DecisionXpress System
Nearly automatic lithology and
hence other outputs
Implicit model
Minimal number of
parameters
Summer 2005 17
example shaly sands, and for particular log-
ging measurements and response equations.
However, the complexity of the logic made it
increasingly difcult to add a new measure-
ment or interpretation idea later.
In the late 1970s, the idea of treating log
interpretation as a problem of mathematical
inversion was introduced.
4
Each measurement
has a response equation that can be expressed
as a set of unknown formation volumes, each
multiplied by a parameter. When there are at
least as many equations as unknown volumes,
the latter can be found by common inversion
methods. The solution can be constrained, for
example by not allowing the porosity to
exceed a specied amount, and each response
equation can be given a different weight. In
this way, the logic in the sequential programs
could be mimicked, but it was not necessary
to rewrite the software to add or subtract a
measurement or a model.
In the 1980s, inversion methods were fur-
ther developed and their computing time
reduced to allow different models to be run
simultaneously.
5
The most appropriate model
could then be selected for each interval, either
manually or using some automatic criterion.
Whatever method is selected, the main
tasks of computerized interpretation have
remained the same. First, the input logs need
to be edited, depth matched and environmen-
tally corrected. These tasks are increasingly
handled during acquisition, but still remain a
concern in difcult conditions such as
washed-out boreholes. Second, the parame-
ters and, where the option is available, the
formation model, have to be chosen. Last,
results must be checked for quality and the
parameters or model changed until the inter-
pretation is satisfactory.
Parameter selection has always been a key
subject in log interpretation. Manual parameter
selection relies on selecting values from mea-
surements (like mud-ltrate properties), logs,
crossplots or histograms, for example by looking
for the apparent water resistivity in a water
zone. Unfortunately, there is no certainty that
an interval is water-bearingthat is an inter-
pretation in itself. Manual parameter selection
is often therefore a matter of judgment.
Most automatic parameter-selection meth-
ods implement the logic behind a manual
method, with the same limitations. In certain
cases, inversion can determine parameters by
making use of the fact that the parameters are
constant over an interval. Finally, parameters
can be chosen from databases specic to a
particular reservoir, formation, geographical
area or geological environment. These
databases range from simple R
w
tables to sets
of procedures and the experiences of experts.
Quality control is even more subjective than
parameter selection. Reconstructed logs
those computed from the solution and the
parameters and model usedshow whether
the solution respects the input logs, but do
not indicate whether the parameters or model
are correct. In practice, the quality of the
result depends on the interpreters judgment
and comparison with other data, such as core
analysis, well tests and production results.
Experienced interpreters do not use software
to nd the solution, but rather to implement
and rene ideas the interpreter gleans from
studying the raw logs. However, this experi-
ence does not have to be general and take a
long time to developit can be obtained
quickly in specic reservoirs or areas.
More recent techniques minimize the prob-
lem of parameter selection. Articial neural
networks are trained to convert logs into
results on wells where results are already
knowneffectively nding internally the nec-
essary transforms and parameters for the
specic model and wells concerned. Once
trained, the networks can be applied nearly
automatically to other wells in which the
same model applies. Although neural networks
are most commonly used for lithology classica-
tion and for cases in which explicit transforms
are not well-known, for example permeability
estimation and reduced logging sets, they are
also applied to volumetric analysis.
Finally, the DecisionXpress system uses new
measurements that allow some or all of the
petrophysical properties to be determined
nearly automatically. It is unlikely to displace
other methods for detailed studies requiring
high levels of accuracy and exibility. It
should, however, provide a signicant improve-
ment for initial, rapid decision making. JS
1. For a detailed review: Marett G and Kimminau S: Logs,
Charts, and Computers: The History of Log Interpreta-
tion Modeling, The Log Analyst 31, no. 6
(NovemberDecember 1990): 335354.
2. Archie GE: The Electrical Resistivity Log as an Aid in
Determining Some Reservoir Characteristics,
Transactions of the American Institute of Mining and
Metallurgical Engineers, 146. New York: American
Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers (1941):
5462.
3. Introduced by Schlumberger in 1970, the SARABAND
system was the rst computerized reservoir analysis.
For more information: Poupon et al, reference 2, main text.
4. Mayer C and Sibbit A: GLOBAL, a New Approach to
Computer-Processed Log Interpretation, paper SPE
9341, presented at the SPE Annual Technical Confer-
ence and Exhibition, Dallas, September 2124, 1980.
5. Quirein J, Kimminau S, LaVigne J, Singer J and Wendel F:
A Coherent Framework for Developing and Applying
Multiple Formation Evaluation Models, Transactions
of the SPWLA 27th Annual Logging Symposium, Hous-
ton, June 913, 1986, paper DD.
interpretation is widely known and can be illus-
trated on almost any log example (below).
Various techniques have been used to
improve the estimation of clay volume. Some
interpretation software uses the minimum of the
clay volumes estimated by different methods,
based on the reasoning that errors in each
method always cause an overestimate.
2
This
approach can minimize gross errors, but does
not remove the need for accurate parameter
selections. In other cases, the choice of models
and parameters is often facilitated by using a
database of knowledge about a particular reser-
voir, local area or type of geological environment
to reduce the choices considerably and to mini-
mize the need for human intervention. However,
such databases might not be available until after
an area has been developed.
An Express Solution
During the last 20 years, new logging measure-
ments have advanced interpretation. These
improvements can be divided into two types
those focused on a better definition of the
fluids and those focused on a better definition
of the solids.
Direct fluid definition has been vastly
enhanced by developments in nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR) logging tools. Since the main
properties of interestporosity, saturation and
permeabilityare fluid-related, NMR may
appear to be the best option. There are limita-
tions, however, particularly with saturation
interpretations, because measurements are
made in the invaded zone, close to the borehole,
and because the NMR oil and water signals are
sometimes not clearly separated.
The other option is to dene the volumes of
solids and then apply familiar equations to
determine the main reservoir properties from
other measurements. For example, porosity can
be determined accurately from the density log if
the matrix density is known. Water saturation
can be estimated from resistivity if clay conduc-
tivity and distribution are known.
The DecisionXpress system follows this sec-
ond option.
3
Its solution is based on measuring
the concentration of some of the elements in
rocks and then estimating the major matrix
properties from these concentrations. Measuring
elemental concentrations is not new: chemical
elements have been detected with pulsed neu-
tron spectroscopy logging tools since the late
1970s, and concentrations were specifically
derived for openhole formation evaluation by the
GLT Geochemical Logging Tool in the mid-
1980s.
4
Unfortunately, the GLT system was not
widely used for several reasons: The GLT tool-
string was long, operations were slow and
therefore costly, the tool was not combinable,
and the interpretation was complex. The
recently introduced ECS Elemental Capture
Spectroscopy sonde is short, simple to use and
fast to run, and it measures sufcient elements
to evaluate the lithology (next page, top).
At each depth level, the processing ows lin-
early, starting with the computation of lithology,
including clay volume, and proceeding through
grain density, porosity, permeability and
saturations (next page, bottom). The entire com-
putation can be performed in real time, while
logging, and in most situations with the selec-
tion of only one parameter, R
w
, which is often
known in developed reservoirs. Because the out-
put provides all log-derived parameters needed
18 Oileld Review
>
Log of a siliciclastic sequence, illustrating some of the
difculties of gamma ray interpretation. The gamma ray log,
neutron-density separation and resistivity all clearly indicate
shale above 6,246 ft [1,904 m] measured depth (MD). However
at 6,296 ft [1,909 m] and below 6,348 ft [1,935 m], the gamma ray
log indicates shale, but the other logs do not. Also, the minimum
gamma ray reading of 30 gAPI may or may not indicate pure
clay-free quartz.
MD, ft
Gamma Ray
0 gAPI 200
-430 -350 mV
6 16 in.
Bit Size
6 16 in.
Caliper
0.2 ohm.m 2,000
0.2 ohm.m 2,000
0.2 ohm.m 2,000
0.2 ohm.m 2,000
0.2 ohm.m 2,000
0.2 ohm.m 2,000
0.2 ohm.m 2,000
0.2 ohm.m 2,000
1.95 g/cm
3
2.95
45 % -15
0 10
6,250
Spontaneous Potential
6,000 0 lbf True Formation Resistivity
Invaded Zone Resistivity
6,300
Shale
???
???
-10 90 deg
Hole Deviation
Mudcake
Washout
Apparent Resistivity 5
Apparent Resistivity 4
Apparent Resistivity 3
Apparent Resistivity 2
Apparent Resistivity 1
Invaded Formation
Resistivity
Formation Density
Thermal Neutron Porosity
Photoelectric Factor
Cable
Tension
Summer 2005 19
2. Poupon A, Clavier C, Dumanoir J, Gaymard R and Misk A:
Log Analysis of Sand-Shale SequencesA Systematic
Approach, Journal of Petroleum Technology 22, no. 7
(July 1970): 867881.
3. Herron MM, Herron SL, Grau JA, Seleznev NV, Phillips J,
El Sherif A, Farag S, Horkowitz JP, Neville TJ and Hsu K:
Real-Time Petrophysical Analysis in Siliciclastics from
the Integration of Spectroscopy and Triple-Combo Log-
ging, paper SPE 77631, presented at the SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio, Texas,
USA, September 29October 2, 2002.
4. Hertzog R, Colson L, Seeman O, OBrien M, Scott H,
McKeon D, Wraight P, Grau J, Ellis D, Schweitzer J and
Herron M: Geochemical Logging with Spectroscopy Tools,
SPE Formation Evaluation 4, no. 2 (June 1989): 153162.
<
Spectroscopy logging tools for lithology deter-
mination. Each tool has at least one source that
emits high-energy neutrons into the formation,
and one detector that measures the gamma
rays emitted by the reactions of neutrons with
elements in the formation. The early GLT
Geochemical Logging Tool also incorporated nat-
ural spectral gamma ray and aluminum activation
measurements; it was long and slow to log, and it
was not combinable with conventional logging
tools. The RST Reservoir Saturation Tool was
designed for cased-hole evaluation, and can
also provide inputs to the SpectroLith technique.
The ECS Elemental Capture Spectroscopy sonde
is the optimal spectroscopy tool for openhole
lithology and matrix property determination
using the SpectroLith technique and other
associated techniques.
Telemetry cartridge
Neutron detectors
Neutron detectors
Low-energy
neutron source
1986
GLT Geochemical
Logging Tool
70 ft long
6 sondes
2 sources
2 passes
<600 ft/h
Far
detector
Near
detector
Minitron
source
1991
RST Reservoir
Saturation Tool
36 ft long
Through tubing
[1
11
/16-in. or
2
1
/2-in. outside
diameter (OD)]
Minitron source
<200 ft /h
AmBe
source
Detector
Boron sleeve
Dewar flask
Electronics
Heat sink
Detector
acquisition
cartridge
1996
ECS Elemental Capture
Spectroscopy
Sonde
15 ft long
5-in. OD (with
boron sleeve)
Chemical
source
1,800 ft/h
>
Processing ow and user-selectable parameters in DecisionXpress processing. Blue rectangles represent input data,
green rectangles represent output data, and yellow rectangles indicate intermediate computations. The
straightforward nature of the process contributes to its robustness.
User-selected
parameters:
Density, neutron and
resistivity logs
Elemental
concentration logs
(Si, Ca, Fe, S, Gd, Ti)
Permeability, k
SpectroLith
lithology
Density and
neutron matrix
properties
Clay cation
exchange capacity
Switches for anhydrite
and feldspar level
Formation water
salinity
Reservoir
volumes
Relative
permeabilities
and water cut
Irreducible
water saturation
Effect of clay on
conductivity, Q
v
Water saturation, S
w
Cutoffs for
permeabilities
and water cut
Total porosity,
T

Total porosity,
T

for picking points to measure pressure, fluid-

sampling intervals, and sidewall coring
locations, it is crucial in making completion
decisions (left). Some conventional analysis
packages can also claim speed and automation
once the analysis is adapted for specic environ-
ments. The key difference of this new technique
is that it gives an accurate and reliable result in
most siliciclastic reservoirs anywhere in the
world. To justify this claim, we will examine the
basis on which its algorithms are built.
Elemental concentrationsSpectroscopy
tools like the ECS sonde actually measure a
gamma ray spectrum, or the number of gamma
rays received by the detector for each energy
level. The gamma rays are produced when high-
energy neutronsfrom a minitron or from a
radioactive source such as americium [Am] and
beryllium [Be]bombard the formation and
lose energy through scattering, primarily by
hydrogen. When slowed down to thermal energy,
a neutron that collides with the nucleus of cer-
tain atoms can be captured; in this process, the
nucleus is excited, and it emits gamma rays with
a distribution of energies that is characteristic
of the element. These gamma rays may be
degraded by scattering in the formation and the
detector, but there is sufcient character in the
nal spectrum to recognize the peaks caused by
different elements (next page, top).
The next step is to calculate the proportion,
or relative yield, of gamma rays due to each ele-
ment. To do this, the measured spectrum is
compared with the standard spectrum acquired
by Schlumberger for each individual element in
the Environmental Effects Calibration Facility in
Houston. The spectrum is inverted to obtain the
yields of the principal contributing elements.
These include some of the most diagnostic and
abundant elements in sedimentary rocks, in par-
ticular silicon [Si], calcium [Ca], iron [Fe] and
sulfur [S]. Titanium [Ti] and gadolinium [Gd]
can also contribute signicant signal and there-
fore must be solved for, even though they are not
abundant elements. The yields of these six ele-
ments, all of which arise solely from the rock
matrix, are computed and used quantitatively in
further processing. Other elements, such as
hydrogen [H] and chlorine [Cl], are also mea-
sured but used only qualitatively.
20 Oileld Review
5. Sedimentary minerals contain single or multiple oxides.
Even clay minerals can be treated as complex mixtures of
oxides. Concentrations are expressed in percent by
weight, because it is the mass and not the volume of an
element that contributes to the measured yield.
6. The oxide closure model as applied to the ECS tool can
be expressed as: F {X
i
*Y
i
/ S
i
} = 1, where F is the
unknown normalization factor, Y is the measured relative
yield, X is the known oxide association factor, and S is the
known relative detection sensitivity. The summation is
over the six measured rock-matrix elements, designated
by variable i. Once F has been calculated at each level,
the percent by dry weight, or elemental concentrations,
are computed from W
i
= F * Y
i
/ S
i
.
Herron SL: Method and Apparatus for Determining Ele-
mental Concentrations for Gamma Ray Spectroscopy
Tools, US Patent No. 5,471,057 (November 28, 1995).
7. Herron MM, Matteson A and Gustavson G: Dual-Range
FT-IR Mineralogy and the Analysis of Sedimentary Forma-
tions, paper 9729, presented at the Annual Society of
Core Analysts Conference, Calgary, September 710, 1997.
>
DecisionXpress output for the previous log (page 18). A light gray mask indicates log intervals in
which the input data are of poor quality because of hole conditions or other problems. The porosity,
permeability and uid saturations are summed and averaged over the pay interval using cutoffs on
permeability and water cut selected by the user. These can also be presented in a table. Quality-
control ags in the far right track indicate the interpretation description for lithology (L), porosity (P),
permeability (K), saturation (S) and relative permeability (R); green indicates a favorable interpretation,
yellow means a moderately favorable interpretation and red reects an unfavorable interpretation.
The shale interval above 6,240 ft [1,902 m] is largely affected by poor hole conditions.
Gamma Ray Flow Profile Intrinsic Permeability Porosity Volume
Water Cut Cable
Tension
MD, ft 0 gAPI 200 0 1 10,000 0.1 mD 50 0 % 0 100 %
Hydrocarbon
1 0
Hydrocarbon
Water
Water
Moved Hydrocarbon
Hydrocarbon
Free Water
Clay
Quartz/ Feldspar/ Mica
Carbonate
Pyrite
Anhydrite
Siderite
Porosity
L P KSR
1 5,000 lbf
Pay
6,350
6,300
6,250
Capillary-Bound Water
Clay-Bound Water
DecisionXpress
Mineralogy
Summer 2005 21
The yields are only relative measures
because the total signal depends on the environ-
ment and varies throughout the logged interval.
To obtain the absolute elemental concentra-
tions, we need additional informationin this
case from the principle of oxide closure. This
principle states that a dry rock consists only of a
set of oxides, the sum of whose concentrations
must be unity.
5
If we can measure the relative
yield of all the oxides, we can calculate the total
yield and the factor needed to convert it to
unity. This normalization factor will then con-
vert each relative yield to a dry weight
elemental concentration.
In practice, this process is not so straightfor-
ward. First, we measure elements, not oxides,
but nature is helpful since the most abundant
elements exist in only one common oxide, for
example SiO
2
for silicon. Thus, for most ele-
ments, an exact association factor supports
conversion of the concentration of the element
to the concentration of the oxide. Second,
although the ECS tool measures a majority of
the most common elements, there are excep-
tions, the most important being those of
potassium [K] and aluminum [Al]. Fortunately,
the concentration of these elements is strongly
correlated to that of iron, so that they can be
included in the oxide association factor for iron.
6
The results have been validated by comparison
to chemical concentrations measured on core
samples (below right).
Elements to mineralsThe next step is to
convert elemental concentrations into mineral
groups. Earlier geochemical techniques were
designed to determine as many minerals as pos-
sible. In this DecisionXpress technique, the
primary goal is an accurate and reliable total
clay content or weight fraction, with remaining
minerals being divided into carbonates or into
quartz, feldspars and micas (QFM). Develop-
ment of this technique was based on the study of
more than 400 core samples from different sand
and shaly sand environments. Each sample was
crushed, mixed and split into two fractions
one to determine elemental concentrations
through chemical analysis, the other to deter-
mine mineralogy using the Fourier transform
infrared (FT-IR) procedure.
7
The mineral stan-
dards for the FT-IR procedure included 26
minerals, all of which can be determined with
an accuracy that exceeds +/- 2% by weight.
>
Typical gamma ray spectrum from the ECS tool in a siliciclastic
environment that has no calcium or sulfur. The thermal neutron capture
gamma rays are shown divided into the contributions of the different
elements present. Gamma rays from inelastic neutron reactions are also
present, but are not used quantitatively. The capture yields of iron [Fe]
and calcium [Ca] include small signals from aluminum and sodium. This
contamination is taken into account during further processing.
0 50 100 150 200 250
Gamma ray energy, measurement bin number
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

g
a
m
m
a

r
a
y
s

d
e
t
e
c
t
e
d
,

c
o
u
n
t
s

p
e
r

s
e
c
o
n
d
H
Gd
Si
Inelastic
Cl
Fe
>
An example of the good agreement between six elemental concentrations measured on core (red)
and those derived by applying the oxide closure principle to the yields of the ECS tool (black). The iron
yield contains some signal from aluminum, so that it actually measures the iron concentration plus
14% of the aluminum concentration. The core data (red circles) are plotted using the same combination.
D
e
p
t
h
,

f
t
500
400
300
200
600
700
800
900
0 50 0 40 0 20 0 20 0 4 0 40
Silicon, %
by weight
Calcium, %
by weight
Iron + 0.14 Al, %
by weight
Sulfur, %
by weight
Titanium, %
by weight
Gadolinium, ppm
Elemental concentration, dry weight fraction
The study first examined the correlation
between total clay and a number of elements
conceivably measurable with logs (left). Total
clay is the sum of the kaolinite, illite, smectite,
chlorite and glauconite fractions. In most wells,
aluminum gives the best correlation, which is
not surprising because clays are aluminosili-
cates, and aluminum is an integral part of their
chemical composition. Potassium sometimes
correlates strongly when the dominant clay is
illite, but the correlation is perturbed by potas-
sium in feldspars, micas and other minerals.
Thorium [Th], uranium [U], titanium [Ti] and
gadolinium [Gd] are trace elements that are
often enriched in shales, but these elements do
not generally reveal a sufciently reliable corre-
lation for quantitative use, primarily due to
nonclay sources. Silicon shows a strong anticor-
relation, decreasing from 46.8% by weight in
pure quartz to about 21% by weight in clays. Iron
is associated with heavy minerals, such as
siderite and pyrite, and the clay minerals illite,
chlorite and glauconite. Calcium occurs primar-
ily in calcite and dolomite.
Aluminum is the best single elemental indi-
cator of clay, but it is difcult to measure in the
borehole. Because of its small capture cross sec-
tion, aluminum does not produce sufficient
capture gamma rays to make a statistically reli-
able measurement. In the past, aluminum was
measured by inducing neutron activation, a
technique that required complex hardware, such
as that in the GLT tool.
For this reason, researchers looked for other
methods with better statistical precision to esti-
mate total clay. The silicon anticorrelation is
good, but is disturbed by the presence of carbon-
ate minerals, siderite and pyrite (left). These
minerals act like clay to reduce the amount of sil-
icon, but can be accounted for by measuring
calcium, iron and, when available, magnesium
[Mg], whose measurement is discussed below.
Thus, by combining four elementsSi, Ca, Fe
and Mgit is possible to nd a correlation with
total clay that has nearly the same slope in all
wells, a small degree of scatter, and a near-zero
intercept (next page, top). When examining these
plots, it is important to focus on the clay-poor
region where reservoirs occurthe correlation in
the shales is less important. With the exception of
Wells 11 and 12, discussed below, these results
show a strong, unique correlation between ele-
mental concentrations and total clay in a wide
range of siliciclastic reservoirs.
22 Oileld Review
8. Ellis DV: Well Logging for Earth Scientists. New York:
Elsevier (1987): 190.
>
Comparison of the concentrations of various elements measurable by logs
with measured clay concentration in one well. The top row contains
elements measured by natural gamma ray spectroscopy. The two trace
elements, Ti and Gd, and the three major elements measured by capture
gamma ray spectroscopy are shown in the middle and bottom rows, along
with aluminum, which is difcult to measure with wireline or logging-while-
drilling tools. As observed in many wells, there is a good correlation with
aluminum and a good anticorrelation with silicon. In this well, the
correlation with potassium is good, but this was an exception among the
wells studied, particularly at low clay concentration.
C
l
a
y
,

%

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t
100
50
0
C
l
a
y
,

%

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t
100
50
0
C
l
a
y
,

%

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t
100
50
0
Thorium, ppm
0 10 20
Uranium, ppm
0 5 10
Potassium, % by weight
0 2.5 5
Aluminum, % by weight
0 10 20
Titanium, % by weight
0 1 2
Gadolinium, ppm
0 5 10
Silicon, % by weight
0 25 50
Iron, % by weight
0 15 30
Calcium, % by weight
0 20 40
>
Data from 12 wells illustrating how clay concentration is estimated from major
elements. The measured clay concentration shows a clear trend with (100 SiO
2
) that is
disturbed mainly by carbonate minerals (a). When calcite and dolomite are subtracted
from the previous estimate, the tight trend is disturbed only by siderite and pyrite (b).
When iron-rich minerals are also subtracted, the correlation is further improved,
showing how clay can be estimated from four elements (c). In practice, magnesium is
not measured by capture gamma ray spectroscopy, but the interpretation provides a
total carbonate (calcite + dolomite) that effectively produces results identical to those
shown in the middle plot (b). For complete lithology interpretation, dolomite can be
estimated from the photoelectric factor from the Litho-Density photoelectric density log
or Platform Express integrated wireline logging tool measurements.
C
l
a
y
,

%

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t
100
50
0
100SiO
2
0 50 100
a
100SiO
2
CaCO
3
MgCO
3
0 50 100
b
0 50 100
100SiO
2
CaCO
3
MgCO
3
1.99 Fe
c
Summer 2005 23
At this point, it is worth examining the corre-
lation between measured total clay and the
traditional total gamma ray on the same data
(below right).
8
The gamma ray is calculated from
the sum of its contributing elementsK, Th and
Uand is therefore independent of porosity. As
expected, there is a general correlation. How-
ever, the slopes and offsets vary widely, and
there is often considerable scatter, particularly
in comparison with the estimation based on ele-
mental concentrations.
Wells 1 and 2 illustrate the wide range in
slope. An extrapolation to pure clay would give a
gamma ray reading of 100 gAPI in Well 1, but
would give 500 gAPI in Well 2. Wells 4 and 12
illustrate the range in offsets, or zero clay read-
ings. An extrapolation to zero clay gives 30 gAPI
in Well 4 and 70 gAPI in Well 12. Such variations
are widely known and are partially circumvented
in practice by using local knowledge and cali-
brating the gamma ray to core data in a
particular reservoir.
Calibration would give good results in several
of the wells. However, the results are still not
satisfactory in terms of scatter and dynamic
range. In Wells 3, 5, 7 and 9, the scatter at about
20% by weight clay is such that even a calibrated
gamma ray would indicate clay percentages
varying from 0 to 40%. This amount of clay can
mean the difference between reservoir and non-
reservoir rock, and makes quantitative use
difcult. Wells 11 and 12 are examples of small
dynamic range.
Wells 11 and 12, and to a lesser extent Well 4,
contain feldspar-rich sands. Feldspars and micas
are aluminosilicates, like clays, and therefore
affect the silicon content. These sands are han-
dled by using a different slope and introducing
an offset in the clay estimator (below). The
>
Comparison of measured clay concentration with the concentrations estimated by Si, Ca, Fe and Mg
in 12 wells. Except in Wells 4, 11 and 12, the slopes are nearly the same and pass through the origin
with no offset. The overall correlation coefcient is 0.94, with a standard error of 6.9% by weight. In
reservoir rocks that contain less than 25% clay, the standard error is smaller. The clay content tends to
be underestimated in the shales; this underestimation is corrected in the SpectroLith implementation.
C
l
a
y
,

%

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t
100
50
0
C
l
a
y
,

%

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t
100
50
0
C
l
a
y
,

%

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t
100
50
0
Estimated clay, %
0 50 100
Estimated clay, %
0 50 100
Estimated clay, %
0 50 100
Estimated clay, %
0 50 100
Well 1 Well 2 Well 3 Well 4
Well 5 Well 6 Well 7 Well 8
Well 9 Well 10 Well 11 Well 12
>
Comparison of measured clay concentration with gamma ray in the same 12 wells as in the previous
gure (above). The gamma ray has been computed from the thorium [Th], uranium [U] and potassium
[K] concentrations measured on the samples using the formula: gamma ray = 4Th + 8U + 16K, where
Th and U are reported in parts per million (ppm), and K is in % by weight. This is equivalent to using a
gamma ray log normalized to the solid fraction, or porosity-free. The slopes and offsets vary widely
from well to well. Even after allowing for these, the correlations are poorer than when estimating
using Si, Ca, Fe and Mg, especially in reservoir rocks.
C
l
a
y
,

%

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t
100
50
0
C
l
a
y
,

%

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t
100
50
0
C
l
a
y
,

%

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t
100
50
0
Gamma ray, gAPI
0 100 200 0 100 200 0 100 200 0 100 200
Well 1 Well 2 Well 3 Well 4
Well 5 Well 6 Well 7 Well 8
Well 9 Well 10 Well 11 Well 12
Gamma ray, gAPI Gamma ray, gAPI Gamma ray, gAPI
>
Comparison of measured clay
concentration with the
concentrations estimated by Si, Ca,
Fe and Mg in Well 4 (crosses) and
Wells 11 and 12 (open circles) using
the equation for arkosic, or high
feldspar, sands. The correlation is
strong, particularly below 20% clay.
C
l
a
y
,

%

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t
100
50
0
Estimated clay, %
0 50 100
current DecisionXpress implementation has
three different estimators corresponding to
arenite (feldspar content < 10%), subarkose
(feldspar content between 10 and 15%) and the
rare arkose (feldspar content > 25%). Arenite is
the default.
The carbonate fraction is determined from
the calcium concentration, initially assuming
that the carbonate is calcite. Dolomite can be
detected and quantified by comparing the
expected photoelectric factor (PEF) with the
measured PEF.
9
The fractions of halite, coal,
siderite, anhydrite and pyrite are all mea-
sured using information in the different yields
(below). The remainder of the rock is considered
to consist of quartz, feldspar and mica (QFM).
The extensive core studies helped scientists
develop an accurate and reliable method of esti-
mating clay from elemental concentrations
without the need for user intervention. This pro-
cess is captured in the SpectroLith algorithm.
10
One important advantage is that it uses concen-
trations of major elements, as opposed to trace
elements that can be easily affected by sediment
diagenesis, depositional environment or the spu-
rious introduction of small amounts of heavy
minerals. The results are demonstrably superior
to those from the gamma ray log even when the
gamma ray analysis is calibrated with core. Also,
unlike the lithology analysis using neutron and
density porosities, the results are independent
of uid type, volume and density.
Matrix properties and porosityIn conven-
tional log analysis, matrix density is either taken
as a constant based on local knowledge or is
derived from mineral modeling. The former is
likely to be approximated, leading to errors,
while the latter involves analyst input and con-
trol. An alternative approach is to estimate
matrix density directly from elements. As with
the lithology study, elemental concentrations
and matrix densities were available on a large
number of core samples, in this case more than
600. The goal was to find the best correlation
between the matrix density and a linear combi-
nation of elements. Although the algorithm is
empirical, its rationale is logical.
11
Sandstone
matrix density is approximately equal to that of
silica [SiO
2
], but increases as the concentra-
tions of calcium-, iron- and sulfur-bearing
minerals increase. Iron-bearing minerals have a
particularly strong effect on density, as reected
in the high coefcient for iron. A separate algo-
rithm with different coefficients is used for
arkosic sandstones.
A similar analysis leads to an algorithm for
the matrix response of the neutron log. Knowing
the properties of the rock matrix and the uid
normally those of mud filtrateit is
straightforward to calculate the total porosity
from both neutron and density logs. In water
zones, the matrix-corrected porosities should
agree regardless of the volumes of clays or heavy
24 Oileld Review
>
Overview of the SpectroLith algorithm. The processing ow (left ) starts
with capture yields and determination of lithology in % by dry weight. The
lithology is subsequently converted to % by volume using porosity, log bulk
density and the density of the mineral components. The table summarizes
the logic used to detect special minerals and coal (above).
Inversion
(spectral stripping)
Oxide closure
SpectroLith model
Induced gamma ray
spectra
Elemental relative yields
(Si, Ca, Fe, S, Gd, Ti, H, Cl
and other capture and
inelastic yields and tool
background)
Elemental concentrations
% by dry weight
(Si, Ca, Fe, S, Gd and Ti)
SpectroLith lithology
% by dry weight
(clay, carbonate, QFM
and special minerals)
Lithology
Volume % of rock, with fluids
(clay, carbonate, QFM and
special minerals)
Properties such as ,
b
,

clay
,
carb
and
QFM

T
Comment
From the iron remaining after computing
pyrite and clay
From excess hydrogen above average
hydrogen level in well. Other minerals
normalized to noncoal fraction
If detected, lithology set to
100% halite
User elects to solve for either anhydrite or
pyrite. Corresponding weight % of Ca or Fe
is subtracted from measured weight %
before calculating other lithologies.
Element Used
Sulfur
Sulfur
Iron
Hydrogen
Total count rate
above threshold
Mineral
Anhydrite, CaSO
4
Pyrite, FeS
2
Siderite, FeCO
3
Coal, CH
a
N
b
O
c
Halite, NaCl
Summer 2005 25
minerals. In gas zones, there should be a clear
crossover, unmasked by the effects of clay.
Finally, the total porosity,
T
, for use in further
computations, is taken as two-thirds of the den-
sity porosity,
D
, plus one-third of the neutron
porosity,
N
. This expression yields an approxi-
mate but reliable estimate of
T
for any
formation uid.
Water saturationMany equations are avail-
able to compute water saturation from resistivity.
Because we have a reliable measure of clay vol-
ume, it makes sense to select an equation that
uses clay volume explicitly and is based on labo-
ratory studies. The Waxman-Smits-Thomas
equation satisfies these conditions and is the
current choice in the DecisionXpress system.
12
The Waxman-Smits-Thomas equation con-
tains the only two parameters that must be
selected by the userformation water conduc-
tivity, C
w
, and the clay cation exchange capacity
(CEC). Formation salinities vary far too widely
for a fixed default to be satisfactory. The clay
CEC default is 0.1 meq/g, a good value for most
illites and chlorites, and a good value for most
clay mineral assemblages the researchers
encountered in sedimentary rocks; pure kaolin-
ite clays and pure smectite clays are not present
in the extensive database.
In a water-lled formation, with S
w
= 1, the
same equation is used to calculate the water-
lled formation resistivity, R
o
, and the apparent
formation-water resistivity, R
wa
.
k- permeabilityPermeability is calcu-
lated by a method developed for siliciclastic
formations based on the lambda parameter, .
13
The lambda parameter is a measure of the effec-
tive diameter of dynamically connected pores,
and, in the simplest pore geometries, it can be
approximated from the ratio of pore volume to
surface area. Further, at high permeability, the
permeability is proportional to
2
/F, where F is
the Archie formation factor and equal to 1/
2
.
Combining these leads to an expression that is a
form of the Kozeny-Carman relation and similar
to many others in the literature:
k

~
m*
/ (S/ V
p
)
2
,
where S is the pore surface area and V
p
the pore
volume.
14
The problem is then how to measure
the ratio S/V
p
from logs, and how to adapt the
equation at low permeability. In the mineral
form of k- permeability, the ratio S/V
p
is esti-
mated from the volumes of the minerals present.
This is possible by first removing the effect of
porosity in the ratio, leaving two terms, the
matrix density and the specic surface area per
unit mass, S
0
.
15
S
0
is a characteristic of different
types of minerals. It is known that clays have
high S
0
and make by far the largest contribution
to pore surface area in shaly sands. It has also
been observed that the total S
0
in a rock can be
approximated by a linear combination of the
mass fractions of the minerals present.
16
This
works well until the pore throats become blocked
at low porosity and permeability. Empirically, it is
found that when the initial k- estimate is less
than 100 mD, it must be reduced by a suitable
function. The quality of the k- estimates can be
judged from the examples (above).
9. PEF refers to a log of photoelectric absorption properties.
The log measures the photoelectric absorption factor, P
e
,
which is dened as (Z/10)
3.6
, where Z is the average
atomic number of the formation. P
e
is unitless, but
because it is proportional to the photoelectric cross sec-
tion per electron, it is sometimes quoted in
barns/electron. Because uids have low atomic num-
bers, they have little inuence, so that P
e
is a measure of
the rock matrix properties. The PEF of dolomite is less
than that of calcite. The PEF reconstructed from the com-
puted matrix fractions should equal the measured PEF if
the carbonate is pure calcite. If the measured PEF is less,
the difference is proportional to the fraction of dolomite.
See Hertzog et al, reference 4.
10. Herron SL and Herron MM: Quantitative Lithology: An
Application for Open and Cased Hole Spectroscopy,
Transactions of the SPWLA 37th Annual Logging Sympo-
sium, New Orleans, June 1619, 1996, paper E.
11. For arenites or subarkosic sandstones, researchers
found a single least-squares t with a correlation
coefcient of 0.97 and a standard error of 0.015 g/cm
3
[0.936 lbm/ft
3
] as follows:

ma
= 2.62 + 0.049 W
Si
+ 0.2274 W
Ca
+ 1.993 W
Fe
+
1.193 W
S
, where W
Si
, W
Ca
, W
Fe
and W
S
are the % by
dry weight of these elements.
Herron SL and Herron MM: Application of Nuclear
Spectroscopy Logs to the Derivation of Formation Matrix
Density, Transactions of the SPWLA 41st Annual Log-
ging Symposium, Dallas, June 47, 2000, paper JJ.
12. The Waxman-Smits equation for the conductivity
response of shaly formations is used to analyze core
data and to calculate water saturation from resistivity
and other logs. The model was developed by M. Waxman
and L. Smits with later contributions by E. C. Thomas. The
Waxman-Smits-Thomas equation may be stated as follows:
1/R
t
= C
t
=
T
m*
S
w
n*
(C
w
+ BQ
v
/S
w
) ,
where C
t
is conductivity, or the reciprocal of R
t
, the mea-
sured log resistivity; S
w
is the water saturation; m* is the
cementation exponent and is a well-dened function of

T
and Q
v
; n* is the saturation exponent set to 2; and C
w
is the formation water conductivity. The rst term is
equivalent to the Archie equation in clean formations.
The second term, BQ
v
/S
w
, represents the additional con-
ductivity due to clay, where B is a parameter that is a
function of temperature and C
w
. Q
v
, the cation exchange
capacity (CEC) per unit pore volume, is directly related to
clay volume and its CEC. CEC is the quantity of positively
charged ions that a clay mineral or similar material can
accommodate on its negatively charged surface,
expressed as milli-ion equivalent per 100 g, or more com-
monly as milliequivalent (meq) per 100 g.
Smits LJM and Waxman MH: Electrical Conductivities
in Oil-Bearing Shaly Sands, Society of Petroleum
Engineers Journal 8, no. 2 (June 1968): 107122.
Waxman MH and Thomas EC: Electrical Conductivities
in Shaly Sands I. The Relation Between Hydrocarbon
Saturation and Resistivity Index; II. The Temperature
Coefcient of Electrical Conductivity, Journal of
Petroleum Technology 26, no. 2 (February 1974): 213225.
13. Herron MM, Johnson DL and Schwartz LM: A Robust
Permeability Estimator for Siliciclastics, paper SPE
49301, presented at the SPE Annual Technical Confer-
ence and Exhibition, New Orleans, September 2730, 1998.
14. Carman PC: Flow of Gases through Porous Media. Lon-
don: Butterworths Scientic Publications, 1956.
15. The pore surface area, S, within a bulk volume V
b
, can be
written as a product of the specic surface area per unit
mass, S
0
, and the mass of the matrix, which is its volume,
(V
b
- V
p
), multiplied by its density,
ma
. The porosity, , is
given by V
b
/V
p
. Thus, S/V
p
= S
0

ma
(1-)/.
16. On this basis, the initial k-estimate becomes:
k
1
= 200,000
(m* +2)
/ {(1-)
2

ma
2
(60W
clay
+ 0.22W
sand
+
2W
carb
+ 0.1W
pyr
)
2
} ,
where W
clay
, W
sand
, W
carb
and W
pyr
are the weight frac-
tions derived previously, and the numerical coefcients
are derived by tting to experimental data. Theoretically,
and also in practice, this expression does not apply at
low permeability. When the initial k-estimate is less
than 100 mD, it must be reduced as follows:
k
2
= 0.037325 k
1
1.714
.
>
Permeability calculation based on the lambda parameter, . Measured
porosity and permeability values (blue) and the k- estimate (red) for clay-
free Fontainebleau formation quartz arenites are shown at left. Measured
permeability (blue) versus k- estimate (red) for the same formation
appears at right. The correlation coefcient for the logarithms is 0.99.
Measured porosity, %
M
e
a
s
u
r
e
d

p
e
r
m
e
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
,

m
D
10 20 30
10
-2
10
0
10
2
10
4
estimate k-
0
Estimated permeability, mD
M
e
a
s
u
r
e
d

p
e
r
m
e
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
,

m
D
10
-4
10
-2
10
0
10
2
10
4
10
-4
10
0
10
4
estimate k-
Irreducible water saturationTo judge
whether a reservoir will produce hydrocarbons,
water or a mixture of both, it is not sufcient to
know just the water saturation, S
w
. A qualitative
judgment can be made by a simple comparison
of S
w
with the irreducible water saturation,
S
wirr
. If S
w
is equal to S
wirr
, then there is no pro-
ducible water. More quantitatively, the effective
permeabilities of oil, water and gas can be esti-
mated using familiar relationships that depend
on S
w
and S
wirr
. Irreducible water saturation is
therefore an important parameter. In
DecisionXpress processing, it is derived by the
Coates-Timur equation.
17
This equation is nor-
mally used to estimate permeability, but may be
inverted to give S
wirr
using porosity and the k-
estimate of permeability:
S
wirr
= 100
2
/ (100
2
+ k

0.5
) .
With information on lithology, porosity, water
saturation, permeability and irreducible water
saturation, the operator has most of the major
inputs needed to make reliable decisions. Let us
now see the results of applying this logic to vari-
ous sandstone reservoirs around the world.
Rapid Evaluation of Complex
Lithologies in Egypt
In the East Bahariya concession onshore Egypt,
Apache Egypt is drilling exploratory wells in Cre-
taceous sandstones of the Bahariya and Abu
Roash formations (above). Geological uncer-
tainty and abrupt changes in formation-water
resistivity make rapid petrophysical analysis at
the wellsite challenging but desirable. With two
drilling rigs in operation, timely decision making
is important to minimize the impact of these
uncertainties on operations.
The prospective Bahariya and Abu Roash
sandstones tend to be thinly bedded and vary
widely in grain size. Complex mineralogy, includ-
ing glauconite, complicates log interpretation.
18
Apache expected that prompt, robust interpreta-
tions based on the DecisionXpress system would
help geoscientists and engineers plan subse-
quent formation-evaluation operations, such as
formation testing and fluid sampling with the
MDT Modular Formation Dynamics Tester tool.
Apache selected the DecisionXpress service
in part because it integrates data from the Plat-
form Express and ECS tools to determine
mineralogy. This service also provides a continu-
ous matrix density measurement that can be
used in subsequent log processing. Apache vali-
dated the ECS-derived mineralogy of the
Bahariya and Abu Roash formations with side-
wall core analysis. The ECS data helped identify
zones containing signicant amounts of calcite.
This was not possible using the standard PEF logs,
which are affected by barite in the drilling mud.
In a recent East Bahariya exploration well,
EB-28, petrophysical evaluation using
DecisionXpress technology compared satisfacto-
rily with a conventional analysis carried out by
Apache (next page). On the basis of this inter-
pretation, Apache decided to run the MDT
device to better understand uid mobility and to
collect uid samples. The MDT permeability cor-
related well with permeability estimated
26 Oileld Review
17. Timur A: Pulsed Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Studies
of Porosity, Movable Fluid, and Permeability of Sand-
stones, Journal of Petroleum Technology 21, no. 6 (June
1969): 775786.
Coates GR, Miller M, Gillen M and Henderson G: The
MRIL in Conoco 33-1: An Investigation of a New Mag-
netic Resonance Imaging Log, Transactions of the
SPWLA 32nd Annual Logging Symposium, Midland,
Texas, USA, June 1619, 1991, paper DD.
18. Glauconite is a silicate mineral found in sedimentary
rocks. It typically forms on continental shelves charac-
terized by slow sedimentation with organic matter
present in an oxidizing environment. In sufcient quan-
tity, it can form thick, sandy, green deposits.
>
East Bahariya area, Egypt. Apache Egypt produces oil from
the Cretaceous sandstones of the Bahariya and Abu Roash
formations (right).
Alexandria
East Bahariya
200
km 0 200
0 mi
Cairo
E G Y P T
A
F
R
I
C
A
Bahariya
C
r
e
t
a
c
e
o
u
s
Kharita
Alamein
Alam El Bueib
A
b
u

R
o
a
s
h
K
h
o
m
a
n
1,250
Age
Rock Unit
Formation Unit
A
B
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
400
350
200
200
500
600
1,000
950
3,000
160
2,000
Lithology
Average
Thickness, ft
Western Desert and Nile Delta
Generalized Stratigraphy
Summer 2005 27
>
Real-time petrophysical analysis of an East Bahariya well. This standard presentation displays borehole and
depth information, red net pay ags and yellow net reservoir ags in the depth track. Track 1 shows lithology
from the Platform Express integrated wireline logging tool. Perforations in four zones and the ow prole are
shown in Track 2. However, the water cut information in Track 3 reveals a zone near X,675 ft that ultimately
produced water. Fluid interpretations in Track 4 suggest that the best oil potential exists just below X,600 ft and
around X,700 ft. The dominant minerals, shown in Track 5, include quartz, feldspar and mica (yellow) and clay
(gray) with minor amounts of carbonate minerals (blue). Summarized in quality-control Track 6 are lithology (L),
porosity (P), permeability (K), saturation (S) and relative permeability (R); green reects a favorable
interpretation, yellow means a moderately favorable interpretation and red indicates an unfavorable
interpretation. Track 8 shows hydrocarbon volumes.
Net Pay
MD, ft
Quartz/ Feldspar/Mica
Caliper
6 16 in.
Mudcake
Washout
Bit Size
6 16 in.
Gamma Ray
0 gAPI 150 0 1
Flow Profile
10,000 0.1 mD
Intrinsic
Permeability Porosity
50 % 0
Volume
0 % 100
L P K SR
S
w
100 % 0
Hydrocarbon Clay
Carbonate
Pyrite
Siderite
Porosity
Moved Hydrocarbon
Hydrocarbon
Free Water
1 0
Water Cut
Hydrocarbon
Water
Hydrocarbon
Water
Net
Reservoi r
Clay-Bound Water
Capillary-Bound Water
X,600
X,650
X,700
Perforated Intervals
DecisionXpress
Mineralogy
using the DecisionXpress system (left). In
addition, production results confirmed the
DecisionXpress analysis.
Apache employed DecisionXpress and ECS
technology in other recent exploration wells
drilled in two other concessions in Egypt for
quick-look petrophysical evaluations to support
wellsite decision making. Estimates of the ratio
of net pay to gross pay from the DecisionXpress
computation matched net-to-gross computations
developed from time-consuming proprietary
petrophysical analysis. DecisionXpress answers
were typically available before production casing
was run, which helped the operator estimate the
value of exploratory wells and decide whether to
run casing.
Based on this success, plans are now being
made to use the DecisionXpress software in real
time to design more effective wireline pressure-
and fluid-sampling programs as well as to
provide faster quick-look petrophysical analyses.
Real-Time Decisions in Venezuela
The Guata eld is a mature oil eld operated
by Petrleos de Venezuela S.A. (PDVSA), located
in the state of Apure, near the Venezuela
Colombia border (next page, top). This eld pro-
duces light oil, between 28 and 32 dAPI,
primarily from the Guardulio and Arauca mem-
bers of the Guata formation.
In recent years, PDVSA initiated a sustained
high level of drilling activity in the Guata eld
to maintain high levels of production. With three
active drilling rigs operating more than 300 km
[186 mi] from PDVSA headquarters in Barinas,
the company sought a reliable method for inter-
preting logs quickly at the wellsite. The PDVSA
operations team in Barinas turned to induced
gamma ray spectroscopy with the ECS sonde and
the DecisionXpress system.
The Guafita formation is a sand-shale
sequence in which conventional log interpreta-
tion might be expected to be straightforward. In
reality, several factors complicate log interpreta-
tion. First, the Guafita formation is highly
resistivea clean sand will produce water at a
resistivity of 10 mS/m [100 ohm.m], and oil at
3.3 mS/m [300 ohm.m]. This is because the for-
mation connate water is unusually fresh, varying
from a low of 100 parts per million (ppm) to a
high of about 2,500 ppm of equivalent sodium
chloride [NaCl]. Therefore, master calibration of
the induction tool requires great care because
the difference between 3 and 10 mS/m is signi-
cant, given that induction tools respond to
conductivity, not resistivity.
28 Oileld Review
>
Permeability and mobility interpretations. The MDT device measured formation pressure and uid
mobility at nine depths within the Bahariya formation and at three depths in the overlying Abu Roash
G zone (Track 3). Permeability calculated by real-time DecisionXpress processing (Track 3) closely
matches MDT uid mobilities.
X,500
X,550
X,600
X,650
X,700
X,750
L PKSR
MD, ft
Quartz/ Feldspar/ Mica
Caliper
6 16 in.
Mucake
Washout
Bit Size
6 16 in.
Gamma Ray
0 gAPI 150 0 1
Flow Profile
10,000 0.1 mD
Intrinsic
Permeability
Volume
0 % 100
Sw
0 % 100
Hydrocarbon Clay
Carbonate
Pyrite
Siderite
1 0
Water Cut
Hydrocarbon
Water
Hydrocarbon
Water
10,000 0.1 mD
Mobility
Porosity
50 % 0
Moved Hydrocarbon
Hydrocarbon
Free Water
X,400
X,450
Net Pay
Net
Reservoir
Capillary-Bound Water
Clay-Bound Water
Porosity
DecisionXpress
Mineralogy
Summer 2005 29
This simplified resistivity approach is ade-
quate for the clean sands, but it is inadequate
when clay is present and surface conductivity
effects become signicant. At such low connate-
water salinities, conditions in Guafita are
outside the traditional range of application of
conventional saturation equations such as the
Waxman-Smits model.
19
In addition, the use of
oil-base mud precludes acquiring a spontaneous
potential curve, which in turn prevents the log
analyst from using saturation equations
designed specifically for freshwater environ-
ments, such as the Sen-Goode-Sibbit equation.
20
After analyzing this problem, PDVSA decided
to focus on reducing the uncertainty associated
with implementation of a conventional satura-
tion model in Guata. The company began with
a thorough analysis of produced waters from var-
ious intervals in several wells to optimize the R
w
value to be used in each geological interval.
At the same time, PDVSA recognized that a
traditional estimate of clay content, always
biased by the gamma ray log, tended to overesti-
mate the amount of clay present in the
formation and invalidated a saturation clay cor-
rection. The high radioactivity often observed in
the Guata sands is usually attributed to incom-
patibility between the original connate water
and the water from the active aquifer below,
which is fresh and likely to originate from mete-
oric recharge. As the aquifer rises, radioactive
salts deposited in the formation increase the
overall radioactivity, and lead to overestimation
of clay content.
In discussions with Schlumberger, PDVSA iden-
tied induced gamma ray spectroscopy with the
ECS device as a potential means to accurately
quantify clay in Guata sands. In various Guata
wells, several runs of Platform Express integrated
wireline logging tools, including the ECS sonde,
systematically demonstrated poor linearity
between natural gamma ray and clay volume, V
clay
,
from SpectroLith processing. They also showed
higher end points than are typical for sandstones,
both for the clean and shaly fraction (right).
19. The Waxman-Smits equation is described in reference 12.
20. The Sen-Goode-Sibbit saturation model is commonly
applied in freshwater shaly sand environments. For more
information: Sen PN, Goode PA and Sibbit A: Electrical
Conduction in Clay-Bearing Sandstones at Low and High
Salinities, Journal of Applied Physics 63, no. 10 (May 15,
1988): 48324840.
>
Guata eld, Venezuela. Located in the Apure state near the
VenezuelaColombia border, the eld was discovered in 1984
and produces from Miocene and Oligocene reservoirs of the
Guata formation.
V E N E Z U E L A Apure
Guafita
field
Caracas
300
km 0 300
0 mi
S O U T H A M E R I C A
>
Crossplot of gamma ray versus clay volume, as determined by SpectroLith
processing. The regression line highlights the lack of linearity between
measured gamma ray (GR) and clay volume, V
clay
. The end points of the
regression line, at the intersection with the V
clay
= 0 and V
clay
= 1 axes, are
unusually high for a sandstone environment. These measurements were
later used in DecisionXpress processing.
G
a
m
m
a

r
a
y
,

g
A
P
I
150
100
50
0
200
250
300
350
0 20 40 60 80 100
Clay volume, %
G
R
=

2
8
+

3
2
4
*
V
c
la
y
Simultaneously, eld results from DecisionXpress
processing correlated strongly with results
obtained using a traditional ELANPlus advanced
multimineral log analysis technique in the Cara-
cas, Venezuela, computing center.
PDVSA found these results encouraging, and
the company decided to verify them by acquir-
ing a core and performing a series of X-ray
diffraction (XRD) measurements for compari-
son with the clay volume determined by
SpectroLith processing.
This comparison reveals a good correspon-
dence between total clay content determined by
XRD analysis and clay content determined by
SpectroLith analysis, even though the analyzed
core plugs were obtained in the cleaner,
more porous reservoir intervals (above).
Agreement between estimated porosity and esti-
mated permeability and core data was also
excellent. Some discrepancy remains between
grain density estimated from SpectroLith analy-
sis and grain density measured in core samples,
with core grain density typically lower than the
density of pure quartz. This discrepancy might
have resulted from the difficulty of accurately
30 Oileld Review
>
SpectroLith processing of a Guata log. Caliper measurements in the depth track show the hole is in good condition. Track 1, scaled
from 0 to 300 gAPI, shows high gamma ray values in the logged interval. SpectroLith clay volumes (gray) shown in Track 2 match core
measurements (blue circles); the SpectroLith grain density (red curve) is more reliable than the low core-density measurements (open
circles) from unconsolidated core samples. Permeability estimates in Track 3 match those measured in cores (blue circles). Computed
porosity (Track 4) also matches porosity measurements in cores (blue circles). Track 5 displays lithology and porosity from ELANPlus
volumetric analysis. NMR data in Track 6 show a well-developed free-uid signal in the highly permeable Guata sandstones.
MD, ft
Water
Caliper
16 6 in.
Bit Size
16 6 in.
Washout
Gamma Ray
300 0 gAPI 100 0 %
Clay Volume from XRD
X,450
X,500
X,550
X,600
0.1 10,000 mD
Klinkenberg-
Corrected Core
Permeability
100 50 %
Core Porosity
0 50 %
ELANPlus Fluid Analysis
Oil
Water
Irreducible Water
0 100 %
ELANPlus Analysis
Bound Water
Illite
Quartz
Pyrite
Calcite
Oil
Irreducible Water
5,000 0.3 ms
T
2 LM
0
T
2
Distribution
29
Clay
Quartz/Feldspar/Mica
Carbonate
Pyrite
3 2.5 g/cm
Grain Density from
SpectroLith Processing
3 2.5 g/cm
3
3
Grain Density from Core
0.1 10,000 mD
SDR Permeability
0.1 10,000 mD
Coates-Timur
Permeability
Summer 2005 31
measuring grain density from essentially uncon-
solidated core plugs.
XRD analysis also showed the predominant
clay mineral to be kaolinite, often greater than
70% of the total clay, with the rest of the clay
minerals illite and a small fraction of chlorite. In
such conditions, a low mean CEC of the clays
would be expected; a value of 0.2 meq/g was
used in the DecisionXpress processing (above).
This quick-look result is remarkably similar to
the complete ELANPlus evaluation, including
the permeability estimate obtained from the
mineralogical version of the k- equation. The
rugose hole region from X,465 to X,470 ft is prop-
erly agged, and the main sandstone reservoirs
are properly diagnosed as being at or near irre-
ducible water saturation. This was conrmed by
production results, with the well coming on pro-
duction at a rate of 1,200 bbl/d [191 m
3
/d] of
uid, with a water cut of less than 20%.
DecisionXpress technology is now an integral
part of formation evaluation in the Guata eld,
ensuring that reliable interpretation results
from a remote region of Venezuela are available
wherever decisions need to be made, minutes
after the logs are acquired.
>
DecisionXpress processing of the Guata log. To better evaluate the quick-look results obtainable using DecisionXpress
processing, the same interval of the previous log from Guata (previous page) was reprocessed using the DecisionXpress
system; this display is a default presentation. Caliper data in the depth track conrm hole quality was good except for rugosity
from X,465 to X,470 ft. This thin interval of data, masked with gray, is not reliable enough for automated interpretation. Net
reservoir and net pay ags are also shown in the depth track. Mineralogy from DecisionXpress processing appears in Track 1.
Track 2 shows the estimated production prole, derived from the relative permeability results shown in Track 3. Porosity and
uid information in Tracks 4 and 5 complete the evaluation. Mineralogy, shown in Track 5, is interpreted from ECS data using
DecisionXpress processing. Summarized in quality-control Track 6 are lithology (L), porosity (P), permeability (K), saturation (S)
and relative permeability (R); green indicates a favorable condition, yellow represents a moderately favorable condition and
red means an unfavorable condition. The quick-look DecisionXpress analysis agrees with core data and with the more time-
consuming ELANPlus analysis.
L P K S R
X,500
X,550
Net Reservoir
Calibrated Caliper
Washout
Mudcake
DecisionXpress
Mineralogy
Clay
Carbonate
Siderite
6 16 in.
Bit Size
6 16 in.
Cable Tension
10,000 0 lbf
10,000 0.1 mD
Total Porosity
50 % 0 100 % 0
Quartz/ Feldspar/ Mica
X,450
Net Pay
Hydrocarbon
Water
Data Quality
Moved Hydrocarbon
Free Water
Moved Water
Hydrocarbon
Clay-Bound Water
Salt
Coal
Anhydrite
Pyrite
0 1
Flow Profile
k-
Permeability
Capillary-Bound Water
Hydrocarbon
Water
Total Porosity
Data Quality
Making Timely Decisions in the UK
In recent years, the UK government has encour-
aged owners of undeveloped offshore UK
discoveries to either develop or relinquish
acreage containing these discoveries. Many
unappraised prospects have therefore been
returned by the former owners and offered as
new licenses. The availability of these licenses
has attracted a number of operators new to the
North Sea who saw economic potential in some
of these relinquished blocks. One such operator
was OILEXCO, a Calgary-based company that is
currently developing Block 15/25b in the Outer
Moray Firth basin.
A thin oil column, discovered in 1990,
attracted the attention of OILEXCO (above).
After reprocessing seismic data and mapping
possible stratigraphic traps, the company initi-
ated a multiwell drilling program.
21
To assist in
understanding results from logging, the com-
pany used the DecisionXpress system. Of the
three wells logged with the DecisionXpress
system, Well 15/25b-8 proved to be the one that
justified further activity in the area, known as
the Brenda accumulation. That well was drilled
on an anomalous amplitude variation with offset
(AVO) elastic impedance response, and encoun-
tered a hydrocarbon column within the Forties
sandstone of nearly 50 ft [15 m] (next page).
22
Timely petrophysical analyses using the
DecisionXpress system facilitated the rapid deci-
sion making required to sidetrack or to run
casing and test the wells. In addition, prompt
analyses provided OILEXCO with important eco-
nomic information to keep remote partners and
other investors fully apprised of reservoir capac-
ity and likely producibility. The resultant
appraisal work conrmed that the Brenda accu-
mulation may be one of the largest discoveries in
UK waters in recent years, and development
drilling using high-angle and horizontal wells
will commence in January 2006.
32 Oileld Review
21. For more about exploration for stratigraphic traps by
OILEXCO: Durham LS: Subtle Traps Become New Prey,
AAPG Explorer 25, no. 8 (August 2004): 14.
22. Amplitude variation with offset (AVO) refers to a differ-
ence in seismic reection amplitude with a change in
distance between shotpoint and receiver. AVO
responses indicate differences in lithology and uid con-
tent in rocks above and below the reector.
23. For additional examples: Poulin M, Hidore J, Sutiyono S,
Herron M, Herron S, Seleznev N, Grau J, Horkowitz J,
Alden M and Chabernaud T: Deepwater Core Compari-
son with Answers from a Real-Time Petrophysical
Evaluation, paper SPE 90134, presented at the SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston,
September 2629, 2004.
Rasmus JC, Horkowitz JP, Chabernaud T, Graham P,
Summers M and Wise D: A New Formation Evaluation
Technique for the Lower Tertiary in South Texas
Predicting Production in Low Permeability, Fine-Grained
Sandstones, paper SPE 90690, presented at the SPE
International Petroleum Conference, Puebla, Mexico,
November 79, 2004.
>
OILEXCO license in the Outer Moray Firth
basin. A thin oil column, identied in 1990, led
the company to reevaluate the potential of
Block 15/25b.
200
km 0 200
0 mi
Block 15/25b
N o r t h S e a
N
O



R
W
A
Y
DENMARK
UK
Summer 2005 33
Interpretation in Real Time
The DecisionXpress system has been applied
successfully to a wide range of siliciclastic reser-
voirs.
23
This real-time interpretation is not fully
applicable to carbonate reservoirs, largely due to
the lack of a universally accepted, robust satura-
tion-evaluation scheme. On the other hand,
the lithology and matrix property components of
the system can bring signicant improvement to
carbonate evaluations, and they will be imple-
mented in the future.
By limiting the number of parameters
selected by the log interpreter, automated
interpretation minimizes interpretation bias.
As with any effort to automate tasks ordinarily
performed by people, automated interpreta-
tions must be carefully compared with other
data to ensure valid results. Comparisons of log
data to core and production data are critical for
operators to use this technology, but with time,
well-to-well comparisons should prove ade-
quate to validate interpretations.
The algorithms in the DecisionXpress system
yield fast and reliable petrophysical interpreta-
tion. By understanding how much hydrocarbon
is present, and whether it can be produced
economically, operating companies can better
plan formation-pressure and sampling jobs,
mechanical and percussion sidewall-coring jobs
and formation-testing operations, or elect to run
casing, drill ahead, or sidetrack. In addition,
rapid petrophysical analysis supports long-term
decision making, such as development of com-
pletion strategies, stimulation programs and
other operations. JS/GMG
>
Petrophysical analysis of Well 15/25b-8. The net pay ags in the depth track of this DecisionXpress display reveal
nearly 50 ft of oil pay near X,150 ft. Track 1 presents the gamma ray curve and lithology determined by the
DecisionXpress system. Track 3 shows hydrocarbon and water along with intrinsic permeability. Fluid saturations
and porosity are shown in Track 4. Detailed mineralogy, presented in Track 5, is determined using the ECS sonde and
DecisionXpress processing. As in all DecisionXpress presentations, a gray mask indicates that results are outside
tolerance specications.
L P K S R
Net Reservoir
Calibrated Caliper
Washout
Mudcake
DecisionXpress
Mineralogy
6 16 in.
Bit Size
6 16 in.
Cable Tension
10,000 0 lbf
10,000 0.1 mD
Environmentally
Corrected Gamma Ray
0 gAPI 200
Net Pay
X,100
X,150
Hydrocarbon
Water
Water
Hydrocarbon
Clay-Bound Water
Capillary-Bound Water
Hydrocarbon
Moved Water
Free Water
Moved Hydrocarbon
Data Quality
Total Porosity Total Porosity
50 % 0
Clay
Quartz/Feldspar/Mica
Carbonate
Pyrite
Anhydrite
Siderite
Coal
Salt
Data Quality
100 % 0
k-
Permeability
0 1
Flow Profile