HVE Script - v02 PDF

Chair of Energy Distribution and High-Voltage Engineering Prof. Dr.-Ing.
Harald Schwarz
Breakdown Field Strength Assumption:
eff * s = k
p = A * exp B E/ p
From
( )
and homogeneous field
and
eff
Ed =
follows
B* p A* p * s ln + s * A
Calculated breakdown field strength Ed as function of the sparking distance d for different gases under normal pressure (p = 1 bar) and normal temperature (T = 293 K).
- Ed depends on the sparking distance s. - Volume effect: tests at scaled-down models are not suitable for the assessment of high-voltage devices. - High-voltage tests of the real device (actual physical dimensions) are necessary.
High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials
Page 63
Chair of Energy Distribution and High-Voltage Engineering Prof. Dr.-Ing. Harald Schwarz
Breakdown Voltage (Paschen Curve)
Ud = Ed * s Ud = f (p * s)
U = d
B* p*s ln Aps k + s A
Calculated breakdown voltages as function of pd (Paschen curve) for different gases: (1) Helium and (2) air; (3) Air and (4) Sulfur hexafluoride; (5) Sulfur hexafluoride
- for large values of ps: fan out into several curves - for very small values of ps mechanism of vacuum breakdown
Page 64
Paschens law as analytical approximation formula (thin curve) and as real curve (broad curve)
- Another breakdown mechanism works above
eff d = 14 ... 18 .
Page 65
4.5. Streamer Mechanism

- The Townsend mechanism depends on an interaction between avalanche and electrode. For long sparking distances or in case that there are no electrodes at all this model is no longer valid. - The constantly growing size of the avalanche results in a distortion of the basic field distribution.
Avalanche in homogeneous field and field distribution E along the central axis of the avalanche for the critical number of electrons at the avalanche head: Eg is the field distribution of the base field.
- The highest alteration of field strength can be found at the avalanche head. - If the avalanche reaches a critical length of
L
eff dx = 18 ... 20
0
(determined experimentally) photon radiation is emitted. - The photons can generate secondary avalanches.
High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials Page 66
Streamer mechanism:
Fusion of independent avalanches into a conductive channel during the avalanche transit time
Model for discharge reactions with space charges or channels discharge according to Raether respectively (Streamer mechanism)
- The streamer grows with high velocity
vst = 10 . 100 cm/s,

because the photons can bridge long distances with the velocity of light.
Page 67
Avalanche growth in homogeneous field
Streamer growth against the field direction
Page 68
5. Discharge Reactions in Gases (technical details)
5.1. Breakdown of Mixed Gases

In technical devices mixed gases can occur (intentional for certain technical applications or unintentionally caused by leakiness). The most important mixed gases for high-voltage applications are: a) Air as a mixture of O2, N2, CO2 b) SF6 as a mixture of b1) SF6 + N2 b2) SF6 + Air technical application for low temperatures unintentionally caused by leakiness
The phase diagram for pure SF6 is given as an example for b1).
Phase diagram of SF6
The typical gas pressure in gas insulated switchgear is 2 4 bar. For temperatures below -40 C the insulating gas becomes liquid. By adding N2 the temperature for liquefaction can be lowered considerably.
Leakiness can also result in a mixture of SF6 and N2. The following picture shows the breakdown characteristic of this mixed gas.
AC breakdown voltage for a mixture of SF6 and N2 depending on the volume percentage VSF6 of SF6 for constant striking distance s = 15 mm and varying pressure
5.2. Influence of the Electrode Roughness

A certain surface roughness can not be avoided during the manufacturing process of technical devices. Even polished surfaces have a roughness of about 3 m, drawn material of about 6 m. These micro peaks cause an increase of the electric field strength.
Page 70
Increase of field strength by surface roughness of the electrode
The increased field strength can exceed the dielectric strength of the insulating gas.
Field distribution E/p, effective ionization coefficient and number of electrons Ne in an avalanche near the rough surface for air, SF6 and SF6 with increased pressure
A breakdown can occur if the value of tioned limiting values.

eff
exceeds the above men-
Page 71
5.3. Breakdown in Inhomogeneous Fields
In weakly inhomogeneous fields reaching the ignition condition results in a breakdown immediately. In strongly inhomogeneous fields partial discharges occur at the electrode with the stronger curvature. In electronegative gases (SF6, air) these discharges are stabilized by absorption of charge carriers in regions of lower field strength.
Difference between the voltage for initiation of corona and the breakdown voltage in a strongly inhomogeneous field for constant sparking distance
Page 72
Polarity Effect
Polarity effect in a strongly inhomogeneous field for positive point electrode (left) and negative point electrode (right) Above: Formation of streamers in regions of high electric field strength and positive effective ionization coefficient. Middle: Formation of a positive space charge by left-over positive ions (left and right) and formation of a negative space charge by trapping of electrons in the region of lower field strength (right). Field strength E(x) along the x-axis for an electric field without space charge (thin lines) and the resulting electric field with space charges (broad lines) with shifting of ionization boundaries.
Bottom:
Page 73
Positive point electrode: - Positive ions in front of the electrode decrease the field strength; - Electrons start in the field space; - After formation of the first avalanche a stable glow discharge is generated by photo ionization (dim bluish glowing); - Field strength in the gas space is increased; - Remaining sparking distance is shortened; - Breakdown processes are favoured Negative point electrode: - Strong increase of field strength in the vicinity of the point electrode; - Large statistical time variation until an initiating electron is available; emission of charge carriers from the point electrode; - Single statistically varying corona impulses; - Field strength in the gas space gets lower and more uniform.
In general:
Ud, pos < Ud, neg
Page 74
5.4. Streamer and Leader discharge 5.4.1. Positive Streamer Discharge
- Avalanches form in the gas space and travel towards the anode (analogous to chapter 5.3.). A positive space charge is left over. - If the field distortion is sufficient photons are emitted (similar to chapter 4.5.).
Formation of positive streamer discharge: 1 Streamer head, old; 2 Streamer channel; 3 Photon path; 4 Initiating electron; 5 Avalanche; 6 Streamer head, new
- These photons generate secondary electron avalanches, which are moving towards the positive space charge and get neutralized. - The electrode avalanches leave a new positive space charge, which is situated closer to the opposite electrode. - A passive, weakly conducting zone develops between the anode and the positive space charge. - The streamer growth needs a voltage gradient of about 4-5 kV/cm. - The propagation velocity is about several 10 cm/s.
Page 75
5.4.2.
Negative Streamer Discharge
The statements from chapter 4.5 are valid. A voltage gradient of about 10 kV/cm is needed. The propagation velocity of the negative streamer discharge is smaller than the velocity of the positive streamer.
5.4.3.
Leader Discharge
- For large striking distances only. - The positive leader discharge is discussed, because it is the most critical case.
Formation of a leader discharge: 1 Leader channel; 2 Leader head; 3 Leader corona; 4 Streamer head of corona; 5 Ionization boundary
- Up to now the physical mechanism of the leader discharge is not completely clear. - The heating-up of the leader channel up to 5000 C is important for the formation of a leader discharge. - The density of charge carriers is strongly increased by thermoionization and the voltage demand decreases from 5 kV/cm auf 1.5 kV/cm, resulting in a growing of the leader. - The heating-up is caused by collision processes of the numerous streamer avalanches in the leader head.
Existence of different discharge types in an air insulated point-plate-arrangement: Inception voltage Ue and breakdown voltage Ud as function of the sparking distance d for positive and negative point electrodes (left). Discharge types and the accompanying relative voltage demand (right).
Page 77
5.5. Breakdown Behaviour for Transient Voltages

The breakdown time can be divided into three periods: ts = statistically varying time for the appearance of a starting electron for an avalanche at the right location ta = build-up time for the formation of a highresistive channel tz = breakdown time for the transition from high- to lowresistive channel
For slowly varying voltages the breakdown occurs after slightly exceeding the permissible voltage Uo.
Ignition delay time for a voltage step (a) and a voltage impulse (b)
Page 78
For fast varying voltages the voltage can rise considerably in the time t = ts + ta after exceeding the value Uo. Therefore the impulse volt-time characteristic of a high-voltage device is very important, giving the limiting curve of the additional voltage increase in dependence on the impulse slope.
Voltage-time area - Determination of the static breakdown voltage Ud - Measurement of breakdown voltages for impulse voltages Lower value = build-up time characteristic Upper value = variance zone - Determination of area A - For a given arrangement the area A is constant (independent of the chosen voltage curve). - Drawing of volt-time characteristic based on a few measurements.
Page 79
5.6. Spark Discharge and Arc Discharge

During the breakdown the gas path is bridged by a streamer if the sparking distance is below about 1 m. The time necessary for the formation of the discharge is called the build-up time ta. After this time the insulating ability breaks down. The time for the breakdown of the voltage from 90% to 10% is called the breakdown time or spark build-up time. A low-energy discharge is called a spark; a high-energy discharge is called an arc.
5.6.1.
Spark Discharge
The charge carrier multiplication (dn) caused by collision ionization along the path (dx) is given by:
dn = eff * n * dx
= number of initiating electrons = effective ionization coefficient
eff
By taking into account the drift velocity
v=
dx dt
it follows
dn = eff * n *v dt
By assuming that the total current density equals the electron current density one gets:
I = I e = n *v *e
or
dn I = eff dt e
respectively.
From there it follows:
n= = =
With:
eff
e
I dt
0 t 0
A = cross-sectional area of the spark

Q F (t ) = quantity of charge flowing
eff eff
i dt A* e QF ( (t )
during time t
A* e
LF Length of spark
= b * n * e Conductivity
one gets the spark resistance
RF (t )
RF (t ) =
RF (t ) =
LF LF LF = = * A b * n * e * A b * eff * QF (t )
QF (t ) =
T * LF T * LF
i dt
0
T
Air Nitrogen Argon SF6
= Toepler constant
Toepler constant for different gases
T = 0.5 0.6 * 10-4 Vs/cm T = 0.4 * 10-4 Vs/cm T = 0.85 * 10-4 Vs/cm T = 0.4 ... 0.8 * 10-4 Vs/cm
Page 81
The spark build-up time is estimated using the discharge of a capacitor as analogy.
Spark resistance, build-up time, voltage and current for the discharge of a capacitance (schematic)
It holds:
u (t ) = RF (t )* i (t ) =
T LF
i (t ) dt
0
i (t )
and
du i (t ) = C dt
Because the sum of the residual charge Cu (t) of the capacitor and the quantity of charge flown through the spark equals the initial charge CUd of the capacitor it holds:
C U d = i (t ) dt + C u (t )
0
By insertion of variables and solution of the differential equation one gets:
u (t ) =
Ud U 1 + exp d T LF
Using the voltage values 0.1Ud and 0.9Ud gives
t F = 4,4 *
T LF
Ud
= 4,4
T
Ed
With the above mentioned values of T one gets
t F 7 ...8 ns t F 2 ...3 ns
(Air with Ed 30 kV/cm) (SF6 with Ed 90 kV/cm)
Page 83
5.6.2.
Arc Discharge
If the current density in a spark discharge increases sufficiently, thermoionization starts. In this case we talk about an arc discharge.
Gas-discharge characteristic for one example
Possible operation points at the intersection points of gas-discharge characteristic and resistance line: (1) stable; (2) instable and (3) stable operating point
Operating characteristic of the arc with series resistor
Page 84
For a stable arc it is necessary that the supplied electric power Pzu equals the dissipated thermal power Pab:
U * I = Pzu = Pab.
The voltage demand of the arc can be determined empirically
U=
lB n
lB
= arc length
n = 0,5 0,25
i.e. the voltage demand increases with the arc length and decreases for higher currents.
The quenching of the arc can be accomplished according to the A.C. voltage principle: At the zero transition of the current the arc is shortly interrupted. If the discharge gap is deionised during this phase, no reignition is possible. D.C. voltage principle: If the voltage demand is increased beyond the feeding voltage (e.g. by lengthening the arc) there is no stable operation point and the arc is interrupted.
Page 85
5.7. Surface Discharges 5.7.1. Flash-Over

Discharge between electrodes in the designed insulation arrangement (discharge in solid material, Gas discharge). Discharge between electrodes outside of the designed insulation arrangement (device flash-over)
Breakdown:
Flash-over:
There are two cases a) Field lines parallel to surface b) Field lines nearly perpendicular to surface
Flash-over at boundary surfaces: a Field lines parallel to open boundary surface; b Field lines nearly perpendicular to open boundary surface
Case a): A gas discharge occurs. The insulator surface has a limited influence on the discharge process (trapping and releasing of electrons). Very often the breakdown field strength at the boundary surface is lower than in the solid insulating material and in the gas space due to pollution layers at the boundary surface (see next section). Case b): Sliding discharge (see section 5.7.3)
Page 86
5.7.2.
Flash-Over Caused by Pollution Layers
Conductive layer at the insulator surface caused by - atmospheric humidification and - pollution. As a result leakage currents of about 10 mA 100 mA occur.
Phases of pollution layer flashover: a) Displacement of leakage current by dry zone with local temperature rise. b) Growing of dry zone caused by Joule heat, accelerated drying. c) Interruption of current after drying of complete insulator periphery. d) Flash-over bridging the dry zone, formation of an arc. e) Growing of dry zone and arc length by further drying.
Page 87
Increase of creeping distance at real insulators by sheds
Insulator for open-air application with sheds for increasing the creeping distance
The creeping distance depends on the pollution. There are several classes of pollution defined for transmission networks. Ub is the operating voltage.
Page 88
Pollution class a
According to Glyer and Vogelsang [9.9] Agriculture and forestry, no industry, clean atmosphere
Specific creeping distance Ik/Ub (1,7 2,0) cm/kV
Degree of pollution
IEC TC 28 (C.O.) 42 November 1973 [17.72]
No significant pollution
Areas without industry and low density of buildings with house heating. Areas with few industrial companies but with frequent wind and rain. All areas have to be distant from sea shore or at high altitudes (no sea winds in any case). Areas with industrial companies without special dust and exhaust gas pollution or areas with average density of buildings. Areas with high density of buildings and heavy industry, but with cleaning wind and rain. Distance to the sea shore has to be at least 1 km. Areas with many industrial companies and periphery of large cities (high density of house heating). Areas close to the sea shore or with strong sea winds. Smaller areas with heavy industrial pollution, causing thick conductive layers at the insulators. Areas close to the sea shore with strong salt winds (salt mist).
Light pollution (periphery of large industrial areas), frequently strong fog (river valleys)
(2,2 2,5) cm/kV
Light pollution
Heavy industrial pollution (e.g. Ruhr area, industrial area around Kln and Mannheim)
(2,6 3,2) cm/kV
Heavy pollution
Very heavy 3,8 cm/kV conductive pollution (vicinity of large power stations, chemical plants, iron and steel industry)
Very heavy pollution
Page 89
5.7.3.
Sliding Discharge
Sliding discharges along surfaces are critical at cable ends and bushings.
Typical electrode arrangement for sliding discharges with equipotential lines (without taking into account the refraction of field lines)
The following equivalent networks can be used for determination of the field distribution:
Equivalent networks for determination of the initial tangential field distribution for different voltages: Left: Impulse voltage and A.C. voltage (dielectric displacement field only). Middle: Taking into account conductive pollution layers for A.C. voltage. Right: D.C. voltage (steady-state electric field).
Page 90
After exceeding the inception voltage Ue first partial discharges occur at the electrode corners.
Ue =k
p*s
r
k=8 k = 21 k = 30 discharge in air discharge in SF6 discharge in oil
After first partial discharges initiation of glow discharge of formation of streamers Because of high transverse capacitances high currents are flowing in the streamers possibility of thermo-ionization even for short streamer lengths Formation of leader discharges and bridging of large sparking distances Formation of leaders for
0 , 44
pF / cm 2 U g = 25,8 kV C / A
Formation of sliding discharges at the surface of a cylindrical insulator
Positive sliding discharge just before the formation of a flash-over
Page 91
6. Breakdown Reactions in Solid and Fluid Insulating Materials 6.1. Purely Electrical Breakdown
The purely electrical breakdown occurs in solid insulating materials at very high field strength. High-polymer plastics consist of macromolecules and show semicrystalline behaviour.
Structure of semi-crystalline high-polymers with crystal lamellas: 1 Crystal lamellas, 2 amorphous regions with a) Interconnection chains, b) Chain ends, c) Folding back of chains
Page 92
The energy band model for crystals, giving an energetic description of the mobility of electrons, can be used.
Anode and cathode are metallic electrodes with free electrodes, symbolised by the Fermi level of anode and cathode respectively (FNK / FNA). The difference between FNK or FNA and the valence band of the insulating material is the work function, which is necessary for releasing electrons from the metal surface. In the valence band of the insulating material all electrons are fixed, in the conduction band the electrons can move freely. There are no electrons in the forbidden zone. The energy bands of the insulating material shift if a voltage is applied to the electrodes.
Page 93
In order to initiate a breakdown electrons have to be elevated into the conduction band of the insulating material. This can be accomplished by:
Thermo-ionization For high cathode temperature electrons can get over the potential wall. Outer field emission For high field strength at the cathode electrons can get over the potential wall. Inner field emission Electrons can be elevated from a trap level (defect of insulating material) to the conduction band with lower energy.
Outer field emission occurs especially in very inhomogeneous fields.

Energy band model in homogeneous fields
Energy band model in inhomogeneous fields
The breakdown is governed by an avalanche mechanism, similar to gas discharge processes. A permanent damage of the insulating material occurs if the power density exceeds the value 10-5 w/mm3. The breakdown field strength Ed lies above 1000 kV/cm. That value can only be reached for:
- dielectric stress < 1 s - very thin insulating material < 1 mm - very pure insulating materials e. g. PE foil d = 100 m Ed 800 kV/mm at 20 C Ed 300 kV/mm at 100 C
Page 95
6.2. Global Thermal Breakdown

Current density
Loss factor
J w = ( + j ) E tan =
specific dissipation power: P = E2 = 0r tan E2
tan
~ exp
( ( ))
u o
Page 96
Heating of an insulating material by ohmic and dielectric losses
Pzu ~ tan , u2 ~ exp ( ) , u2

Pab ~ u
Curves for explanation of thermal stability conditions
Stationary case:
Pzu = Pab
dPzu dPab d d
dPzu dPab = d d
(Points A1 and B1 or A2 and B2) (Points A1 / A2)
Stable operating point:
The stability limit is reached for
(Point C)
At the stability limit any disturbance of the system (without further increase of the voltage) results in an increase of temperature destruction. The breakdown voltage is a parameter of the insulating material: about 0.1 ... 20 MV depending on type and purity of the material. The breakdown voltage is independent of the sparking distance, because the complete insulation is thermally overloaded.
6.3. Masked Gas Breakdown

- Of similar importance for insulating fluids as the purely electric breakdown for solid insulating materials. - In very pure liquid insulating materials (e.g. LN2) the electrons can not reach the ionization energy, because the free path length is too small. - Experimental investigations show that the energy of the electrons is sufficient for evaporation. - Formation of micro bubbles with larger free path length. - Ionization processes with formation of avalanches similar to gas discharge processes.
Page 98
6.4. Local Thermal Breakdown

- Channel with higher conductivity between electrodes; - Heating-up of channel.
Pab
- After reaching the breakdown voltage self-maintained temperature rise (similar to global thermal breakdown); - Breakdown voltage Uk
s from practical experience;
- Especially critical for tangential field strength at boundary surfaces of laminated dielectrics. Example: Solid-type cable Belted insulation cable Radial-field cable
No belted insulation cables for higher voltages.
Page 99
6.5. Fibre-Bridge Breakdown

- Mixed dielectric oil - paper pressboard wood - Fibres in oil are hygroscopic, i.e. they attract water molecules from the surrounding environment. - Orientation and stringing together of fibres (strong forces caused by r = 81 of H2O)
Formation of fibre bridges under the influence of an electric field (right) in insulating oil contaminated with dielectric fibres (left)
- Travelling of the fibres into regions of high field strength - Formation of a channel with higher conductivity - Special case of the local thermal breakdown - Remedy: Barriers for subdivision of free oil spaces
Page 100
Page 101
PE: EP 1: EP 2: EP 3:
Life characteristics for different dielectrics (A.C. voltage): Polyethylene foil in air, SF6 and silicone oil Epoxy resin in model arrangement (d = 1mm) Insulation sample with local increase of field strength by corrugated metal foil inlays Same as EP 2 for large scale insulations
Life tests with insulation samples produced under real manufacturing conditions
Life law (Montsingers law)
t E d d = to E o
1 / k
k = Lifetime exponent
Page 102
Orientation values for the short-time dielectric strength (1 minute), lifetime exponents and operating field strength (30 years) for several insulations at f = 50 Hz, T = 20 C Dielectric Application k
d E (1 minute) kV/mm
9 30 30 40 30 40 12 140 > 200 > 200 180 55 80 20 30 125 125
b E (30 years) kV/mm

37 < 40 < 40 < 20 37 13 1.5 4
Polyethylene PE + SF6 PE + oil Paper + oil Porcelain Expoxy resin
Cables Foils Foils Capacitors Cables Transformers Insulators
Page 103
6.6. Erosion Breakdown

Aging of solid insulating materials by: mechanical, chemical, thermal stress, Weather and radiation, Partial discharges and leakage currents, Humidity
Breakdown field strength Ed depending on stress duration
There are three ranges for insulating materials with high tan (Pertinax, some cast resins, PVC): - Electric breakdown, - Thermal breakdown, - Erosion breakdown.
Page 104
Breakdown field strength Ed depending on stress duration for polyethylene
For high-performance insulating materials with small tan (PE, PTFE, epoxy resin) one gets a lifetime line (double-logarithmic scaled diagram). The region of thermal breakdown is missing, because the dielectric losses in the insulating materials are not high enough. Therefore it is possible, to determine the permissible operating field strength for an expected lifetime of 25-40 years (= 200.000 ... 350.000 hours).
Page 105
6.7. Partial Discharge

A partial discharge (PD) is a localised dielectric breakdown of a small portion of a electrical insulation system under high voltage stress. It belongs to the most substantial mechanisms for erosion discharges. PD can occur in gaseous, liquid or solid insulating materials. It is often initiated within gas voids enclosed in solid insulation, or in bubbles within a liquid insulating material, such as voids in an epoxy insulator, or gas bubbles dissolved within transformer oil. The PD level is a measure for the number of imperfections inside the insulating material and thus for the quality of high-voltage devices.
Ed(x)
Ed(x)
E(x)
E(x)
Page 106
In small gas voids and gaps the local electric field strength is higher than in the surrounding insulating material. Usually the breakdown field strength is lower than in the solid insulation too. Partial discharges can occur at the following exemplary locations:
5) 1) 2) 3) 4)
1) 2) 3) 4) 5)
Surface defect of insulation Gas void in insulating material local destruction caused by preceding stress inadequate electrode adhesion Gas gap at electrode edge
Besides these inner partial discharges outer PD can occur. For both types the following equivalent networks were developed:
Page 107
The current in both circuits is determined by the series impedance before the defect:
R2 >>
1 C1
for outer PD
C 2 << C1
for inner PD
Page 108
From there it follows:
Outer PD
i (t ) =
d U 1 (t ) U (t ) = C1 R2 dt
dU 1 (t ) U (t ) = dt R2C1
i(t ) = C2 dU 1 (t ) dU (t ) = C1 dt dt
Inner PD
dU 1 (t ) C2 dU (t ) = dt C1 dt
dU 1 (t ) dU (t ) dt dt
Page 109
It is possible to sketch the voltage at C1, which is temporarily shortcircuited by the spark gap.
Impulses at the peak of the test voltage
Impulses at the zero passage of the test voltage
The partial discharge is an extreme long-time mechanism. PD causes high-frequency field variations at the defect, resulting in high local dielectric losses and possibly a local thermal breakdown. Inside the defect ions are accelerated, which erode the insulation surface and cause needle-shaped cracks. Accelerated electrons penetrate into the insulating material and occupy trap levels (energy band model). Thereby the inner field emission is intensified. PD can cause an intesified generation of NOx at the defect. If there is residual humidity inside the void, nitric acid is generated, which corrodes the insulation.
Page 110
PD channels (electrical tress) in polyethylene (LDPE): a bush-like-tree; b tree-like-tree
Page 111
Page 112

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Chair of Energy Distribution and High-Voltage Engineering Prof. Dr.-Ing.

Breakdown Field Strength Assumption:

and homogeneous field

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

Breakdown Voltage (Paschen Curve)

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

- Another breakdown mechanism works above

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

4.5. Streamer Mechanism

- The streamer grows with high velocity

vst = 10 . 100 cm/s,

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

Avalanche growth in homogeneous field

Streamer growth against the field direction

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

5. Discharge Reactions in Gases (technical details)

5.1. Breakdown of Mixed Gases

Phase diagram of SF6

5.2. Influence of the Electrode Roughness

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

Increase of field strength by surface roughness of the electrode

A breakdown can occur if the value of tioned limiting values.

exceeds the above men-

5.3. Breakdown in Inhomogeneous Fields

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

Ud, pos < Ud, neg

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

5.4. Streamer and Leader discharge 5.4.1. Positive Streamer Discharge

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

Negative Streamer Discharge

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

5.5. Breakdown Behaviour for Transient Voltages

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

5.6. Spark Discharge and Arc Discharge

= number of initiating electrons = effective ionization coefficient

From there it follows:

A = cross-sectional area of the spark

Toepler constant for different gases

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

By insertion of variables and solution of the differential equation one gets:

Using the voltage values 0.1Ud and 0.9Ud gives

With the above mentioned values of T one gets

(Air with Ed 30 kV/cm) (SF6 with Ed 90 kV/cm)

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

Gas-discharge characteristic for one example

Operating characteristic of the arc with series resistor

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

5.7. Surface Discharges 5.7.1. Flash-Over

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

Flash-Over Caused by Pollution Layers

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

Increase of creeping distance at real insulators by sheds

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

Specific creeping distance Ik/Ub (1,7 2,0) cm/kV

IEC TC 28 (C.O.) 42 November 1973 [17.72]

(2,2 2,5) cm/kV

(2,6 3,2) cm/kV

Very heavy pollution

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials

High-Voltage Technique and Insulating Materials