1

Zheng Xiuhua, Ma Xiaochun

Drilling Fluids

()






















2010



2

//
/

Abstract

This book was accomplished referred many literatures on drilling/completion fluids, such as
monographs, technique manuals from petroleum/mud service companies and published articles,
both domestic and abroad. This book introduced systematically the principles of drilling fluids,
make-up materials, additives and drilling fluids systems. This book is divided into ten chapters,
i.e., the INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING FLUIDS, THE PROPERTIES AND EVALUATI ON
OF DRILLING FLUIDS, CALY MINERALOGY AND THE COLLOD CHEMISTRY OF
DRILLING FLUID, RHEOLOGY AND HYDRAULICS, MAKE-UP MATERIALS AND
ADITIVES, WATER-BASE DRILLING FLUID SYSTEM, HOLE STABILTY AND LOSS
CIRCULATION, SOLID CONTROL, and SOME UP TO DATE TECHNOLOGIES FOR
DRILLING FLUID.
This book tries to provide the students, especially in bilingual language a teaching book.













3



As attempts are made to drill deeper and consequently more hazardous wells to exploit
petroleum and mineral resources, the drilling fluid is expected to have physical and chemical
properties that enable it to contend with a greater variety of well conditions. The satisfactory
performance of these more complex functions has required that the composition of the fluid
become more varied and its properties more subject to control.

The fluid used in rotary drilling, once regarded only as a means of bringing rock cuttings to the
surface, is now recognized as one of the major factors involved in the success or failure of the
drilling operation. In addition to lifting the cuttings, the drilling fluid must perform other, equally
important functions directed toward the efficiency and cost. For this reason, the composition of the
drilling fluid and its resulting properties and their design and maintenance are significant.

The employment of students majored Prospection and Engineering nowadays covers many
engineering fields, e.g. petroleum engineering, mineral survey, resource exploration and project
investigation, etc., for which drilling fluid is one of the main subjects they major. And the
following factors, i.e. 1) some are sent abroad as engineers as the international project growth;
2)some purse master and doctor degrees, for which they have more opportunities to international
programs; 3)some universities proposed cooperation for high education; 4) the students have
already learned English for many years under many supports of the Education Ministry,
demonstrate that it is significant and possible to have some curricula in bilingual under some
conditions, to help students to know that English is just a communication tool.

This book tries to provide a teaching book of drilling fluids which is lectured in bilingual
language. It is written in English, and the speciality words are translated to Chines in bracket. The
teaching aim is firstly to convey speciality knowledge and skills, along with their expression in
English.

Considering that some students may read few English specialty literatures, it will be a bit
difficult to start. Some measures shall be taken to assure the teaching quality and results. The first
and the most important one is for students, i.e. Be Confident and Persevere. Nothing is easy to
start. The second one is to facilitate it with Chinese specialty literature, in which the contents are
consistent with the teaching contents in English, along with experiments in Chinese. The third one
is to go ahead it gradually, namely the terms will be presented at the beginning both in English and
Chinese.

The book is edited by Prof. Dr. Xiuhua Zheng and collated by Prof. Dr. Xiaochun Ma. The
contents of this book is organized by the Prospection and Technology Institute, School of
Engineering and Technology, China University of Geosceicens(Beijing), co-edited by the teaching
group for drilling fluids.

Helmut Wolff

Acknowledgement
The authors appreciate CUGB, School and Institute for their encouragement and support. The
authors acknowledge Prof. Dr. Helmut Wolf of Technolgy University of Berlin, Germany who
provided many literatures for drilling fluids in English, Prof. Shizhong Fan who dedicated his
collection for drilling fluids in English, and Prof. Jienian Yan whose teaching book has been
referred. The authors thank many undergraduated students, i.e. Bin Wang, Jinxia Cheng, Wenbin
Yin, Chun Li, Meiping Zhan, Limin Chen, Xuanpeng Liu, Cuina Liu, Zhiliang Zhang, etc., along
with many unnamed above.
The Author would like to express her many thank to his son and his husband, especially his
son, who is now in his 2
nd
year of high school. He supported his mother with his effort for his
school work.






5
About the Authors

Xiuhua Zheng holds B.S and M.S. in Exploration Engineering from Changchun Geology
College, which is now the Geosciences Center of Jilin University and a Ph.D. degree in
Geotechnique from China University of Geosciences(Beijing). She finished her thesis on foaming
agents and applications for well drilling, and her dissertation was about underbalanced drilling and
its optimization. She worked on fracturing fluids and drilling fluids for coal bed methane at
Exploration Engineering Institute from 1990 to 1993. She has engaged herself in teaching and
researching in the fields of drilling and completion fluids, geothermal energy since she came to
university in 1993. She has published more than 40 papers, edited or co-edited 4 books published
publicly and 1 teaching books used at university, and holds 2 patents.

,

1993
/
40 4 1 2


The address:



29
100083
Tel.: 010-82321976
Fax: 010-82321976
Mobile: (86) 15911062856
E-mail: xiuhuazh@cugb.edu.cn
zxhbobby@hotmail.com

Prof. Dr. Xiuhua Zheng
School of Engineering and Technology
China University of Geosciences (Beijing)
29 Xueyuan Road
Beijing, 100083
P.R.China
Tel.: 010-82321976
Fax: 010-82321976
Mobile: (86) 15911062856
E-mail: xiuhuazh@cugb.edu.cn
zxhbobby@hotmail.com


6


Contents

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING FLUIDS ................................................... 8
1.1 The Definition of Drilling Fluids ................................................. 8
1.2 The Well Circulation System ....................................................... 8
1.3 The Principal Functions() ......................................................................... 9
1.4 Properties of Drilling Fluids ......................................................... 12
1.5 Principal Components of Drilling Fluids ................................. 13
1.6 Drilling Fluid Design and Selection ................................. 14
CHAPTER 2 THE PROPERTIES AND EVALUATION OF DRILLING FLUIDS ................ 15
2.1 Density() or Mud Weight()...................................................................... 15
2. 2 Viscosity and Gel Properties() ...................................................... 16
2.3 API FiltrationAPI ................................................................................. 19
2.4 Determination of Gas, Oil, and Solids Content ........... 20
2.5 Bentonite Content of Mud..................................................................................... 21
2.6 The API Sand Test.............................................................................. 22
2.7 Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH )........................................................... 23
2.8 Filtrate Analysis() .................................................................................. 23
2.9 Resistivity() ................................................................................................. 28
2.10 Electrical Stability of Emulsions () ........................................... 29
2.11 Treatment of Make-up Water () ....................................................... 29
2.12 Pilot Testing ...................................................................................................... 30
CHAPTER 3 CLAY MINERALOGY AND THE COLLOID CHEMISTRY OF DRILLING
FLUIDS ......................................................................................................................... 32
3.1 Characteristics of Colloidal Systems() ...................................................... 32
3.2 Clay Mineralogy().............................................................................. 34
3.3 The Colloidal Chemistry of Clay Minerals()....................................... 44
3.4 Interactions of Components in Drilling Fluids() ......... 57
CHAPTER 4 RHEOLOGY AND HYDRAULICS OF DRILLING FLUIDS ......................... 59
4.1 Rheology() ............................................................................................... 59
4.2 Rheological Models()............................................................................. 61
4.3 Measurement of Rheological Properties .................................. 69
4.4 Pressure Drop Modeling .................................................................. 69
4.5 Rheologieal Properties Required for Optimum Performance 74
4.6 The Importance of Hole Stability()............................................. 77
CHAPTER 5 THE FILTRATION PROPERTIES OF DRILLING FLUIDS ........................... 80
5.1 Filtration and Filtration Procedures......................................... 80
5.2 The Static Filtration and Affecting Factors ....................... 81
5.3 The Filter Cake() .......................................................................................... 85
5.4 Dynamic Filtration() .................................................................................. 90
7
CHAPTER 6 MAKE-UP MATERIALS AND ADDITIVES FOR DRILLING FLUIDS ......... 92
6.1 Water() ........................................................................................................... 92
6.2 Bentonite() ............................................................................................... 92
6.3 Materials to Increase Density() ................................................................ 94
6.4 Inorganic Chemical Additives()............................................................ 98
6.5 Polymers() ..............................................................................................100
CHPATER 7 WATER BASE DRILLING FLUID ............................................................. 118
7.1 Classification of Bentonite Drilling Fluid Systems()............. 118
7.2 Deflocculants Used in Dispersed Systems .............................................................. 119
7.3 Dispersed Non-Inhibited Systems() ..............................................122
7.4 Dispersed Inhibited Systems() .....................................................123
7.5 Non-Dispersed Non-inhibited Systems() ................................129
7.6 Non-Dispersed Inhibited Systems() ..............................................132
CHAPTER 8 PROBLEMS RELATED TO DRILLING FLUIDS........................................138
8.1 Borehole stability() ...............................................................................138
8.2 Loss Circulation ...................................................................................142
8.3 Drilling String Sticking .........................................................................146
CHAPTER 9 SOLDI CONTROL ...................................................................................153
9.1 Solid Contained in Drilling Fluid() ...............................................153
9.2 Contents and Purposes of Solid Control() ..................................157
9.3 Solid Control Equipment() .....................................................................158
9.4 Arrangement of Solids Control Equipment System() .........167
9.5 Evaluation of Efficiency of Solids Control Equipemnt() ..............169
CHAPTER 10 THE NEW DRILLING FLUID TECHNOLOGY...........................................175
10.1 Silicate Drilling Fluid().................................................................175
10.2 Mixed Metal Hydroxide() .............................................................177
10.3 Polyol Technology Systems() ........................................................178
10.4 Micro-bubble (Aphron) Drilling Fluid() ...............................179
10.5 Formate Drilling Fluid...........................................................181
10.6 Non-Invasive Drilling Fluid ...................................................183
10.7 High-performance Water-Based Drilling Fluid-Polymeric Amine Drilling Fluid
(HPWBM-) ...........................................................................................187
References ..............................................................................................................190











8
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING FLUIDS
This chapter introduces, 1) The Definition of Drilling Fluid; 2) The Well Circulation System;
3) Functions of the Drilling Fluid; 4) Properties of drilling fluids; 5)Principal Components of
Drilling Fluids; 6) Drilling Fluid Selection.
1.1 The Definition of Drilling Fluids
The term drilling fluidencompasses all of the compositions used to aid the
production and removal of cuttings from a borehole in the earth. This broad definition purposely
places no restriction on the type of tools employed nor on the objective. Some specific examples
of the application of drilling fluids are: water() poured into the hole while boring a foundation
footing with an auger; air introduced to blow cuttings from a blast hole; mud
made twice as heavy as water to control tectonic forces in mineral exploration; foam as a
conveyor of cuttings from a hole being drilled for water in glacial drift; bentonite slurry
employed to maintain a stable wall while excavating a cutoff trench; and a mixtureof
emulsifiers, stabilizers, gellants and sealants in
an oil base used to drill for corrosive gases at temperatures above 260. Drilling fluids
technology is potentially useful in all types of earth excavation.
Drilling Fluid Technology involves the sciences of geology, chemistry, and physics, and the
skills and applications of engineering. Its goal is the utilization of available equipment and
materials to attain at lowest cost the desired objective of earth excavation.
1.2 The Well Circulation System
A schematic of the well circulatory system is shown in Figure1-1. The mud pump draws mud
in through the suction line from the mud pits and sends it out to the discharge line. The
discharge line carries the mud into the standpipe, which runs vertically up one leg of the derrick.
The mud exits the standpipe into a strong, flexible, reinforced rubber hose called the rotary hose
or Kelly hose. The rotary hose joins the swivel at the gooseneck. From the swivel, the mud flows
down through the kelly (or top drive), into the drillstring, mud motor (if present), and the rest of
the BHA. Mud emerges from the drill pipe at the bottom of the borehole where the drill bit is
grinding away at the rock formation. Now the mud begins the return trip to the surface carrying
the pieces of rock, called cuttings, which have been scraped off the formation by the bit, up the
annulus, and out of the mud return line. The return line deposits the mud over a vibrating screen
called the shale shaker. The shale shaker screens out the larger cuttings and, in some cases,
dumps the cuttings into the reserve pit; however, offshore, and in environmentally sensitive areas,
the shale shaker dumps the cuttings into a receptacle. At the end of this process, clean mud drains
back into the mud tanks (sometimes passing through de-gassers first). Some of the cuttings are
taken to be examined by geologists for clues about what is going on deep down inside the well.
9

Fig. 1-1 The well circulation system
1.3 The Principal Functions()
The rotary drilling process and the principal functions of the drilling fluid are related to the
mechanical processes of drilling a hole and to reactions with the formations.

1.3.1 Removal of cuttings from the bottom of the hole
One of the most important functions of the drilling fluid is to efficiently remove the freshly
drilled cuttingsfrom the bit and transport them in the annular space between the drill pipe
and the hole to the surface, where they can be removed.
The ability of the fluid to achieve this objective is dependent to a degree on the annular
velocity, which is the speed at which the fluid is pumped up the annulus of the well.
For the cuttings to move up the well the annular velocity should be greater than the slip velocity
of the cuttings. Slip velocity is basically the rate at which a cutting will settle
through a moving fluid and is dependent on the size, shape and density of the cutting, and on the
flow properties of the fluid.
Viscosity, is the resistance of the fluid to flow and considerably influences the carrying
capacity of the fluid. There is an upper limit to the annular velocities achievable due
to limitations of the capacity of the pumps, and due to hole erosion. When these limitations are
reached the viscosity of the fluid has to be increased.
The density of the fluid has a buoyant effect on the cutting particle so that an increase
in density will also increase the carrying capacity.

1.3.2 To suspend cuttings and weighting material when circulation is interrupted
The fluid should have the property to form a reversible gel structure when it is
10
stationary, so that the cuttings and weighting material remain suspended. The
structuring should be reversible so that re circulation can be easily established. The cuttings
should also be easily removed at the surface by the solids removal equipment.

1.3.3 Control subsurface pressures
The formations are composed of solids of varying porosity, where the pores are
filled with liquids or gases. The rock and pore fluids are under pressure arising from
the rocks overlying them and from movements of the earth's crust. The column of drilling fluid in
the hole will exert a hydrostatic pressure proportional to the depth of the hole and
the density of the fluid. This pressure is used to control the flow of gas, oil or water from the pores
and makes an important contribution to the stability of the well bore. The flow of the drilling fluid
during circulation and movement of the drill string in and out of the hole creates pressure
differentials that are functions of the flow properties of the fluid and the rate of circulation
or speed of drill pipe movement. These pressure effects also have to be taken into account when
calculating pressures on the formation.

1.3.4 Isolate the fluids from the formation
Because of safety considerations, the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the drilling fluid in the
well is usually designed to be greater than the pressures existing in the formation. If this were not
so, the well could blow out if the bit penetrated porous rocks containing brines or
hydrocarbons. Under these conditions the drilling fluid will try and penetrate the rock as a whole
fluid, or will form filter cakes() and the filtrate will penetrate materials have to be
incorporated in the drilling fluid to minimise these effects.
Whole Fluid Loss: There may be highly permeable or fractured formations that
will allow the entry of whole drilling fluid if there is a pressure imbalance. The solids that are
normally in the fluid may not be large enough to bridge the passages and formation sealing agents,
commonly called lost circulation materialsare added.
Filtrate Loss : The components in the drilling fluid are chosen so that it is difficult
to filter. The solids in the mud form a thin low permeability filter cake that will reduce the amount
of fluid permeating into the pore spaces.
The filtration properties of drilling fluids are measured under carefully
controlled conditions and can be adjusted by controlling the type and quantity of colloidal material
and by special additives. It has been repeatedly shown in the field that a low fluid loss has reduced
drilling problems. Conversely, a high fluid loss mud can deposit a thick filter cake on the walls of
the hole. This will restrict the passage of tools and will allow excessive amounts of filtrate
to pass into the formation which may give rise to bore hole instability.
1.3.5 Cool and lubricate the bit and drill string
During the drilling operation, a considerable amount of heat is generated by the frictional
forces of the rotating bit and drill string. This heat cannot be totally absorbed by the formation and
must be conducted away by the drilling fluid. In addition, the current trend towards even deeper
and hotter holes places increased importance on this function. A vast amount of this heal is lost on
the surface, with a relatively cool drilling fluid being returned back down the hole.
Lubrication is obtained through the deposition of a slick wall cake, and through the use of
various, specially formulated additives. Additions of diesel or crude oil may also prove beneficial,
11
but this practice is becoming less common due to ecological restrictions.

1.3.6 Support part of the weight of the drill and casing string
The natural buoyancy of a drilling fluid aids in supporting part of the weight of the drill string
or the casing string. The degree of buoyancy is proportional to the fluid density. Any increase in
fluid density creates an increase in the buoyancy factor, and reduces the load on the surface
equipment. The importance of this particular function becomes more apparent as depths increase.

1.3.7 Maximise penetration rates
The drilling fluid is so intimately involved in the drilling process that it is inevitable that a
wide range of fluid properties will influence the rate of penetration, apart from the mechanical
considerations, such as the type of bit, weight on the bit and rate of rotation.
Fluid properties, such as low viscosities at high shear rates, low solids, high fluid loss and
lower densities than are required to balance pore pressure, all contribute to faster penetration rates.
It can be seen that some of the properties, such as high fluid loss and under balance fluid densities
are contradictory to the properties required for a stable hole, and a compromise must be reached.

1.3.8 Control corrosion rates
The fluid should be non-corrosive to the drill pipe, casing and drilling equipment. Additives
may be used that will specifically give protection, particularly in the highly corrosive
environments of hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide.

1.3.9 Protect the formation
The drilling fluid will come into intimate contact with the formations being drilled. If a stable
hole is to be obtained, then interactions between the fluid and the formations should be minimal.
For example, if a salt section is to be drilled, then the aqueous phase should be saturated with
salt, to prevent wash-outs occurring. Some shale formations are sensitive to fresh water
and undergo significant changes in mechanical properties that may result in an enlarged
hole or bore hole collapse. An oil based fluid or an inhibited water based fluid
should be used to protect these formations.
The porous zones that contain gas or oil should be penetrated with a fluid that will not irreversibly
seal the porous passages when the hydrostatic pressure is lowered in order to evaluate the zone.

1.3.10 Secure maximum hole information
An important objective in drilling a well is to secure the maximum amount of information
about the types of formations being penetrated and the fluids or gases in the pores. This
information is obtained by analysis of the cuttings, dissolved gases or oil, and by electric logging
technology. The cuttings should be well preserved and not disintegrated and should be transported
up the hole efficiently, so that the sample is representative of the depth at which it originated. It
should be possible to easily separate and analyse gases or oil dissolved in the fluid. Also the fluid
should have a defined resistivity so that satisfactory electric well logs can be obtained.

1.3.11 Transmit hydraulic energy to tools and bit
Hydraulic energy provides power to mud motor() for bit rotation and for MWD
12
(measurement while drilling ) and LWD (logging while drilling ) tools.
Hydraulic programs base on bit nozzles sizing for available mud pump horsepower to optimize jet
impact at bottom well.

1.3.12 Facilitate cementing and completion
Cementing is critical to effective zone and well completion. During casing run, mud must
remain fluid and minimize pressure surges, so fracture induced lost circulation does not occur.
Mud should have thin, slick filter cake, wellbore with no cuttings, cavings or bridges.

1.3.13 Minimize impact on environment
Mud is, with varying degree, toxic. It is also difficult and expensive to dispose of in an
environmentally-friendly manner.
1.4 Properties of Drilling Fluids
The large number of functions that have to be performed has inevitably led to the formulation
of complex systems, with at least some of the complexity arising from the different environments
encountered in various geological situations. The dominant properties that should be controlled
follow from the functions of the fluid.

1.4.1 Density
The correct drilling fluid density is dependent on the down hole formation pressures. Strong,
competent formations may be drilled with air, but over-pressured shales and high pressure
formations may require a fluid with a specific gravity of up to 3.0. The density is adjusted by
soluble salts or by the addition of solids, termed weighting agents.

1.4.2 Viscous or flow properties
These will be dependent on the depth of the hole and the annular velocities obtainable. In the
upper hole, water alone may be sufficient, but at greater depths more viscous fluids are required.
Deep wells, angled wells, high penetration rates and high temperature gradients all create
conditions requiring close attention to the flow properties.

1.4.3 Fluid loss control
This is a fundamental property of the drilling fluid and becomes important when porous
formations are being drilled, particularly when those formations may contain gas or oil. Special
consideration may have to be given to the high temperature and high pressure fluid loss in
particular conditions.

1.4.4 Formation protection
The chemistry and composition of the fluid must be such that there is minimal interaction with
the formation. Zones of salt, anhydrite (CaSO
4
) dolomite, limestone, shale and sand may be
encountered. Each zone differs in its chemical and mechanical properties and each may require
different and special drilling fluid properties.

13
1.4.5 Temperature tolerance()
Temperatures increase with depth quite rapidly in certain areas. The additives and properties
must be chosen so that they are stable at the down-hole temperatures.

1.4.6 The other related properties
The Determination pH value and alkalinity, filtrate analysis, liquids and solids content,
methylene blue test() for Cation Exchange Capacity and
bentonite content, sand content, electrical conductivity, lubricity, electrical stability of emulsions,
corrosiveness.
1.5 Principal Components of Drilling Fluids
Drilling fluids can be classified on the basis of a principal component. These components are
(1) water, (2) oil, and (3) gas. Frequently two-and sometimes all three-of these fluids are present
at the same time, and each contributes to the properties of the drilling fluid. This general
classification is shown in Table 1-1.
Table 1-1 Classification of Drilling Fluids According to Principal Constituent
Gas Water Oil
Dry gas: Air, natural gas, exhaust
gas, combustion gas

Mist: Droplets of water or mud
carried in the air stream

Foam: Air bubbles surrounded by
a film of water containing a
foam-stabilizing surfactant

Stable Foam: Foam containing
film-strengthening materials, such
as organic polymers and bentonite











Fresh water:

Solution: True and colloidal, i. e.,
solids do not separate from water
on prolonged standing. Solids in
solution with water include:
1. Salts, e. g., NaCl, CaCl
2

2. Surfactants, e.g., detergents,
flocculants
3. Organic colloids, e. g.,
cellulosic and acrylic
polymers

Emulsion: An oily liquid
maintained in small droplets in
water by an emulsifying agent,
e.g., diesel oil and a
film-stabilizing surfactant

Mud: A suspension of solids (e.g.,
clays, barite, small cuttings) in any
of the above liquids, with chemical
additives as required to modify
properties
Oil: Diesel or crude

Oil mud: A sable oil-base drilling
fluid contains:
1. Water-emulsifying agents
2. Suspending agents
3. Filtration-control agents

Contains cuttings from the
formations drilled

May contain barite to raise density












When the principal constituent is a liquid (water or oil), the term mud is applied to a
suspension of solids in the liquid. Water muds and oil muds are thus characterized. The presence
of both liquids together results in an emulsion(), provided there is agitation and the
presence of a suitable emulsifying agent. The chemical nature of the emulsifying agent determines
whether that oil is emulsified in the water (usually called an oil emulsion mud), or whether the
water is emulsified in the oil (usually called an invert emulsion).
14
Fig. 1-2 Drilling fluids can be prepared ranging in density from that of air to 2 1/2 times that of water
1.6 Drilling Fluid Design and Selection
The task of selecting the proper fluids for each particular situation is the job of the mud
engineer, who is educated in the functions and properties of drilling fluids, and who acquires in
the field an expertise to choose the right fluids for the right applications, keeping in mind the
restrictions of expense, time, and performance.
Drilling fluids ranging widely in composition and properties are available for selection.
Density of the drilling fluid, which is often the determining factor in the selection, can vary from
the density of air to two-and-one half times the density of water, as is illustrated in Fig.1-2.



1.6.1 Mud Selection
Among the many factors to consider when choosing a drilling fluid are the wells design,
anticipated formation pressures and rock mechanics, formation chemistry, the need to limit
damage to the producing formation, temperature, environmental regulations, logistics, and
economics.
To meet these design factors, drilling fluids offer a complex array of interrelated properties.
Five basic properties are usually defined by the well program and monitored during drilling:
rheology, density, fluid loss, solids content and chemical properties.
For any type of drilling fluid, all five properties may, to some extent, be manipulated by using
additives. However, the resulting chemical properties of a fluid depend largely on the type of mud
chosen. And this choice rests on the type of well, the nature of the formation to be drilled and the
environmental circumstances of the well.
Exercise One
The definition of drilling Fluids
Functions of the drilling Fluids
Principal components of drilling fluids
Properties related to the effective functions of the drilling fluids




15
CHAPTER 2 THE PROPERTIES AND EVALUATION OF
DRILLING FLUIDS
This chapter introduces Drilling Fluid Properties related to its performances: 1) Density; 2)
Mud solid and liquid content; 3) Bentonite Content of Mud; 4) The API Sand content; 5) Viscosity;
6) Gel strength; 7 ) API filtration; 8) pH determination.
2.1 Density() or Mud Weight()
Density(), or Mud Weight() is weight per unit of volume. Once the density is
determined it may be expressed in any convenient unit; for example, in pounds per gallon (lb/gal
or ppg), pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3), Specific Gravity (SG) (g/cm3), or in pressure gradient as
pounds per square inch per 1,000 feet(psi/1,000 ft) of mud in the hole. The latter unit is most
convenient because it may be readily used to calculate the hydrostatic head of the mud column for
any depth of hole in the same units in which the pump pressure and the reservoir or formation
fluid pressure are calculated. This facilitates control when excessive formation pressure or lost
circulation is encountered. The conversion factors are as follows:
Specific Gravity (SG) (g/cm
3
) =
3 . 62
/
33 . 8
/
3
ft lb gal lb
=
2-1
Mud gradient in psi/ft =
433 . 0
24 . 19
/
144
/
3
= = SG
gal lb ft lb
2-2
Mud gradient in kg/cm
2
/m = SG0.1 2-3

The mud balance (Fig.2-1) provides the most convenient way of obtaining a precise volume. It
consists of a supporting base, a cup, a lid, and a graduated arm carrying a sliding weight. A knife
edge on the arm rests on the supporting base.

Fig.2-1. Mud Balance
1-Arm; 2-Knife; 3-Cup; 4-Lid of the cup; 5-Calibration tank; 6-sliding weight(rider); 7- Base; 8- Fulcrum

The procedure for measuring the density of the mud is as follows:
a. Set up the instrument base so that it is approximately level.
b. Fill the clean, dry cup with the mud to be weighed.
c. Place the lid on the cup mud seat it firmly but slowly with a twisting motion. Be sure
16
some mud runs out of the hole in the cap.
d. With the hole in the cap covered with a finger, wash or wipe all mud from the outside of
the cup and arm.
e. Set the knife on the fulcrum and move the sliding weight along the graduated arm until
the cup and arm are balanced.
f. Read the density of the mud at the left-hand edge of the sliding weight. Make appropriate
corrections when a range extender is used.
g. Read the result to the nearest scale division, in lb/gal, lb/ft
3
, SG, or psi/1,000 ft of depth.
Wash the mud from the cup immediately after each use. It is absolutely essential that all parts
of the mud balance be kept clean if accurate results are to be obtained.
Example 1:
If the mud reading is 1.20 SG, then it equals 10.0 lb/gal= 74.8 lb/ft
3
= 519 psi/1,000 ft of depth.

Calibrating the Mud Balance:
a. Fill the cup with pure water.
b. Replace the lid and wipe dry.
c. Set the sliding weight at 8.33 and set the knife edge of the balance on the fulcrum.
d. If the weight and cup do not balance in level position, add or remove shot as required, or
adjust the calibration screw at the end of the arm. Shot may be added or removed by
removing the screw in the shot chamber at the end of the graduated arm.
e. If clear water gives a reading less than 8.3, add the difference between 8.3 and the reading
to the mud weight when the test is made, vice versa.
Example 2:
If clear water weighs 8.1 lb/gal, and the mud reading immediately afterward is 10.5, then
adding 0.2 to 10.5 gives 10.7 lb/gal as the correct weight.

Density and Pressure Control. The formation pressure must be properly
controlled in drilling process therefore downhole troubles such as blowout, loss of circulation,
formation collapse and stuck pipe can be avoided, the bearing formations effectively protected and
the drilling operations accomplished safely and smoothly.
2. 2 Viscosity and Gel Properties()
2.2.1 Marsh Funnel
The Marsh Funnel is useful on the drilling rig, where it enables the
crew to periodically report the consistency/of the mud, so
that significant changes may be noted by the mud engineer. It consists of
a funnel and a measuring cup (Fig.2-2), and gives an empirical value for
the consistency of the mud.
The test procedure is to fill the funnel to the level of the screen and
to then observe the time (in seconds) of efflux of 946ml (1quart).The
number obtained depends partly on the effective viscosity at the rate of
shear prevailing in the orifice, and partly on the rate of gelation. The
time of efflux of fresh water at 3 21 is 5 . 0 26 seconds.
Fig.2-2 Marsh Funnel
17
Fig.2-3 Schematic diagram of the direct indicating
viscometer. The deflection in degrees of the bob is read
from the graduated scale on the dial
Fig.2-4 Fann direct indicating viscometer

2.2.2 Direct-Indicating Viscometers()
These instruments are a form of concentric cylinder viscometer that enables the variation of
shearing stresswith shear rateto be observed. The essential elements
are shown in Figure 2-32-4. A bob suspended from a spring hangs concentrically in an
outer cylinder.
The test procedure is to lower the assembly to a prescribed mark in a cup of mud,
and the outer cylinder rotatedat a constant speed. The viscous dragof the mud
turns the bob until balanced by the torque in the spring. The deflection of the bob is
read from a calibrated dial on the top of the instrument, which thus provides
a measure of the shear stress at the surface of the bob.















The 6 speed viscometer is a motor driven rotational-type viscometer. For measurements, a
mud is contained in the annular space between two cylinders. The outer cylinder, or rotor sleeve
, is driven by a motor and can rotate at a designed constant RPM. The rotation of the
rotor sleeve in the mud produces a torque on the inner cylinder, or bob. A torsion
springrestrains the movement of the bob, and an attached graduated dial indicates its
displacement , l dial reading=5.11 dynes/cm
2
shear stress. The viscometer has 6 rotational
speeds -- 3 rpm, 6 rpm, 100 rpm, 200 rpm, 300 rpm and 600 rpm, 1rpm= 1.703s
-1
.
Gel Strength: el strength at 10 seconds G
10"
and that at 10 minutes G
10'
can be measured by
the following steps:
a. Using the same sample in the viscometer cup as in PV and YP measurements, stir the
sample at 600 rpm for 10 seconds.
b. Let the sample to stand undisturbed for 10 sec. Turn on the viscometer at 3 rpm and take
the maximum reading attained
3
u as initial gel strength G
l0"
in
2
100 / ft lb , or
3
2
1
u in Pa.
c. Restir the mud sample for 10 seconds at 600 rpm and wait for 10 minutes. Start the
18
viscometer at 3 rpm and record the maximum reading attained
3
u as final gel strength
G
10'
in
2
100 / ft lb , or
3
2
1
u in Pa.
2.2.3 Calculation of Parameters
2.2.3.1 Bingham Model-Plastic Viscosity,
p
, Yield Point,
0
t , and Apparent Viscosity,
a
:
s mPa
p
= ,
300 600
u u (cp) 2-4
Pa
p
), 2 ( 511 . 0 ) ( 511 . 0
600 300 300 0
u u u t = = 2-5
s mPa
a
= ,
2
1
600
u (cp) 2-6
At other rotor speeds, the apparent viscosity,
a
, is given by:
s mPa
N
N
a
= ,
300u
(cp) 2-7
2.2.3.2 Power Law Model-Flow Behavior Index, n and Consistency Index, K :
) / lg( 32 . 3
300 600
u u = n 2-8
n n
s Pa K = , 511 / ) 511 . 0 (
300
u 2-9
Example 3:
A mud sample in a rotational viscometer equipped with a standard torsion spring gives a dial
reading of 46 when operated at 600 rpm and a dial reading of 28 when operated at 300 rpm.
Compute the apparent viscosity of the mud at each rotor speed. Also compute the plastic viscosity
and yield point.
Solution:
Use of Eq. 2-6 for the 300-rpm dial reading gives :
cp
N
N
a
28
300
) 28 ( 300 300
= = =
u
(mPas)
Similarly, use of Eq. 2-6 for the 600-rpm dial reading gives
cp
a
23
600
) 46 ( 300
= = (mPas)
Note that the apparent viscosity does not remain constant but decreases as the rotor speed is
increased. This type of non-Newtonian behavior is shown by essentially all drilling muds.
The plastic viscosity of the mud can be computed using Eq. 2-4:
cp
P
18 28 46
300 600
= = = u u (mPas)
The yield point can be computed using Eq. 2-5:
( )Pa ft lbf
p p
u u t = = = =
300
2
300 0
511 . 0 100 / 10 18 28
19
2.3 API FiltrationAPI
API filtration can be measured using API filtration press (Fig.2-5 Low
Pressure filter tester ) under a pressure of ) 9 . 6 690 ( 0 . 1 100 kPa psi applied
with nitrogen gas and a proper 9 cm filter paper. The measurement procedure can be done as
follows:
a. Be sure each part of the cell is clean and dry, and that the gaskets are not
distorted or worn. Pour the sample of mud into the cell and complete the assembly with
the filter paper in place.
b. Place a dry graduated cylinder under the drain tube to receive the filtrate.
Close the relief valve and adjust the regulator so that a pressure of
) 9 . 6 690 ( 0 . 1 100 kPa psi is set up in 30 seconds or less. The test period begins at
the time of pressure application.
c. Begin timing with timer. At the end of 30 minutes, read the volume of filtrate. Shut off the
flow through the pressure regulator and open the relief valve carefully. The time interval,
if other than 30 minutes, shall be reported.
d. Report the volume of filtrate in cubic centimeters (to 0.1cm
3
) as the API filtrate. Report at
the start of the test the mud temperature. Save the filtrate for appropriate chemical testing
if necessary.
e. Disassemble the cell, discard the mud, and use extreme care to save the filter paper with a
minimum of disturbance to the cake. Rinse the filter cake on the paper with a gentle
stream of water, or with diesel oil in the case of oil mud. Measure the thickness of the
filter cake, and report the thickness in millimeters.
f. Describe the quality of the mud cake using simple technical words.

Fig.2-5 Low Pressure filter tester

Example 4:
Using the following data obtained using an HTHP filter press, determine the spurt loss and
API water loss.
Time(min) Filtrate Volume(cm
3
)
1.0 6.5
20
7.5 14.2
Solution:
The spurt loss of the cell can be obtained by extrapolating to zero time using the two data
points given:
3
07 . 2 1
1 5 . 7
5 . 6 25 . 14
5 . 6 cm =

However, since the standard API filter press has twice the cross-sectional area of the HTHP
filter press, the corrected spurt loss is 4.14 cm
3
. The 30-min filtrate volume can be computed using
Eq. 2-10.
V
30
= 2(V
7.5
- V
sp
) + V
sp
= 2(14.2-2.07)+2.07 = 26.33 cm
3

Adjusting for the effect of filter press cross-sectional area, an API water loss of 52.66 cm
3
at
the elevated temperature and pressure of the test can be obtained.
2.4 Determination of Gas, Oil, and Solids Content
Solids contained in drilling fluid include bentonite, weighting materials and drilled solids
(drilled cuttings of formation rocks or formation detritus derived from sloughing or collapse).
Weighting materials have higher density (usually>4.0g/cm
3
) and are called high-density solids,
and bentonite and drilled solids have lower density (usually<2.7g/cm
3
) and are called low-density
solids. Weighting materials and bentonite are useful solids and drilled solids are useless or harmful
solids.
2.4.1 Gas Content
A measure of the amount of gas or air entrained in a mud may be obtained by diluting the mud
substantially, stirring to release the gas, weighing the gas-free mud, and then back-calculating the
density of the gas-free mud without dilution. For example, if
1
is the density of the gas-cut
mud,
2
the density after diluting 1 volume of mud with 1 volume of water and removing the
gas,
3
the density of the gas-free, undiluted mud, and
w
the density of water, and x is the
volume fraction of gas in the original mud, then:
1
) 1 (
3
1

=
x
2-11
x
x
w

+
=
2
1 ) 1 (
3
2

2-12
Solving for x from the above equations:
2
1 2
2

w
x

= 2-13
3
may then be calculated from either of the first two equations.
21
2.4.2 Oil and Solids Content
The volume fractions of oil, water, and solids in a
mud are determined in a retort such as that shown in
Figure 2-6. It is important that any air or gas entrained
on the mud be removed before retorting; otherwise, the
solids content will be in considerable error. Removal of
gas by substantial dilution is undesirable because of
the loss of accuracy involved, especially with
low-solids muds. Gas may often be removed by adding
a defoamer such as aluminum stearate(), or
a high molecular weight alcohol, plus a thinner if
necessary to break the gel. If, as indicated by the
dilution test described above, this procedure fails to
remove all the gas, a vacuum should be applied.
Portable hand vacuum pumps are available for use in
the field.
Retorting involves placement of a precise volume of mud in a steel container, and heating it in
the retort until no more distillate collects in the graduated cylinder. The volume of oil and water
are read in the graduated cylinder, and their sum subtracted from the volume of the mud sample to
obtain the volume of solids. The method is rather inaccurate with low solids muds because the
result depends on the difference between two large numbers.
If the mud contains substantial amounts of salt, the volume occupied by the salt must be
subtracted from the volume of solids. The volume of salt (as NaCl) in the mud may be estimated
with sufficient accuracy by multiplying the grams of chloride per 100 cm
3
of filtrate (determined
by titration) by 0.6 and by the volume fraction of water in the mud.
2.5 Bentonite Content of Mud
A rapid estimate of the amount of montmorillonite present in a mud or clay can be obtained by
means of the methylene blue test. This test measures the amount of methylene blue dye adsorbed
by the clays, which is a function of their cation exchange capacity. Since montmorillonite has a
much larger cation exchange capacity than other clay minerals, the test has come to be regarded as
a measure of the amount of montmorillonite present.
2.5.1 Methylene Blue Test and Cation Exchange Capacity
Equipment and Regents:
a. Methylene blue solution: 3.20 g pure grade methylene blue O H SCl N H C
2 3 18 16
3 per
liter.
b. Hydrogen peroxide: 3 % solution.
c. Dilute sulfuric acid: approximately 5N (13.9 ml 36 N H
2
SO
4
diluted in 100 ml with
deionized water).
d. 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask with rubber stopper.
Fig.2-6 Retort for determining oil and
water content of muds
22
Fig. 2-7 Procedure of methylene blue test and
determination of the end point
Fig.2-8
Srandard API
sand sieve
e. Serological pipettes: one 1 ml and one 5 ml.
f. Burette: 10 ml.
g. Graduated cylinder: 50 ml.
h. Hot plate.
i. Stirring rod.
j. Filter paper.
Procedure
a. Add 2 ml of mud (or suitable volume of
mud that requires 2-10 ml of methylene
blue reagent) to 10 ml of water in the 250
ml Erlenmeyer flask. Add 15 ml of 3 %
hydrogen peroxide and 0.5 ml of dilute
sulfuric acid. Boil gently for 10 minutes. Dilute to about 50 ml with distilled water.
b. Add methylene blue solution (1 ml=0.01 milliequivalents) from the pipette to the flask.
After each 0.5 ml of methylene blue is titrated into the flask, swirl the contents of the
flask for about 30 seconds. While the solids are still suspended, remove one drop of liquid
with a stirring rod and place the drop on the filter paper. The end point is reached when
the dye appears as a greenish-blue ring surrounding the dyed solids.
c. When the blue tint spreading from the spot is detected, shake the flask an additional
minute and place another drop on the filter paper. If the blue ring is again evident, the end
point has been reached. If the ring does not appear or the ring appears temporarily and
disappears soon, continue as before until a drop taken after shaking two minutes shows
the blue ring firmly evident (see Fig. 2-7).
d. Report the cation exchange capacity of the mud as the methylene blue
capacity, calculated as follows:
3 3
/cm cm ,
mud of ml of No.
blue methylene of ml of No.
capacity blue Methylene =

2-14
2.5.2 Bentonite Content of Mud
Some chemical addit ives such as CMC, polyacrylates, lignites and
lignosulfonates added in mud for treatments may have methylene blue behavior.
In order to eliminate the interference of these additives, a prior treatment with
hydrogen peroxide is needed to conduct. If other methylene blue adsorptive
materials are not present in significant amounts, the bentonite content of the mud
can be estimated as follows:
Bentonite content of mud in kg/m
3
=14.25methlylene blue capacity
2-15
2.6 The API Sand Test
The sand content is a measure of the amount of particles lager than 200 mesh present in a mud.
Even though it is called a sand test, the test defines the size, not the composition, of the particles.
The test is conveniently made in the apparatus shown in Fig.2-8. The mud is first diluted by
adding mud and water to the respective marks inscribed on the glass tube. The mixture is then
23
shaken and poured through the screen in the upper cylinder, and then washed with water till clean.
The material remaining on the screen is then backwashed through the funnel into the glass tube
and allowed to settle, and, finally, the gross volume is read from the graduations on the bottom of
the tube.
2.7 Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH )
The significant influence of the hydrogen ion concentration on the properties of drilling fluids
has long been recognized and has been the subject of numerous studies. Hydrogen ion
concentration is more conveniently, expressed as pH, which is the logarithm of the reciprocal of
the hydrogen ion concentration in gram mols per liter. Thus, in a neutral solution the hydrogen ion
(H
+
) and the hydroxyl ion (

OH ) concentrations are equal, and each is equal to 10
-7
. A pH of 7 is
neutral. A decrease in pH below 7 shows an increase in acidity (hydrogen ions), while an increase
in pH above 7 shows an increase in alkalinity (hydroxyl ions). Each pH unit represents a ten-fold
change in concentration.
Two methods for the measurement of pH are in common use: (1) a colorimetric method
using paper test strips impregnated with indicators, and (2) an electrometric method using a
glass electrode instrument.
Colorimetric Method. Paper test strips impregnated with organic dyes which
develop colors characteristic of the pH of the liquid with which they come in contact afford a
simple and convenient method of pH measurement.
The rolls of indicator paper are dispensed from a dispenser which has the reference
comparison colors mounted on its sides. Test papers are available in both a wide-range type, which
permits estimation of pH to 0.5 unit, and a narrow-range type, which permits estimation to 0.2 unit
of pH. The test is made by placing a strip of the paper on the surface of the mud (or filtrate),
allowing it to remain until the color has stabilized (usually less than 30 seconds), and comparing
the color of the paper with the color standards. High concentrations of salt in the sample may alter
the color developed by the dyes and cause the estimate of pH to be unreliable.
Glass Electrode pH Meter pH. When a thin membrane of glass separates two
solutions of differing hydrogen-ion concentrations, an electrical potential difference develops that
can be amplified and measured. The pH meter consists of: (1) a glass electrode_ made of a
thin-walled bulb of special glass within which is sealed a suitable electrolyte and electrode; (2) the
reference electrode, a saturated calomel cell; (3) means of amplifying the potential difference
between the external liquid (mud) and the glass electrode; and (4) a meter reading directly in pH
units. Provision is made for calibrating with standard buffer solutions and for compensating for
variations in temperature. A special glass electrode (less affected by sodium ions) should be used
in measuring the pH of solutions containing high concentrations of sodium ions (high salinity or
very high pH).
2.8 Filtrate Analysis()
Some chemical tests are made on mud filtrates to determine the presence of contaminants,
such as salt or anhydrite, or to assist in the control of mud properties; for example, the test for
24
alkalinity in high pH muds. The same tests can be applied to make-up waters, which in some areas
contain dissolved salts which materially affect mud treatment. The equipment generally used for
filtrate analysis includes automatic burette, reagent bottle, dropper bottler, casserole, graduated
cylinder, graduated pipette, and glass stirring rod.
2.8.1 Alkalinity Determinations()
Because the pH scale is logarithmic, the alkalinity of a high pH mud can vary a considerable
amount with no measurable change in pH. In highly alkaline systems analysis of the mud filtrate
to determine the alkalinity yields more significant results than pH measurement.
The procedure for the alkalinity test P
f
is:
a. Measure one or more cubic centimeters of fresh filtrate into a 125-ml Erlenmeyer flask or
casserole.
b. Add 2 to 3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator solution. If no color develops, P
f
is 0. If a
pink color develops-
c. Add 0.02 normal (N/50) sulfuric acid from an automatic burette or a pipette, stirring
continuously, until the sample turns from pink to colorless. If the sample is so colored
with chemicals that this end point is masked, the end point is then taken when the pH
drops to 8.3 using the glass electrode pH meter. The number of cubic centimeters of 0.02
normal (N/50) sulfuric acid divided by the cubic centimeters of sample taken is called the
"P" alkalinity of the filtrate (P
f
).
d. To the sample which has been titrated to the "P" end point, add 2 or 3 drops of methyl
orange indicator solution. Add standard acid drop by drop from the pipette while stirring
until the color of the solution changes from orange to pink. Record as "M," the total
volume of acid, in cubic centimeters, used to reach the methyl orange end point, including
that of the "P" end point. If the sample is so colored that the change in color is not evident,
the end point is taken when the pH drops to 4.3, as measured with the glass electrode pH
meter.
e. Report the methyl orange alkalinity of the filtrate, M
f
, as the total cubic centimeters of
0.02 normal acid per cubic centimeter of filtrate required to reach methyl orange end
point.
2.8.2 Lime Content Estimation()
Some knowledge of the amount of excess lime present is of considerable value as an aid in
controlling the properties of a lime-treated mud. An estimation of lime content can be made based
on alkalinity titrations of the filtrate and of the whole mud. The titration of the mud must be made
rapidly to permit titration of calcium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide without interference from
calcium carbonate.
The procedure for estimating the lime content is:
a. Measure one cc of mud into a casserole and dilute to about 50 cc with distilled water. A
veterinary syringe is satisfactory for measuring even very thick mud, while a pipette may
be used for thinnner muds.
b. Add 2 to 3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator solution. A pink color develops.
c. Add 0.02 normal (N/50) sulfuric acid rapidly from a burette or pipette, stirring
continuously, until the sample first turns from pink to the color of the mud. The number
of cubic centimeters of 0.02 N acid divided by the cubic centimeters of sample taken is
called the P alkalinity of the mud (P
m
).
25
d. Determine the P alkalinity of the filtrate (P
f
) according to the method given in the
preceding section.
e. Calculate the lime content as follows:
0.26 (P
m
-F
w
P
f
)=equivalent calcium hydroxide (lb/bbl) 2-16
Where:
P
m
= cc 0.02 N acid for P of mud
P
f
= cc 0.02 N acid for P of filtrate
F
w
= volume fraction of water in mud

2.8.3 Salt Concentration (Chloride) Test
The salt or chloride test is very significant in areas where salt can contaminate the drilling
fluid. Salt tests are among the means of detecting these flows. When the chloride content exceeds
6,000 ppm, it may be necessary to alter the mud program.
The test is made on a portion of the original filtrate, or on the sample from the alkalinity test to
which a pinch of calcium carbonate has been added. The chloride content test procedure follows:
a. Measure a sample of any convenient volume, from one cc to 10 cc, into the casserole and
dilute to about 50 cc with distilled water.
b. Add a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator. If a pink color develops, add sulfuric acid
until it completely disappears. If phosphates have been added in large quantities, add 10
to 15 drops of calcium acetate solution.
c. Add four or five drops of potassium chromate indicator to give the sample a bright yellow
color.
d. Add standard silver nitrate solution a drop at a time, stirring continuously. The end point
of the titration is reached when the sample first changes to orange or brick-red.
Calculate the chloride (Cl) content as follows:
1,000
sample of cc
nitrate silver of cc
ppm or liter per mg in content Cl =

If in the standard solution, 1 cc=1 mg Cl, or 4.7910 g of AgNO
3
per liter (0.0282 N)
or
10,000
sample of cc
nitrate silver of cc
ppm or liter per mg in content Cl =

If in the standard solution, 1 cc=10 mg Cl, or 47.910 g of AgNO
3
, per liter (0.282 N)

The above method of calculation assumes no change in density of the filtrate with increasing
salt concentration. Therefore, the results are correctly expressed in mg per liter but not in ppm. To
express the concentration in ppm or percent by weight, use the following:

cc per g sol., of density
liter per mg
ppm=
2-17

cc per g sol., of density 000 10
liter per mg
by wt percent

=
2-18

In addition to common salt, which is sodium chloride, salt beds and brines often contain the
chlorides of calcium and magnesium. The testing method described determines the amount of
"chloride ion" present. The result can be expressed in terms of sodium chloride, or salt, by
26
multiplying by 1.65.
2.8.4 Preservative Concentration()
Some knowledge of the amount of preservative present in a mud for the prevention of
fermentation of starch is necessary. Because paraformaldehyde is frequently used alone and
because it is the major constituent of many proprietary preservatives, a method of estimating the
formaldehyde content of the mud filtrate is given below.
a. Measure 3 cc of filtrate into a casserole or test tube. Add 2 drops of phenolphthalein
indicator solution. If the sample remains colorless, it is acid, and 0.02 normal (N/50)
sodium hydroxide solution should be added drop-by-drop with agitation until a faint pink
color develops. Then add 0.02 normal (N/50) sulfuric acid drop-by-drop to discharge the
color.
b. If the filtrate becomes colored with the first addition of phenolphthalein, add the sulfuric
acid dropwise until the color is just dispelled.
c. To the neutralized f iltrate add one cc of 4.0 percent sodium sulfite solution. A red color
will develop.
d. After approximately 30 sec, titrate using a 10 cc pipette with a 0.02 normal (N/50)
sulfuric acid until the sample is a very faint pink. Record the amount of acid in cubic
centimeters.
e. Repeat the above procedure (3 and 4) using distilled water instead of mud filtrate.
f. Subtract the cubic centimeters of acid required for the blank determination (5) from the
cubic centimeters used for Step 4 and multiply by 0.07 to find the formaldehyde content
in lb per bbl.
Preservation test kits equipped only with dropper bottles are widely used for preservative
content determination. If the test is carefully made, the resulting values will be in substantial
agreement with those found by the above procedure. It should be noted that a sodium sulfite
solution deteriorates readily and if older than 30 days should be replaced with fresh solution. The
solution is prepared by dissolving 4 g of sodium sulfite in l00 cc of distilled water.

2.8.5 Tests for Hardness and Calcium Concentration
By "hard water" we mean water containing dissolved calcium and magnesium salts. The
common evidence of hardness in water is the difficulty of producing a lather in it with soap. As is
well understood, drilling clays have low "yields" when mixed in hard water. The harder the water,
the more bentonite it takes to make a satisfactory gel mud. While in extreme cases it has been
found economical to treat the water chemically before using it for mixing mud, this is not
generally true. Frequently, however, where there is a choice of two or more sources of water for
the rig, it may be desirable to make a simple test to select the softer of the two.
All field men are familiar with the effects on the mud when anhydrite, calcium sulfate, or
"gyppy" formations are drilled. Likewise, calcium salts are picked up in drilling cement plugs and
sometimes in penetrating sections of limy shale. Any extensive calcium contamination results in
abnormally high water loss and fast gel rate. Two methods of testing for calcium are given below.
Calcium Sulfate. Some knowledge of the calcium sulfate content is necessary the proper
maintenance of gyp muds. Determination of the calcium sulfate content of a mud may be made by
the Versenate test using the following procedure:
a. Add 5 cc of mud to 245 cc of distilled water. Stir the mixture for 15 minutes and then
27
filter through hardened filter paper. Discard the cloudy portion of filtrate.
b. Titrate l0 cc of the clear filtrate to the Versenate end point as described in Versenate Test
for Hardness.
c. Titrate 1 cc of filtrate of the original mud to the Versenate end point.
d. Report the calcium sulfate content in lb/bbl, calculated as follows:

Total calcium sulfate, lb/bbl= 2.38 V
t

Undissolved calcium sulfate, lb/bbl = 2.38 V
t
- 0.48 V
f
F
w

Where: V
t
= cc of Versenate solution to titrate 10 cc of the filtrate of the diluted mud
V
f
= cc of Versenate solution to titrate 1 cc of filtrate of the original mud
F
w
= Volume fraction of water in the mud

Estimation of Calcium by Oxalate. When contamination by calcium salts is suspected, the
relative amount present can be estimated by a simple test, as follows:
a. Place from 2 to 4 cc of filtrate in a test tube or other convenient clean container.
b. Add about one cc of dilute ammonium oxalate solution.
c. The calcium present will be precipitated out of solution and will appear as a milky, while
precipitate in the sample. Since this test does not give the calcium content in parts per
million, it is general practice to record the calcium content as "trace," "show," "light," and
"heavy" calcium concentration.
Versenate Test for Hardness:
a. To approximately 50 cc of distilled water in a titration dish add about 2 cc of Hardness
Buffer Solution and 5 to 10 drops (0.25 cc to 0.50 cc) of Hardness Indicator Solution. If a
red color develops, indicating hardness in the distilled water, add Hardness Titrating
Solution (1 cc equivalent to 20 milliequlvalents per liter using 1 cc sample) dropwise until
the water first turns to blue. Do not include this volume of titrating solution in calculating
hardness of the sample in Step 4.
b. Measure 1 or more cc of sample into the casserole. A pink to wine red color, depending
upon the color of the sample, will develop if calcium or magnesium is present.
c. Add Hardness Titrating Solution, stirring continuously, until the sample first turns blue.
d. The total hardness is calculated as follows:

Mg) (Ca of liter per alents milliequiv
sample of cc
20 solution titrating of cc
+ =

3
CaCO as magnesium and calcium of ppm
1000 sample of cc
solution titrating of cc
=

Versenate Test for Calcium:
a. To approximately 50 cc of distilled water in a titrating dish add about a pinch of CalVer II.
Then add 1 cc of Calcium Buffer Solution. If a wine red color develops indicating
calcium in the distilled water, add hardness titrating solution, 1 cc equivalent to 20 ppm,
using 1 cc sample, until a blue color appears. Do not include this volume of titrating
solution in calculating calcium of the sample in Step 4.
b. Measure 1 cc of sample into the titrating dish. A wine red color will appear if calcium is
present.
28
c. Add hardness titrating solution until the water turns blue.
d. The calcium is determined as follows:
(Ca) of liter per alents milliequiv
sample of cc
20 solution titrating of cc
=

e. To determine Mg present subtract equivalents per liter of Ca obtained from equivalents
per liter total hardness (Ca + Mg) determined by Versenate Test for Hardness above.
Estimation of Sulfate by Barium Chloride. Acidified barium chloride solution can be used
to estimate the sulfate content in a manner similar to that in the use of ammonium oxalate solution
for the estimation of calcium, thus:
a. Place from 2 to 4 cc of filtrate in a casserole, beaker, or test tube.
b. Add a few drops of barium chloride solution.
c. Any sulfates present will appear in the sample as a milky, white precipitate.
The terms "trace,' "show,' "light ," and "heavy" are to indicate the relative seriousness of the
contamination.
A more accurate determination of the amount of sulfate can be made in the field with a photo
cell apparatus. All of the ions commonly encountered in water may be tested with the device.

The Photo Tester. In the photo tester a prefocused beam of light passes through a sample
bottle containing the sample and the reagent and falls on a photoelectric cell. This generates a
small electric current which can be measured by a microammeter. The current thus measured is
referred to a calibration chart to show the amount of a given ion present.
2.9 Resistivity()
Control of the resistivity of a mud and mud filtration while drilling may be desirable to permit
better evaluation of formation characteristics from electric logs. The determination of resistivity is
essentially the measurement of resistance to electrical current flow through known sample
configuration. Measured resistance converted to resistivity by use of a cell constant. The constant
is fixed by the configuration of the sample the cell and is determined by calibration with standard
solutions of known resistivity. The resistivity is expressed in ohmmeters.
Equipment. The measurement of electrical resistivity of the mud and mud filtrate requires:
a. A calibrated resistivity cell.
b. An instrument or apparatus for measuring the resistance of the sample in the cell.
c. A thermometer for measuring the sample temperature.
Any type of cell and instrumentation which is sufficiently accurate to permit determination of
resistivity within 5 percent of the correct value may be used. If the instrument indicates the sample
resistance is ohms, the cell constant must be known. The resistivity in ohmmeters is obtained by
multiplying the resistance in ohms, by the cell constant in square meters per meter. If the
instrument is a type of direct-reading resistivity meter, the cell constant has been adjusted to a
particular value or accounted for in the electrical circuit of the meter. Such an instrument measures
the sample resistance and converts it to resistivity so that the reading is taken directly as
ohmmeters. For all instruments, the manufacturers' instructions for current source, calibration,
measurement, and calculation should be followed.
Procedure. Fill the clean, dry resistivity cell with freshly stirred mud or with filtrate. Be sure
29
that no air or gas is entrained in the sample.
Connect the cell to the measuring instrument.
Measure the resistance in ohms, and using the cell constant or calibration chart, convert to
resistivity; or measure the resistivity directly with a direct-indicating resistivity meter. Measure the
temperature of the sample to the nearest degree F.
Report the mud resistivity R
m
or filtrate resistivity R
mf
in ohmmeters to the nearest 0.01
ohmmeter. Report the sample temperature in degrees F.
Clean the resistivity cell. Scrub with a brush and detergent solution if necessary. Rinse the cell
thoroughly with distilled water and allow it to dry.
2.10 Electrical Stability of Emulsions ()
The electrical stability test indicates the stability of emulsions of water in oil.
Equipment. The emulsion tester consists of a reliable circuit using a source of variable ac
current, or dc current in portable units, connected to strip electrodes. The voltage imposed across
the electrodes can be increased until a predetermined amount of current flows. The measure of
emulsion breakdown is indicated by current flow. Relative stability is indicated as the voltage at
breakdown point.
Procedure. Insert the probe (electrodes) into the drilling fluid to be tested. Choose the
voltage range multiplier applicable. Increase the voltage across the electrode until the instrument
indicates emulsion breakdown.
Record the voltage reading as an electrical stability number. Report the temperature of the
sample in degrees F.
2.11 Treatment of Make-up Water ()
In areas where only hard water is available for mixing mud, the yield of the clay can be
increased and the water loss decreased by removing the dissolved calcium and magnesium. Soda
ash is added to form a precipitate of calcium carbonate while caustic soda will be required to
precipitate magnesium as the hydroxide.
The quantity of soda ash and caustic needed to soften the water can be estimated from the
hardness found by the Versenate titration, as follows:
ion Ca of me/l 0.014 water of bbl per ash soda of Lb =
mg of me/1 0.018 water of bbl per hydroxide sodium of Lb =
Where: me/l is the milliequivalent per liter
Treatment with soda ash alone will not remove all of the hardness from a water containing a
high concentration of bicarbonate. The alkalinity of such waters must be raised to allow complete
removal of calcium by soda ash. The bicarbonate content of the water can be calculated from the
alkalinity determined according to the procedure given in "Alkalinity Determination."
The estimation of hydroxide, carbonate, and bicarbonate is made from these relations:
Let:
P = cc 0.02N H
2
SO
4
required for phenolphthalein end point
M = total cc 0.02N H
2
SO
4
required for methyl orange end point
Then when:
30
P = zero, the alkalinity is due to bicarbonate alone
P = M, the alkalinity is due to hydroxide alone
2P > M, the alkalinity is due to a mixture of carbonate and hydroxide
2P < M, the alkalinity is due to a mixture of carbonate and bicarbonate

The results may be expressed as:
a. Total Alkalinity
M20 = milliequivalents of total alkalinity per liter
b. Carbonate Alkalinity
(a) If hydroxide is present,
(M - P) 40 = milliequivalents of carbonate alkalinity per liter
(M - P) 1200 = parts per million of carbonate (CO
3
)
(b) If hydroxide is absent,
P 40 = milliequivalents of carbonate alkalinity per liter
P 1200 = parts per million of carbonate (CO
3
)
c. Hydroxide Alkalinity
(2P - M) 20 = milliequivalents of hydroxide alkalinity per liter
(2P - M) 340 = parts per million of hydroxide (OH)
d. Bicarbonate Alkalinity
(M - 2P) 20 = milliequivalents of bicarbonate alkalinity (HCO
3
) per liter
(M - 2P) 1220 = parts per million of bicarbonate (HCO
3
)
A simple treatment, adequate for most hard make-up waters, is to add enough caustic soda to
raise the pH to 9 and then add soda ash equivalent to the total calcium and caustic soda equivalent
to the magnesium.
The hydroxide, carbonate, and bicarbonate values determined as in the foregoing represent a
proper type of water analysis. The application of these procedures to the usual mud filtrate is,
however, of doubtful validity because reactions with other soluble components, such as treating
agents, do not permit quantitative determinations of carbonate and bicarbonate by simple titration.
2.12 Pilot Testing
Certain suggestions as to pilot testing procedures will be helpful as a guide in determining the
appropriate treatment to condition a mud. For example, confusion can be avoided by recording the
results of pilot tests in field units. An addition of one gram of material to a 350 cc sample of mud
is equivalent to an addition of one pound of material per barrel of mud. Additions of liquids can be
made as percent by volume and recorded as barrels of liquid per 100 bbl of original mud.
It is important when making pilot tests to consider the order and manner in winch materials
will be added under field conditions. Considerable variation in results can be obtained by first
adding a material as a dry solid and then adding it in solution, or by adding a clay before a
chemical thinner as compared to adding it afterward. The order of addition should always be
indicated when recording pilot test results.
It is convenient to have solutions with water of materials which are normally added through
the chemical barrel. A caustic-quebracho solution, for example, can be prepared by dissolving 35 g
of caustic soda and 35 g of dry quebracho in a convenient quantity of water and then adding more
31
water to make 350 cc of solution. In a pilot test, 10 cc of this solution added to 350 cc of mud is
equivalent to adding 1 lb of caustic soda and 1 lb of quebracho per barrel of mud, along with 3
percent by volume of water.
Mixing of a pilot-test sample is also quite important. There is no simple method of duplicating
closely the mixing which the mud receives in the course of circulation. Experience has indicated
some very general rules when using a high-speed mixer, such as:

a. Stir 5 min when adding liquids or inert solids.
b. Stir 15 min when adding solids which need only to be dispersed.
c. Stir slowly for 30 min (or stir and allow to stand) when adding materials which undergo
hydration or enter into chemical reactions which take place slowly.
d. Take care to avoid excessive stirring. High-speed shearing may alter the properties of a
mud; consequently, the untreated mud should be stirred and tested in the same way as the
treated samples.

Even though muds of the same type will perform in a somewhat similar manner, at no time
will two field muds have exactly the same composition. Pilot testing is therefore frequently
helpful in predicting the response of a field mud to a particular treatment or to a particular
contamination. In many complex mud systems, however, pilot testing chemical additives without
proper heat aging may give misleading values. It is most important to conduct a thorough mud
check, evaluate the condition of the mud based on the values obtained, and add treating materials
with the knowledge of exactly why each material is added.

Discussion
1. Discuss the relationships between drilling fluid properties and the drilling operation.
2. How does density affect hole stability and penetrate rate?
3. How does rheology affect the drilling operation?
4. How about the other properties, such as filtration properties, solid contents, pH value, etc.?
32
CHAPTER 3 CLAY MINERALOGY AND THE COLLOID
CHEMISTRY OF DRILLING FLUIDS
Anyone concerned with drilling fluids technology should have a good basic knowledge of clay
mineralogy as clay provides the colloidal baseof nearly all aqueous muds
, and is also used in oil-based drilling fluids. Drill cuttings from
argillaceous formations become incorporated in the drilling fluid, and profoundly change its
properties. The stability of the borehole depends to a large extent on interactions between the
drilling fluid and exposed shale formations. Interactions between the mud filtrateand the
clays present in producing horizons may restrict productivity of the well if the wrong
type of mud is used. All of these point out the need for the knowledge of clay mineralogy.
The drilling fluid technologist should have a basic knowledge of colloid chemistry
as well as clay mineralogy, because clays form colloidal suspensions in water,
and also because a number of organic colloids are used in drilling muds.
In this chapter it will summarize briefly those aspects of clay mineralogy and colloid
chemistry which affect drilling fluid technology.
3.1 Characteristics of Colloidal Systems()
Colloids are not, as is sometimes supposed, a specific kind of matter. They are particles whose
size falls roughly between that of the smallest particles that can be seen with an optical
microscope and that of true molecules, but they may be of any substance.
Actually, it is more correct to speak of colloidal systems, since the interactions between two
phases of matter is an essential part of colloidal behavior. Colloidal systems may consist of solids
dispersed in liquids (e.g., clay suspensions), liquid droplets dispersed in liquids (e.g.,
emulsions-), or solids dispersed in gases (e.g., smoke-). In this chapter, we shall only
be concerned with solids dispersed in water.
One characteristic of aqueous colloidal systems is that the particles are so small that they are
kept in suspension indefinitely by bombardment of water molecules, a phenomenon known as the
Brownian movement.. The erratic movements of the particles can be seen by light
reflected off them when they are viewed against a dark background in the ultramicroscope.
Another characteristic of colloidal systems is that the particles are so small that properties like
viscosity and sedimentation velocity are controlled by surface phenomena(). Surface
phenomena occur because molecules in the surface layer are not in electrostatic balance
; i.e., they have similar molecules on one side and dissimilar molecules on the other, whereas
molecules in the interior of a phase have similar molecules on all sides. Therefore, the surface
carries an electrostatic charge(), the size and sign of which depends on the coordination
of the atoms on both sides of the interface. Some substances, notably clay minerals,
carry an unusually high surface potential because of certain deficiencies in their atomic
structure, which will be explained later.
The greater the degree of subdivision() of a solid, the greater will be its surface area
per unit weight, and therefore the greater will be the influence of the surface phenomena. For
example, a cube with sides one mm long would have a total surface area of 6 mm
2
. If it were
33
Fig. 3-1 Specific surface of cubes. Assuming
specific gravity of 2.7
subdivided into cubes with one micron sides (1 micron =
3
10 1

mm) there would be 10
9
cubes,
each with a surface area of
6
10 6

mm
2
, and the total surface area would be
3
10 6 mm
2
.
Subdivided again into milli-micron cubes, the total surface area would be
6
10 6 mm
2
, or 6
square meters.
The ratio of surface area per unit weight of particles is called the specific surface.
Thus if a 1 cm
3
cube were divided into micron sized cubes, the specific surface would be
g m g mm / 2 . 2 / 10 2 . 2 7 . 2 / 10 6
2 2 6 6
= = , assuming the specific gravity of the cube to be
2.7.
Figure 3-1 shows specific surface
versus cube size. To put the values in
perspective, the size of various particles,
expressed in equivalent spherical radii
(esr-), are shown at the top.
The esr of a particle is the radius of a
sphere that would have the same
sedimentation rate as the particle. The esr
may be determined by applying Stokes'
Law (see Chapter 3) to the measured
sedimentation rate.
The division between colloids and silt;
shown in Figure 3-1, is arbitrary and
indefinite, because colloidal activity
depends (a) on specific surface, which
varies with particle shape, and (b) on
surface potential, which varies with atomic
structure.
A large proportion of the solids in drilling muds fall in the silt size range. These particles are
derived either from natural silts picked up from the formation, from larger particles comminuted
by the action of the bit, or from barite added to raise the density. Particles in this size fraction are
commonly called the inert solids, but the term is relative, and when present in high
enough concentrations, the inert solids exercise a considerable influence on the viscous properties
of the mud.
Colloids, on the other hand, usually constitute a small proportion of the total solids, but
exercise a relatively high influence on mud properties because of their high degree of activity.
They may be divided in two classes: (a) clay minerals, and (b) organic colloids, such as starch
, thecarboxycelluloses, and thepolyacrylamide derivatives((
). These substances have macro-molecules(), or are long-chain polymers(
), whose size gives them colloidal properties.
34
3.2 Clay Mineralogy()
3.2.1 Introduction
The group of minerals classed as clays play a central role in many areas of drilling fluid
technology. The clay group can be described chemically as aluminium silicates.
Since the elements that constitute the clays account for over 80% of the mass of the earth
(aluminium 8.1%, silicon 27.7% and oxygen 46.6%) it can be readily realised that every stage of
drilling a hole brings contact with the clays().
The most common formations that are drilled are clays and shales, where the type and quantity
of clay minerals present is one of the most important features that determine the chemical and
mechanical properties of the rock. The selection of the drilling fluid
is often related to the reactions between the fluid and the rock, as these can influence the stability
of the bore hole. Thus, an understanding of clay chemistry is important in the selection of a
drilling fluid system and bore hole stability.
Clays are often used to derive the viscous flow properties of the fluids. Clays, such as
bentonite and attapulgite, are added purposely and formation clays are
entrained in the circulating fluid. A large range of chemicals, including those described as "mud
conditioning chemicals", are added to control the viscous properties. A full understanding of the
chemistry of those chemicals and the clays will enable the engineer to control the fluid properties
more effectively.
Most reservoir sandstones contain some clay minerals. These may react with the
fluids that contact them in such a way as to completely block the formation. Again the structures
and reactions of clays are important in the design of fluids that may be in contact with the
production zone.
3.2.2 Basic features
There are a number of features of the clay minerals that distinguish them as a group. The most
important one is the chemical analysis which shows them to be composed essentially of silica
, alumina, water and frequently with appreciable quantities of iron and
magnesium and lesser quantities of sodium and potassium. Other properties, such as
fine size, large surface area and chemical reactivity of the surface, are related to the structural
details.
3.2.2.1 Fundamental building units
There are two simple building units from which the different clay minerals are constructed.
Octahedral layer.This unit consists of two sheets of closely packed oxygens or
hydroxyls in which aluminium, iron or magnesium ions are embedded in
octahedrat coordination. When aluminium is present, only two thirds of the possible positions are
filled to balance the structure, which is the gibbsite structure. Al (OH)
3
. When magnesium is
present, all the positions are filled and the structure is brucite, Mg (OH)
2
. Often in clays, this layer
contains more than one metal ion. See Figure 3-2.
35

Fig. 3-2 Diagrammatic sketch of (a) single octahedral unit, and (b) the sheet structure of the octahedral units

Tetrahedral layer. In each tetrahedral unit, a silicon atom(
) is located in the centre of a tetrahedron, equidistant from four oxygen atoms, or hydroxyls,
if needed to balance the structure.
The silica tetrahedral groups are arranged to form a hexagonal network, which is
repeated infinitely to form a sheet of composition, Si
4
O
6
(OH)
4
, See Figure 3-3. The sheet is
viewed from above in Figure 3-4 to show the hexagonal network with a "hole " in the centre.

Fig. 3-3 Diagrammatic sketch of (a) a single silica tetrahedron, and (b) the sheet structure of silica tetrahedrons

Fig. 3-4 The silica chain viewed from above arranged in a hexagonal network

It is the different combinations of these units and modification of the basic structure that give
rise to the range of clay minerals with different properties. The two units are the alumina
octahedral sheet and the silica tetrahedral sheet.
3.2.2.1 Structures of clay minerals
The fundamental units of tetrahedral sheets and octahedral sheets can combine with the
hydroxyl group of the tetrahedral layer contributing to the octahedral layer. Different combinations
and chemical modification have given rise to over 26 different clay mlnerals().
The clay minerals are built up by different ratios of silica layer to octahedral layer. The largest
group is the 2:1 layer, there are also 2:1:1 minerals and 1:1 minerals. The most important clay
36
minerals of interest to the drilling fluid engineer are kaolin, mica, illite, montmorillonite, sepiolite,
attapulgite and chlorite.
Examples of these structures are summarised in Table 3-1 and in Figure 3-5.

Fig.3-5 Schematic representation of the structure of the principal clay minerals

Before the structures of the clay minerals can be discussed in any detail, the two mechanisms
by which electrical charges may be developed on the clay surfaces, must be described.
3.2.3 Charges on clay surfaces
Charges on clay surfaces arise from two mechanisms. One is related to the structure of the clay
and is a characteristic of the particular mineral. The other arises from the broken edges.
3.2.3.1 Isomorphous substitution
The idealised combinations of tetrahedrat and octahedral sheets give a structure in which the
charges are balanced. However, if a metal ion is replaced by an ion of lower charge valency, a
negative charge is created. For example, in the tetrahedral layer, silica may be
replaced by iron, or in the octahedral layer aluminium may be replaced by magnesium. The
negative charge on the clay lattice is neutralised by the adsorption of a cation. This
gives rise to the important property of the clays known as cation exchange capacity(CEC
), because the ions of one type may be exchanged with ions of the same or different type.
The cation exchange capacity arising from substitutions within the lattice structure does not vary
with pH. It is an important characteristic of the clays and varies from mineral to mineral, as shown
in Table 3-1.
Table 3-1 Summary of Structure and Properties of the most common clay minerals
Properly Kaolin Mica Mint

Attap
*
Chlorite
37

Layer Type 1:1 2:1 2:1 2:1 2:1:1
Crystal Structure Sheet Sheet Sheet Sheet Sheet
Particle Shape Hexagonal plate extensive plates flake needle plate
Particle Size Microns 5-0.5 Large sheets to 0.5 2-0.1 1-0.1 5-0.1
Surface Area
BET-N
2
-M
2
/g
BET-H
2
O- M
2
/g

15-25


50-110


30-80
200-800

200


140

Cation Exchange
Capacity meq/100g
3-15 10-40 80-150 15-25 10-40
Viscosity in Water Low Low High High Low
Effect of Salts Flocculates Flocculates Flocculates Little or none Flocculates

mont=montmoriionite
, *
attap=attapulgite

This property is often used to characterise clays, shales and drilling fluid and is determined by
measurement of the adsorption of a cationic dye, methylene blue . The result is quoted
as the milli-equivalents of dye adsorbed per l00g of dry clay.
The pattern of isomorphous substitution varies in the different minerals in the following
aspects:
a) tetrahedral or octahedral substitution
b) extent of substitution
c) the nature of the exchanged cations, i.e. Na, K or Ca
The replaceability of cations depends on a number of factors such as:-
- effect of concentration
- population of exchange sites
- nature of anion
- nature of cation
- nature of clay mineral
This large number of variables creates a complex system to analyse. It has been shown that
different ions have different attractive forces for the exchange sites. The relative replacing power
of cations is generally Li
+
<Na
+
<K
+
<Mg
++
<Ca
++
<H
+
. Thus at equal concentrations, calcium will
displace more sodium than sodium will displace calcium.
If the concentration of the replacing cation is increased, then the exchanging power of that
cation is also increased. For example, high concentrations of potassium can replace calcium. Also,
in some minerals such as mica, potassium is particularly strongly adsorbed and net easily replaced,
except by hydrogen.
The potassium can be leached out by acid. This is related to particular properties of the clay
mineral which will be discussed later.
3.2.3.2 Broken edge charges
When a clay sheet is broken, the exposed surface will create unbalanced groups of charges on
the surface. Some of the newly exposed groups have the structure of silica, a weak acid. and some
have the structure of alumina or magnesia, a weak base. Therefore, the charge on the edge will
vary according to the pH of the solution, as shown in Figure 3-6.
38

Fig. 3-6 pH dependent charges on the broken edges of Clay crystals

Thus at low pH values, the broken edges are more positive and at high pH the edges are more
negative. One of the reasons for the pH values of drilling fluid to be kept on the alkaline side is to
ensure that the clay particles are only negatively charged so that electrostatic interactions are kept
at a minimum.
Chemical treatment of drilling fluids is often aimed at a reaction with the groups on the broken
edges. Since the edge surface is created by grinding or breaking down the clays, chemical
treatment costs can be minimised by ensuring that the formation clays are removed as cuttings,
rather than broken down at the bit into finer sized particles.

3.2.4 Clay mineral groups
There are published lists of over 400 mineral and rock names to describe clay minerals. We
will restrict our attention only to a few minerals that are most common and most applicable to
drilling fluid technology.

3.2.4.1 Kaolin

Fig.3-7 Diagrammatic sketch of structure of Kaolin

Kaolin is composed of a single tetrahedral sheet and a single dioctahedral alumina sheet,
combined so that the tips of the oxygen atoms of the silica tetrahedra and the oxygen and hydroxyl
layer of the octahedral layer, form one layer. A diagrammatic sketch of the 1:1 structure is given in
Figures 3-5 and 3-7.

39
The charges within the structure are balanced and there are very few lattice substitutions. Very
strong hydrogen bondingexists between successive layers of the basic building units,
so that no swelling occurs, and the natural crystals consist of about 100 unit layers stacked one
upon the other.
The clay platelets are charged mainly due to the broken edge charges, which are sensitive to
the pH of the suspension. The slurries are low viscosity because of the non-swelling structure of
the clay.
The origin of the clay is often hydro-thermal alteration of feldspars, or from volcanic ash,
particularly under acid conditions Extensive deposits of pure clay are found in Georgia. US.A. and
Cornwall. The characteristics of fine particle size, whiteness and low viscosity are exploited in
various industries, such as paper making and ceramics.
The clay is extensively found in shales and marine deposits. There is a tendency towards
alteration to illite and chlorite at greater depth (age). Kaolin can be found in sandstone reservoirs
in a diagenetic form, known as Dickite.
3.2.4.2 Micas

Fig.3-8 Diagrammatic sketch of structure of Muscovite

Micas are a 2:1 lattice type mineral, where two silica units sandwich an octahedrat layer, as
shown in Figures 3-5 and 3-9.
The two important features of micas are that the ion replacement is mainly in the tetrahedral
layer, where silicon is replaced by aluminium or iron, and that the charge deficiency is balanced
by potassium ions. In well crystallised micas, about one in four of the silicon atoms are replaced
by aluminium.
The role of potassium in the mica structure will be discussed in some detail because it is
fundamental to an understanding of borehole stabilisation using potassium chloride brine.
The main characteristics of a cation will be the number of charges they carry and the diameter of
the ions. It will be seen that the smaller the sphere and the greater the number of charges, so the
charge density will be higher.
40
A high charge density will, in turn, attract polar water molecules more strongly. Table 3-2 lists
the diameters of common cations in the dehydrated and hydrated state.

Table 3-2 Ionic radii of ions before and after hydration








A range is given because different techniques for measuring the ion diameter give rise to
different values. It can be seen that the potassium ion has a small diameter and, as a consequence,
can fit neatly into the hexagonal holes in the silica layer and very effectively neutralise the charge
deficiency in that layer. Thus successive sheets are strongly bound together and a non-expanding
structure is produced.
Muscovite mica() is dioctahedral, i.e. only two thirds of the possible octahedral
positions are occupied. The structural formula is (OH)
4
K
2
(Si
6
Al
2
)Al
4
O
2
O, and the theoretical
chemical composition is K
2
O, 11.8%, SiO
2
, 45%, Al
2
O
3
, 38.5%, H
2
O, 4.5%. The biotite micas(
) are trioctahedral with the octahedral positions populated mostly by Mg
2+
, Fe
2+
and/or Fe
3+
.
It is important that in the well crystallised micas, no imperfections in the regularity of stacking
occur. The mica used for lost circulation material is of this type.
The illite clay minerals differ from the well crystallised micas in several possible
ways. The micas found in sedimentary shale sections would normally be classed as illite. There is
less substitution of Al
3+
for Si
4+
and the net unbalance charge deficiency is reduced from 2 per unit
cell to about 1.3 per unit cell. The potassium ions between the unit layers may be partially
replaced by other cations, possibly Ca
2+
, Mg
2+
or H
+
. Thus, the illite or mica may react with
potassium ions and be stabilised to some extent. The smectites often degrade to micas or illites
through reaction with potassium ions. Mica or illite concentrations tend to increase with age and
depth.

Aton Dehydrated lon Diameter
A
Hydrated lon Diameter
A
Na-Sodium
K-Potassium
Cs-Cesium
Mg-Magnesium
Ca-Calcium
1.90
2.66
3.34
1.30
1.90
5.5-11.2
4.64-7.6
4.6-7.2
21.6
19.0
41

Fig.3-9 Diagrammatic sketch of the structure of Montmorillonite-Bentonite

3.2.4.3 Montmorillonite
Montmorillonite is the major clay mineral in "bentonite()", or "fresh water gel", and is
the most common mineral in a group of minerals called the smectites. A diagram of the structure is
given in Figures 3-5 and 3-9.
The essential feature that gives rise to the expandable structure is that the ionic substitutions
are mainly in the octahedral layer. Thus, the charge is in the centre of the layer, so that the cations
that are associated with the mineral to balance the ionic charge are unable to approach the negative
charge sites close enough to completely lose the ionic character of the cation or the mineral
surface. This residual ionic character provides the attractive force for the adsorption of polar
molecules, such as water, between the unit sheets.
The unique properties of montmorillonite are due to the very large surface area available when
the clay expands and hydrates fully to just single sheets. Table 3-3 gives the surface areas for
kaolin, illite and montmorillonite determined by adsorption of a non-polar molecule, nitrogen, and
polar water molecules. It will be seen that only montmorillonite has the greater available area to
the polar adsorbent. The full potential area is not available in these experiments, as the theoretical
surface area of montmorillonite on dispersion to nearly unit cell dimensions, is 800 M
2
/g.

Table 3-3 Surface areas of clay samples determined by nitrogen and water vapour adsorption



42








The swelling behaviour is most dependent on the type of cation in the exchangeable sites. This
will be discussed in terms of sodium and calcium, since these are the most common soluble ions.
A monovalent cation, such as sodium, can associate with a charge deficient area
such that dispersion in water will create separated sheets.
A divalent cation, such as calcium, cannot effectively associate with two negative
charge centres on one sheet, and thus must bind two sheets together. Contact with water can cause
swelling and mechanical dispersion may separate a sheet, but the ulimate surface area available,
and the volume of closely associated water, will be considerably lower than with the sodium
system. These different hydration patterns are illustrated in Figures 3-10 and 3-11.

Fig. 3-10 Hydration of Calcium Montmorillonite


Fig. 3-11 Hydration of Sodium Montmorillonite

Natural bentonite occurs as the calcium form. The deposit in Wyoming is fairly unique in that
it is predominantly in the sodium form and thus hydrates and expands more fully. This clay is
preferred as a drilling mud additive because the desired viscosity is obtained at low concentrations.
The calcium clays are often chemically treated with sodium carbonate to partially convert them to
the sodium form.
Expandable montmorillonite can exist in substantial quantities in shales as the result of
volcanic ash falling into a marine environment. The shales show the expected reaction to water in
that the clay expands, and the high surface area gives a plastic, sticky cutting when being drilled.
The clays are often termed "Gumbo" clays.
Sample Surface Area M
2
/g Water Area
Nitrogen Water Nitrogen Area
Na Bentonite
Kaokinite
Illite
38
16
56
203
+
/250

12
+
/12

52
+
/82

5.3/6.6
0.8
0.9/1.5
43
3.2.4.4 Sepiolite and Attapulgite

Fig. 3-12 Schematic structure of Sepiolite and Attapulgit e

The clay minerals, sepiolite and attapulgite, are used to viscosify salt water based drilling
fluids and are similar in structure. A diagram of the structures is given in Figure 3-12.
Attapulgite consists of double silica chains running parallel to the long axis, The chains form a
network of strips which are joined together along the edges. The upper and lower parts of each
chain are held together by aluminium, and/or magnesium, in octahedral coordination. The overall
structure resembles a channelled wall where every second brick is missing. Diagrammatic
representations of attapulgite and sepiolite are given in Figure3-12. In sepiolite the chains are
formed from two silica chains to give wider channels.

Attapulgite derives three unusual characteristics from its unique structure. First, because the
structure consists of three-dimensional chains it cannot swell like clays such as montmorillonite
which have a sheet structure. Second, there is a cleavage plane along the long axis, parallel to the
silica chains, so that the mineral crystals have a needle-like shape, typically 1 micron long and
0.01 micron wide. Third, the mineral has a high sorbtive capacity for water, where some is held
loosely onto the surface and some is bond strongly in the channels and is referred to as "zeolitic(
)" water.
The clays have a large surface area and thus are effective viscosifying agents. Flocculation by
salt water with subsequent reaggregation, will not occur with the needle shaped particles. The
44
needle shaped particles do not have the right shape to form an impermeable filter cake. Fluid loss
control has to be achieved by the addition of other products and often small quantities of
prehydrated bentonite are added.
3.2.4.5 Chlorite

Fig.3-13 Diagrammatic sketch of the structure of Chlorite

The chlorite structure consists of alternate mica-type/brucite-type layers, where
the charge deficiencies in the mica layer are balanced by what is, in effect, a polymeric cation. The
general structure is given in Figure 3-13. The bonding between layers is strong, and similar to that
found in kaolinite, thus the clay is a low viscosity type.
Chlorite tends to be associated with older sediments, so that kaolin and smectites tend to be
replaced by chlorite and illites.
3.3 The Colloidal Chemistry of Clay Minerals()
3.3.1 Ion Exchange()
As already mentioned, cations are adsorbed on the basal surfaces of clay crystals to
compensate for atomic substitutions in crystal structure. Cations and anions are also held at the
crystal edges, because the interruption of the crystal structure along the c axis results in broken
valence bonds. In aqueous suspension, both sets of ions may exchange with ions in the bulk
solution.
The exchange reactionis governed primarily by the relative concentration of the
different species of ions in each phase, as expressed by the law of mass action. For example, for
two species of monovalent ions, the equation may be written:
[A]
c
/[B]
c
=K[A]
s
/[B]
s

45
Where [A]
s
and [B]
s
are the molecular concentrations of the two species of ions in the solution,
and [A]
c
and [B]
c
are those on the clay. K is the ion exchange equilibrium constant
, e.g., when K is greater than unity, A is preferentially adsorbed.
When two ions of different valencies are present, the one with the higher valence is generally
adsorbed preferentially. The order of preference usually is: H
+
> Ba
++
> Sr
++
> Ca
++
> Cs
+
> Rb
+
>
K
+
> Na
+
> Li
+
, but this series does not strictly apply to all clay minerals: there may be variations.
Note that hydrogen is strongly adsorbed, and therefore pH has a strong influence on the base
exchange reaction.
The total amount of cations adsorbed, expressed in milliequivalents per hundred grams of dry
clay, is called the cation exchangecapacity (CEC). The CEC of a clay and the
species of cations in the exchange positions are a good indication of the colloidal activity of the
clay. A clay, such as montmorillonite that has a high cation exchange capacity, swells greatly and
forms viscous suspensions at low concentrations of clay, particularly when sodium is in the
exchange positions. In contrast, kaolinite is relatively inert, regardless of the species of exchange
cations.
The CEC and the species of exchange cations may be determined in laboratory by leaching the
clay with excess of a suitable salt, such as ammonium acetate, which displaces both the
adsorbed cations and those in the interstitial water. Then, another sample is leached with distilled
water, which displaces only the ions in the interstitial water. Both filtrates are analyzed for the
common exchange cations: the difference between the ionic content of the acetate and water
leachates gives the meq of each species adsorbed on the clay, and the total meq of all
species of cations gives the CEC.
A field test for the approximate determination of the CEC (but not the species of cations)
based on the adsorption of methylene blue is given in Chapter 2.
3.3.2 Clay Swelling Mechanisms

Fig.3-14 Diagrammatic representation of a 3 layer expanding clay lattice

All classes of clay minerals adsorb water, but smecitites take up much larger volumes than do
46
other classes, because of their expanding lattice. For this reason, most of the studies on clay
swelling have been made with smectites, particularly with montmorillonite.
Two swelling mechanisms are recognized: crystallineand osmotic. Crystalline swelling
(sometimes called surface hydration- ), results from the adsorption of
mono-molecular layers of water on the basal surfaces-on both the external, and in the case of
expanding latticed clays, the inter-layer surfaces (see Fig. 3-14). The first layer of water is held
on the surface by hydrogen bonding to the hexagonal network of
oxygen atoms, as shown in Fig.3-15. Consequently, the water
molecules are also in hexagonal coordination. The next layer is
similarly coordinated and bonded to the first, and so on with
succeeding layers. The strength of the bonds decreases with
distance from the surface, but structured water is believed to
persist to distances of 75-100 A from an external surface.
The structured nature of the water gives it quasi-crystalline
properties. Thus, water within 10 A of the surface has a specific
volume about 3% less than that of free water(compared with the
specific volume of ice, which is 8% greater than that of free
water.) The structured water also has a viscosity greater than that
of free water.
The exchangeable cations influence the crystalline water in
two ways. First, many of the cations are themselves hydrated i.e.,
they have shells of water molecules (exceptions are NH
4
+
, K
+
and Na
+
). Second, they bond to the
crystal surface in competition with the water molecules, and thus tend to disrupt the water
structure. Exceptions are Na
+
and Li
+
, which are lightly bonded and tend to diffuse away.
Osmotic swellingoccurs because the concentration of cations between the layers
is greater than that in the bulk solution. Consequently, water is drawn between the layers, thereby
increasing the c-spacing and permitting the development of the diffuse double layers that are
discussed in the next section. Although no semi-permeable membrane is involved, the mechanism
is essentially osmotic, because it is governed by a difference in electrolyte concentration.
Osmotic swelling cause much larger increases in bulk volume than does crystalline swelling.
For example, sodium montmorillonite adsorbs about 0.5 g water per g of dry clay, doubling the
volume, in the crystalline swelling region, but about 10g water per g dry clay, increasing the
volume twenty fold, in the osmotic region. On the other hand, the repulsive forces between the
layers are much less in the osmotic region than in the crystalline region.
3.3.3 The Electrostatic Double Layer
At the beginning of this chapter, we said that particles in colloidal suspension carried a surface
charge. This charge attracts ions of the opposite sign, which are called counter ions , and
the combination is called electrostatic double layer. Some counter ions are not tightly
held to the surface and tend to drift away, forming a diffuse ionic atmosphere
around the particle. In addition to attracting ions of the opposite sign, the surface charge repels
those of the same sign. The net result is a distribution of positive and negative ions, as shown
schematically in Fig. 3-16. In the case of clays, the surface charge is negative, as we have seen,
and the exchangeable cations act as counter ions. The distribution of ions in the double layer
results in a potential grading from a maximum at the clay surface to zero in the bulk solution, as
Fig.3-15 Crystalline swelling
47
shown in Fig. 3-17.

Fig.3-16 Diagrammatic representation of the electrical double layer


Fig. 3-17 Diagram illustrating the zeta potential

The layer of cations next to the surface of the particle, known as the Stern layer, is bound to
and moves with the particle, whereas the diffuse ions are independently mobile. Thus, if a clay
suspension is placed in a cataphoretic cell, the particle plus the Stern layer
moves to the cathode. The potential difference from the Stern layer to the bulk of the
solution is known as the zeta potential- , and is a major factor controlling the
behavior of the particle.
The zeta potential is maximum, and the mobilelayer is most diffuse when the bulk
48
solution is pure water. Addition of electrolytesto the suspension compresses the diffuse
layer, and reduces the zeta potential. The zeta potential decreases greatly with increase
in valence of the added cations, especially if low valence ions are replaced by high valence ones
through base exchange, the ratio being approximately 1 to 10 to 500 for monovalent, divalent, and
trivalent cations, respectively. The zeta potential is also reduced by the adsorption of certain
long-chain organic cations. In some cases, it is possible to neutralize and reverse the zeta potential.
The potential difference between the surface of the particle and the bulk solution is known as
the Nernst potential. This potential is constant, and independent of the electrolytes
in solution.
3.3.4 Particles Association
Clays play a significant role in drilling fluids, particularly the water based ones. They may be
added intentionally to control the viscous flow properties and to provide the colloidal properties
required for fluid loss control. In most cases there is a rapid build up in the circulating fluid of
clays from the formation.
The flow properties and fluid loss control are both modified by chemical treatment, either
added intentionally or as a consequence of drilling through water soluble "formations", such as
cement, anhydrite salt or magnesium salts.
3.3.4.1 Particle associations
The associations between clay particles are important as they affect important properties, such
as viscosity, yield and fluid loss. The terms describing the associations are as follows:--
Deflocculated(). A system of suspended particles is described as deflocculated, or
dispersed, when there is an overall repulsive force between the particles. This is normally
achieved by creating the conditions in which the particles carry the same charge. In clay systems,
under alkaline conditions, this is normally a nett negative charge.
Flocculated Systems(). A system may be described as flocculated when there are
nett attractive forces for the particles and they can associate with each other, to form a loose
structure.
Aggregated Systems(). The clays consist of a basic sheet structure and the crystals
consist of assemblages of the sheets, one upon the other. In the swelling clay montmorillonite, the

sheets can be separated from one another by hydration forces and by mechanical shear.
Thus, a clay aggregate is an assemblage of sheets, that may be disaggregated by hydration and/or
mechanical shear. Sheets, or the aggregates themselves, may be flocculated or deflocculated as
shown in Figure 3-18.
49

Fig. 3-18 Modes of particle association of clays

Dispersed System(). A system in which the breakdown of the aggregates is
complete is called a dispersed system. Both the dispersed clays and the aggregates themselves
may be flocculated or deflocculated. The clays may be regarded as sheets assembled into books,
with an "edge' surface and a "face" surface. The edge may carry charges arising from broken
bonds, which may be positive or negative and are dependent on pH. The face may carry pH
independent negative charges. The particle associations possible are given in Figure 13.

3.3.4.2 Interparticle forces
The forces acting on the clay particles can be described as either repulsive forces or attractive
forces. The particles approach each other due to Brownian motion. Whether they will agglomerate
or not will depend on the summation of these two forces.

3.3.4.2.1 Repulsive forces()
Electrical Double Layer Repulsion. The clay particles have been described as
small crystals that have a negatively charged surface. A compensating charge is provided by the
ions in solution that are electrostatically attracted to the surface. At the same time there is a need
for the ions to diffuse away from the surface, towards the bulk of the solution. The action of the
two competitive tendencies results in a high concentration of ions near the surface with a gradual
fall off further from the surface. The volume around the clay surface is called the
The "thickness" of the layer is reduced by the addition of salt or electrolyte. The reduction in
50
Fig. 3-20 Diagram to illustrate the origins of
the Van der Waals attractive forces
thickness is related to the salt concentration and to the valence of the ions of opposite charge. Thus,
calcium chloride will compress the double layer more effectively than sodium chloride.
When two particles, each with their diffuse counter-ion atmosphere, approach each other, there
is an interference that leads to changes in the distribution of ions in the double layers of both
particles. A change infers that energy must be put into the system to force the particles together. In
other words, there will be a repulsion between the particles that will become larger the closer the
particles approach each other.


However, since the electric double layer can be compressed by electrolytes, then, as the
electrolyte level is increased, so the particles can approach closer to each other before the
repulsive energies are significant. This is shown in Figure 3-19.
Born Repulsion(). This is a very short-term repulsion force that is generated when
contact is close enough to distort the electrons in the atoms. It resists the interpenetration of the
crystal lattices.
Desorption of Water. The polar nature of the clay surface holds one or
two layers of water tightly to the surface. Thus for the particles to approach closely to one another,
energy has to be expanded to desorb the water. This repulsive energy probably becomes
appreciable at particle separations of the order of 10 Angstroms or less.
3.3.4.2.2 Attractive forces
Figure 3-19Effect of salt on the attractive
and repulsive force between clay particles

51
Van der Waals Forces. Van der Waals forces arise through the attraction of the
spontaneous dipoles being set up due to distortion of the cloud of electrons around each atom.
This is illustrated in Figure 3-20 (Van der Waals dipoles). For two atoms, the attractive force
decays very rapidly with distance (I/d
7
), but for two spherical particles, the force is inversely
proportional to only the third power of the distance (l/d
3
). Thus, for a large assemblage of atoms,
such as in a clay platelet, this force can be significant as it is additive. The attractive force is
essentially independent of the electrolyte concentration.

3.3.5 Flocculation and Deflocculation
As mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, colloid particles remain indefinitely in
suspension because of their extremely small size. Only if they agglomerate() to larger units
do they have finite sedimentation rates. When suspended in pure water, they cannot agglomerate,
because of interference between the highly diffuse double layers. But if an electrolyte() is
added, the double layers are compressed(), and if enough electrolytes are added, the particles
can approach each other so closed that the attractive forces predominate, and the particles
agglomerate. This phenomenon is known as flocculation(), and the critical concentration of
electrolyte at which it occurs is known as the flocculation value().
The flocculation value of clays may be readily determines by adding increasing amounts of
electrolyte to a series of dilute suspensions. The change from a deflocculated suspension to a
flocculated one is very marked. Before flocculation, the coarser particles may sediment out, but
the supernatant fluid() always remains cloudy. Upon flocculation, clumps of particles big
enough to be seen by the naked eye are formed; these sediment, leaving a clear supernatant liquid.
The particles are very loosely associated in the flocs, which enclose large amounts of water(see
Figure 3-21), and consequently form voluminous sediments.

Fig.3-21 Schematic representation of flocculated clay platelets

The flocculation value depends on the species of clay mineral, the exchange cations thereon,
and on the kind of salt added. The higher the valence of the cations (either on the clay or in the
salt), the lower the flocculation value is. Thus, sodium montmorillonite is flocculated by about 15
meq/l of sodium chloride, and calcium montmorillonite by about 0.2 meq/l of calcium chloride.
The situation is more complicated when the cation of the salt is different from the cation on the
clay, because then base exchange occurs, but the flocculation value is always much lower
whenever polyvalent cations are involved. For instance, the flocculation value of sodium
montmorillonite by calcium chloride is about 5 meq/l, and of calcium montmorillonite by sodium
52
chloride about 1.5 meq/l.
There is a slight difference in the flocculating power of monovalent salts, as follows: Cs
+
>
Rb
+
> NH
4
+
> K
+
> Na
+
Li
+
This series is known as the Hoffmeister series, or as the lyotropic
series().
If the concentration of clay in a suspension is high enough, flocculation will cause the
formation of a continuous gel structure() instead of individual flocs. The gels commonly
observed in aqueous drilling fluids are the results of flocculation by soluble salts, which are
always present in sufficient concentrations to cause at least a mild degree of flocculation.
Flocculation may be prevented, or reversed, by the addition of the sodium salts of certain
complex anions, notably polyphosphates( ), tannates( ), and
lignosulfonates(). For instance, if about 0.5% of sodium hexameta-phosphate(
) is added to a dilute suspension of sodium montmorillonite, the flocculation value is raised
from 15 meq/l to about 400 meq/l of sodium chloride. A similar amount of a polyphosphate will
liquefy a thick gelatinous mud. This action is known as peptization or
deflocculation, and the relevant salts are called deflocculants of thinners in the
drilling mud business.
There is little doubt that thinners are adsorbed at the crystal edges. The small
amounts involved are comparable to the anion exchange capacity, and there is no increase in the
c-spacing, such as one would expect if they were adsorbed on the basal surface. The mechanism is
almost certainly chemisorption, because all the common thinners are known to form
insoluble salt, or complexes, , with the metals such as aluminum, magnesium,
and iron, whose atoms are likely to be exposed at the crystal edges.

3.3.5.1 Deflocculation mechanisms
To maintain a system in a deflocculated state the repulsive forces must be maximised. This can
be achieved by two mechanisms.
Low Salt Concentrations. In order to maximise the electrostatic repulsion, the
electrolyte concentration has to be as low as possible. Figure 15 shows how the repulsive forces
predominate at low salinities.
Maximum Negative Charge(). The conditions have to be chosen so that the
negative charges on the clay particles are at a maximum. This can be done in two ways:
A. High pH conditions: A pH of above 8.0 will increase the number of negative silicic acid
groups on the clay edges. Thus, maintenance of alkaline pH conditions with caustic soda will
stabilise the clay system.
B. Addition of deflocculants or dispersants: There is a wide range of chemicals known as
dispersants or thinners that have a wide range of chemical structure. However, they can all be
described as negatively charged polymers. Figure 3-22 illustrates the mechanism whereby a
short chain, negatively charged polymer can neutralise a positive charge on the edge to
become adsorbed.
53

Fig. 3-22 Diagram to illustrate low M.W. polymers acting as deflocculant and high M.W. polymers acting as
flocculants

Then, the other negative groups increase the negative charge density on the clay platelet, Some
of the more common chemicals are listed in Table 3-4.
Table 3-4 Drilling Fluid Thinners
Chemical
pH of 1%
Solution
Limitations
1.Sodium acid
pyrophosphate(sapp)
4.3 Decomposes and forms flocculating agent above 175 . Not
effective in the presence of large quantities of calcium.
2. Sodium tetraphosphate 8.0 Same as 1.
3. Chrome Lignosulfonate
7.0 Material starts to decompose at temperatures above 300. pH
needs to be at least 9.0.
4. Lignite
3.2 Material starts to decompose at temperatures above 350. pH
needs to be least 9.0.
5. Tannin 5.0 Not very effective if pH of mud is less than 11.0
6. Surfactants
Many types, temperature stability above 300 may be a problem.
Most are more expensive than other materials.
7. Low Viscosity CMC
7.5 Decomposes at temperature above 250 . Sensitive to high
calcium. Used in salt water drilling fluid system for deflocculant
fluid loss control.


Since the deflocculants are reacting with the positive sites on the edges, and the edge surface area
is relatively a small proportion of the total, the chemicals can be effective at low dose rates. Also
54
note that the materials tend to be acidic. Thus, caustic soda additions should also be made with
the thinner. The other fine particulate solids, such as sand, calcium carbonate or barites, will react
in essentially the same way.

3.3.5.2 Flocculation mechanisms
There are a number of mechanisms by which the interparticle attractive forces can be
increased and repulsive forces decreased. In many drilling fluid systems the clays are
deflocculated and the change to a flocculated condition can drastically alter the fluid properties.
These mechanisms often occur while drilling a well.
High Salt Concentrations(). Figure 3-18 shows how the higher salt levels, by
contracting the Gouy layer, allows the particles to approach each other close enough for the
shorter range attractive forces to predominate. The upper limit of salinity, for bentonite to yield
satisfactorily, is about 2%, sodium chloride.
In drilling practice this reaction occurs when a fresh water clay based fluid is used to drill into
a salt section, or when a fresh-water system has salt added to it in preparation to drill evaporite
sequences.
Polyvalent Cations. A soluble cation containing more than one positive charge
can react with more than one exchange site on the surfaces of more than one clay platelet, to form
an "ion bridge" between the clays to produce a flocculated structure as shown in Figure 3-23.
Calcium is the most common ion, although aluminium, magnesium and zirconium are other
examples.
Calcium is often encountered in the form of gypsum (calcium sulphate) and cement. If the
clays in the drilling fluid are in the sodium form, then the contact with calcium will drastically
alter the properties. Some mud systems overcome this problem by ensuring that the clays are
already in the calcium form before the contaminant is encountered. Thus, lime or gypsum is added
in excess to ensure a source of calcium is available.
The aluminium and zirconium ions have been suggested as treatments for production sands to
flocculate the clay minerals and thus prevent their mobilisation to block the pores of the
production zone. The flocculation is followed by aggregation of the clays as shown in Figure 18.
55
Fig. 3-23 Diagram to show the initial flocculating effect of calcium as polyvalent ion bridge is formed
between clay particles. This is followed by ion exchange reactions to form the aggregated calcium clay
Addition of Polymeric Flocculants(). These polymers extend the concept
of an "ion bridge" of the polyvalent cations, to a polymer bridge between clay platelets. This is
illustrated in Figure 3-22. The main feature of the flocculants is a very high molecular weight, so
that the molecule spans the distance between particles. The molecules must also adsorb onto the
particles, so the presence of anionic or cationic groups often makes the molecules more effective.
There are two cases where the polymeric flocculants are used One is in "clear water" drilling,
where the drilled solids are removed by the flocculant in order to keep the density low. The other
is where the polymer is added to stabilise a hydratable formation.
Low pH conditions pH. Since the edge charges are pH dependent, a low pH will
generate more positive sites and encourage face to edge association. Values of pH below 7, and no
caustic soda treatment, would probably induce this reaction. Acid may be added to flocculate
drilled solids in a sump clean up operation.
3.3.6 Aggregation and Dispersion
Although all forms of particle association are termed flocculation in classical colloid chemistry,
in drilling fluid technology it is necessary to distinguish between two forms of association,
because they have a profoundly different effect on the rheology of suspensions. The term
flocculation is limited to the loose association of clay platelets which forms flocs or gel structures,
as discussed in the preceding section. The term aggregation, as used here, refers to the
collapse of the diffuse double layers and the formation of aggregates of parallel platelets spaced 20
A or less, apart. Aggregation is the reverse of the sudden increase in c-spacing that Norrish
observed when the layers in a flake of sodium montmorillonite overcame the attractive forces
between them, and expanded to virtually individual units. Thus, whereas flocculation causes an
increase in gel strength, aggregation causes a decrease because it reduces (1) the number of units
available to build gel structures and (2) the surface area available for particle interaction.
The term dispersion is commonly used to describe the subdivision of particle
aggregates in a suspension, usually by mechanical means. Garrison proposed
extending the term to the subdivision of clay platelet stacks, which is usually the result of
electro-chemical effects - , and thus to distinguish between the
56
dispersion-aggregation process and the deflocculation-flocculation process. The difference
between the two processes (the flocculation-deflocculation process on the one hand, and the
aggregation-dispersion process on the other) is illustrated schematically in Fig. 3-24. The two left
hand pictures show 1% suspensions of calcium bentonite and of sodium bentonite in distilled
water. The calcium bentonite is aggregated and the sodium is dispersed, but both are deflocculated,
as shown by the misty supernatant liquid after centrifuging. The picture on the lower right shows
that calcium bentonite suspension after the addition of 0.01N calcium chloride; the upper
right-hand picture shows the sodium suspension after the addition of 0.1N sodium chloride. Both
are flocculated, as shown by the clear supernatant, but the calcium bentonite suspension is
aggregated and the sodium bentonite suspension is dispersed, as shown by the much greater
volume sediment.

Fig.3-24 Schematic representation of the flocculation-deflocculation mechanism and the
aggregation-diespersion mechanism

3.3.7 Viscosity control
One of the most important functions of a drilling fluid is to remove the cuttings from the bit
and transport them to the surface. The efficiency of this process will depend mainly on the
circulation rate and the theological properties of the fluid. Clay minerals will play a significant
role because they will inevitably be present as the colloidal solids in the fluid, as a result of
breakdown of the formation. Also, clays, such as montmorillonite(in the form of bentonite),
attapulgite or sepiolite, may be specifically added for viscosity control.
The viscous or flow properties of the fluid have to be designed carefully and maintained to
reasonably close tolerances. These properties can be measured and defined mathematically. The
mathematical treatment will be discussed elsewhere in this manual.
The viscosity, or resistance to flow, is the result of interactions between the continuous phase of
water or oil and solids or dissolved high molecular weight polymers. These interactions take the
form of weak chemical bonds or ionic interactions that can be broken by shear or mechanical
forces. This gives rise to the important property described as "shear thinning" or "thixotropic"
57
behaviour. Thus, under low shear conditions, such as exist when the fluid is not being pumped or
in the annulus, the maximum viscosity is developed that will suspend or carry the cuttings more
effectively. A thixotropic fluid will also possess the low viscosities required at the bit where the
fluid has to "search" for microfissures and cracks.
Another important function of the fluid is to suspend particles when it is not being circulated.
A behaviour described as "gellation" indicates that there are also time dependent forces at work
within the fluid. This means that the attractive forces disrupted by shear may take some time to
rearrange.
This section will discuss the types of physiochemical forces that can exist between suspended
solids and water soluble polymers and how they can be modified.
3.4 Interactions of Components in Drilling Fluids()
3.4.1 Clay-Water Interactions-
The surfaces of the clays contain hydroxyl and oxygen groups which form hydrogen bonds to
water molecules. The exchangeable cations adsorbed on the clay surface will also have an
envelope of closely associated water molecules. Also, water will form a bond with negative
sites on the edges. These interactions combine to create a zone of 10-15 layers of water closely
associated with the clay, creating a "hydration envelope". In the case of sodium montmorillonite,
this envelope may extend 60A, or about 20 layers of water.
Thus, the introduction of clays into water reduces the volume of "free'" water, builds
"structure" and resistance to shear.
3.4.2 Polymer.-Water Interactions-
In a similar manner to clays, the water soluble high molecular weight polymers create a sheath
of closely associated water around each molecule.
3.4.3 Clay-Clay Interactions-
The interactions between clay particles have already been described in terms of whether there
is a nett attraction or repulsion between the particles in states described as flocculation or
deflocculation respectively.
The factors influencing the level of interaction were described in some detail. As expected, the
factors increasing particle interactions tend to increase the viscosity. Careful balance of the state of
flocculation and deflocculation will give the optimum flow properties and fluid loss control.
3.4.4 Clay- Polymer Interactions-
The reactions between clays and polymers will depend on a number of factors.
Molecular Weight . There will be a direct relationship between the molecular weight
and the length of the molecule. A high molecular weight material, such as a synthetic polyacrylate
with a molecular weight of 107, will have a chain length approximately 20 microns, which may be
very much larger than the clay particles. Thus, it is possible for one molecule to adsorb onto more
than one particle of clay and form an association of the clay particles. Thus, high molecular weight
polymers will act as flocculants. Low weight polymers can alter the charge on individual clay
particles so that they may be equally charged and deflocculated.
Adsorption onto the Clay. The strength the adsorption and the site of
adsorption will depend on the chemical character of the polymer. Generally, negatively charged
polymers can adsorb on cationic sites generated on the edges. Most polymers used in drilling
58
fluids tend to be of this type. Adsorption tends to be stronger for higher molecular weight
materials. Other factors, such as charge density, salinity, pH, etc., make the situation too complex
to generalise. Polymers can be used to provide very precise control of flow properties. Another
feature is that the flow properties can be significantly altered with only very small additions of
polymer, often less than 0.5%.
3.4.5 Polymer-Polymer Interactions-
In addition to polymer reactions with clays, there will also be interactions with themselves through
a tangling mechanism, which will be most pronounced for the longer chains. Thus, the higher
molecular weight polymers will give higher viscosities on an equal concentration basis than lower
molecular weight or shorter polymers. The factors influencing viscosity are summaried in Table
3-5.
Table 3-5 Factors Influencing Viscosity












Exercises
1. What are the two basic structure units of clay minerals?
2. List the common clay minerals related to drilling operation and their crystalline structures
and chemical compositions.
3. What is isomorphous substitutions? Give the reasons that clay colloids carry charge
deficiency and the different charges between the basal surface and the edge of clay minerals.
4. What is exchangeable cations and what is cation exchange capacity of clay minerals? How
does the cation exchange capacity affect the hydration performances of clay minerals, the
properties of drilling fluids and the hole stability?
5. The average charge deficiency of illite is higher than that of montmorillonite (0.69 vs 0.41),
however, the cation exchange capacity is lower than of montmorillonite (10-40 vs 70-130
Meq/100g), explain the reasons for that.
6. Based on the balancing cation in illite, potassium, give the reasons that potassium is used as
an effective inhibitive agent.
7. What is the mechanism of clay hydration? What are the hydration characteristics of
montmorillonite, ellite and kaolinite?
8. What is diffuse electric double layer and what is zeta potential ( )? How does affect the
performances of clay colloids? What are the reasons that affect the zeta potential ( )?

To Increase Viscosity
1. Increase level of solids.
2. Add high molecular weight viscosifying polymer.
3. Flocculate with calcium or other polyvalent cation.
4. Flocculate with salts.
5. Flocculate with low pH conditions.
To Decrease Viscosity
1. Dilute with water.
2. Disperse with low molecular weight polymers.
3. Remove calcium by chemical treatment.
4. Disperse with higher pH conditions.
59

CHAPTER 4 RHEOLOGY AND HYDRAULICS OF DRILLING
FLUIDS
The flow properties of the drilling fluid play a vital role in the success of the drilling operation.
These properties are primarily responsible for removal of the drill cuttings, but influence drilling
progress in many other ways. Unsatisfactory performance can lead to such serious problems as
bridging the hole, filling the bottom of the hole with drill cuttings, reduced penetration rate, hole
enlargement, stuck pipe, loss of circulation, and even a blowout. The flow behavior of fluids is
governed by flow regimes, the relationships, between pressure and velocity.
4.1 Rheology()
The science of rheology is the study of the deformation of all types of matter. The rheologist is
interested primarily in the relationship between flow rate() and flow pressure() and the
influence thereon of fluid flow characteristics. There are two fundamentally different relationships
between flow rate and pressure:
A. The laminar flow regime( ) prevails at low velocities. Flow is orderly and the
pressure/velocity relationship is a function of the viscous properties of the fluid.
B. The turbulent flow regime() prevails at high velocities. Flow is disorderly and governed by
the inertial properties of the fluid in motion. Flow equations tend to be empirical due to the
complexity of the flow.
As shown in Fig.4-1, pressure increases with velocity increase much more rapidly when flow is
turbulent than when it is laminar.

Fig.4-1 The relationship between Pressure and Velocity on the flow regime

4.1.1 Determinati on of Flow Regime
The critical velocity for the onset of turbulence decreases with increase in pipe diameter, with
increase in density, and with decrease in viscosity, and is expressed by a dimensionless number known
as Reynolds number(). With most drilling muds the critical value of the Reynolds number lies
between 2000 and 3000.
60

DV
N =
Re
4-1
The pressure loss of a fluid in turbulent flow through a given length of pipe depends on inertial
factors, and is little influenced by the viscosity of the fluid. The pressure loss increases with the square
of the velocity, with the density, and with a dimensionless number known as the Fanning friction
factor(), which is a function of the Reynolds number and the roughness of the pipe wall.
L V
gDP
f
2
2
= 4-2
4.1.2 Laminar Flow()
Laminar Flow of Newtonian Fluids . Laminar flow is easiest understood by
imagining a deck of cards resting on a plane surface. If a force, F, is applied to the end of the top
card (see Fig. 4-2), and if, because of friction, the velocity of each successive lower card decreases
by a constant amount, dv, from v to zero, then

dr
dv
A
F
t = = 4-3
where A is the area of the face of a card, r the thickness of the deck, dv the difference in velocity
between adjoining cards, and dr the distance between them. is the frictional resistance
to movement between the cards, or, in rheological terms, the viscosity. t is the shear
stress, dv/dr is the shear rate, expressed by , or velocity gradient
, defined by the slope of the velocity profile.

Fig. 4-2 The relationship between shear stress/shear rate

Laminar flow in a round pipe may be visualized as infinitely thin cylinders sliding over each
other (Fig.4-3a). The velocity of the cylinders increases from zero at the pipe wall to a maximum
at the axis of the pipe, resulting in a parabolic velocity profile (Fig.4-3b). The difference in
velocity between any two such cylinders, divided by the distance between them, defines the shear
rate. The axial force divided by the surface area of a cylinder defines the shear stress. The ratio of
shear stress to shear rate is called the viscosity, and is a measure of the resistance to flow of the
fluid. The unit of viscosity is the poise; the shear stress in dynes/cm
2
divided by the shear rate in
reciprocal() seconds gives the viscosity in poises. The unit employed in mud viscometry(
61
) is the centipoises(cp), which is one hundredth of a poise.

(a) (b)
Fig. 4-3
(a) Schematic representation of laminar flow of a Newtonian fluid in round pipe, fluid velocity decreases from 0 at
the wall to a maximum at the axis of the pipe; (b) Velocity profile of the fluid, the shear rate at any point is the
slope of the profile at that point.
4.2 Rheological Models()
Frictional pressure loss is an extremely important part of drilling hydraulics analysis, since
large viscous forces must be overcome to move drilling fluid through the longer, slender pipes and
annuli used in the drilling process. A rheological model is a mathematical model used to describe
the relationships between the viscous forces present in the fluid. A rheological model also
describes the flow behavior of a fluid by expressing the relationship between the shear rate and the
shear stress.
Various models are proposed to describe the behavior of several ideal non-Newtonian fluids.
The following five common rheological models are discussed:
A. Newtonian
B. Bingham plastic
C. Power Law
D. Casson
E. Herschel-Buckley
4.2.1 Newtonian Model ()
The viscous forces present in a simple Newtonian fluid are characterized by the fluid viscosity.
Examples of Newtonian fluids are water, gases, and high-gravity oils. The Newtonian model is
defined by the following relationship:

t
= 4-4
where
= shear stress
= Newtonian viscosity
= shear rate
In field (English) units, the viscosity is expressed in poises (1 poise = 1 g/cm/s). In the drilling
industry, the viscosity is generally expressed in terms of centipoises (cp), where 1 cp = 0.01 poise.
A plot of shear stress versus shear rate is known as a consistency curve. With
fluids that contain no particles larger than a molecule (e.g., water, fuel oil, glycerine, gasoline), the
consistency curve is a straight line passing through the origin, at a constant temperature and
62
pressure, the shear rate and the shear stress are directly proportional. The constant of
proportionality () is the Newtonian viscosity(). The rheological curve() for
a Newtonian fluid is a straight line that passes through the origin (see Figure 4-4). The slope of the
line is the Newtonian viscosity. Since does not change with rate of shear, it is the only parameter
needed to characterize the flow properties of a Newtonian liquid.

Fig.4-4 Rheological flow curve for a Newtonian fluid

4.2.2 Non-Newtonian fl ui ds
Suspension such as drilling muds that contain particles larger than molecules in significant
quantities does not conform to Newton's laws, and thus are classified under the general title of
non-Newtonian fluids. The shear stress/shear rate relationship of non-Newtonian fluids depends
on the composition of the fluid.
4.2.2.1 Bingham Plastic Fluids
Plastic fluids were first recognized by Bingham, and are therefore referred to as Bingham
plastics, or Bingham bodies. Clay muds having a high solids content behave
approximately in accordance with the Bingham theory of plastic flow, which postulates that a
finite stress must be applied to initiate flow, and that at greater stresses the flow will be Newtonian.
The consistency curve of a Bingham plastic must therefore be described by two parameters, the
yield point and the plastic viscosity, as shown in Figure 4-5, the equation for which is
dr
dv
P
t t =
0
4-5

Fig.4-5 Consistency curve of an ideal Bingham plastic

63
Fig.4-7a
Where
0
t is the stress required to initiate flow, and
p
is the plastic viscosity,
which is defined as the shear stress in excess of the yield stress that will induce unit rate of shear.
Thus

t t

=
p
4-6
The total resistance to shear of a Bingham plastic may be expressed in terms of an effective
or apparent viscosity. Effective viscosity is defined as the viscosity of a
Newtonian fluid that exhibits the same shear stress at the same rate of shear. Figure 4-5 shows that
effective viscosity at shear rate
1
is given by
1
0
1
0
1
0 1
1

t t
+ = +

=
p e
4-7
Thus effective viscosity may be considered as comprising two components: plastic viscosity,
which corresponds to the viscosity of a Newtonian fluid, and structure viscosity((),
which represents the resistance to shear caused by the tendency for the particles to build a
structure. As shown in Figure 4-5, t /
0
forms a decreasing proportion of the total resistance to
shear as the shear rate increases, so that the effective viscosity decreases with increase in shear
rate.
Note particularly that the value of effective viscosity is meaningless unless the rate of shear at
which it is measured is specified. Effective viscosity is a very useful parameter in many hydraulic
equations when the shear rate is known, as will be discussed later.
Plastic flow, as shown in Fig. 4-5, is never observed in practice: at pressure below the yield
point, a slow creep is observed, as shown in Fig. 4-6. By examining the flow of suspension in a
glass capillary under a microscope, Green showed that no shearing action was involved in this
type of flow. The suspension flowed as a solid plug lubricated by a thin film of liquid at the
capillary wall, the particles being held together by attractive forces between them. However lower
the pressure, there was always some flow, although it might be as low as one cubic centimeter in
one hundred years. He therefore concluded that there was no absolute yield point, and re-defined
the Bingham yield point as the shear stress required to initiate laminar flow in the suspension.

Fig.4-6 Observed consistency curve of a Bingham plastic
64
Fig. 4-8 The consistency curve for a
Pseudoplastic fluid


(a) (b)
Fig. 4-7
(a) Plug flow of a Bingham plastic in round pipe. RP/2L<
0

(b) Mixed flow of a Bingham plastic in round pipe. RP/2L>
0
,rP/2L=
0


Green showed that the flow of a Bingham plastic in a round pipe is as follows: If the pressure is
gradually increased from zero, the suspension at first flows as a plug (as described above) and the
velocity profile is a straight line normal to the axis of the pipe (Figure 4-7a). Since shear stress is equal
to L rP 2 / , laminar flow starts at the wall of the pipe when
0
0
2
t =
L
RP
4-8
where P
0
is the pressure required to initiate plastic flow. At pressures greater than Po, laminar flow
progresses towards the axis of the pipe, so that flow consists of a plug in the center of the pipe
surrounded by a zone of laminar flow, and the velocity profile is as shown in Figure 4-7b.
4.2.2.2 Pseudoplastic Fluids
Pseudoplastic fluids have no yield point; their
consisitency curves pass through the origin. The curves
are nonlinear, but approach linearity at high shear rates.
Thus, if stress readings taken at high shear rates are
extrapolated back to the axis, there appears to be a yield
point similar to that of a Bingham plastic; hence the
name pseudoplastic (Fig. 4-8).
Suspensions of long-chain polymers are typical
pseudoplastics. At rest, the chains are randomly
entangles, but they do not set up a structure because the
electrostatic forces are predominately repulsive. When
the fluid is in motion, the chains tend to align themselves
parallel to the direction of flow; this tendency increases with increase in shear rate, so that the
effective viscosity decreases.
The consistency curve of the pseudoplastic flow model is described by an empirical equation,
known as the power law:
n n
K
dr
dv
K t = = ) ( 4-9
where K and n are constants which characterize the flow behavior of the fluid. K is the consistency
index, which corresponds to the viscosity of a Newtonian fluid, but is usually
expressed in dynes/cm
2
. n, the flow behavior index, indicates the degree of departure
from Newtonian behavior.
Actually, the power law describes three flow models, depending on the value of n:
65
Fig. 4-9 Logarithmic plot of consistency curve
of an ideal power law fluid

A. Pseudoplastic, n<1, the effective viscosity decrease with shear rate.
B. Newtonian, n=1, the viscosity does not change with shear rate.
C. Dilatant, n>1, the effective viscosity increases with shear rate.
Since Equation 4-9 may be written
) ( l o g l o g l o g t n K + = 4-10
a logarithmic plot of shear stress versus shear rate is linear for a pseudoplastic fluid. As shown in
Fig.4-9, the slope of the curve defines n, and the intercept on the stress axis at 1 = defines K
(since log 1=0).
K and n may either be measured directly from the plot or calculated from two values of stress,
as follows:
2 1
2 1
log log
log log

t t

= n 4-11
1 1
log log log t n K = 4-12
or
n
K
1
1

t
= 4-13
For example, if dial readings are taken at 600 and 300 rpm in direct-indicating viscometer,
then
300
600
300 600
log 32 . 3
511 log 1022 log
log log
u
u
u u
=

= n 4-14
n K 0094 . 3 log log
600
= u
Fig.4-10 Determination of n and k in a direct
indicating viscometer
66
or
2 600
100 /
) 1022 (
ft lb K
n
u
= 4-15
A graphical interpretation is given in Fig.4-10. The effective viscosity of a power law fluid is
given by
1
) (
) (

= = =
n
n
e
gK
gK

t
4-16
when K is dynes/cm
2
, is reciprocal seconds,
e
is in poises.
For the special case of Newtonian fluids, the slope of the consistency curves on a logarithmic
plot is always 45
o
, since n = 1. If the stress is plotted in absolute units, the intercept on the stress
axis at
1 =
gives the viscosity in poises.
Although the Power Law more accurately represents the behavior of drilling mud at low shear
rates, it does not have a yield stress; therefore, the Power Law can provide inaccurate results at
very low shear rates.
Most drilling muds exhibit behavior intermediate between ideal Bingham plastics and ideal
power law fluids. Due to interparticle forces, n and K are not constant at low rates of shear. Muds
have a rather indefinite yield point which is less than would be predicted by extrapolation of shear
stresses measured at high shear rates. Figure 4-11 compares the consistency curves of the three
flow models.

Fig.4-11 Ideal consistency curves for common flow models

The fact that the consistency curve of clay muds intercepts the stress axis at a value greater
than zero indicates the development of a gel structure. This structure results from the
tendency of the clay platelets to align themselves so as to bring their positively charged edges
towards their negatively charged basal surfaces. This interaction between the charges on the
platelets also increases the effective viscosity at low rates of shear, thereby influencing the value
67
of n and K.
The gel strength of some muds, notably fresh water clay muds,
increases with time after agitation has ceased, a phenomenon that is known as thixotropy
. Furthermore, if after standing quiescent the mud is subjected to a constant rate of
shear, its viscosity decreases with time as its gel structure is broken up, until an equilibrium
viscosity is reached. Thus the effective viscosity of a thixotropic mud is time-dependent as well as
shear-dependent.
Pseudoplastic fluids have no yield point; their consisitency curves pass through the origin. The
curves are nonlinear, but approach linearity at high shear rates. Thus, if stress readings taken at
high shear rates are extrapolatedback to the axis, there appears to be a yield point similar
to that of a Bingham plastic; hence the name pseudoplastic. Suspensions of long-chain polymers
are typical pseudoplastics. At rest, the chains are randomly entangles, but they do not set up a
structure because the electrostatic forces are predominately repulsive. When the fluid is in motion,
the chains tend to align themselves parallel to the direction of flow; this tendency
increases with increase in shear rate, so that the effective viscosity decreases.
In general, a drilling fluid has both a yield stress and shear-thinning behavior. At high shear
rates, all of the models represent the fluid behavior reasonably well. A typical drilling fluid tends
to behave somewhere between the Power Law behavior and a Bingham fluid. There are other
models used for modeling drilling fluids, such as the Casson model, the Robertson-Stiff model,
and the Herschel-Bulkley model. Of these three, only the Herschel-Buckley and Casson models
are described in detail in the remainder of this section.
4.2.2.3 Casson Model
The Casson model is a hybrid between the Bingham and Power Law model and allows for
both yield behavior and shear-thinning within the framework of a two-parameter model. It allows
confident extrapolation to high shear rates. This model is defined by
2 / 1 2 / 1
1
2 / 1
0
2 / 1
t k k + =
The constants k
0
and k
1
can be evaluated from experimental data by the least-squares fit to the
square roots of the shear stress and shear rate values. The effective Casson yield stress
is k
0
and the effective Casson high shear rate viscosity (or
Casson plastic viscosity) is k
1
.
The user may desire to interpret the Casson parameters or convert the parameters from one
system to another. The Casson parameters are related to the Bingham parameters by the following
relationships.
The existing constants
1
= 511
s-1
, and
2
= 1022
s-1
are used, which are the shear rates
corresponding to the 300 and 600 rpm Fann readings.
The Casson yield stress is
c
and the viscosity is k
c
. The Bingham yield
stress is
b
and the viscosity is
p
.
There is an intermediate calculation made before displaying the Bingham values. Two
variables (
1
,
2
) are defined as follows:
( )
2
1 1
t t
c c
k + =
and
68
( )
2
2 2
t t
c c
k + =
Rearranging gives the following:
1 2
1 2

t t

=
p

and
1 2
2 1 1 2

t t
t

=
b


Fig. 4-12 Casson fluid intercept as a function of the shear stress

From these two values, the correspondence between the Casson and Bingham model
parameters is evident.
At the wellsite, the choice of an accurate model is best accomplished by graphing the
viscometer data from the mud engineer. These data typically consist of three quantities: the 300
and 600 rpm readings and the gel strength. The position of the gel strength along the shear stress
axis predominantly determines which model is the best to use. If the gel strength is high and near
the yield point, the fluid is best approximated by the Bingham model. If the gel strength is very
low, the fluid is better approximated by the Power Law model. If six or more Fann readings are
available, the Herschel-Bulkley model (next model covered) is best, unless the yield stress is very
low (close to zero). In these cases, the non-linear least-squares fit of a Herschel-Bulkley model
may produce a negative yield stress. The Casson model intercepts the shear stress axis at some
point between the origin and the yield point that depends upon the ratio of the yield point to the
plastic viscosity (see Figure 4-12).
The intercept on the shear stress axis is given as a percentage of the yield stress. By comparing
the gel strength to the intercept point, one may determine the accuracy of using the Casson model.
For a two-parameter model, the Casson model provides a much better agreement than the
Bingham model for Fluid, and provides a fair representation of the low shear rate behavior of the
fluid.
4.2.2.4 Herschel-Bulkley Model-
The Herschel-Bulkley model is probably the most complete model currently in use. This
model is also sometimes referred to as yield-pseudoplastic because it
69
encompasses both yield behavior of a non-Newtonian fluid and also allows for shear-thinning. The
equation for a Herschel-Bulkley fluid is as follows:
m
HB HB
K t t + =
where,

HB
= the Herschel-Bulkley yield point-
K
HB
= the Herschel-Bulkley consistency factor-
m = theHerschel-Bulkley flow behavior index-
Due to the complexity of this model, analytical solutions are not readily available for pressure
drop models. Furthermore, since there are three coefficients in the rheological model, at least three
Fann readings are necessary to define the model.
4.3 Measurement of Rheological Properties
The measurement of fluid flow properties may be accomplished with a range of viscometric
instruments, such as the following:
A. Pipe flow rheometer
B. Marsh funnel
C. Rotating viscometer
The pipe flowrheometer is primarily a laboratory tool and is not easy to use in the field. Using
this tool, pressure drop is measured for a given length of pipe at selected flow rates. By the
additional use of heat exchangers, the pressure drop measurements can be obtained at any pressure
and temperature permitted.
Marsh Funneland Rotating Sleeve/Bob Viscometer(See Chapter 2).
4.4 Pressure Drop Modeling
4.4.1 Introduction to Pressure Drop Modeling
Flow conditions in drillpipe are usually turbulent and are, therefore, only influenced
by the viscous properties of the mud to a minor extent. The effective shear rate at the pipe wall is
generally between 200 and 1,000 reciprocal seconds. The conduit dimensions are typically known
quite accurately, so pressure losses are also determined quite accurately. The only uncertainties
involved are the tool joint losses and the roughness of the pipe walls. The pressure loss in the
drillpipe is about 20 to 45% of the pressure loss over the entire circuit (the standpipe pressure).
Flow velocity through the bit nozzles is extremely high, corresponding to shear
rates of 100000 reciprocal seconds. The pressure loss across the nozzles can be calculated
accurately because it depends upon the coefficient of discharge, which is essentially independent
of the viscous properties of the mud. The pressure loss across the bit nozzles is typically about 50
to 75% of the standpipe pressure.
Flow in the annulus is usually laminar and is, therefore, a property of the viscous
properties of the mud. Shear rates are generally between 50 and 150 reciprocal seconds. The
pressure loss from the bit to the surface comprises only about 10% of the standpipe pressure in a
conventional hole geometry (it is higher in slim holes). However, knowledge of the pressure and
flow in the various sections of the annulus is very important when dealing with such problems as
70
hole cleaning, induced fracturing, and hole erosion. Unfortunately, accurate prediction of the
flow relationships is usually difficult because of the numerous unknowns and uncertainties.
Perhaps the greatest of the unknowns is the true diameter of the hole, which may be as much as
twice the nominal diameter in enlarged sections of the hole, decreasing the rising velocity by a
factor of at least five.
The influence of the drillpipe rotation on the velocity profile is also difficult to account for.
There are equations available for helical flow, but there is debate about whether fluid elements
actually follow a helical path in the presence of rotation, and these equations were derived for
drillpipe rotating concentrically in a vertical hole. In practice, the drillpipe whirls around in a
seemingly random manner, particularly in deviated wellbores. Furthermore, equations for flow in
eccentric annuli show that the annular velocity is greatly reduced when the drillpipe lies against
the low side of the hole (as in directionally drilled wells); therefore, equations based on concentric
annuli are seriously in error. Neither is there a way to account for the influence of thixotropy on
the viscosity of the mud as the mud rises in the annulus. The high shear rates in the drillpipe and
bit reduce the structural component of the viscosity to a very low value. The shear rates in the
annulus are far lower, but change in each annular section, depending upon the drill collar, drillpipe,
casing diameters, and degree of hole enlargement. The viscosity adjusts to each shear rate, but
may take time to do so, and might never reach an equilibrium value (except in long sections of
gauge or cased hole).
To summarize, accurate pressure losses in the drillpipe and bit are reasonably easy to predict,
but pressure losses in the annulus are much more questionable; however, quite accurate losses are
obtained for the whole circulatory system because the annular loss (usually) forms such a small
percentage of the total loss.
The rigorous flow equations and testing procedures described in this document are suitable for
laboratory. A number of methods of making wellsite hydraulic calculations are published, the
complexity of which varies according to the authors acceptable degree of accuracy.
When drilling in formations that enlarge significantly, calculate the pressure loss in the
drillpipe and in the bit nozzles and subtract this figure from the sum of the standpipe pressure. The
resulting figure is the annular pressure loss.
The equivalent circulating density(ECD) is defined as the effective mud weight at a given
depth, created by the total hydrostatic (including cuttings pressure) and dynamic (friction loss)
pressures.
4.4.2 Fricti onal Pressure Loss Model
The standard API methods for drilling hydraulics assume either a Power Law or Bingham
plastic rheology model. As presented in the preceding section, most drilling fluids correspond
more closely to the Herschel-Bulkley model. This distinction is particularly important for the
annular geometries that are typical of normal drilling conditions where shear rates are low, the
Power Law model underestimates, and the Bingham model overestimates frictional pressure drops.
These two models also respectively underestimate and overestimate the pump rates required for
transition from laminar to turbulent flow. The model described briefly below is developed for
non-Newtonian flow through pipes and concentric annuli. The method is based upon relating
non-Newtonian flows to Newtonian flows, and the definition of an effective diameter is a key
concept within the model. This concept is important because it accounts for both geometric and
non-Newtonian effects on frictional pressure gradients in pipes and annuli.
71
The analysis is valid for laminar, transitional, and fully turbulent flow regimes. The method
incorporates new transition criteria that account for the delay in flow transition with increasing
ratio of inner to outer diameters in concentric annuli. When using the same viscometer data, the
results from the analyses (included below) show that the transition from laminar to turbulent flow
occurs at higher pump rates than for a Power Law fluid, but significantly lower than for the
corresponding Bingham plastic. For turbulent flow, the Colebrook equation is modified so that the
equation applies to non-Newtonian flows through pipes and annuli with smooth or rough walls.
The method also accounts for the effects of wall roughness on frictional pressure gradients in
transitional flow. The iterative solution proposed below is slightly more time-consuming than a
direct calculation using explicit friction factors, but avoids the necessity for computationally
expensive finite-difference or finite-element simulations (previously the standard for turbulent and
transitional flow of Herschel-Bulkley fluids).
Lambs diameter, hydraulic diameter, and equivalent diameter are defined in the following
equations:
Lambs Diameter
( )
( )
i O
i O i O
L
D D
D D D D
D
/ ln
2 2 2 2
+
=
Hydraulic Diameter
i O hy
D D D =
Equivalent Diameter
hy L eq
D D D /
2
=
The calculations must then be separated into Newtonian and non-Newtonian flow regimes, as
found in the following sections.
4.4.2.1 Newtonian Flow
t =
Calculations are given for the following flow regimes of a Newtonian fluid:
A. laminar pipe flow
B. laminar annular flow
C. turbulent pipe flow
D. turbulent annular flow
E. transitional pipe and annular flow
4.4.2.1.1 Laminar Pipe Flow
The Reynolds number (Re) is defined as / Re VD
f
= , where D is the pipe inner diameter,
V is the fluid velocity in the pipe, is the Newtonian viscosity, and
f
is the local fluid
density. The laminar friction factor is given as follows:
Re / 16 =
lam
f 4-17
The corresponding frictional pressure gradient is given by the following:
72
D V f
L
P
f lam
/ 2
2
=
c
c
4-18
4.4.2.1.2 Laminar Annular Flow
The analysis for annular flow is similar to that of pipe flow, except that the Reynolds number
for annular flow is based on the effective diameter / Re
eq f
VD = and the frictional pressure
gradient is based on the hydraulic diameter, as follows:
hy f lam
D V f
L
P
/ 2
2
=
c
c
4-19
4.4.2.1.3 Turbulent Pipe Flow
The Colebrook equation-modified for pipe roughness (c ) is given by the following implicit
equation:
( )

+ =
turb turb
f
D
f Re
255 . 1
/ 269 . 0 log 4
1
10
c 4-20
4.4.2.1.4 Turbulent Annular Flow
The Colebrook formulation (Equation 4-20) is also used for turbulent annular flow, except that
the Reynolds number is based upon the equivalent diameter.
4.4.2.1.5 Transitional Pipe and Annular Flow
Following the analysis given by Reed and Pilehvari, PowerPlan defines the intermediate (f
int
)
and transitional (f
tr
) friction factors given by the following equations :
2 9
Re 10 390532 . 1

=
tr
f
( )
8 / 1
8 8
int


+ =
turb tr
f f f 4-21
( )
12 / 1
12 12
int lam tot
f f f + = 4-22
f
tot
is the friction factor used throughout the transition zone.
The flow is then determined to be transitional and laminar if f
tot
< 16.1 / Re, unless the friction
factor is within 1% of the turbulent friction factor calculated from the extended Colebrook
equation. The corresponding pipe and annular pressure drops are then expressed as in Equations
4-18 and 4-19 respectively, but with the total friction factor (ftot) used in the definition.
4.4.2.1 Power Law Fluid
n
K t =
Calculations are given for the following regimes of a Power Law fluid:
A. laminar pipe flow
B. laminar annular flow
C. turbulent pipe and annular flow
D. transitional pipe and annular flow
4.4.2.2.1 Laminar Pipe Flow
In laminar pipe flow an effective diameter (such as the friction factor) is defined. The
Reynolds number relation for laminar flow is still given by Equation 4-17. Thus, the
following applies:
73
) 1 3 /( 4 + = n nD D
eff

The average wall shear rate is defined as follows:
eff
D V / 8 =
The effective viscosity becomes as follows:
( )
1
/ 8

=
n
eff eff
D V K
Consequently, the Reynolds number and friction factor are as follows:
eff eff f
VD / Re =
Re / 16 =
lam
f
4.4.2.2.2 Laminar Annular Flow
This calculation is a little more complex, due to the nature of the geometry; however, a good
solution is given by Reed and Pilehvari. First, the parameters are given that describe the new
effective diameter and allow for the effects of both the annular geometry and the non-Newtonian
behavior of the fluid:


The effective diameter is defined as follows:
G D D D
i O eff
/ ) ( =
The pressure loss is given by the following:
n
eff hy
D
v
D
K
L
P
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
c
c 8 4

4.4.2.2.3 Turbulent Pipe and Annular Flow
The turbulent friction factor is modified for the non-Newtonian behavior by both the definition
of the generalized Reynolds number (one based on the effective viscosity) and a modification for
the Power Law index. These modifications are expressed as follows:
( )
( )
)

+ =

75 . 0
) 2 / 1 (
10
Re
255 . 1
/ 269 . 0 log 4
1
n
n
turb
turb f
n
D
f
c
For turbulent annular flow, the pipe diameter is replaced by the effective diameter (Deff) and
the Reynolds number is calculated using the effective diameter.
4.4.2.2.3 Transitional Pipe and Annular Flow
For transitional pipe and annular flow, a similar approach is taken as for that of the Newtonian
fluid; however, the friction factor must be modified again for the non-Newtonian behavior as
follows (with the appropriate choice of pipe or annulus Reynolds number):
( ) | |
( )| | | | n Z n Z Z G
D D Z
n Y
Y
Y
O i
) 4 ( / 1 ) 3 ( 2 / 1
/ 1 1
37 . 0
/ 1
+ + =
=
=
74
2 2
9
) 167 . 2 767 . 4 (
10 49 . 9
e
temp
R n
f

=


f
int
and f
tot
are defined as in Equations 4-22 and 4-13, with the same criteria to decide the
transitions between laminar/transitional and transitional/turbulent, as for the Newtonian case.
Finally, the pressure losses are given by Equations 4-18 and 4-19, with the total friction factor (f
tot) used in their definitions
4.5 Rheologieal Properties Required for Optimum Performance

The drilling engineer controls mud properties to:
A. Minimize pumping costs.
B. Maximize bit penetration rates.
C. Lift drill cuttings efficiently.
D. Lower swab and surge pressures, and pressure required to break circulation.
E. Separate drill solids and entrained gas at the surface.
F. Minimize hole erosion.
The rheological requirements for these diverse purposes often conflict, so that it is necessary
to optimize the mud properties in order to obtain the best overall performance. The properties
required for each purpose are discussed separately below.
4.5.1 Pumping Capacities
Pump capacity must be large enough to maintain a rising velocity in the widest section of the
annulus sufficient to lift the drill cuttings efficiently. The pump horsepower required to do this
will depend almost entirely on flow conditions in the drill pipe and through the bit nozzles. The
pressure loss through the bit nozzles is not affected by the rheological properties, and the pressure
loss in the drill pipe is only affected to a minor extent because, there, flow is usually turbulent. As
far as rheology is concerned, there are only two possible ways to lower the pressure loss in the
drill pipe. One is to increase the carrying capacity of mud (as discussed later in this chapter) so
that the circulation rate can be lowered. The other is to use a low solids polymer mud, whose
friction reducing properties will minimize turbulent pressure losses, a solution which is practical
only under certain rather limited well conditions
4.5.2 Effect of Mud Properties on Bit Penetration Rate
Maintaining the viscosity at a low value is a major factor in promoting fast penetration rates.
The relevant viscosity is the effective viscosity at the shear rate prevailing at the bit, which is of
the order of 100,000 reciprocal seconds.
4.5.3 Hole Cleaning
Before discussing the optimum rheological properties required for lifting drill cuttings, it is
first necessary to review the basic mechanisms involved. The rate at which a rising column of
fluid will carry solid particles upwards depends on the difference between the velocity of the fluid
and the tendency of the particle to fall through the fluid under the influence of gravity. In a still
liquid, a falling particle soon acquires a constant downward velocity, known as the terminal
75
settling velocity, which depends on the difference in density between the particle
and the liquid; the size and shape of the particle; the viscosity of the liquid, and on whether or not
the rate of fall is sufficient to cause turbulence in the immediate vicinity of the particle.
In the case of spheres falling through a Newtonian liquid, the Reynolds number is given by:

f t p
P
v d
N =
R e ,

where d
p
is the diameter of the sphere, v, the terminal settling velocity,
f
the density of the fluid,
and its viscosity. Under laminar flow conditions the terminal flow velocity is given by
Stokes law:

f p p
t
gd
v

=
36
2
2

where
p
is the density of the particle. Under turbulent flow conditions the terminal settling
velocity is given by Rittinger's formula:

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
f
f p p
t
d
v

) (
9
Predicting the terminal velocity of drill cuttings is much more difficult. For one thing, there is
the wide range of particles sizes and the particles have irregular shapes: For another, there is the
non-Newtonian nature of most drilling fluids.
Terminal velocities in turbulent fall are somewhat easier to predict because the rate of fall is
not affected by the rheological properties. Walker and Mayer proposed the following equation for
flat particles falling face down, ( which is the normal orientation for turbulent fall):

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
f
f p p
t
gd
v

12 . 1
) ( 2

Terminal velocities predicted by this equation correlated well with experimental data obtained
with artificial cuttings of uniform size and shape.
In a drilling well, cuttings fall under still settling conditions whenever circulation is stopped.
In a Newtonian fluid the settling velocity is finite, no matter how viscous the fluid, but, because of
the enormous length of the settling column, only a small proportion of the cuttings reach the
bottom unless the viscosity approaches that of water. In a non-Newtonian fluid the settling
velocity depends on the difference between the stress ( ) created by the difference in gravity
(
f p
) and the gel strength of the mud (S). When < S, then v
t
, is zero, and the cutting is
suspended. The initial gel strength of most muds is too low to suspend large cuttings, and
suspension depends on the increase of gel strength with time.
In a rising column of fluid, a particle will move upward if the velocity of the fluid is greater
than the settling velocity of the particle. However, the particle slips in the rising column, so that
the upward velocity of the cutting is less than the annular velocity. Sifferman et al defined
hole-cleaning efficiency in terms of a transport ratio, derived as follows:
76
Fig. 4-14 Unequal forces on flat disc
when mud flow is laminar

s a c
v v v =


where
c
v is the net rising velocity of the cutting,
a
v is the annular velocity, and,
s
v is the slip
velocity of the cutting. Dividing both sides of the equation by
a
v , gives
a
s
a
c
v
v
atio transportr
v
v
= = 1
One reason for poor transport efficiency was shown experimentally by Williams and Bruce
to be that fiat cuttings tend to recycle locally as shown in Figure 4-13. This recycling action is
presumed to be caused by the parabolic shape of the laminar velocity profile, which subjects a fiat
cutting to unequal forces (see Figure 4-14). In consequence, they turn on edge and migrate to the
sides of the annulus, where they descend some distance before migrating back towards the center.
The downward descent is caused partly by the low velocity prevailing at the walls, and partly by
the edgeways orientation of the cutting.



In general, rotation of the drill pipe improves the transport ratio because it imparts a helical
Fig. 4-13 Driscs
recycling in the annulus.
Drill pipe stationary
77
motion to the cuttings in the vicinity of the drill pipe (see Figure 4-15). Theoretically, turbulent
flow should improve the transport ratio because the flatter profile eliminates the turning moment
(Figure 4-16), but experimental evidence on this point is not consistent, possibly because of
differences in experimental conditions, such as the size and shape of the cuttings.





4.5.4 Opti mum Annular Velocity
Although any velocity greater than the settling velocity of the largest cutting will theoretically
lift all the cuttings to surface eventually, too low an annular velocity will lead to an undesirably
high concentration of cuttings in the annulus. Because of slip, the concentration of cuttings
depends on the transport ratio as well as the volumetric flow rate and the rate of cuttings
generation by the bit. Experience has shown that cutting concentrations more than about 5% by
volume cause tight hole, or struck pipe, when circulation is stopped for any reason.
4.5.5 Opti mum Rheologieal Properties for Hole Cleaning
On general principles, a mud with predominantly structural viscosity as indicated by a high
ratio of yield point to plastic viscosity, or a low flow behavior index, n--is desirable for hole
cleaning purposes. Such a mud will be a shear-thinning mud, so that the effective viscosity will
increase in the enlarged sections, where fluid velocities are low, and decrease in gauge hole
sections, where fluid velocities are high.
4.6 The Importance of Hole Stability()
The primary objective of the drilling engineer must be to maintain hole stability, because a
Fig. 4-15 Helical motion of discs
when the drill pipe is rotating

Fig. 4-16 Driscs transported in
turbulent flow (center pipe stationary)

78
gauge hole can be cleaned with a low viscosity mud, in which case progress will be rapid and
problems will be few. If the hole enlarges, as it inevitably will in many formations, viscosity and
gel strengths will have to be increased in order to clean the hole, but the higher viscosities and gel
structures will decrease penetration rates and cause high swabbing and surge pressures, gas cutting,
etc. The conflicting rheological requirements will be minimized by using a shear-thinning mud,
which sets to a gel which is sufficient to suspend cuttings when circulation is stopped, but which
breaks up quickly to a thin fluid when disturbed. Such a mud will have a high yield point/plastic
viscosity ratio, and a low flow-behavior index, n.
Techniques for controlling the rheological requirements in the field are beyond the scope of
this chapter, but it may be said that high YP/PV ratios are best obtained by lowering the plastic
viscosity rather than by increasing the yield point. As a general rule, therefore, maintain the lowest
possible plastic viscosity by mechanical removal of drilled solids at the surface, and keep the yield
point no higher than required to provide adequate carrying capacity. The yield point is controlled
by adding or withholding thinners when drilling in colloidal clays, and by adding bentonite when
drilling in other formations.
Exercises
1. Give the following concepts, rheology, shear stress, shear rate.
2. Write the equation of Newtonian fluid, explain the meaning of viscosity in this equation, and
describe the character of Newtonian fluid. Give the example drilling fluids which behave as
Newtonian fluid.
3. What are non-Newtonian fluids, give the distinction of them from Newtonian fluid.
4. Write the equations of Bingham Flow Model(Bingham Plastic Fluids) and Power Law
Model(Pseudoplastic Fluids), and explain the parameters, i.e. Yield Point(
0
t ), Plastic
Viscosity (
p
), consistency index K, and flow behavior index n.
5. Explain the shear-thinning behavior of drilling fluids and discuss its effects on drilling
operation.
6. Using a 6-velocity Bob Viscometer to measure a fluid, and the result is that , 35
600
= u
, 23
300
= u calculate the following parameters, Effective Viscosity
e
, Yield Point(
0
t ),
Plastic Viscosity (
p
), consistency index K, and flow behavior index n.
7. The Baroid-286 Viscometer readings of a drilling fluid with the density of 1.32 g/cm
3
is given
in the following table:
rpm 600 400 300 200 100 80 60 40 20 6 3
Dial readings 52.3 38.8 32.8 25.5 18.5 16.5 14.0 11.5 10.0 8.2 7.5
1) Take shear stress (s
-1
)as X-axis and (Pa) as Y-axis, draw the rheological curve of this
drilling fluid, and judge what flow model its rheological properties suite best?
2) Calculate its apparent viscosity at each rpm and observe the change of the apparent
viscosities when the shear stress increases.
8. Write the equations of Casson Model and Herschel-Bulkley Model and explicate the
advantage of them.
79
9. Discuss the effects of rheological properties on optimum performance.
80
Fig. 5-1 The filtration cake
on the different formation
CHAPTER 5 THE FILTRATION PROPERTIES OF DRILLING
FLUIDS
In this chapter, we discuss the principles of static and dynamic filtration, the factors affecting
filtrate volume, the measurement of filtration, and the measures to control, adjust the filtrat ion
properties of drilling fluids.
5.1 Filtration and Filtration Procedures
5.1.1 The Filtration Properties
In order to prevent format ion fluids from entering the borehole, the
hydrostatic pressure() of the mud column must be greater
than the pressure of the flui ds in the pores of the formation(
). Consequently, mud tends to invade the permeable
formations. Massive loss of mud into the format ion usually does not
occur, because the mud solids are filtered out onto the walls of the hole,
forming a cake of relatively low permeability, through which
only filtrate() can pass. Muds must be treated to keep cake
permeability as low as possible in order to maintain a stable borehole
and to minimize filt rate invasion of, and damage to, potentially
productive horizons. Furthermore, high cake permeability results in
thick filter cakes, which reduce the effective diameter of the
hole and cause various problems, such as excessive torque when
rotating the pipe, excessive drag when pulling it, and high swab and
surge pressures. Thick cakes may cause the drill pipe to stick by a
mechanis m known as differential sticking, which may result in an expensive fishing job. Figure 5-1
shows the filter cake on different format ions. It can be observed that on high permeable formations
such as sand, gravel and limestone with abundant fractures, thick filter cakes formed, and on low
permeable formations, such as shale, silt, limestone and the other compact formation, only thin or even
no cakes can be seen.
Two types of filtrat ion are involved in drilling an oil well: static filtration, which takes
place when the mud is not being circulated, and the filter cake grows undisturbed, and dynamic
filtration, when the mud is being circulated and the growth of the filter cake is limited by the
erosive action of the mud stream. Dynamic filtration rates are much higher than static
rates, and most of the filtrate invading subsurface formations does so under dynamic conditions. The
filtration properties of drilling fluids are usually evaluated and controlled by the API filter loss test,
which is a static test, and is therefore not a reliable guide to downhole filtrat ion unless the differences
between static and dynamic filtration are appreciated, and the test results interpreted accordingly.
5.1.2 The Overall Procedures of Filtrati on
The filtration procedure of drilling fluids comprises three stages, i.e., spurt loss, dynamic
filtration and static filtration.
5.1.2.1 Spurt Loss()
81
On the moment that drill bit crushes the bottom rock and creates new free surfaces, the drilling
fluid contacts the new rock, then the free water in the drilling fluids begin to invade into the
formation pores, until the filter cakes of the solids and polymers in the drilling fluid forms on the
wall of borehole, the filtration happens during this time is called spurt loss of initial loss. The time
for spurt loss is very short, and because there is no cake on the surface of bottom rock, the
filtration rate is high.
5.1.2.2 Dynamic Filtration()
Following the spur loss, when the drilling fluid circulates, filtration continues and cakes are
created. When the velocity of the cake increase equals that of the cake being eroded, then a
dynamic balance is gained. The filtration happens during this time is called dynamic filtration,
which features that the filtration rate at the beginning is large, then decreases and stabilizes at a
certain value because of the higher pressure difference between the total pressures of hydrostatic
and annular friction pressure and formation pore pressure.
5.1.2.3 Static Filtration()
When drilling fluid circulation is suspended, e.g. during trip operation, the erosion disappears,
the pressure difference is lowered (only between hydrostatic and formation pore pressure), then
cakes thickens gradually, and the filtration rates declines.

Fig.5-2 Relative static and dynamic filtration in the bore hole

After the trip ends, the circulation restarts, the dynamic filtration happens again. The various
stages of dynamic filtration are shown in Figure 5-2. From T
0
to T
1
, the filtration rate decreases and the
cake thickness increases. From T
0
to T
1
the thickness of the cake remains constant, but the filtrat ion
rate continues to decrease, because, according to Outmans, the filter cake continues to compact.
(Presumably, therefore, the rate of deposition equals the rate of compaction). Another explanation is
given by Prokop, who suggested that the permeability of the cake decreases because of a classifying
action as the mud stream erodes and redeposits particles in the cakes surface. At time T
2
, equilibrium
conditions are reached, and both the filtration rate and the cake thickness remain constant.
5.2 The Static Filtration and Affecting Factors
5.2.1 The Static Filtration Equation()
82
The flow of mud filtrate through a mud cake is described by Darcy's law. Thus, the rate of filtrat ion
is given by

mc
f
h
P KA
dt
dV

A
=
5-1
where
= the filtrat ion rate, cm
3
/s,

K= the permeability of the mud cake, Darcies,
A = the area of the filter paper, cm
2
,

P A
= the pressure drop across the mud cake, 10
5
Pa,

= the viscosity of the mud filtrate, cp, and

mc
h
= the thickness of the filter (mud) cake, cm.
At any time, t, during the filtration process, the volume of solids in the mud that has been filtered is
equal to the volume of solids deposited in the filter cake:
A h f V f
mc sc m sm
=
where
sm
f
is the volume fraction of solids in the mud and
sc
f
is the volume fract ion of solids in the
cake, or
A h f v A h f
mc sc f mc sm
= + ) (
Therefore,
) 1 (
) (

=

=
sm
sc
f
sm sc
f sm
mc
f
f
A
V
f f A
V f
h
5-2
Substitute this expression for h
mc
into Eq. 5-1 and integrating,
dt
f
f
A
p KA
V d V
sm
sc
t
f
V
f
f
|
|
.
|

\
|

A
=
} }
1
0 0


pt
f
f
A
K
V
sm
sc
f
A
|
|
.
|

\
|
= 1
2
2
2

or

t
f
f
p K A V
sm
sc
f
|
|
.
|

\
|
A = 1 2
5-3
Formula 5-3 is called static filtration equation, which shows that the filtration loss per unit area
is proportional to square root of the permeability of the filter cake K, the solid content in cake
incorporating that in drilling fluid(f
sc
/f
sm
-1), the filter pressure difference p A , and filter time t
directly, but proportional to filtrate viscosity

inversely.
5.2.2 The Factors Affecting the Static Filtration()
dt
dV
f
83
Fig.5-3 Example filter press data.
5.2.2.1 Relationship between Filtrate Volume and Time
Larsen found that if a mud was filtered through paper at constant temperature and pressure,
f
V
was proportional to t , apart from a small zero error(). It followed that, for a given mud,
sm sc
f f / and K in Eq. 5-3 were constant with respect to time. Although this finding is not strictly true
for all muds, it is close enough for practical purposes, and forms the basis for the mechanics of static
filtration as presently interpreted.
Fig. 5-3 shows a typical plot of cumulative filtrate volume
versus time plotted on a square root scale. The
intercept on the V axis marks the zero error. The zero error,
commonly called the mud spurt(), is largely caused by
the tendency of the finer mud particles to pass through the filter
paper until its pores become plugged. Thereafter only filtrate is
expressed, and the curve becomes linear. With most muds the zero
error is small, and is often neglected, but it can be substantial when
filtration takes place against porous rocks. Some muds plug filter paper almost instantly, in which case
the zero error is negative, and represents the volume between the paper and the discharge nipple(
).
Larsens experimental results showed that for a given pressure, Eq. 5-3 may be written:
) ( t C A V V
sp f
= 5-4
where V
sp
is the zero error, and C is a constant given by
|
|
.
|

\
|

A
= 1
2
sm
sc
f
f P K
C

Note that Eq.5-4 and Fig. 5-2 indicate that the filtrate volume is proportional to the square root of
the time period used. Thus, the filtrate collected after 7.5 min should be about half the filtrate collected
after 30 min. It is common practice to report twice the 7.5-min filtrate volume as the API water loss
when the 30-min filtrate volume exceeds the capacity of the filtrate receiver. However, as shown in Fig.
5.3, a spurt loss volume of filtrate, V
sp
, is often observed before the porosity and permeability of the
filter cake stabilizes and Eq. 5-3 becomes applicable. If a significant spurt loss is observed, the
following equation should be used to ext rapolate the 7.5-min water loss to the standard API water loss.
5-5
The best method for determining spurt loss is to plot V vs.
t
and extrapolate to zero t ime as
shown in Fig.5-3.
The API low-pressure static filtrat ion press in use today is based on an original design by P.H.
Jones. The test is used to determine A) the filtration rate through a standard filter paper and B) the rate
at which the mud cake thickness increases on the standard filter paper under standard test conditions.
This test is indicative of the rate at which permeable formations are sealed by the deposition of a mud
cake after being penetrated by the bit. The standard dimensions are: filtrat ion area, 45.8 cm
2
(7.l in
2
);
minimum height, 6.4 cm (2.5 in); and standard filter paper, Whatman 50, S & S No. 576, or equivalent.
sp sp
V V V V + = ) ( 2
5 . 7 30
84
Pressure of 7.0 kg/cm
2
(100 psi), from either a nitrogen cylinder or a carbon dioxide cartridge, is
applied at the top of the cell. The amount of filtrate discharged in 30 minutes is measured, as is the
thickness of the filter cake to the nearest 1 mm (1/32 in.) after washing off the excess mud with a gentle
stream of water.
The filtrate volume that would accumulate in 30 minutes can be predicted from the volume,
f
V
observed at time
1
t
from the equations:

5-6

For example, the 30 minute filtrate volume is sometimes predicted by measuring the filtrate volume
at 7.5 minutes, and doubling the value obtained, since
2 5 . 7 / 30 =
.

5.2.2.2 Relationship Between Pressure and Filtrate Volume

According to Equation 5-3,
f
V should be proportional to P, and a log-log plot
of
f
V versus P should yield a straight line with a slope of 0.5, assuming all factors remained constant.
Actually, this condition is never met because mud filter cakes are to a greater or lesser extent
compressible, so that the permeability is not constant, but decreases with increase in
pressure. Thus:
x
f
P V
where the exponent x varies from mud to mud, but is always less than 0.5, as shown in
Figure 5-4.

Fig.5-4 Effect of pressure on filtrate volume

The value of the exponent x depends largely on the size and shape of the particles composing
the cake. Bentonite cakes, for example, are so compressible that x is
1
30
1 30
) (
t
t
V V V V
sp f sp f
=
85
zero, and
f
V is constant with respect to P. The reason for this behavior is that bentonite is almost
entirely composed of finely-divided platelets of mont morillonite, which tend to align more nearly
parallel to the substrate with increase in pressure. Thus the permeability of the cake is reduced to a
much greater extent than would be the case with a cake composed of, for example, rigid spheres
. With other drilling mud clays it has been found experimentally that the x exponent varies
from zero to about 0.2, so it appears that filtration rate is relatively insensitiveto changes in
pressure. In practice, it is usually simpler to make the filtrat ion test at the pressure of interest.

Fig. 5-5 Viscosity of water at various temperatures

5.2.2.3 Relationship between Temperature and Filtration Volume
Increase in temperature may increase the filtrate volume in several ways.
In the first place, it reduces the viscosity of the filtrate, and, therefore, the filtrate volume increases
according to Equation 5.3. The viscosities of water are shown over a range of temperatures in Table 5-1,
and over an extended range, for water only, in Figure 5-5. It is evident that changes in temperature may
have a substantial effect on filtrate volume because of changes in filt rate viscosity. For example, the
filtrate volume at 100(212 ) would be about
88 . 1
284 . 0
1
=
times as large as the volume at 20
(68 ).
Table 5-1 The viscosities of water at various temperatures
Temp. 0 12 20 30 40 60 80 100 130 180 230 300
Viscosity/mPas 1.729 1.308 1.005 0.081 0.656 0.469 0.356 0.284 0.212 0.150 0.116 0.086

5.3 The Filter Cake()
5.3.1 Cake Thickness
Although cake thickness is the vital factor in problems associated with tight hole, pipe torque and
drag, and differential sticking, little attention has been paid to it in the literature. Cake thickness is
assumed to be proportional to filter loss, and therefore only filter loss needs to be specified. Actually,
although cake thickness is related to filter loss, the specific relationship varies from mud to mud,
86
because the value of
c f
V V / (
c
V is the volume of the cake) depends on the concentration of solids
in the mud and on the amount of water retained in the cake.
The filter loss decreases with increase in the concentration of solids, but the cake volume increases, as
shown in Figure 5-6: If an operator adds ext ra clay to a mud to reduce filter loss, he may believe that he
is also reducing cake thickness, but he is actually increasing it.

Fig.5-6 Variation of filtrate volume, cake volume, and permeability with concentration of solids in a suspension of
Altwarmbuechen clay.

The amount of water retained in the cakes of muds with different clay bases depends on the
swelling properties of the clay minerals involved. Bentonite, for example, has strong
swelling properties, and bentonitic cakes therefore have a comparatively high rat io of water to solids,
and the
c f
V V / rat io is correspondingly low. The percent water in the cake is quite a good measure of
the swelling properties of the clay base.
To a lesser extent, cake thickness is determined by particle size and particle-size
distribution. These parameters control the porosity of the cake, and
therefore the bulk volume relat ive to the grain volume. The magnitude of these effects was shown by
Bo et al, who measured the porosities of filter cakesformed by mixing nine size grades
of glass spheres. Their results may be summed up as follows:
A. Minimum porosities were obtained when there was an even gradation of particle sizes
(i.e., a linear particle size distribution curve, as shown in Figures 5-7 a and b), because
the smaller part icles then packed most densely in the pores between the larger particles.
87

Fig. 5-7 Permeabilities and porosities of filter cakes of glass spheres.
k=permeability in darcies =porosity

B. Mixtures with a wide range of particle sizes had lower porosities than
mixtures with the same size distribution but narrower size range, (cf. Figure 5-7 a with b).
C. An excess of small particles resulted in lower porosities than did an excess of large part icles.
5.3.2 The Permeability of the Filter Cake()
The permeability of the filter cake is the fundamental para meter that controls both static and
dynamic filtration. It more t ruly reflects downhole filt ration behavior than does any other parameter.
As a parameter for evaluating the filtrat ion properties of muds with different concentration of solids, it
has the advantage over filtrate volume in being independent of solids concentration. Furthermore, cake
permeability provides useful informat ion on the electrochemical conditions prevailing in the mud.
5.3.3 The Effect of Particle Size and Shape on Cake Permeability(
)
Krumbein and Monk investigated the permeability of filter cakes of river sand by separating the
sand into ten size fractions and recombining them to obtain two sets of mixtures. In one set, the
mixtures had increasingly large mean particle diameters, but all had the same range of part icle sizes,
which were defined in terms of a parameter phi as shown in Figure 5-8. In the other set, all the
mixtures had the same mean particle diameter, but increasingly wider ranges of particle sizes. The
results showed that cake permeability decreased (1) with mean particle diameter, and (2) with
increasing width of part icles size range (see Figure 5-8).
88

Fig.5-8. Expandable of a narrow (curve A) and a wide (curve B) particle size range

One might expect minimum cake permeability with an even gradation of particle sizes. However, the
experiments of Bo et al already referred to, showed that minimum permeabilit ies were obtained when
there was an excess of particles at the fine end of the scale, and not when the size distribution curves
were linear (see Figures 5-7 a and b). It would appear therefore that a uniform gradation of particle
sizes is of secondary importance, but obviously there must be no major gaps, or the finer particles
would pass through the pore openings between the larger ones.
5.3.4 Effect of Floccul ati on and Aggregati on on Cake Permeability

Flocculation of muds causes the particles to associate in the form of a loose, open network. This
structure persists to a limited extent in filter cakes, causing considerable increases in permeability. The
higher the filtration pressure, the more this structure is flattened, so both porosity and permeability
decrease with increase in pressure. The greater the degree of flocculation, the greater the interparticle
attractive forces, and therefore the stronger the structure and the greater its resistance to
pressure (see Fig. 5-9). The structure is even stronger if flocculation is accompanied by aggregation,
because it is then built of thicker packets of clay platelets.
Conversely, deflocculation of a mud by the addition of a thinning agent
causes a decrease in cake permeability. Moreover, most thinners are sodium salts, and the
sodium ion may displace the polyvalent cations in the base exchange positions on the
clay, thereby dispersing the clay aggregates, and further reducing cake permeability.
Thus, the electrochemical conditions prevailing in a mud are a major factor in determining the
permeability of its filter cake. As a generalization it may be said that cake permeabilities of flocculated
muds are in the order of 10
-2
md, those of untreated fresh-water muds are in the order of 10
-3
md, and
those of muds treated with thinning agents are in the order of 10
-4
md.
5.3.5 The Bri dging Process()
As already discussed, there is a mud spurt at the start of a filter test made on paper before filtrat ion
proper begins, and, thereafter, filtrate volume becomes proportional to the square root of the time
interval. In the drilling well, mud spurts may be much larger when filtration takes place against the
more permeable rocks: In fact, they can be infinite (i.e., circulation is lost) unless the
89
mud contains particles of the size required to bridge the pores of the rock, and thus establish a base on
which the filter cake can form. Only part icles of a certain size relative to the pore's size can bridge.
Particles larger than the pore opening cannot enter the pore, and are swept away by the mud stream;
particles considerably smaller than the opening invade the formation unhindered; but particles of a
certain critical size stick at bottlenecks in the flow channels, and form a bridge just inside the surface
pores. Once a primary bridge is established, successively smaller part icles, down to the fine colloids,
are trapped, and thereafter only filt rate invades the formation. The mud spurt period is very brief, a
matter of a second or two at the most.
As a result of the process just described, three zones of mud particles are established on or in a
permeable formation (see Figure 5-9).

Fig.5-9 Invasion of a permeable formation by mud solids.

A. An external filter cake on the walls of the borehole.
B. An internal filter cake, extending a couple of grain diameters into the formation.
C. A zone invaded by the fine particles during the mud spurt period, which normally extends about
an inch25.4 mm into the formation. Experimental results reported by Krueger and Vogel
suggest that these fine particles do not initially cause much permeability impairment
, but may do so after filtrat ion has proceeded for some hours, presumably because of
migration and consequent pore blocking.
When adequate bridging particles are lacking, the API filter test may give grossly misleading
results. A mud might give a negligible loss on filter paper, but give a large one on a permeable
formation downhole. The point was well illustrated by experimental data obtained by Beeson and
Wright, extracts from which are shown in Table 5-2. Note that the discrepancy between the gross loss
on paper and that on the porous media was greater with unconsolidated sand than with consolidated
rocks, even when the permeability of the latter was higher. Note also that the discrepancies between the
net filter loss on paper and on porous media increased with increase in spurt loss. Evidently the mud
spurt plugs the cores to such an extent that the pressure drop within the core becomes significant,
thereby reducing the drop across the cake, and reducing cake compaction.
Table5-2 Effect of Filtration Medium on Mud Spurt
90

With regard to the crit ical size required for bridging, it was shown by Coberly that because of
jamming, particles down to one-third the size of a circular screen opening would bridge that opening.
Abrams showed that particles whose median diameter was about one-third the median pore size of a 5
darcy sand pack would bridge that pack. In order to form an effective base for a filter cake, a mud must
therefore contain primary bridging particles ranging in size from slightly less than the largest pore
opening in the formation about to be drilled, down to about one-third that size. In addition, there must
be smaller particles ranging down to colloidal size, to bridge the smaller format ion pores and the
interstices, between the coarser bridging particles.
5.4 Dynamic Filtration()
Under the condition of dynamic filtration, the growth of the filter cake is limited by the erosive
action of the mud stream. When the surface of the rock is first exposed, the rate of filtrat ion is very
high, and the cake grows rapidly. However, the growth rate decreases as time passes, until eventually it
is equal to the erosion rate; thereafter the thickness of the cake is constant. Under equilibrium dynamic
conditions, therefore, the rate of filt ration depends on the thickness and permeability
of the cake, and is governed by Darcy's law (Equation 5-1), whereas under static conditions cake
thickness increases ad infinitum, and the rate of filtration is governed by Equation 5-3.
Dynamic filter cakes differ from static cakes in that the soft surface layers of the static cake are not
present in the dynamic cake, because its surface is eroded to an extent that depends on the shear stress
exerted by hydrodynamic force of the mud stream relative to the shear strength of the cakes
upper layers.
Both low-temperature and high-pressure API filter presses are operated under static conditions -
that is, the mud is not flowing past the cake as filtration takes place. Other presses have been designed
to model more accurately the filtration process wherein mud is flowed past the cake, as it does in the
wellbore. Such presses that model. Dynamic filtration have shown that after a given period of t ime the
mud cake thickness remains constant - that is, the cake is eroded as fast as it is being deposited. Thus ,
dynamic-filtrat ion rates are higher than static filtration rates. With a constant thickness cake,
integrating Eq.5-1, we have
91

mc
f
h
pt kA
v

A
= 5-7
A standard dynamic filt ration test has not been developed to date. Field mud testing uses the static
filtration test to characterize the filtration quality of the mud. Unfortunately, there are no reliable
guidelines for correlating static and dynamic filtrat ion rates. Our ability to predict quantitatively
filtration rates in the wellbore during various drilling operations remains questionable.
Prokop
[23]
measured dynamic filtrat ion rates in a laboratory tester, in which mud flowed through a
concentric hole in a cylindrical artificial core. Table 5-3 shows the equilibrium cake thickness thus
obtained with a large number of laboratory muds.

Table 5-3 Equilibrium cake thickness under dynamic filtration


Mud circulated through a 2 in (5.08 cm) diameter hole in consolidated sand. Turbulent flow. Filtration
pressure 350 psi (24.6 kg/cm
2
)


Exercise
1. A filtrate volume of 5 cm
3
is collected in 10 min in a filter press having an area of 90 cm
2
.
A spurt loss of 0.5 cm
3
was observed. Compute the API water loss.
2. A 15-in. hole is drilled to a depth of 4,000 ft. The API water loss of the mud is 10 ml.
Approximately 30% of the lithology is permeable sandstone and the rest is
impermeable shale.
1) Construct a plot of estimated filtration loss in barrels vs. time in hours (0 to 24
hours) that would occur if the hole were drilled instantaneously. Assume porosity
is 0.25.
Answer: 42.4 bbl after 24 hours.
2) Compute the radius of the invaded zone for Part a in inches after 24 hours.
Answer: 9.62 in.
3) Repeat Part a assuming a drilling rate of 200 ft/hr.
Answer: 31.6 bbl after 24 hours.
4) Do you feel the API water loss test is representative of conditions in the well
during drilling operations? (Hint: Find an article on "dynamic filtration.")

92
CHAPTER 6 MAKE-UP MATERIALS AND ADDITIVES FOR
DRILLING FLUIDS
Drilling fluid materials include basic materials and chemical addit ives, the former denote clay and
water, the latter are the chemicals used for adjusting the properties of the drilling fluid. According to
their chemical characteristics they are classified as inorganic chemicals, organic chemicals and
surfactant. And according to their functions they are: 1) thinner, 2) filtrat ion reducer, 3) viscosifier, 4)
shale inhibitor, 5) lost circulat ion material, 6) lubricant, 7) flocculant 8) emulsifier, 9) foaming agent,
10) clay, 11) weighting agent, 12) pipe-freeing agent, 13) corrosion inhibitor, 14) defoamer, 15)
bactericide, 16) the others. This chapter focuses on some common materials and additives.
6.1 Water()
Water is the most important single substance involved in drilling fluids technology. Water in the
formations drilled is usually the limiting factor in air drilling, so very few wells are drilled with dry air.
In all other instances, at some time in the course of drilling, water is the major component (by volume)
of the drilling fluid. Even when the use of water-mud is discontinued in favor of an oil-mud or a foam,
water continues to play an important role in the performance of the drilling fluid. The un usual
characteristics of water affect each step in the drilling operation from spud-in to complet ion, and the
availability and chemical content of the makeup water must be considered in the planning stage. See
Chapter 2 Treatment of Make-up Water.
6.2 Bentonite()
Grim and Nueven defined Bentonite as "Any clay which is composed dominantly of a smectite(
) clay mineral, and whose physical properties are dictated by this clay mineral. Bentonite has also
been defined as consisting of fine-grained() clays that contain not less than 85%
mont morillonite().
In mud parlance, bentonite is classilicd as sodium bentoniteor calcium bentonite,
depending on the dominant exchangeable cation. Correspondingly, in terms of performance, bentonite
is classed as high yield and low yield.
The heterogeneous nature of bentonite was shown by X-ray diffraction patternsX
and cation-exchange data for several samples of Wyoming bentonite separated
into three fractions by centrifuging() the suspensions. A correlation was observed between the
plastic viscosity and gel strength properties as affected by the surface area and the exchangeable cation
in centrifuged fractions. The relat ively coarse fractions (least surface area) contained mainly calcium
as exchangeable cation and showed distinctly lower viscosity and gel strength than the finer fractions
in which sodium was dominant.
6.2.1 Mining and Processing()
After a potentially commercial bentonite deposit() has been located, auger or core drills are
used to collect samples for evaluation. If results are favorable, pits are laid out, with particular
consideration given to quality and tonnage of recoverable bentonite, ratio of required over-burden
93
removal to recoverable bentonite, drainage, and reclamation.
Minable bentonite beds vary in thickness from a minimum of two feet. The maximum stripping
depth is about sixty feet. After the overburden has been removed, the bed may be resampled on clos er
spacing. Based on test results, the pit is marked for selective mining.
A common practice is to expose the clay to air for several months, during which time the bed may
be plowed or ripped. This practice promotes drying and improves the quality of the clay.
The bentonite areas of differing quality are mined separately and hauled to stockpiles located at the
processing plant. From the stockpiles, the selected bentonite is passed through a slicer()or cutter
for sizing, and then into a dryer where the moisture content is reduced from 15-35% to 8-10%. The
dried bentonite is ground in roller mills(). Based on the results of performance tests, on
samples of the clay, s mall amounts of polyacryl ates() (maximum of 2 lb/ton) may be
added to the mill feed. Cyclone collectors extract the minus-200-mesh product, which is transferred to
storage in silos pending bagging or loading into hopper cars. Bentonite furnished to API specifications
must satisfy the requirements listed in Table 6-1.
Table 6-1 API Specification for Bentonite
Moisture at point of manufacture 10%(maximum)
Wet screen analysis(200 mesh US screen residue) 4%(maximum)
Properties of a suspension of 22.5g bentonite(as received) in 350 ml dist illed water; aged overnight;
restirred 5 min.
Viscometer dial reading 600 rpm 30 (minimum)
Yield point 3 Plastic Viscosity (maximum)
Filtrate loss -(100 psi 24 3.) 15 ml (maximum)
6.2.2 Bentonite in Drilling Mud()
Bentonite is added to fresh water or to fresh-water muds for one or more of the following purposes:
(1) to increase hole cleaning capability; (2) to reduce water seepage or filtration into permeable
formations; (3) to form a thin filter cake of low permeability; (4) to promote hole stability in poorly
cemented format ions, and (5) to avoid or overcome loss of circulat ion. The amount to be added will, of
course, vary with specific conditions but approximate quantities are suggested in Table 6-2.
Table 6-2 Approximate Amounts for some Application
Added to Fresh Water Added to Fresh Water Mud
(lb/bbl) (kg/m
3
) (lb/bbl) (kg/m
3
)
Normal drilling conditions
Stabilize caving formations
Loss of circulation
13-22
25-35
30-40
35-60
70-100
85-110
4-10
9-18
10-20
11-28
25-50
28-56
Loss of circulation plug Added to Diesel Oil
(lb/bbl) (kg/m
3
)
94
400 1000

6.2.3 Beneficiated and Super-Yield Bentonite
Terms such as peptized, beneficiated and extra-high yield describe bentonites to which
organic polymers() (and sometimes also soda ash) have been added during processing.
These products made with Western bentonite in America are useful as starting or spud muds
, in low-solids muds, and in applications where cost of transportation is extremely
high. Less than half as much of such a material is needed compared to the amount of API-specificat ion
bentonite.
6.3 Materials to Increase Density()
An important function of drilling mud is the control of format ion fluid pressure to prevent blowouts
. The density of the mud must be raised at times to stabilize incompetent formations. Any
substance that is denser than water and that does not adversely affect other properties of the mud can be
added to raise the density to some e xtent. Cost is important, but there are other practical restrictions on
the material to be selected. The solubility of salts limits their range of usefulness, and there are other
problems associated with the use of such systems. Various finely-ground solid materials, as listed in
Tabel 6-3, have been used to successfully raise drilling mud density.
Table 6-3 Materials Used to Increase the Density of Drilling
Material Pricipal Component Specific Gravity Hardness Mohs Scale
Galena
Hematitc
Magnetite
Iron Oxide(manufactured)
Lllmenite
Barite
Siderite
Celestitc
Dolomite
Calcite
PbS
Fe
2
O
3
Fe
3
O
4
Fe
2
O
3
FeO.TiO
2

BaSO
4

FeCO
3
SrSO
4

CaCO
3.
MgCO
3
CaCO
3
7.4-7.7
4-9-5.3
5.0-5.2
4-7
4.5-5.1
4.2-4.5
3.7-3.9
3.7-3.9
2.8-2.9
2.6-2.8
2.5-2.7
5.5-6.5
5.5-6.5

5-6
2.5-3.5
3.5-4
3-3.5
3.5-4
3

Obviously, the specific gravity of the weighting agent is of primary importance, especially in very
heavy muds. The fractional volumeoccupied by the added solid is a major limiting factor
in its use. Figure 6-1 shows the effect of the specific gravity of the weighting material on the solids
concentration of weighted muds. For example, the solid content of mud weighted to 19.0
lb/gal (2.28 g/cm
3
) with material having a specific gravity of 4.2 is 39.5% by volume, as compared
with 30% by volume for a material of 5.2 specific gravity.
95
Table 6-4 Barite Reqnirements for API Specification
Fig. 6-1 Effect of specific gravity of weighting material
on the solids concentration of weighted muds
Several factors in addition to chemical
inertness and specific gravity
affect the use of a substance as a weighting
material. First, the substance should be
available in large quantities. It should be easily
ground to the preferred particle-size
distribution, and relatively
nonabrasive, it should also be
moderate in cost, and not injurious or
objectionable to the drilling crew or the
surroundings. Consideration of these factors,
along with chemical inertness and specific
gravity, has made barite the only mineral now
used in significant quantities in the United
States to raise the density of muds.
6.3.1 Barite
6.3.1.1 Characteristics()
Pure barite (barium sulfate, BaSO
4
)
contains 58.8% barium and has a specific
gravity of 4.5. Commercial barite, somet imes
called "heavy spar" or "tiff," is of lower
specific gravity because other minerals (such
as quartz, chert , , calcite, anhydrite, celestite, and various silicates) are
included. In addit ion, it usually contains several iron minerals, some of which may increase the average
specific gravity of the product.
Barite is virtually insoluble in water, and does not react with other components of the mud. Calcium
sulfate, sometimes present as gypsum or anhydrite associated with barite, is objectionable as a
contaminant of lightly-treated, fresh water muds. Sulfide minerals, such as pyriteand
sphalerite, if present, may undergo oxidation with the format ion of soluble salts that
adversely affect the mud performance. The dark-gray-to-black barite produced from mines in Arkansas,
California and Nevada contains a small amount of organic matter and gives off the odor of hydrogen
sulfide when the ore is broken, but the odor does not persist in the finished product.
Barite occurs in many geological environments in sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rock.
Commercial deposits of barite occur as vein or cavity-filling deposits, residual deposits, and bedded
deposits.Barite that meets API specificat ions must meet the requirements listed in Table 6-4.


Specific gravity: 4.20, minimum
Wet screen analysis:
Residue on U.S. Sieve (ASTM) no. 200: 3.0% maximum
Residue on U.S. Sieve (ASTM) no. 325: 5.0% minimum
Soluble alkaline earth metals
as calcium: 250 ppm, maximum

96
6.3.1.2 Barite in Drilling Mud()
The quantity of barite required to raise the density of a given volume of mud a specific amount can
be readily calculated from the relation.
B B f f
B f
B f
V V V
M M M
V V V
+ =
+ =
+ =
0 0
0
0

where, V
f
, M
f
and
f
are volume, mass and density of the drilling fluid weighted by barite; V
0
, M
0

and
0
are volume, mass and density of drilling fluid to be weighted; V
B
, M
f
and
f
are volume,
mass and density of barite to be added.
When there is no limitation to the final fluid volume, then,
0
0
V V
f B
B
f

=

6-1
B f B
V V M = ) (
0
6-2
Example 6-1: Using API Barite to increase 200m
3
drilling fluids of 1.32g/cm
3
to 1.38 g/cm
3
, there is no limitation
to the final fluid volume, try to calculate the final volume and the needed barite quantity.
Solution:
B

=4.2 g/cm
3,
then from equation 6-1 and 6-2, then,
3
0
0
255 . 204 200
38 . 1 2 . 4
32 . 1 2 . 4
m V V
f B
B
f
=

=



kg T V V M
B f B
17871 871 . 17 2 . 4 ) 200 255 . 204 ( ) (
0
= = = =

When there is limitation to the final fluid volume because of certain volume mud pit, some
original fluid shall be disposed before adding barite, then, V
0
shall be calculated as follows,
f
B
B
V V

=
1
2
0


6-3
Example 6-2, Using API Barite to increase 200m
3
drilling fluids of 1.32g/cm
3
to 1.38 g/cm
3
, there is limitation to
the final fluid volume, namely, no more than 200 m
3
final fluid volume, try to calculate the disposal volume V
dis
of
drilling fluid and the needed barite quantity.
Solution:
B
=4.2 g/cm
3
, then from equation 6-3 V
0
will be:
3
0
0
833 . 195 200
32 . 1 2 . 4
38 . 1 2 . 4
m V V
f
B
f B
=

=



V
dis
=200-195.833=4.167m
3

kg T V V M
B f B
17500 5 . 17 2 . 4 ) 833 . 195 200 ( ) (
0
= = = =
When using water to dilute the original fluid to reduce the solid content for low-solid muds before
adding barite, assuming the solid fraction f
sf
in the final fluid and f
s0
in the original fluid, then,
0 0
0 0
0
V f V f
V V V V
V V V V
s f sf
B B W W f f
B W f
=
+ + =
+ + =


Then,
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
0
0
s
sf
f
f
f
V V
6-4
97

W B
B f f B
W
V V
V

=
0 0
) ( ) (
6-5
B W f B
V V V M = ) (
0
6-6
Example 6-3: Using API Barite to increase 159m
3
drilling fluids of 1.14g/cm
3
to 1.68g/cm
3
, and the final fluid
volume is 127m
3
, solid fraction shall be decreased from 0.05 to 0.03, try to calculate the disposal volume V
dis
of
drilling fluid, the added water volume and the needed barite quantity.
Solution:
B
=4.2 g/cm
3
, then from equation 6-4, 6-5, 6-6:
3
0
0
2 . 76 )
05 . 0
03 . 0
( 127 m
f
f
V V
s
sf
f
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

3 0 0
15 . 27
) 0 . 1 2 . 4 (
2 . 76 ) 14 . 1 2 . 4 ( 127 ) 68 . 1 2 . 4 (
) ( ) (
m
V V
V
W B
B f f B
W
=

=



kg T V V V M
B W f B
99330 330 . 99 2 . 4 ) 15 . 27 2 . 76 127 ( ) (
0
= = = =

6.3.2 Iron Minerals()
Iron oxi des. Natural iron oxides of specific gravity 4.9-5.3(principally hematite(,),
Fe
2
O
3
) were among the first materials used to increase the density of muds. In Germany, an iron oxide
weighting material is made from the residue of pyrite roasting process for sulfuric acid manufacture.
The residue is quenched(), neutralized(), leached, and dried. The product is
classified to a particle size below 75 microns and to a part icle size distribution such that not more than
50% is below 10 microns. Advantages claimed for the product include: specific gravity of 4.7; low
abrasion and low magnetic susceptibility compared to natural iron ores; 85% soluble in hydrochloric
acid: and reactive to hydrogen sulfide with the formation of noncorrosive, insoluble iron polysulfides.
6.3.3 Calcium Carbonate()
Calcium carbonate was proposed as a weighting material because the filter cake that forms on the
productive format ion can be removed by treatment with hydrochloric acid. Calcium carbonate is
readily available as ground limestone()or oyster shell(). Calcium carbonate is dispersed in
oil muds more readily than is barite. Its low specific gravity (2.6 to 2.8) limits the maximum density of
the mud to about 12 lb/gal (1.4 g/cm
3
). Shell flour or ground limestone is frequently used in workover
muds().
6.3.4 Galena
Galena, PbS, with a specific gravity of 7.4 to 7.7, is used only in preparation of the extremely heavy
muds sometimes needed to control abnormally high pressures. Galena is expensive; consequently,
barite is used with it in preparing muds to a density of about 30 lb/gal (3.6 g/cm
3
). Mud having a
density of 32 lb/gal (3.8 g/cm
3
) can be prepared with galena alone as the weighting material. About
1,200 lb of galena is needed to make one barrel (3400 kg/ m
3
) of such mud. Galena is not a normal
component of weighted muds. A supply of galena is maintained in the Gulf Coast area for use in an
emergency.
98
6.4 Inorganic Chemical Additives()
6.4.1 Sodium carbonate()
Sodi um carbonate, Na
2
CO
3,
soda ash, washing soda; white, hygroscopic powder (fine powder is
called light ash; coarse dense ash), with density of 2.5 g/cm
3
, soluble in water and reaching the highest
degree of solubility about 34% at temperature of 36. Produced from deposits of trona(
) (Na
2
CO
3
NaHCO
3
.2H
2
O), from natural brines, and by the Solvay process. Principal use is for
removal of soluble calcium salts from makeup waters and muds: some use in clay beneficiation.
Concentration: 0.2 to 4 lb/bbl (0.6 to 11 kg/ m
3
).
Sodium carbonate ionizes() and hydrol yzes() easily in water, producing ions of Na
+
,
CO
3
2-
, HCO
3
-
and OH
-
, the reaction happens as follows:

+
+ =
2
3 3 2
2 CO Na CO Na



+ = + OH HCO O H CO
3 2
2
3

Sodium carbonate turns Ca-Bentonite to Na-Bentonite through cation exchange()
and preci pitation(), namely clay beneficiation(), i.e.:
+ + +
3 3 2
CaCO Bentonite Na CO Na Bentonite Ca

Sodium carbonate can be used when the muds are invaded by Ca
2+
by precipitation,
+ + +
+ +
3 3 2
2
2 Ca CO Na CO Na Ca
6.4.2 Sodium hydroxide
Sodi um hydroxi de, NaOH, caustic soda, lye; white; deliquescent() with density of 2.0-2.2
g/cm
3
; beads pellets, flakes. Strong irritant to tissues. Toxic. Produced by electrolysis of sodium
chloride. Used in water muds to raise pH; to solubilize lignite(), lignosulfonate
and tannin substances; to counteract corrosion, and to neutralize hydrogen sulfide.
Concentration: 0.2 to 4 lb/bbl (0.6 to 11 kg/ m
3
).
6.4.3 Calcium oxide and Calcium hydroxide()
Calcium oxi de, CaO, unslaked lime, quick lime; white powder, solubility degree of 0.16% in water.
Produced by roasting calcium carbonate (limestone, oyster shells), and contains impurit ies present in
the source material. Evolves heat on slaking to form hydrated lime. Strong irritant. Used in oil muds for
the formation of calcium soaps and removal of water. Mainly used as slaked lime in water
muds.
Calcium hydroxi de, Ca(OH)
2
, hydrated lime, slaked lime; soft white crystalline powder. Produced
by adding calcium oxide to water, filtering, drying. Avoid inhalation of powder. Skin irritant, pH of
solution is 12.4. Used in lime muds, high-calcium-ion muds, and for the removal of
soluble carbonates. Concentration: 0.5 to 20 lb/bbl (1 to 57 kg/m
3
).
6.4.4 Calcium sulfate()
Calcium sulfate, CaSO
4
, anhydrite, CaSO
4
.
2
1
H
2
O, plaster of Paris, gyp plaster;
CaSO
4
.2H
2
O, gypsum, white of colorless crystals or powder with 2.31-2.32 g/cm
3
density.
99
Slightly soluble in water with about 0.2% solubility. Obtained from naturally occurring deposits; also
as by product. Non toxic. Source of calcium ions in gyp muds. Concentration 2 to 8 lb/ bbl (6 to 23
kg/m
3
).
6.4.5 Calcium chloride()
Calcium chl ori de, CaCl
2
, CaCl
2
.
H
2
O, CaC1
2
.
2H
2
O, CaCl
2
.
6H
2
O; white deliquescent crystals (75%
solubility), granules, lumps, flakes with 1.68g/cm
3
density. Produced as a by-product of the Solvay
soda and other processes, and also mined. Used in hole-stabilizing oil muds; in calcium-treated muds,
in the preparation of dense salt solutions for complet ion and workover, and for lowering the freezing
point of water muds. Concentration ranges from 10 to 200 lb/bbl (28 to 570 kg/ m
3
).
6.4.6 Sodium chloride()
Sodi um chl ori de, NaCl, table salt, halite(), rock salt; white crystals with 2.20 g/cm
3
density.
Produced by evaporation of brines and by dry mining. Used as produced or as prepared brine in
completion and workover operations; to saturate water before drilling rock salt;
to lower freezing point of mud; to raise the density (as a suspended solid) and act as a bridging agent in
saturated solutions, and in hole-stabilizing oil muds. Concentration 10 to 25 lb/bbl (30 to 360 kg/ m
3
).
6.4.7 Potassium chloride()
Potassium chl ori de, KCl, sylvite(), potash; colorless or white crystals with 1.98
g/cm
3
density. Mined; purified by recrystallization. Sold in various grades based on K
2
O content. Shale
inhibitor. Primary source of potassium ions for potassium-polymer muds(
). Concentration 2 to 60 lb/bbl (6 to 170 kg/ m
3
).
6.4.8 Sodium dichromate()
Sodi um dichromate, Na
2
Cr
2
O
7
.2H
2
O; red-orange crystals with 2.35 g/cm
3
density. Toxic by
ingestion or inhalation; strong irritant. Prepared from chromite ores; sulfuric acid on
sodium chromate. The dichromate becomes chromate in alkaline solutions; consequently, in muds the
uses are the same. Used as constituent of chrome lignosulfonate and chrome lignite
compositions for increased thermal stability, and to inhibit corrosion in salty muds. Concentration 0.1
to 2lb/bbl (0.3 to 6 kg/m
3
).

Fig.6-2 Schematic representation of a polyphosphate molecule adsorbed on clay crystal edge by bonding with
exposed aluminum atoms

6.4.9 Sodium polyphosphates and Sodium hexametaphosphate
The sodium polyphos phatesare very effective deflocculantsfor clays
in fresh water and were among the first thinners for mud. They are not effective in salty muds
(>10,000ppm chloride). The glassy polyphosphates effectively soften hard water by forming soluble
complexes with calcium and magnesium ions. This action, called sequestration
, is applied in dispersing bentonite for filtration reduction. The reversion() of
100
the polyphosphates to orthophosphates, which may cause thickening of the mud, occurs
rapidly as the temperature approaches the boiling point of water. This reversion limits the use of
polyphosphates to relatively shallow drilling. Another factor that has caused a marked decrease in the
use of polyphosphates in shale drilling is their tendency to promote disintegration and dispersion of
shale cuttings, thereby increasing the solid content of the mud. Three products are now being sold as
thinners: sodium acid pyrophosphate, sodium tetraphosphate, and sodium
hexa-metaphosphate.
Sodium aci d pyrophos phate, SAPP, Na
2
H
2
P
2
O
7
, can be made by heating sodium
dihydrogen orthophosphate (thus, 2NaH
2
PO
4
Na
2
H
2
P
2
O
7
+ H
2
O). A solution of SAPP has a pH of
about 4.2 and consequently is effective in overcoming cement contamination of fresh water muds.
Sodium tetraphos phate, Na
6
P
4
O
13
, can be made from the orthophosphates by heating
(2Na
2
HPO
4
+ 2NaH
2
PO
4
Na
6
P
4
O
13
+ 3H
2
O) or by the reaction of soda ash and phosphoric acid, in the
ratio of 3Na
2
O/ 2P
2
O
5
, and rapidly cooling the melt. Sodium tetraphosphate is the most frequently used
polyphosphate. Its solution has a pH of about 7.5.
Sodi um hexametaphosphate, (NaPO
3
)
6
, is a glass, not a definite compound, having
the ratio of approximately 1 Na
2
O/ 1 P
2
O
5
. It can be prepared by fusion and rapid cooling of the melt
(NaH
2
PO
4
NaPO
3
+ H
2
O). Its solution has a pH of about 7.
The sodium polyphosphates are normally used in concentrations of 0. l to 1 lb/bbl (0.3 to 3 kg/ m
3
).
6.5 Polymers()
The use of polymers in drilling fluids first began in 1937, when corn starch was added to a
bentonite mud to control the filtration characteristics. This development was followed fairly
rapidly by the introduction of carboxy methyl cellulose, tannins, quebracho and lignosulphonates,
all of which were in regular use by 1945. The initial use was to extend the properties of a simple
clay based system and to protect the bentonite from salt flocculation. The materials used either
occurred naturally, or could be extracted by simple processes.
Since that time, the polymers used have become more sophisticated, and are often specifically
designed for a particular drilling situation, even to the extent where clays are entirely replaced by
polymers in such cases as drilling water sensitive shales or water production zones.
The range and versatility of polymers is continually being extended, and it is the ability to
tailor make a polymer with particular properties to suit a specific purpose that will ensure that
polymers will solve drilling problems in the future.
It is because polymers are fundamental to the control of the fluid properties that this section
will deal in some detail with the structures of different polymers and attempt to relate the structure
to the function as much as possible, so that the role and application of the particular polymers
should then be better appreciated and understood.
6.5.1 Fundamental Structure of Polymers()
Basically, a polymer consists of a basic unit (monomer)(), or units, that are chemically
joined together (polymerised) to form a chain. The units may be identical or radically different.
The groups may also be chemically altered after they have been polymerized(Fig. 6-3).
101
Fig.6-4 Different molecular weight distribution curves

Fig.6-3.Fundamental polymer structure

From this simple picture a number of possible variations can be visualised. Some are listed
below:
A. Type of monomer or monomers.
B. Number of monomers joined together to form a chain --i.e. molecular weight.
C. Number of cross linking or branching groups in the chain.
D. Type and extent of subsequent chemical modification.
The factors that determine the behaviour of a particular polymer are quite complex and often
only relatively small changes in the structure of the molecule can substantially alter its properties.
This gives the polymers an inherent versatility, which is reflected in the wide variety of
applications for which polymers are suited. The most important structural variables are:
Molecular weight or chain length(
). This can be varied by
limiting the number of chain terminating
groups, or by chemically degrading longer
chains. Another important feature is the
distribution of molecular weights. This is
illustrated in Figure 6-4 for two samples
with the same mean average molecular
weight. In the case where there is a broad
size distribution, the larger quantities of
lower molecular weight material may
dominate, or at least modify, the reaction
of the higher molecular weight materials.

102
Type of reactive groups(). The chemical reactivity is mainly dependent on the
type of groups that are attached to the molecule and the number of groups. There is often more
than one type of reactive group. The distribution of the groups on the polymer backbone will also
affect the properties and reactivity. Often, because of the complex nature of the polymers, the
details of the structure are not known, but different reaction conditions can produce differences in
structure that can influence the performance of the polymer. The groups that can be attached onto
the polymer can be divided into three groups:
A. non-ionic()
B. anionic or negatively charged()
C. cationic or positively charged()
More than one type of group may be present in the molecule. The types of groups are given in
Table 6-5. The charge nature of some of the groups is dependent on the pH of the system and will
change from non-ionic to cationic or anionic because the groups are weakly basic or acidic
respectively.
Table 6-5 Polar Groups()
Class Group
Name Formula
Non-ionic hydroxyl OH
ether linkage ROR
ester OCH
3

Anionic phenolic OH C
6
H
5
OHC
6
H
5
O
-

carboxyl COOHCOO
-

sulphonic SO
3
HSO
3
-

phosphate PO
3
HPO
3
-
Cationic amine NH
3
NH
4
+


Three dimensional structure. The eventual shape or three dimensional structure of the
molecule will depend on the following factors:
A. branching or cross-linking in the structure
B. the concentration and type of groups on the molecules
C. the pH of the solution as it changes the ionic character of the molecule and therefore the
degrees of repulsion and attraction within the molecule
D. The ionic strength(), or salt concentration( ), as this affects the
electrostatic repulsion between the charges. This topic was discussed in some detail in the
clay chemistry section, where it was shown that an increased level of electrolyte changed the
balance between the repulsive and attractive forces and allowed like-charges to approach
each other more closely. The effect on a negatively charged polymer is to change the
configuration from an extended polymer in fresh water, where charge repulsions are
stretching the molecule, to a tightly-coiled structure in a saline solution, where the repulsive
forces are lower. This is shown diagrammatically in Figure 6-5.

103
Fig. 6-5 Effect of electrolyte concentration on polymer configuration

The change in molecular shape will change the physical properties of the polymer in solution.
It can be visualised that the coiled up polymer will present less interaction surface to the water
or to other polymer molecules. Since it is these reactions that develop viscous properties, it
can be seen that increased salt will decrease the viscosity of a charged polymer. Conversely,
the viscous properties of a non-ionic polymer should be essentially unaltered by salt.
E. Multivalent ions() can act as bridging agents by reacting or complexing
with more than one charged group on the molecule. The bridging can reduce the solubility
and viscosity and is the reason why cement, which supplies soluble calcium ions and a high
alkalinity, can react with anionic polymers such as CMC's. The extent of the reaction is a
function of the concentration of the multivalent ions and the pH of the solution.
This section has developed in general terms, the structural features of polymers and how
different features in the structure will give different properties. The next section will develop these
concepts more fully with specific polymers.
6.5.2 Relationship between Polymer Structure and Function in Drilling Fluids (
)
This section will show the general features required of a polymer to perform a particular function
in a drilling fluid. The next section will then describe the polymers that meet these criteria and
others, such as cost, availability and stability in a mud system. Table 6-6 summarises the
relationships between function in a drilling fluid and the essential features of the structure of the
polymer.
Table 6-6 Summary of Relationship between function of a polymer in a drilling fluid and its general
structure
Function Main characteristics
Viscosity High molecular weight
Viscosity and gellation properties High molecular weight and highly branched structure or cross linking
agent
Viscosity in salt solutions High molecular weight and non-ionic or highly substituted anionic types
Deflocculation, dispersion or thinning
action
Low molecular weight negatively charged at alkaline pH values
Flocculation High molecular weight with charged groups to adsorb onto clays
Surfactant Hydrophobic group and hydrophylic group on same molecule
Fluid loss additive Form colloidal particles


Viscosity(). The viscous properties that are conferred to water by the solution of a
polymer are due to the interactions of the water with the polymer and polymer polymer
interactions. The longer the molecules, the harder it is to separate the molecules from each other
and the more tangled they become. Figure 6-6 gives the relationship between concentration and
viscosity for two polymers of different molecular weights.
The viscosity is due to interactions between the polymer molecules and water, between the
polymers themselves and between the polymers and solids when these are present. These forces
giving rise to the viscosity can be disrupted by supplying energy or shear. The result of this is that
104
Fig.6-6 Effect of concentration on viscosity
of a high and low molecular weight water
soluble polymer
the greater the shear rate, the lower the viscosity becomes. Solutions that exhibit this behaviour
are called pseudoplastic or shear thinning fluids(). This is ideal flow
behaviour for drilling fluids, because low viscosity is required at the high shear rate zone near the
bit and higher viscosities are needed in the lower shear rates in the annulus, to transport cuttings to
the surface.
It will be seen from Figure 6-6, that the same
viscosity can be derived from a small concentration
of high molecular weight material as from a larger
concentration of low molecular weight material.
Since the cost of the two polymers on a weight basis
is essentially identical, it is more cost effective to
supply the high viscosity derivative.
Quite separate from the shear thinning
rheological behaviour is the problem of mechanical
or chemical degradation of the polymer chain, to
form a lower molecular weight derivative with the
lower viscosity characteristics. Thus, conditions of
high mechanical shear, such as mechanical pumps
and extrusion through nozzles, can cause a decrease
in viscosity. Linear molecules, such as those derived
from cellulose, tend to be more susceptible to
mechanical degradation, than highly branched
polymers, such as bacterial polysaccharides. Conditions of high temperature, high oxygen levels
and high alkalinity would tend to make most organic polymers more susceptible to chemical
degradation.
As discussed earlier, salt has the effect of reducing the repulsion of charged sites within the
molecule, which will produce a contraction of the polymer with a consequential loss in viscosity.
This effect may cause the polymer to be half as effective. The effect may be minimised if the
polymer if allowed to hydrate in fresh water initially. Obviously, this effect will be minimal for
non-ionic molecules.
The solubility and molecular dimensions can be altered by reaction with multivalent ions, such
as the reaction between CMC's and calcium. The stability of these anionic polymers to multivalent
cations is quite complicated and depends upon the cations present, concentrations, and the pH of
the solution. Generally the combination of high pH and high alkalinity tends to make the system
less stable due to the precipitation of metal hydroxide - polymer complexes.

Deflocculants(). The deflocculants, or thinners, in alkaline clay based systems,
usually achieve the results by adsorption of the negatively charged polymer onto the clay platelets,
thus neutralising positive charges and creating an overall negative charge. This is illustrated in
Figure 6-7. Thus, the thinners are characterised by being negatively charged and low molecular
weight. If the polymer is too long, it will bridge between particles and exhibit a flocculating action.
The types of materials that fit this molecular description will be discussed in the next section.
Flocculants(). Flocculants are characterised mainly by a high molecular weight
which will enable the polymer to bridge from particle to particle. Molecules with ionic groups can
105
Table 6-7 Some of the non-polar and polar groups that may be
incorporated into a surfactant molecule
adsorb more strongly to ionic sites and thus flocculate more effectively. Figure 6-7 attempts to
show how a polymer, with the same reactive groups, can act as a deflocculant at low molecular
weight and as a flocculant at high molecular weight.

Fig.6-7 Diagram to illustrate low M.W. polymers acting as deflocculant and high M.W. polymers act ing as
flocculants

Surfactants(). Surfactants are polymers in which each molecule contains two
assemblies of atoms or groups. One group is polar and thus attracted to a polar surface, such as
water, and is called the hydrophylic, or water-loving group. The other group is a non-polar,
hydrophobic or water-hating group. The nature of the surfactant is related to the type of
hydrophobic and hydrophilic group and the combination of groups. When the groups are
polymeric a whole family of molecules can be produced with the balance of hydrophobic and
hydrophylic groups gradually changing over the series. Table 6-7 lists some of the groups that can
be combined to make a surfactant.


Non-polar group Polar group
Hydrocarbon chain
CH
3
-(CH
2
)
n
- often derived
fromnatural oils and fats or from
petroleum. May contain
unsaturated bonds in molecule
-CH = CH-
hydroxyl -OH
phenolic R.OH
Ether -CH
2
-CH
2
-O-CH
2
CH
2
OH
Carboxylic - R-COO
-

Ester-R-COOR
1

Sulphonate-OSO
3
-

SulphateSO
3
-

Sulphosuccinate CH
2
COOR
-O
3
S-CH COOR
Amine -R-NH
2

106
Table 6-8 lists some other interfaces that require
modification with a surfactant


The particular property of surfactants that is utilised in drilling fluids, is the ability of these
molecules to exist at the interface of hydrophobic and hydrophylic surfaces. The molecule
bridging these surfaces lowers the energy of the system and makes it stable. For example, oil
would not, by itself, form a stable system of oil droplets within water. Mechanical energy would
have to be put into the system to make the small drops, but they would separate out, given time,
into two phases again. However, the introduction of a surfactant that migrates to the oil water
interface, will stabilise the system. The nature of the surfactant will decide whether the system
contains oil droplets within a continuous water phase--a direct emulsion, or water droplets within
a continuous oil phase an invert emulsion. Water soluble surfactants, with a relatively large polar
group, tend to give direct emulsions, and oil soluble surfactants, with relatively large non-polar
groups are used to form invert emulsions. These oils and lubricants are incorporated into some
systems up to about 20% to form direct emulsions. These oil emulsions have a characteristic white
milky appearance. Invert emulsions are used where the rocks need to be kept oil wet, for example
when water sensitive rocks are being drilled, or when water will impair the productivity of oil
bearing rocks.


Interface
Function of surfactant
Non-Polar Polar
oil water emulsifier - direct or invert
air water foamer or defoamer
steel water Lubricant, corrosion inhibitor
steel clay detergent
clay water dispersant
oil clay oil wetting agent

Fluids loss additives(). Polymeric additives can affect the fluid loss by essentially
three different mechanisms. A deflocculated filter cake will pack down to form a thinner, more
impermeable filter cake, so that polymers that act as deflocculants, such as low viscosity CMC or
lingosulphonates, will lower the fluid loss. If the liquid phase that is being forced through the filter
cake is viscous, this will lower the fluid loss also. Examples of these polymers are high molecular
weight CMC or xanthan gums. These two mechanisms are secondary functions of two polymer
types, namely deflocculants or viscosifiers. A third mechanism of lowering fluid loss is to add
colloidal particles that can compress and deform to plug the pores in the filter cake. The
structures of starch, some asphalt derivatives and lignin derivatives fit this description.

6.5.4 Polymers used in drilling fluids()
This section will describe the structures of some polymers used in drilling fluids and relate the
structure to the application, so that the use of polymers in drilling fluids is understood.
A commercially available material may be a blend of materials, because of an overlap of
properties and because of synergistic effects. Also, although a product is referred to as a generic
type, there are subtle differences between these polymers, dependent on factors, such as the
107
manufacturing process and raw materials. These can make substantial differences to the
performance of the drilling fluid. Some of the products and functions are summarised in Table 6-9.
Table 6-9 Types and functions of Polymers in drilling fluids
Polymer Type Description Examples Functions
Carboxymethyl
cellulose ether
CMC
Polysaccharide linear polymer
anionic-COO- groups
High molecular wt
Low molecular wt


High viscosity CMC
Low viscosity CMC


Viscosifier, fluid loss additive
Fluid loss additive
Hydroxyethyl
cellulose ether
HEC
Polysaccharide linear polymer
non-ionic ether group high
molecular weight
HEC Viscosifier-particularly for
brines.
Starch Polysaccharide highly branched
forms colloidal solution normally
non-ionic or anionic-COO
-

Corn. potatoes, tapioca,
etc. Variously chemically
modified
Fluid loss control in salt
solutions
Bacterial gums
polysaccharide
Polysaccharide branched complex
structure some anionic groups.
High molecular weight
Xanthan gums Viscosifier-particularly in salt
water and where suspension
properties are required
Natural gums
from trees and
shrubs
Polysaccharide branched high
molecular weight some anionic
groups complex structure
Guar, Gum arabic Viscosifier
Lignosulphonate Water soluble sulphonate derivative
of lignin - range of metal salts
Calcium lignosulphonate
Calcium-chrome
lignosulphonate
Ferro-chrome
lignosulphonate
Thinner
deflocculant
fluid loss control
Mined lignins


Tannin
Polyphosphates
Metal salts of petrified humic acid


Extracts from bark and wood
Molecularly dehydrated phosphates
Chrome lignite,
Potassium lignite,
Causticized lignite
Quebracho
Sodium acid
pyrophosphate
Water loss control and thinner


Thinner
Thinner
Vinyl polymer Polymer of acrylic acid
CH
2
=CHCOOH
-CH
2
-CH-CH
2
-CH-
C=O C=O
O-Na

O-Na
Low molecular weight <1,000
thinner.
High molecular weight
flocculant
Vinly polymer Co-polymer of acrylic acid and
acrylamide in various ratios
-CH
2
-CH-CH
2
-CH
C=O C=O
O-Na
+
NH
2

Flocculant shale stablizer
Co-polymer Vinyl acetate-maleic anhydride,
high molecular weight
-CH
2
-CH-CH-CH-
CO CO CO
O=CCH
3

OH

OH
Flocculant bentonite extender
Surfactants Resin soaps
calcium soap of tall oil lecithin
Synthetic polymers Emulsifier for water in oil
emulsifier for oil in water
108
Figure 6-8 Glucose showing
three dimensional structure
and numbering of carbon
atoms
Nonylphenolethoxylate alkyl
sulphonates
drilling detergent
Surfactants n-Tridecyl polyoxy ethylene
ethanol, nonyl phenol polyethylene
glycol ether
Synthetic polymers Foaming agent
Surfactant Higher alcohols, sulphated
vegetable oils
Synthetic polymers Defoamer
Surfactants Fatty acid glycerides, ethoxylated
long chain alkyldiamine
Synthetic polymers Lubricant corrosion inhibtor

The polysaccharide() class of polymers is the most widely used group of polymers used
in drilling fiuids, and includes the cellulose derivatives, starches,
bacterial polysaccharides, and gums. The basic unit() is
glucose, which contains only carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen atoms. Figure 6-8 gives a three dimensional diagram of
the cyclic molecule.

The polymers are constructed through an oxygen atom
connecting carbon atoms of another glucose unit to form a
glucosidic linkage, as shown in Figure 6-9. This linkage can be
formed between hydroxyl groups on C-1, C-2 and C-6. The
linkage on C-1 can be either below the ring shown in Figure 4/6
(an alpha, linkage), or above the ring (a beta, -linkage).
An extensive range of polymers can be manufactured by
modifying natural products. They will all contain the same
monomer group, but will differ in molecular weight, type of
linkage and chemical modification. The different structures can be related to the different
functions of the molecules.

Figure 6-9 Glucosidic link between glucose units

Cellulose Derivatives. Cellulose is composed of glucose units joined by -(14) linkages,
which gives the linear polymer shown in Figure 6-10. Wood fibre consists of bundles of these
molecules, cross-linked with a material called lignin(). Cellulose is insoluble in water, but
it can be chemically modified to introduce more hydrophylic groups and to break down the
crystalline structure of the cellulose. The reaction is to swell the cellulose with alkali and then
form chemical derivatives of the hydroxyl groups on the anhydrogtucose units.

109
Fig. 6-11 Stucture of
caboxymethyl cellulose
Figure 6-10 Structure of cellulose

Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC). In the case of CMC, a carboxymethyt group (-CH
2
COOH)
is attached to a carbon atom via an ether linkage, as shown in Figure 6-11. The cellulose is first
reacted with sodium hydroxide to form the alkali cellulose and then with monochloro acetate.
There are potentially three reactive hydroxyl groups. The extent
of the reaction is referred to as the degree of substitution(
), or DS, which is normally in the range 0.8-1.2 for CMC's
used in drilling fluids. The uniformity of substitution can also
modify the properties. The more uniform the distribution, the
smoother and less thixotropic, or shear thinning, the solutions
will be. A third variable is the chain length, or degree of
polymerization(), which can be altered by chemically or
mechanically breaking the glycosidic bond.
Thus, it can be seen that a low molecular weight CMC will
exhibit the characteristics required for a deflocculant, namely low molecular weight and negative
charge.
A high molecular weight CMC will be used as a viscosifier and also possess some fluid loss
properties. This group of polymers have been used extensively in drilling fluids because of the
features of moderate cost and stability to both salt and moderately high temperatures.
Hydroxyethyl Cellulose (HEC). The production process for making HEC is based on the
reaction between alkali cellulose and ethylene oxide as follows.

O
R-OH+NaOHR-ONa+CH
2
-CH
2
R-OCH
2
CH
2
OH
Subsequent reactions can take place on the ethylene oxide. An idealised unit structure is given
in Figure 6-12. Control of reaction conditions can produce different polymers by effecting the four
main variables:

Fig.6-12 Structure of hydroxyethyl cellulose

A. length of cellulose chain.
B. degree of substitution (DS) on the cellulose unit normally 1.5-2.5 DS for a water soluble
polymer.
C. degree of polymersation of the polyethylene side chains called the molar substitution
110
(MS).
D. uniformity of substitution.

The polymer does not contain any ionic groups and therefore is ideally suited as a viscosifier
for completion fluids and other brine based fluids. The polymer exhibits highly developed
thioxotropy or shear thinning characteristics but does not exhibit any yield stress or gellation
properties. The material may be specially treated to improve its solubility in water. Other cellulose
derivatives may also be prepared with both the CMC and HEC groups on the one molecule, or be
prepared with other groups.
Starch. Starch is present in plants as a form of food storage. Starch grains possess a hard outer
cell wall made from a polysaccharide called amylopectin. The structure is given in Figure 6-13.
Inside the shell are bundles of a linear, coiled polysaccharide, called amylose. The structure is
given in Figure 6-14.

Fig.6-13. Structure of amylopectin (a) showing branching (b) chemical structure of -D (16) link


Fig.6-14 Structure of amylase(a) chemical structure (b) three dimensional structure(c) helical form of chain

For the starch to exhibit fluid loss control properties, the amylopectin outer shell has to be
ruptured in a process known as pregelatinization, which releases the water-swellable amylose.
This is shown diagrammatically in Figure 6-15. This product can then be further modified to
decrease the viscosity and then be cross-linked to increase temperature stability. The properties of
the starch can also be varied by the source of crude starch, which may be potato, or tapioca.
111

Fig.6-15 Schematic diagram of the manufacture of modified starches. (A) Starch grain(B) Pregelatinised
starch(C) Modigication to reduce viscosity(D) Modification to increase temperature stability.

Thus, starch can be modified to form a very effective agent to lower fluid loss, particularly in
flocculated salty fluids, by forming colloidal water-swellable particles that will seal pores in the
filter cake.

Microbial Polysaccharides--Xanthan Gum. Bacteria of the Xanthomonas genus can produce
gummy colonies. These simple, single celled bacteria excrete a polysaccharide gum to form a
protective layer to prevent dehydration and provide a physical barrier to attack by bacteriophages.
They can be grown by aerobic fermentation on a simple medium that includes a carbohydrate
source such as D-glucose, sugar, or hydrolysed starch.
The bacteria are killed after the fermentation and the gum extracted and precipitated by
isopropyl alcohol. After the alcohol is recovered, the gum is dried and milled. This purification
process is very expensive.
Xanthan gum is a heteropolysaccharide, with a molecular weight in excess of 1 million. The gum
contains a basic repeating unit of 16 units. A probable structure is given in Figure 6-16. Note that
it is a branched structure which contains polar carboxyl groups and ester groups the polymer
forms viscous solutions that are highly pseudo-plastic or shear thinning, or low shear thickening.
This well-developed behaviour is thought to be due to the formation of coiled structures that
aggregate together strongly at low shear rates. The aggregation is so well developed that solutions
have an apparent yield value. That is, stress has to be applied before the fluid flows. An important
consequence of this is that xanthan polymer solutions have excellent suspension properties that
cannot be matched by other polymers at equivalent concentrations. The polymers' viscous
properties are generally not affected by salt or temperature.
112

Fig.6-16 Probable structure of the repeating unit of xanthan gum showing complex branched structure

This polymer has particular application in low solids potassium based fluids and will increase
the carrying capacity without increasing the viscosity greatly. The polymer also has application in
completion fluids, where suspension of weighting material is required.
Natural GumsGuar. Guar gum is derived from the seed of the guar plant. It is a
polysaccharide polymer with molecular weight of about 220.000. The repeating unit is composed
of galactose() and manose. The probable structure is given in Figure 6-17.

Fig.6-17 Probable structure of repeating unit of guargum

The polymer may be chemically modified by reaction with the hydroxyl groups. The features
of the structure of high molecular weight and non-ionic grouping ensure very high viscosities and
an absence of sensitivity to salt. It may be used to build a viscous polymer fluid in large surface
hole drilling.

Lignins and Lignosulphonates(). Lignin is a major component of
wood and binds the bundles of cellulose fibres together. To produce cellulose pulp for paper
production, the lignin may be solubilised by reaction in hot alkali and bisulphite. The structure of
113
lignin is not known with any precision. A suggested possible structure for a lignin monomer is
given in Figure 6-18, to indicate the types of reactive groups that are present. They may be
condensed to carbohydrates. The structure is very complex and should not be regarded simply as a
polymer of the repeating monomer unit. The bisulphite extraction process causes partial
hydrolysis of the carbohydrate structure and the formation of sulphonic groups on the hydroxyl
groups of the side chains. The lignosulphonic acids may be reacted with bases or salts to form acid
salts such as sodium, calcium aluminium iron or chromium The acids can also form co-ordination
compounds in which the hydroxyl (-OH), carboxyl (COOH) and carbonyl (C-O) groups in the
molecule can form co-ordination compounds, or chelates with transition metal ions such as
chromium. Such a reaction is illustrated in Figure 6-19 in which the lignosulphonate molecule is
depicted as "LIG".

Fig.6-18 Probable structure of repeating unit of lignin


Fig. 6-19 Main Structure of Ferrochrome Lignosulfonoate

The chrome lignosulphonate complex product contains a high number of hydrogen bonding
groups, such as carbonyl (C=O) and carboxyl (COOH), through oxidation reaction and also
increases the viscosity of the lignosulphonate solution by cross-linking.
The lignosulphonate material in solution can be described as an association colloid. This
consists of molecules of molecular weight in the range of 1,500 to 10,000, that exist in solution as
rigid ellipsoids with a highly polar surface containing sulphonate, carboxyl, carbonyl, phenolic
and hydroxyl groups. The molecule is strongly adsorbed onto clay surfaces and can effectively act
as a deflocculant by neutralisation of positive charges, which will create an overall negative
charge on the clay solids.
Mined Lignins. Lignin is petrified humic acid. The chemical structure is virtually unknown,
but it will probably contain aromatic groups and phenolic groups. A proportion may be soluble in
alkali, which indicates the acidic nature of the material. It can be simply mined and processed at
low cost.
114
It can be used as a thinning agent and the insoluble, or water-swellable components, will
impart a level of fluid loss control. It may be supplied as the acidic material, ground with caustic
soda to neutralise it (causticised Lignite).
Tannin. Tannin is a water soluble, low molecular weight acidic material extracted from the bark
and wood of trees. Extensive quantities are obtained from the quebracho tree, grown in Argentina.
The material is extracted from the ground bark or wood with hot water under pressure. The water
is then evaporated and the solid product milled often with fine clay or calcium carbonate, to
prevent the material resolidifying.
The structure is quite complex and varies in some details, dependent on the source of material.
The postulated structure is based on a sub unit in which five molecules of digallic acid are reacted
with one molecule of glucose. The acids are represented in Figure 6-20.

Fig.6-20 Tannic acids that esterify with glucose to form tannins

The acidic low molecular weight molecule is an effective deflocculant and is particularly
effective in fluids with a pH above 11.5. The development of lower pH, gyp-lignosulphonate
fluids superseded the tannins.
Polyphosphates. The monomers, the orthophosphates, are polymerized by removal of water to
form the metaphosphates and pyrophosphates. The meta and pyrophosphates are reacted with each
other to form the polyphosphates.
The fundamental unit is the trivalent phosphoric acid, which can be successively neutralised to
form the three sodium members, mono, di and tri. The three stages are shown in Figure 6-21.
115

Fig.6-21 Dehydration of ortho phosphates to form polyphosphates

The commercial material may be a mixture of the phosphate polymers, or may be esters of
tannin products or complexes with heavy metals.
The low molecular weight, acidic molecule will act as an effective thinner, particularly in low
pH, low temperature fresh water muds. The thinners are not effective in high calcium
environments and could not be used in temperatures above 65 (150), because they would
revert to the mono-phosphates.
Synthetic polymers. A wide range of synthetic polymers are based on the polymerisation of
molecules that can be described as substituted ethylene. They polymerise to form a carbon-carbon
backbone in Figure 6-22.

Fig.6-22 Polymerisation of substituted ethylenes

The group on the substituted carbon can be varied or modified after polymerisation. Also the
chain length can be varied by altering the reaction conditions.
Polyacrylates. Materials with a molecular weight of less than 1,000 can be effective
deflocculants and may have particular application at higher temperatures, because they possess
greater resistance to thermal and bacterial degradation than the natural polymers, such as starch
and CMC. The application is limited by the tendency to form insoluble salts with polyvalent ions.
Co-polymers of acrylamidel acrylate. Hydrolysed polyacrylamide chains will contain
116
carboxy and amide groups. They can be prepared by polymerisation of the acrylamide and acrylate,
or by hydrolysis of polyacrylamide. The molecular weight and ratio of acid toamide groups can be
varied.
High molecular weight polymers, with about 30% acid groups, have been shown to be
effective as agents that stabilise water sensitive shales. They may be also used for flocculaets in
clear water drilling fluids, where the molecular weight is in excess of 2 million and the carboxyl
groups account for less than 10% of the groups.
Intermediate molecular weight material (150,000-250,000) with 60-70% acid groups can be
used for effective fluid loss control.
Co-polymer of vinyl acetate and maleic anhydride. Co-polymers of vinyl acetate and maleic
anhydride have shown particular application as bentonite extenders. Low levels (0.5% w/w of
polymer on clay) can double the plastic viscosity of a 3-5% bentonite suspension. The polymer
acts as a selective flocculant and is characterised by a high molecular weight and negative charges.
Various other polymers in this general group may have specialised application, but will not be
detailed here.
Surfactants. The basic principles of surfactants are given in Figure 6-23. The products are
often proprietary blends of a number of surfactants whose compositions are not disclosed. Limited
examples and structures can be given. The main features are the hydrophobic balance within the
molecule of the polar and non-polar groups and the polar nature of the groups.

Fig.6-23 Diagrammatic representation of a surfactant

Oil-in-water emulsifiers. Oil may be added purposely to a water based mud to lower the
density, to increase the drilling rate and to improve hole stability. Oil may also enter the mud from
producing formations, or be added to free pipe that has stuck. If the oil is emulsified, the
performance will be improved and the fire hazard essentially eliminated. Lignitic material,
lignosulphonates and tannins are effective, but specific surfactants, such as sulphonated
hydrocarbons, sodium salts of tall oil or polyoxy-ethylene esters and ethers, may be added. The
surfactants are dissolved in the water phase.
Water- in-oil emulsifiers. Fluids are designed with a continuous oil phase, where the water is
held in fine droplets by the action of surfactants. To stabilise a water-in-oil emulsion, the
surfacants are in the oil phase. Typical examples are calcium soaps and lecithin.
Foaming agents. A surfactant is added to stabilize the foam formed, when water enters a well
being drilled with air as the flushing medium. Typical examples are nonylphenol polyethylene
117
glycol ether and n-tridecylpoly-oxyethylene ethanol.
Defoaming agents. Air, or other gases, may be entrained in the mud by the surface equipment
or by high pressure gas from the formation. The release of this gas is facilitated by a defoaming
agent. Examples include higher alcohols, sulphated vegetable oils and aluminium stearate.
Mud detergents. Detergents have been found to decrease the tendency for the shale being
drilled to adhere to the bit in a condition described as "bit balling. Often non-ionic detergents of
the type described as oil in water surfactants are effective.
Stuck pipe surfactants. Surfactants are added to break down a filter cake and oil wet the drill
pipe. A blend of surfactants would be used. Refer to chapter on Stuck Pipe for more information.
Lubricants. A surfactant can be added to specifically form a lubricating film between the drill
string and the hole. This may be of the type used to emulsify water in oil, or it may be a specific
additive, such as a fatty acid or ester.
Corrosion inhibitor. A surface active agent can form a film on metal surfaces to isolate the
metal surface from the corrosive environment. Chemicals, such as ethoxylated long chain alkyl
diamines, may be used for this purpose. Refer to chapter on Corrosion for more information.
Exercises:
1. How the properties of drilling fluid can be affected by water?
2. What kind of Bentonite shall be used for making up muds with high quality?
3. Using API Barite to increase 180 m
3
of drilling fluid the density from 1.10g/cm
3
to 1.25g/cm
3
, the
final fluid volume is 180 m
3
, then calculate: 1) How much muds shall be disposed before
weighting; 2) How much barite shall be added?
4. Explain the functions and mechanis ms of Sodium carbonate (Na
2
CO
3
), Sodium hydroxide
(NaOH), Calcium chloride(CaCl
2
), Potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium polyphosphates.
5. Expat iate the mechanism of NaT(Thinner) and CMC (Filtration reducer) by analyzing their
structure separately.
6. Write out the hydrolysis process of polyacrylonitrile().
7. Interpret the following concepts their functions: DS, DP, chelation(), adsorption groups
and hydration groups and.
















118

CHPATER 7 WATER BASE DRILLING FLUID
Water base muds are the most widely used of the three general types of drilling fluids. In
most wells, a water base mud is used during the entire drilling operation. In many wells, where the
primary drilling fluid is an oil or invert emulsion mud, or gas, only part of the drilling operation
may be done with water base mud. Drilling muds vary widely in their composition and in the
amount and type of chemical treatment they receive, owing to the need to provide the most
economical mud for the type of well and the portion of the hole being drilled. In the following, the
requirements for a satisfactory drilling fluid for different portions of the hole and for different
drilling conditions are discussed separately.
7.1 Classification of Bentonite Drilling Fluid Systems()
Early drilling fluids were merely freshwater suspensions of drilled solids, or natural muds. In
the 1920s, it was appreciated that the density of the fluid should be regulated to control subsurface
formation pressures, and dense minerals, such as iron oxide and barite were added. The specific
use of bentonite as a suspending agent for the weighting materials was introduced in 1929. This
development was followed by the use of thinners and by the concept of fluid loss control.
The drilling of formations that contained salt and anhydrite led to the development of starch,
and later CMC, as fluid loss additives and to the development of lime-based muds. The late 1950s
led to the development of new thinners, such as ferrochrome lignosulphonate, and extended the
clay based systems tolerance to calcium and temperature.
The most recent developments have been concerned with the development of low-solids
fluids with improved rates of penetration and water-based fluids that provide levels of shale
inhibition close to that of oil-based fluids. These developments have given rise to a wide variety of
mud systems, some of which are specialised for one particular area or problem. These systems can
be divided into two categories, which relate to the type of solid-solid interactions and flow
properties, namely dispersed and non-dispersed. Each of these categories can be further
sub-divided into non-inhibited fresh water systems and inhibited systems, including saline
fluids. Table 7-1 sets out the mud systems that will be described under each heading.
Table 7-1 Classification of Bentonite Fluid Systems
Solid-solid interactions Inhibition level Drilling fluid type
Dispersed





Dispersed

Non-inhibited





Inhibited

1. Fresh water clay based fluids. Sodium chloride less than 1%
calcium ions less than 120 ppm
a. Phosphate low pH (pH to 8.5)
b. Tannin-high pH (ph 8.5-11+)
c. Lignite
d. Chrome lignosulphonate(pH 8.5-10)
2. Saline (sodium chloride) fluids
a. Sea-water fluids
119






Non-dispersed


Non-dispersed






Non-inhibited


Inhibited
b. Salt fluids
c. Saturated salt fluids
3. Calcium treated fluids
a. Lime
b. Gypsum
4. Low concentration lignosulphonate fluids
Fresh water-low solids
a. Extended bentonite systems
b. Bentonite-polymer systems
Salt-polymer fluids
This classification system was chosen to highlight the importance of selection of the drilling
fluid to the type of formation being drilled. For example, a hard, water insensitive shale may be
drilled with a dispersed, non-inhibited fluid, whereas a soft, swelling, dispersive formation should
be drilled with a non-dispersed inhibited fluid.
The fluid systems will be discussed under these headings. It will be realised that fluid
formulations will only apply to the initial make-up. In engineering any fluid system, the
interactions between the mud system and the formation often dictate the additions of material
required to maintain the system.
7.2 Deflocculants Used in Dispersed Systems
These are systems where the viscosity and fluid loss control properties are essentially those
imparted by a dispersed, deflocculated sodium-bentonite system. The important characteristics of
these systems are the deflocculants that are used to control the build-up of solid-solid interactions,
which can give rise to excessively high viscosities and gels. Deflocculation will also reduce the
fluid loss.
In these systems, bentonite must be hydrated in water containing less than 1% sodium
chloride and less than 120 ppm calcium ion. The particular properties of the type of thinners
used, defines the overall system application and its limitations. The main deflocculants in use are
described below.
7.2.1 Inorganic Phosphates
The two phosphates most generally employed are SAPP (sodium acid pyrophosphate-
), with a pH of about 4.0, and STP (sodium tetraphosphate), with a pH of about 7.0.
Phosphates are very effective deflocculants and react by neutralisation of positive sites on the
clays, particularly those arising from aluminium ions.
Very low dosage levels are normally required, in the range of 0.29-1.43 kg/m
3
(0.1-0.5 ppb).
The materials are acidic, so the pH is usually below 9.0 and normally kept in the range of 8-9 by
use of SAPP and STP, where viscosities are minimal. Overtreatment can lower the pH, which can
raise the viscosity through clay flocculation.
120
The efficiency of this class of deflocculants is limited by two factors:
A. Temperature: Molecularly dehydrated phosphates can revert by hydration at
temperatures above 65 (149) to monophosphates.
B. Calcium: Phosphates form insoluble salts with calcium and are thus ineffective as
thinners in the presence of high concentrations of soluble calcium. These two factors
limit the use of the phosphates to fluids with temperatures below about 65 (149),
which, with normal temperature gradients is only applicable in holes with a maximum
depth of about 2,438 metres (8,000 ft). Phosphates may be added to sequester calcium, if
sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate is not available, but normally would be used in
fluids containing less than 100 ppm calcium.
7.2.2 Tannins()
Tannins were developed to extend the temperature range above that of phosphates, to around
120 (248). The tannin acids, mainly quebracho or hemlock, have to be converted to the
sodium salt by treatment with caustic soda. Therefore, to treat the mud, the tannin is mixed with
caustic soda in the ratio of 1:1 or 4:1, dependent on the pH of the mud system. Concentrations of
1.43-8.56kg/m
3
(0.5-3 ppb) are normally required and care should be taken to avoid overtreatment,
as this may lead to increased viscosities.
Tannins are effective at higher pH ranges, above 9.5, and are most effective in lime muds,
where the pH is 11-12. Thus, tannins are effective agents against cement contamination. The
higher pH allows a greater tolerance to solids, but these fluids are not usually used above densities
of 1.4. This type of system has a low tolerance to salt and should not be used in salinities greater
than that of sea-water. A chemically modified tannin, Desco, has been developed that retains the
effectiveness at low doses, but has increased tolerance towards calcium, salt and elevated
temperatures.
7.2.3 Lignites and Chrome Lignites()
Lignites provide moderate deflocculation action, but only in fresh water muds. The material
has only limited solubility and has to be treated with caustic soda before addition to the system.
The limited solubility requires higher additions to be made, normally in the range 11.41-25.68
kg/m
3
(4-9 ppb). But, as a consequence of the insoluble nature of the material, a level of fluid loss
control is achieved. This latter property has particular application in high temperature fluids,
where they have been used at temperatures in excess of 230 (446). Chromium salts may be
used to extend the temperature range. Lignites are available that do not contain chromium.
The solubility of the material is decreased in electrolytes, so it does not function effectively
in salty water above 2% and in free calcium levels above 200 ppm.
The insolubility and aromatic humic acid() structure gives the molecule surfactant
properties and this material can be effective as an emulsification aid in oil emulsion fluids.
7.2.4 Lignosulphonates and Metal Lignosulphonates()
This group of materials represents a significant technical advance over the materials
121
previously described due to their effectiveness over a wider range of conditions. These can be
listed as follows:
A. can be used in both fresh water and salt water environments
B. excellent resistance to calcium
C. effective over a wide range of pH value normally 9.5-12.0
D. effective at temperatures of around 175 (347)
E. no overtreatment effects if used in too high a concentration
F. effective in higher weight fluids
These advantages have ensured a wide spread application of lignosulphonate derivatives in
drilling fluids. The complexes with iron and chromium have had greater application, due to
increased temperature stability.
7.2.5 Synthetic Polymers
Recent developments in polymer technology have led to the introduction of temperature stable
polymers, with excellent resistance to calcium. IDTHIN 500 is most effective in fresh and
brackish water. Another product of this nature is IDSPERSE HT, which has particular
application in saline fluids up to saturated salt conditions. Both products are effective at low doses
of 9.57-5.71 kg/m
3
(0.2-2lbs/bbl), are in liquid form to ensure ease of mixing and have a
temperature stability in excess of 230(446). They are also non-toxic in contrast to the chrome
containing products.
7.2.6 Surfactants
Surfactants can lower surface tension and increase the wetting of clays. These effects will
reduce the viscosity of the muds. The surface active agent may be specific for a particular level of
salt. This system may have particular application for drilling sticky shales. The essential features
of deflocculants are summarised in Table 7-2.
Table 7-2 Summary of characteristics and limitations of deflocculants in bentonite fluids
Type
pH
range
Stability
calcium
Salt
Temperature
stability

Normal dose Application
1. Phosphate
SAPP
TSP
7-9 100ppm poor 149 65 0.1-0.5 lb/bbl
0.29-1.43 kg/m
3
Surface holes
2. Tannins 9.5-12 poor poor 248 120 0.5-3 lb/bbl
1.43-8.56 kg/m
3

Fresh water and lime
muds
3. Modified Tannin
(Desco)
8-13 good good 392 200 0.1-3 lb/bbl
0.29-8.56 kg/m
3

All dispersed mud
systems
4. Lignites Above
9
200ppm
max.
poor 446 230 4-9 lb/bbl
11.41-25.68
Fluid loss at high temp
in fresh water fluids
122
kg/m
3
Emulsifier for oil
5. Chrome
lignosulphonates
FCL
Above
9.5
good good 347 175 2-4 lb/bbl
5.71-11.41 kg/m
3

Fresh, salt and calcium
fluids
6. Synthetic Polymers
IDTHIN 500
IDSPERSE HT
8-10 excellent
excellent
Good
excellent
482
500
250-
260
0.2-2 lb/bbl
0.57-5.71kg/m
3

Low dose, temperature
stable
7. Surfactants 8-12 good Depends
on type
320 160- 1-2 lb/bbl
2.85-5.71 kg/m
3

Stabilises fluids
7.3 Dispersed Non-Inhibited Systems()
Drilling fluid systems typically used to drill the upper hole sections are described as dispersed
non-inhibited systems. They would typically be formulated with fresh water and can often derive
many of their properties from dispersed drilled solids or bentonite. They would not normally be
weighted to above 12 ppg (1.44 S.G.) and the temperature limitation would be in the range of
80-90(176-194). The flow properties are controlled by a deflocculant, or thinner, and the fluid
loss is controlled by the addition of bentonite and low viscosity CMC derivatives. A typical
formulation is given in Table 7-3. The details of the system are related to the deflocculant used and
would be selected on the grounds of the ability to withstand the expected contaminants and
temperature.
Table 7-3 Typical formulation of a Dispersed Non-Inhibited Fluid
Fresh water
Bentonite
Caustic soda
Deflocculant
Low Viscosity CMC
Barite
1 bbl
15-30 lbs
Dependent on deflocculant
See Table 2
1-2 lbs
As required
1 m
3

42.8-85.9 kg


2.85-5.71 kg
Within the limitations of the system, treatments are straightforward and may be summarised as
follows:
A. Solids. Excessive concentrations of solids can produce unacceptably high viscosities and
gel strengths. This can lead to an excessive consumption of chemicals. The level is
controlled by dilution with water to the desirable level.
B. Viscosity. The plastic viscosity is decreased by water additions and increased by
bentonite and solids additions. The yield point and gel strengths are decreased by the
addition of thinners and increased by bentonite additions.
C. Fluid Loss Control. Often proper dispersion of the bentonite alone will give a fluid loss
in the region of 5 cc's. if lower levels are required CMC or IDFLO may be added.
The advantages may be listed as follows:
123
A. These systems make maximum use of drilled solids and thus may potentially reduce
overall material consumption.
B. The systems can be converted to a dispersed inhibitive type fluid when required.
C. The systems can tolerate fairly high levels of drilled solids at the lower mud weights.
The disadvantages stem from the non-inhibited character of the system, which can lead to a
very rapid build up of formation solids. This can lead to the following consequences:
A. Unacceptably high viscosities and gel strengths.
B. Excessively high dilution volumes that increase consumption of treating chemicals and
weighting materials, such as barites. In practice this feature often limits these systems to
densities below 1.44 (12 ppg).
C. Dispersion of the clays can lead to severe hole erosion, which will produce problems in
directional drilling and cementation of casing.
D. The uninhibited nature can promote the hydration, or swelling, of water sensitive shales,
which may cause heaving or sloughing conditions, balling of the bit, or the formation of
"mud rings".
E. The uninhibited nature may disperse or mobilise clays in sandstone formations and
impair the production of condensate from the pores.
F. The systems are easily and severely affected by common contaminants of soluble
calcium and salt, both of which induce flocculation with consequential deteriorations
in flow properties (high viscosities and high gel strengths) and fluid loss control(high
levels). Chrome lignosulphonate systems have largely overcome these difficulties.
7.4 Dispersed Inhibited Systems()
Dispersed inhibitive fluids attempt to combine the use of dispersed clays and deflocculants to
derive the fundamental properties of viscosity and fluid loss with other features that will limit or
inhibit the hydration of the formation and cuttings. It will be realised these functions are in
opposition, therefore the ability of these systems to provide a high level of shale inhibition is
limited. However, they have achieved a high level of success and in many formations represent a
significant advance over dispersed non-inhibited types of fluids. Inhibition is sought through three
mechanisms:
7.4.1 Addition of Electrolyte or Salt()
It was shown in Section 4 that the hydration of bentonite could be decreased by an increase in
the salt level. The electrolyte may be present for a number of reasons.
In many areas, because of economy, convenience or by intention, the make-up or treating
124
water contains salt. On offshore locations, sea-water is an obvious choice of water. A typical
sea-water analysis is given in Table 7-4. Note there are significant concentrations of calcium
and magnesium that may aid the inhibition mechanism. Treatment with an alkali, such as
caustic soda, will remove magnesium hydroxide above pH 10.5-11.
Table 7-4 Typical Seawater Analysis
Ion Formula Concentration (mg/l)
Chloride
Sulphate
Carbonate
Bicarbonate
Bromide
Borate

Nitrate
Phosphate
Fluoride
Sodium
Magnisium
Calcium
Potassium
Hydrogen
Cl
-

SO
4
2-
CO
3
2-
HCO
3
-
Br
-

BO
3
3-
and
HBO
3
2-

NO
3
-
HPO
4
2-
F
-
Na
+
Mg
+
Ca
+
K
+
H
+
19,400
2,710

145
66

25
0.7
0.1
1.3
10,800
1,290
410
390
pH 7.5-8.5
Brackish water or formation water which contains over 1% salt or 6,000 mg/l chloride ion
would also have an inhibitive effect.
Salt may also be derived from the formation, as it is often encountered as a thin stringer or as
a massive salt bed. Salt from the formation can be used to increase the salinity if the sections
are not too thick and the washed-out sections do not destabilise the hole.
In order to drill extensive salt sections, the aqueous phase has to be saturated by the addition
of salt. Bentonite is activated and stabilised for these salty inhibited fluids by prehydration in
fresh water and treatment with ferrochrome lignosulphonate() to limit the
collapse of the clay structure. In a salty environment, low viscosity CMC and modified
starches, such as IDFLO and IDFLO HTR, may be used to reduce fluid loss. A formulation is
given in Table 7-5.
Table 7-5 Typical Formulation for Bentonite Seawater Fluid
(1) Bentonite premix
Fresh water 1 bbl 1 m
3

Wyoming bentonite 45-55 lbs 128.39-156.92 kg
Caustic soda 2 lbs 5.71
125
Ferrochrome
lignosulphonate FCL 6lbs 17.12 kg
(2) Add 1 volume premix to 1 volume salt water
Bentonite premix 0.5 bbl 0.5 m
3

Salt water 0.5 bbl 0.5 m
3

IDF FLR 0.5-1 lb 1.43-2.85 kg
IDFLO 3-5 lb 8.56-14.27 kg
Caustic soda pH 10.5-11
Barite to required density

The treatment will be essentially that for a dispersed, system. Good quality fines, from the
bentonite, should be carefully maintained by a programme of disposal of whole mud and
replacement with prehydrated bentonite.
The fluid will have good temperature stability up to about 350 (180). Lignite at
14.27-28.53 kg/m
3
(5-10 lbs/bbl) or HIGH TEMP at a similar dose, will provide fluid loss
control at high temperature and pressure.
At higher salinity levels than seawater the bentonite becomes less effective. One solution is
to use higher bentonite doses, but this can overload the system with fine sized particles and
cause instability. A better approach is to rely on salt stable polymers to derive the viscosity
and fluid loss control. The polymer IDVIS, used at low concentrations of 1.43-4.28 kg/m
3

(0.5-1.5 lbs/bbl) will effectively allow the viscosity to be maintained.
In particular, it will provide high yield point characteristics to ensure good hole cleaning.
IDFLO will ensure that the desired fluid loss control characteristics are maintained. In
saturated salt conditions, the solubility and effectiveness of ferrochrome lignosulphate
(FCL) deteriorates and a synthetic polymeric deflocculant such as IDSPERSE HT would be
more cost effective, as only low doses of 1.43-5.71 kg/m
3
(0.5-2 lbs/bbl) would be required.
7.4.2 Calcium Treated Systems
The calcium ion can inhibit hydratable formation clays by exchanging with the sodium ions to
produce a hydrated but non-expanding complex with a much reduced volume of entrained water.
The calcium ion competes very effectively for sodium, so only has to be present in relatively low
concentrations of 500-2000 mg/l calcium ion. The effect of the calcium ion on the bentonite clay
system is, of course, going to be the same with the conversion to a calcium montmorillonite
126
system. An advantage of that is the stability to calcium in the form of anhydrite and cement.
The calcium is maintained in solution by either adding lime (calcium hydroxide) or
gypsum(hydrated calcium sulphate). These salts have only a limited solubility in water, so they
may be maintained in excess to replace the calcium ion as it is used up in the exchange process.
Calcium inhibition can be supplemented by salt inhibition, when the fluids are formulated with
sea-water.
Lime-Treated Fluids
The solubility of lime is controlled by the alkalinity, which is adjusted by caustic soda
additions. The chemical equations can be written as:

_ 2
2
2OH Ca Ca(OH) +
+


_
OH Na NaOH +
+

Calcium hydroxide is a weak base and is only partially dissociated. Sodium hydroxide fully
dissociates into sodium and hydroxyl ions.
As more hydroxide ions are added, as sodium hydroxide, the dissociation of lime is decreased
and the concentration of calcium ions in solution can be adjusted. Lime will dissolve in water to
form a solution containing 900 mg/l, calcium ions. This can be adjusted to the working range of
80-200 mg/l with caustic soda. The level of alkalinity is measured by acid titration() of the
filtrate.
Lime muds can be discussed under three headings.
A. Low Lime Muds. These fluids offer the least inhibition, but have the greatest temperature
stability. Temperature instability arises through the formation of a calcium
aluminosilicate, or cement-type material, with consequential thickening of the fluid.
Low lime muds are normally used when the temperatures encountered are near the limits
for this type of fluid of 135(275). The excess of lime is maintained at 2.85-5.71
kg/m
3
(1-2 ppb) and filtrate alkalinities are in the range 1-2 mis.
B. Conventional Lime Muds. These fluids offer good inhibition to shales and are tolerant to
salt and anhydrite. They are the most commonly used and typically contain 8.56-17.12
kg/m
3
(3-6 lbs/bbl) excess lime and have filtrate alkalinities in the range of 3-6 mis.
C. High Lime Muds. These are the most inhibitive of this type and are employed when the
shales and clays to be encountered are particularly hydratable. The excess of lime is
maintained in the range 19.97-42.80 kg/m
3
(7-15 lb/bbl) and the filtrate alkalinity is 7-15
ccs.
The formulations, apart from the quantities of lime and caustic, are essentially the same. Often
the fluids are formulated by conversion, or break-over, of an existing non-inhibited dispersed mud.
127
This can be done during drilling operations.
The lime requirement is the amount of excess lime, plus 20%. Normally caustic soda is added
to achieve a filtrate alkalinity numerically equal to the excess lime desired. As a guideline the dose
required is given by the equation caustic soda lbs/bbl = 1/2(excess lime lbs/bbl-1) + 1.
The low concentrations of calcium in the filtrate allow deflocculants, except phosphates, to be
used. However, the best results are achieved with tannin or lignosulphonate types. In saline
conditions, lignosulphonate types are preferred.
A typical formulation for a conventional lime mud is given in Table 7-6 and mixed in the order
given. If the conversion is to take place on an existing fluid, care should be taken to dilute the
active clay solids to a level where the initial flocculation effects of the lime will not thicken the
fluid to the extent where it cannot be circulated. The suction tank should be well agitated and no
backflow should exist between this tank and the rest of the system. Ensure that the existing system
is not contaminated by the converted fluid. The caustic soda, deflocculant and lime should be
added over one circulation. Adjustment of fluid loss with CMC, and/or IDFLO, and weight
material to the final level are the final treatments.
Table 7-6 Typical Formulation for a Lime-based Fluid
Fresh water 1 bbl 1 m
3

Bentonite 15-20 lbs 42.80-57.06kg
Caustic soda 2-3 lbs 5.71+8.56 kg
Ferrochrome lignosulphonate
Lime
2-4 lbs 5.71-11.41kg
4-8lbs 11.41-22.82kg
CMC-LoVis and/or 1-2lbs 2.85-5.71kg
IDFLO
Barite
2-4 lbs 5.71-11.41kg
As required for density
The temperature stability can be increased to 150(302) when lignite is added. Higher
temperatures have been accomplished with lignite, sodium chromate and surfactants. The main
advantages are the relatively low cost, ease of maintenance at medium densities and the inhibition
level given to the shales by calcium exchange.
The limitations are the problems of gellation and the limitations of an inhibitive system that
maintains high pH values and contains a dispersant or deflocculant. If the formations are too
reactive to respond to the inhibition the generation of fine drilled solids can be a problem and may
require excessive dilution.
Gypsum Treated Fluids
128
Gypsum based fluids were introduced to overcome the gellation problems of lime muds. Here,
gypsum or calcium sulphate is added in excess to create a calcium concentration of 600-1200 mg/I
in the filtrate. The pH is maintained in the range 9.5-10.5 with caustic soda or lime. Due to the
higher calcium levels, ferrochrome lignosulphonate is the deflocculant of choice.
A typical formulation is given in Table 7-7. An existing system can also be broken over, but
the dilution required must be carefully checked.
Table 7-7 Typical Formulation of a Gypsum-Bentonite Fluid
Fresh water 1 bbl 1 m
3

Bentonite 15-20 lbs 42.80-57.06 kg
Caustic soda 1.5 lbs 4.28 kg
Ferrochrome lignosulphonate
Lime
2-4 lbs 5.71-11.41 kg
4-6lbs 11.41-17.12 kg
CMC-LoVis and/or 1-2lbs 2.85-5.71 kg
IDFLO
Barite

2-4 lbs 5.71-11.41 kg
As required for density

The primary control of the system is to ensure the calcium in the filtrate is maintained in the
range 600-1200 mg/l. This system exhibits excellent stability to anhydrite and has a moderate
tolerance for salt. The fluid is easy to maintain and has a greater resistance to high temperature
gellation, because of the lower pH, and is stable to 165 (329). Lignite, at 14.27-28.53
kg/m
3
(5-10 lbs/bbl), is again used to control fluid loss as the temperature is increased. This system,
possibly combined with sea-water salt inhibition, represents the most economical fluid system
offering a level of inhibition for shales.
7.4.3 Polymer Treated Systems
A third inhibitive mechanism has been invoked for a class of dispersed-inhibitive muds
whereby a polymer is added at sufficient concentration to envelop the cuttings and form a viscous
layer which will reduce the rate of migration of water attempting to hydrate the clays.
The system will be programmed in the same manner as a dispersed system. It may have other
inhibiting features, such as gypsum or lime, and may contain some salt. Where the formations
show a well developed sensit ivity to dispersive action, the system may not be so effective and a
non-dispersed inhibitive system should be used.
129
7.5 Non-Dispersed Non-inhibited Systems()
In non-dispersed systems, no reagents are added to specifically deflocculate the solids in the
fluid, whether they are formation clays or purposely added bentonite. The absence of thinners, and
a chemically dispersive environment, will provide a level of inhibition. However, this advantage is
essentially lost because they are formulated in fresh water. The main feature of these systems is to
exploit the higher viscosities and, particularly, the higher yield point to plastic viscosity ratio
that are characteristics of a flocculated system. The advantages can be summarised as follows:
A. The lower solids requirement permits lower densities to be used. This reduces chances
of loss of circulation and increases penetration rates in low pressured formations.
B. The altered flow properties provide better hole cleaning. This permits lower annular
circulating rates and helps prevent borehole washouts.
C. The higher degree of shear thinning provides for lower bit viscosities. This permits more
effective use of hydraulic horsepower and faster penetration rates. In addition, shear
thinning promotes more efficient operation of the solids removal equipment such as
hydrocyclones.
Polymers are very effectively used in conjunction with clays to develop the required
properties with low, cost-effective doses of both clay and polymer. High molecular weight
polymers such as IDVIS, IDF FLR and IDFEXTEND are used to form bridges between clay
particles and so develop the highly shear sensitive viscosities required. The fluid loss control
function of bentonite is less effective in a flocculated low-solids environment, but can be easily
regained by the use of modified starch base product such as IDFLO, which is non-dispersive and
therefore preferable to CMC LO-Vis, which has a deflocculating effect.
This type of fluid is commonly employed in large diameter top hole sections, such as when
spudding. Large dilution rates ensure the solids are at a low level. The high cleaning capacity and
low solids--low density characteristics are best exploited in this situation when large holes are
drilled in upper low pressure formations. An example of these systems is the extended bentonite
system and IDYlS/bentonite system.
7.5.1 Extended Bentonite System
In this system, the flow properties of the bentonite are supplemented by a high molecular
weight synthetic polymer, IDF EXTEND. A second function of the extender is to flocculate
formation solids. A typical formulation is given in Table 7-8.
Table7-8 Typical formulation for an Extended Bentonite System
130
Fresh water
IDF EXTEND
Bentonite
Soda ash
Caustic soda
1 barrel
0.05 lb
11 lbs
0.25-0.5 lbs
pH 8.5-9.0
1 m
3

0.14 kg
31.38 kg
0.71-1.43
The bentonite should be specially selected for this type of system as being an untreated high
yield Wyoming bentonite. The fluid has poor tolerance to calcium and salt, so the make-up water
should be of good quality and pretreated with sodium carbonate, if any hardness exists. To
increase viscosity IDF EXTEND is added through the hopper at the rate of one pound (0. 5 kg) for
every five sacks of bentonite. The extender is dissolved in water in the chemical barrel and added
at 1.36-5.44 kg (3-12 lbs) per day, at a rate dependent on the drilling rate.
Excessively high viscosities and gel strengths are normally the result of too high a solids
content, which should be kept in the range 2-5% by dilution. Dispersants should not be added as
they compete too effectively with the extender for the adsorption sites on the clay.
A small excess of soda ash, of 0.57 kg/m
3
(0.2 lb/bbl), should be maintained to ensure the
calcium level remains below 80 mg/I and to improve the efficiency of the extender. This level of
soda ash will produce the required pH in most cases.
The API fluid loss will be in the range of 15-30 mls. Further control can be made by the
addition of polyacrylate polymer AP-21 or IDFLO. Diesel oil may be included at 5-6% to give
improved filtration control as well as lower fluid densities.
The system can be weighted to a maximum density of 1.32 (11 ppg) provided the ratio of
drill solids to clay solids is maintained at less than 2:1, by correct use of the solids removal
equipment and careful dilution and make-up with bentonite from a premix tank.
The advantages of the system can be summarised as follows:
A. Very low weight muds can be maintained and the chances of loss of circulation are
reduced. Also hydrostatic and formation pressures can be more closely balanced and
higher penetration rates achieved.
B. These systems have good shear thinning characteristics and moderate to high yield
point/plastic viscosity ratios. This provides for good hole cleaning at lower annular
velocities and more effective use of available hydraulic horsepower. The ECD is also
lower and this will reduce the chances of loss of circulation even further.
C. These systems are economical, as the major constituent is bentonite and the requirement
for all components is low.
D. Oil can be incorporated into the system without special emulsifiers.
E. The system is easily converted to all types of dispersed and non-dispersed systems.
131
F. Flocculation of drilled solids by the extender aids in solids removal.
The disadvantages may be summarised as follows:--
A. Lack of inhibition and the low solids tolerance of the system can give rise to excessive
dilution rates in dispersable clays and shales.
B. The system has a low tolerance for calcium and salt. Encountering cement, anhydrite or
salt concentrations will result in having to convert the system if they cannot be diluted or
treated out.
C. Low tolerance for all types of solids and thus can only be weighted to low levels

1.32
S.G. (11 ppg).
7.5.2 IDVlS/Bentonite System
In this system, the high molecular weight polysaccharide polymer. IDVIS, is used to extend
the rheological properties of bentonite. This system has more stable properties than the Extended
Bentonite System, because IDVIS exhibits good rheological properties in its own right, and has a
better tolerance to salt and calcium. The system can be formulated to include salt, such as
potassium chloride. Such a system, offering a higher level of inhibition, would then be classed as a
non- dispersed inhibitive fluid. A typical formulation is given in Table7- 9.
Table 7-9 Typical formulation for IDYlS/Bentonite System
Water (any type) 1 bbl 1 m
3

Bentonite
(prehydrated if salts present) 10 lb 28.53 kg
IDVIS 0.5-1.5 lb 1.43-4.28 kg
Caustic soda to pH 8.5-9'5
IDFLO as required 2-4lb 5.71-11.41 kg
IDClDE L

The system is easily maintained with bentonite and IDVIS added as required. Generally the
system would be considered a low density fluid, although densities up to 1.44 S.G.(12 ppg) could
be prepared. Care should be taken to limit the build-up of drilled solids so that the viscosity does
not become too high. The fluid loss can be controlled by a non-dispersing product such as IDFLO,
although CMC-LoVis may have some advantage at higher solids, due to its dispersing action. A
bacteriocide, IDCIDE L, should be used in low salinity fluids at one 251.pail/ 31.80m
3
(200 bbl).
132
The system is flexible and could be converted to other systems. The sensitivity of bentonite fluids
to calcium and salt is not as pronounced in this system because of the relatively low levels of
bentonite and because IDVIS is not affected by these contaminants.
7.6 Non-Dispersed Inhibited Systems()
In these systems, the non-dispersed character of the fluids is reinforced by some inhibition
system, or combination of systems, such as:
A. calcium ions, lime or gypsum
B. salt-sodium chloride or potassium chloride
C. Polymers such as Polysaecharides IDVIS
Polyanionic cellulose IDF FLR
Hydrolysed polyacrylamide IDBOND
In the presence of these very effective inhibition systems, particularly systems such as
potassium chloride - IDBOND Polymer, the role of bentonite is diminished because the chemical
environment is designed to collapse and encapsulate the clays since this reaction is required to
stabilise water sensitive formations. The clay may have a role in the initial formulation of an
inhibited fluid to provide the solids to create a filter cake.
Canadian IDBOND Polymer-Potassium Chloride System
Bentonite is formulated in the IDBOND Polymer-Potassium chloride system used to drill older
formations in the Rocky Mountains that are made up with fresh water. A typical formulation is
given in Table 7-10.
Table 7-10 Typical formulation of the Canadian IDBOND Polymer-Potassium Chloride System.
Fresh water 1 bbl 1m
3

Potassium chloride 10-15 lb 28.53-42.80 kg
Prehydrated bentonite 6-10 lb 17.12-28.53 kg
IDVIS 0-5-1.5 lb 1.43-4.28 kg
IDBOND 0.5-1 lb 1.43-2.85 kg
IDFFLR 0.5-1-5 lb 1.43-4.28 kg
IDFLO to adjust fluid loss 2-4 lb 5.71-11.41 kg
Caustic soda to pH 9.5-10.
133
Barite to desired density

Often, the mineralogy of the clays in shales is very complex and mixed layers of minerals are
formed with perhaps a limited degree of expansion. There will also be a quantity of amorphous or
non-crystalline material consisting of aluminium hydroxides or silica. This material has an
important role to play as the cement material between grains.
Shales are mainly compacted sediments containing significant concentrations of clay minerals,
with associated minerals such as sand grains, feldspars and carbonates. The rocks have a fairly
high level of porosity, but the pore space does not have the channel-like character one associates
with sandstone rocks. Rather, the grain to grain contact is born by the associated minerals and the
interstitial space is occupied by hydrated packets of clay minerals orientated with the basal plane
parallel to the sedimentary plane. This is shown diagrammatically in Figure 3.

Fig.7-1 Diagram to illustrate the structure of shale. Water associated with the clay particles

To minimise the effects of water on a shale, two aspects of the hydration can be modified.
One is to replace sodium and calcium ions in the exchange sites of the swelling clay,
montmorillonite, with the dehydrated potassium ion to form the least expanded complex.
Mica and Chlorite may also accept potassium to reduce swelling, if there was a deficiency of
this ion. The second approach is to slow down the rate at which water migrates into the shale by
forming a viscous jelly-like coating on the shale surface.
Shale inhibition is most effective when both mechanisms are brought into action. The relative
levels required for economical inhibition may vary, depending on the nature of the shale and the
drilling conditions.

7.6.1 Potassium Ion Inhibition
Potassium Chloride is added to provide an excess of potassium ions to compete with the
exchangeable ions present in the shales. A higher level of Potassium Chloride is required when
sea-water is used to formulate the fluid, in order to overcome the competitive effect of the
additional sodium ion. The level of potassium required is also dependent on the level of
exchangeable ions in the formation.

Since Montmorillonite has an exchange capacity in the order of ten times that of the other clay
minerals the concentration of this mineral in the formation is the major consideration. The cation
exchange capacity of the shale can be readily measured from methylene blue adsorption analysis
and is a reliable guide to the level of potassium ion required. In a fresh water based system drilling
an old sediment, such as hard shales, a level of about 3% Potassium Chloride will be sufficient.
134

In drilling a Tertiary sediment with levels of Montmorillonite approaching 25-40% with a
sea-water system, the concentration of Potassium Chloride may have to be in the 10-15% range. In
the situation where a reactive formation overlies a less reactive formation, experience has shown
that the initial high level can be reduced at the bottom of the section without destabilising the
upper hole. It will be realised that it is the concentration of potassium ion that is important and
control of the inhibitive properties requires a specific measure of that ion. A measure of the
chloride ion is only a relevant measure of the potassium concentration in the initial make up.
Another feature of this fluid is that the borehole and the cuttings are reacting specifically with the
potassium ion which is then removed from the fluid system when the cuttings are separated from
the circulating fluid at the surface. As a consequence the Potassium Chloride has to be added
continually and at a rate that is proportional to the penetration rate.

7.6.2 IDBOND Polymer Inhibition
The polymer IDBOND concentrates at the shale surface to form a viscous jelly-like coating
that will plug and seal pores and fissures and so slow down the movement of water into the shale.
The polymer also plays a significant role in strengthening the surface material so that it withstands
mechanical abrasion.
The polymer is a polyacrylamide-acrylate co-polymer with a molecular weight in the region
of 10 million.
IDBOND owes its unique properties to:
A. Its strong adsorption onto clay materials,
B. Its very high molecular weight.
C. Its low viscosity at working concentrations.
D. Its steep viscosity versus concentration curve.
These characteristics enable it to function as an encapsulating molecule for the shales with
only minimal effects on the drilling fluid properties. Its strong adsorption and high viscosity in the
adsorbed layer means that it is economical in use. It has also been specially formulated so that it
can be easily added to the system. Just as for Potassium Chloride, IDBOND polymer treatment is
continuous and is related to the concentration of cuttings entering the drilling fluid, proportional to
the penetration rate.

A range of drilling fluids have been developed that exhibit, to different degrees, a stabitising
effect on water-sensitive formations. The inhibition mechanisms can be described in terms of an
exchangeable ion and polymer and can be compared to the IDBOND polymer Potassium Chloride
system.

The most common inhibitive systems are based on calcium ion exchange, to convert swelling
sodium clay systems to the non-swelling, but hydrated calcium form. Figure 2 shows that in this
aspect potassium is a more effective ion than calcium. The calcium ion concentration is commonly
achieved by the addition of lime(calcium hydroxide) or gypsum (hydrated calcium sulphate). The
divalent ion has a strong flocculating effect and thus has a significant effect on the drilling fluid
properties. Poly-anionic polymers may be unstable in this environment and clay-based systems
will require deflocculating agents or dispersants, such as tannates or ferrochrome lignosulphonates.
135
Also high pH conditions will be created, to control the calcium ion level and to solubilise the
dispersants. The high hydroxyl ion content and the use of dispersants tend to offset the inhibiting
effect of the calcium ion. Potassium can be used at high levels so that the exchange can take place
to an effective level. The monovalent ion will not react with anionic polymers, nor will it exhibit
the same flocculating effect on clay solids, as does calcium. Therefore, the system is stable. The
effect of Potassium Chloride on the mud system will be the same as that of salt. The use of
Potassium salts avoids the problem of high temperature gellation encountered in calcium systems,
particularly lime-based ones.
The polymer encapsulation mechanism of shale inhibition is evoked for a wide range of
systems, some using calcium or potassium as the exchangeable ion.
High levels of lignosulphonate are claimed to have an inhibition effect, but the viscosity
effect is minimal and the dispersing effect will be the overriding result. High viscosity cellulose
derivatives, starch derivatives and polysaccharides, such as Xantham gums, are claimed to have an
encapsulating effect. Certainly there are some aspects of the structure of these polymers that
contribute towards an inhibition effect. However, the two essential features of IDBOND are
missing from these polymers, namely the strong affinity for the clay surface and the very high
molecular weight, which results in a high viscosity at low concentrations.

7.6.3 Formulation and Initial Preparation
The IDBOND polymer Potassium Chloride drilling fluid system has introduced new concepts
of drilling fluid design. The protection of water sensitive shales from hydration and dispersion
effects is achieved by the polymer and the potassium ion. The required level of inhibition can be
tailored to meet the particular demands of the formation being drilled.

The practical drilling fluid system must also possess defined rheological properties and a
means of controlling the fluid loss. In addition, the system should be weighted to the required
density and be stable to the typical contaminants encountered such as drilled solids, cement and
microbial growth.

Rheological Properties. Bentonite cannot be used to derive viscosity in this system because
the shale inhibition mechanism causes a collapse of the hydrated bentonite, with a consequential
loss in viscosity. Rheological properties are controlled by the use of the high molecular weight
polymeric viscosifier, IDVIS, which is effective over a wide range of pH and salt concentrations
and is stable to 240(400). The polymeric fluid has unique viscosity characteristics due to
well-developed pseudoplastic properties (high viscosity at low shear rates and low viscosity at
high shear rates). These fluid properties give very efficient solids carrying capacities. This is
important, particularly when large diameter holes are being drilled. It is important to remove the
cuttings as quickly as possible so that hydration and mechanical degradation can be limited.

The use of water-soluble polymers to derive viscosity allows the formulation of a low solids
fluid at low densities, with the advantage of increased penetration rates. Viscosity control is as
effective at higher densities, but obviously the advantages of higher penetration rates are lost.

The gellation properties of the polymer system give excellent suspension properties
136
Table 7-11 Typical formation and expected properties of an
unweighted IDBOND Polymer Potassium Chloride fluid
without excessive gellation. The fluid generally maintains these characteristics even with a high
solids loading, due to the inhibitive non-dispersive nature of the system. When solids removal is
carried out efficiently, dispersants or thinners are not normally used. In higher temperature
conditions and high weights a polymeric deflocculant, such as IDSPERSE HT would be used.

Fluid Loss Control. Fluid loss control in a non-dispersed fluid is achieved through the
addition of colloidal sized articles and through an increase in the viscosity of the migrating
liquid phase. A modified starch based product, IDFLO, provides micron-sized, water dispersible
articles to effectively seal the micro-pores in the filter cake. Extensive chemical modification has
ensured that the product is stable to shear and temperatures in the order of 132-149 (270-300)
and that viscosity effects are minimal. A variation of the product, with greater temperature stability,
is also available under the name IDFLO HTR.
DF FLR, a high molecular weight modified carboxymethyl cellulose, gives effective fluid
loss control particularly when used in conjunction with IDFLO. The product also provides a
secondary function as a viscosifier.

The viscosity derived from IDF FLR and IDBOND is lower in a brine than in fresh water.
Therefore, it is easier to add the polymers to a Potassium Chloride brine. The tanks are dumped,
cleaned and filled with drill water. In offshore locations this is often sea-water. Potassium chloride
is then added to obtain the desired concentraon. Several techniques are available to ensure that the
salt is handled efficiently. One is the development of "Big Bags", of up to one tonne capacity, with
a single valve opening at the bottom of the bag. Straps on the bag enable it to be manoeuvred
easily by fork-lift truck, or crane. In certain locations, a saturated brine can be prepared which
contains 25% Potassium Chloride.
Another technique, that has been patented, is to prepare a high density brine that is
stabilised with IDVIS. This enables concentrations of 85% to be achieved in a pumpable form.
The pH of the brine is adjusted to 9-10 with Caustic Soda. Sodium Carbonate may be added to
treat out magnesium and calcium in sea-water.
The polymers IDVIS and IDFLO are then added. IDF FLR is best added to condition a
circulating fluid with moderate levels of drilled solids. The addition of IDBOND is best made
when circulating and drilling. If the full concentration is added initially, the viscosity will be too
high without shear degradation or solids contamination and fluid will be lost over the shaker
screens.
A typical formulation and expected properties of a freshly prepared unweighted fluid are
given in Table 7-11. A small concentration of inert drilled solids is included to provide a filter
cake.


Formulation
Sea-water 1 bbl. 1 m
3

KCl 25 lb. 73 kg
Caustic Soda 1 lb, 4.3 kg
IDVlS 1 lb. 2.9 kg
IDFLO 4 lb. 11.6 kg
137
IDBOND 1 lb. 2.9 kg
Drilled Solids 10 lb. 29 kg
Properties
Density 1.09
Apparent Viscosity (cps.) 15-20
Plastic Viscosity (cps.) 10-15
Yield Point (lb./l00 sq. ft.) 15-21
Gels (lb./100 sq. ft.) 10 sec/10 min 3-5/5-7
Fluid Loss API (100 psi) 5-10 ml
pH 9.5-10
Exercise


















138
CHAPTER 8 PROBLEMS RELATED TO DRILLING FLUIDS
8.1 Borehole stability()
8.1.1 Cause of Borehole Instability ()
Presence of mechanically instable formations and water sensitive chemical-physical instable
formations are the intrinsicfactors of borehole instability. Improper technical and
engineering measures and excessive hydration and dispersion properties of the drilling fluids
applied are the inducing factors of borehole instability. Borehole instability is a result of
complexity of actions of varied factors. Unstable formations are predominately shale formations
therefore the problem of borehole instability is essentially the problem of shale.
8.1.1.1 Inherent Mechanical Instable Formations( )
Some formations themselves are mechanically instable formations because the characteristics
of diagenesis() and geological-structural movements in their sedimentation process
manifest as sloughing, falling, collapsing and creeping when they are exposed in drilling process.
These formations include:
A. Loose sands, unconsolidated and poor consolidated sand-stones, shale and gravel
formations--dispersion, disintegration and intrusion.
B. Shale formations with developed stratification and weak joints--sloughing and collapse.
C. Shatter belts, faulted zones, discordant formation faces--disintegration, falling and collapse.
D. Stressed (compressed, bended and the like) formations generated in process of sedimentation
or by tectonic movements--disintegration, breaking down and falling caused by stress release
after exposition.
E. Rock salt, salt domesand Gumble shale---creeping after exposition under overburden
load.
8.1.1.2 Water Sensitive Chemical-Physical Instable Formations()
Water sensitive chemical-physical instable formations are basically shale formations. The
instability of these formations derives from hydration and followed swelling, dispersion and
disintegration of shale when it is in contact with water. The fundamental components of shale are
predominately clays--water containing aluminum silicates such as smectite, illite,
kaolinite, chlorite etc. Smectite possesses strong cation exchange capacity, high water intake and
weak inter-layer linking potential, and is characterized by its upgraded swelling and dispersion
nature when it falls in contact with water. However illite, kaolinite and chlorite have relatively
lower cation exchange capacity, lower water intake and higher inter-layer linking potential and
these clay minerals are characterized by disintegration, and sloughing when they are in contact
with water. According to clay mineral content, mineral type, water content, mechanical strength
and hydration character of shale, five categories of shale are classified as shown in the following
Table (Table 8-1).
Table 8-1 Classification of Shale
Type

Hard-
ness
MBT
Meq/
100g
Water Clay content, %
Type %
(w)
%
(w)
Clay type
g/cm
3

Character
S I S-I C
1 S 20-40 F&B 25-70 20-30 40.4 5.5 1.2-1.5 H.D
139
2 H 10-20 B 15-25 20-30 25.4 42.0 0.7 1.5-2.2 L.H.D
3 VH 3-10 B 5-15 20-30 38.3 13.0 2.2-2.5 M.D,T.O.S
4 EH 10-20 B 2-10 20-30 18.1 8.3 2.3-2.7 E.H.&B,T.O.D&C
5 B* 0-3 B 2-5 5-30 35.0 15.0 15.0 2.5-2.7 H,L.D,T.O.S
a) Clay typeS- Smectite, I-Illite, S-I- Smectite, I-Illite, C-Clorite
b) Hardness: S-Soft, H-Hard, VH-very hard, EX-Extreme hard, B
*
-Brittle
c) Water type: F&B-Free & Bounded, B-Bounded
d) Character: H.D.-High dispersable, L.H.D-Less high dispersable, M.D-Medium disperable, T.O.S-Tendency
of sloughing, E.H.B-Extreme hard & brittle, T.O.D&C-Tendency of dispersion &collapse, L.D-Less
disperable
8.1.1.3 Mechanically Induced Borehole Instability()
Improper drilling technical-engineering measures very often provoke borehole instability such
as:
A. Lower than required mud density can not create an adequate hydrostatic pressure to hold
varied down-hole pressures in balance as before the formations are not drilled out. A great
number of examples have proved that inherent mechanical instable formations (in particular
stressed and structural broken formations) can not be maintained stable by changing their
surrounding chemical environment. However, a relatively raised mud density can evidently
improve the situation, which was proved by experiments.
B. Reduction of mud column height by pipe pulling out and delayed mud injection may cause
formations break down and collapse in particular in adjacent area of surface or intermediate
casing shoe.
C. Surge or swab resulted from excessively fast pulling or lowering of drill string may fracture
or break down formations and result in loss of circulation and collapse.
D. Rude pump starting gives birth to a large pressure surge and cause weak formations to be
fractured and collapse.
E. Collapse as consequences of uncontrolled loss of circulation, kicks or blowout.
F. Collapse or fall down of formations irritated by collision derived from excessive pipe RPM
and dissembling drill pipe stands by rotary table reversion.
G. Washout and erosion of borehole wall caused by turbulent flow or long time circulation
against an interval of formations.
H. Collapse caused by collision of drill pipe on "dog leg" or on segments of formations with
sudden change of inclination or orientation.
8.1.2 Indications and Judgement of Borehold Instability)
A. Excessive cuttings on shale shakers and detritusof sloughing or caving shale.
B. Borehole packing-off and bottom filled up and abnormal amount of cuttings, pump burst at
starting or failure of pump start after a trip in.
C. Build-up of massive cutting beds manifested by trip lags in defined intervals, difficulty,
abnormal pressure or pump burst at pump starting or sudden drill pipe reversion in drill pipe
running or reaming operations.
D. Stuffed lower portion of dill collars and bit nuzzles by cuttings.
E. Excessively enlarged hole determined by caliper log.
8.1.3 Obtaining stabilized Borehole and Prevention of Instability (,)
8.1.3.1 Get Knowledge on Instable Formations()
140
Collect shale samples of varied intervals and conduct the following tests:
A. X-ray diffraction for petrographical() and mineralogical analysis.
B. Cation Exchange Capacity test.
C. Water content.
D. Expansion test.
E. Dispersion and recovery test.
F. 3-dimentional stress test().
G. Capillary Suction Time(CST) test.
H. Shale Stability Index or SSI test.
According to analysis of the data obtained from above tests, determine the nature
(mechanically instable or hydration sensitive) of the shale and provide reference information for
design of casing program, mud system, mud density and other properties, drilling engineering
parameters and annular hydraulics program.
8.1.3.2 Properly Determine and Adjust Mud Density()
According to a field statistics, 80-90% of cases of borehole instability were provoked directly
by loss of mechanical balance of borehole pressures. A great number of field practices show even
though strong inhibitive mud systems were used initially or converted from a routine mud system
before entry in the instable formations, the borehole instability manifested as sloughing, falling,
collapse, trip lags and bottom fill up still occurred frequently. When a water base mud is used, the
application of all kinds of available chemical measures for enhancing the inhibitive character of
the mud, for example a saturated salt water mud , can not suppress fundamentally the shale
hydration and swelling problem, even a W/O invert emulsion or whole oil base drilling fluid is
used. The troubles of shale sloughing and collapse of some inherent mechanically-instable
formations were still frequently and inevitably encountered. Therefore the nature of borehole
instability essentially is a problem caused by mechanically unbalanced borehole pressures, not a
chemistry nature problem. Finally an adequate mud density and a necessary borehole hydrostatic
pressure are the necessity and the primary guarantee for obtaining a stable borehole. In design of
mud density, the consideration must be taken not only on balance of borehole pressure and
fracture pressure of the formations but also on maintaining borehole stability of varied formations.
When some indications of borehole instability show up, a comprehensive thinking on raising mud
density and strengthening chemical inhibitive environment, with the priority on the first one, will
give a positive and successful result. However, do not raise mud density too fast and over the
formation fracturing limit in order to avoid irritation of loss of circulation and formation break
down.
8.1.3.3 Selection of Inhibitive Mud System and Addition of Shale Inhibitive Agents

8.1.3.3.1 Shale inhibitive agents()
A. Polymer encapsulator(): provide borehole stability by encapsulation and enveloping
of shale. The products can be selected as KPAM, PHPA, PAC-141, FA-367 etc.
B. Inorganicinhibitors or electrolytes: Reduce or mitigate()shale hydration and
swelling. These products are KC1, CaO, NaC1, CaSO
4
, CaCl
2
and Na
2
SiO
3
etc.
C. Asphaltic products: Plug and seal shale micro fissures. This kind of products includes
Asphalt-S, Asphalt-O etc.
D. Cationic polymers: provide borehole stability by encapsulation. The products are as Cat-VS.
141
E. Others: MMH, organosilicon derivatives, polyglycols etc.
8.1.3.3.2 Inhibitive drilling fluid systems()
A. Calcium base mud (lime mud, gypsum mud).
B. Salt water mud.
C. KC1-PHPA mud.
D. Silicate mud or organosilicon mud.
E. Glycol-polyglycol mud.
F. Formatemud.
G. Oil base mud and W/O invert emulsion drilling fluid.
8.1.3.4 Proper Drilling Engineering Measures
A. Control drill pipe pulling and running speed to avoid excessive surge and swab caused by
pipe movement.
B. Apply adequate pump rate and adjust mud rheological properties to ensure laminar or
transitional flow patternand reduce borehole mechanical erosion.
C. Maintain a proper gel strength and start pump gently to avoid excessive surge and swab
pressures.
D. Control pipe rotation speed to reduce drill pipe collision onto borehole wall.
E. Keep a full borehole by pumping mud in annulus during drill pipe pulling process.
8.1.4 Borehole Instability Remedial Procedure ()
8.1.4.1 Un-aggravated Cases of Borehole Instability
Abnormal amount of sloughing and caving shale on shakersexcessive torque and drag on trips
or connections. The following measures can be taken:
A. Raise mud density by an adequate value.
B. Increase mud viscosity and gel strength and reduce pump output in a manner to maintain
laminar flow in annulus.
C. Control drill string pulling and introducing speed and start pump gently to mitigate surge and
swab for avoiding instability aggravation or sudden collapse that may cause pump burst or
stuck pipe.
D. Add shale inhibition agents to enhance mud inhibition capacity and plug micro-fissures of
shale formations.
E. Set a thick mud pills or pills treated with LCM before pulling to avoid formation of cutting
beds and bottom pack-off.
F. Running drill string by several divided intervals, start pump slowly and circulate mud until it
returns or for a couple of minutes. When the bit is one or two singles from the bottom in the
end of pipe running process, start pump slowly at a reduced rate and ream the hole to bottom.
Circulate mud at normal flow rate for 10-15 minutes and begin drilling if the pump pressure
is normal.
8.1.4.2 Severe Cases of Borehole Instability
When severe cases of borehole instability occur, the phenomena as aggravated torque and drag
or sudden reverse on connections and trips, abnormal difficulty of pump starting or pump burst,
no progress of reaming, stuffing of bit nozzles or lower portion of drill collars by cuttings, sudden
abnormal pressure build up or sudden stuck drill pipe may be encountered. The following
measures can be taken:
A. Raise mud viscosity and gel strengths.
142
B. Replace the bit with one with large nozzles or with coring bit, or milling pipe. Replace the
drill collars and pipes with those of larger sizes to form successively stepped annular sections
for easy ascending of shale detritus.
C. Start pump and circulate at 5-8 m above the collapsed sections with reduced pump rate (1/2
normal flow rate). Raise pump rate steadily to normal flow rate then begin reaming the hole
with intermediate speed. Repeat reaming this interval up and down till no excessive torque
and drag is observed. Try to run the drill string to bottom while circulating the mud and
adding some borehole stabilizers such as asphalt products. Drill 20-30 m new hole and then
circulate for 2- 3 circles at an enhanced pump rate to bring the sloughing and caving shale out
of hole.
D. Ream the hole 2-3 times after every single is drilled out and short trips must be done for very
footage of 300-600 ft.
E. Inject a thick pill against the sloughing and collapsing section and then pull out.
F. Run a caliper logging. If there is a greatly enlarged hole section, conduct a cement
squeezing job to seal the it.
8.2 Loss Circulation
8.2.1 Causes and Types of Loss of Circulation()
8.2.1.1 Seepage Loss
A. Causes: Seepage loss occurs naturally under normal drilling conditions in formations with
permeability higher than 14 D such as unconsolidated sands, massive coarse sandstones,
gravels or reef deposits.
B. Indications: Seepage loss appears generally as repeated or successive losses with a relatively
low rate in range of tens of barrels per hour and in most cases no evident pump pressure drop
shows. Seepage loss is characterized by eventuality of spontaneous cure through plugging
effect of cuttings and mud cake building and tightening. Seepage loss may reoccur
successively in the same formations by improper operational manners as surge or swab
pressures derived from brute pump starting or excessively fast introduction of drillpipe
during drilling process.
8.2.1.2 Natural Fissureand Cavern Loss
A. Causes: This kind of loss of circulation occurs in carbonate, dolomite and chalk
formations with fissures and caverns, faulted formations, discordant formation
faces, shatter belts, fractured zones and eruptive cavernous and vugular formations.
B. Indications: Sudden and severe loss of circulation without return and loss rate may reach
couple to hundreds of barrels per hour very often accompanied by sudden erratic rates of
penetration or drilling break. Usually natural fissure and cavern loss is difficult to cure, or
even the well has to be abandoned in the end.
8.2.1.3 Induced Fracture Loss
A. Causes: This kind of loss of circulation occurs when formations are fractured by improper
engineering operations such as overweighted mud introduction, excessively fast lowering of
drill string or brute pump starting. The frequency of induced fracture loss is higher at shoe of
or several meters below surface or intermediate casing.
B. Indications: Depending on the magnitude of fracture induction pressure and strength of
143
Fig. 8-1 Fracturing test of curve
Fig. 13Modes of particle association of clays


formations, the rate of loss is quite different and some time, loss rate can be hundreds of
barrels per hour or even greater. Grave loss of circulation occurs due to some severe fault
engineering measures and is very often accompanied by formation collapse, impossible pump
starting or pump burst, stuck pipe or blowout.
C. Formation fracture pressure and fracturing test: When pressure in the borehole is raised to a
certain value, it may cause the formation to be fractured and begin to absorb a great mass of
drilling fluid from well bore. The hydrostatic pressure in borehole of this case is right equal
to the formation fracture pressure.
The formation fracture pressure can
be obtained from formation fracture test
and the procedure is as follows (Fig.
8-1):
A. Drill 10-20 ft from casing shoe and
circulate and clean the borehole.
B. Shut in the annulus and slowly start
the pump and inject mud into
drillpipe at a low rate
(8.5-17gal/min).
C. Build a table and record the
volume injected and the respective
pump pressure. Draw a line of variation of pressure versus volume. The injection pressure
should be proportional with the injection volume and the line should be an inclined straight
line.
D. Stop pumping at point A where the pressure drifts off the line, the mud begins to flow into the
formation. Point A is called leak off point and the corresponding pressure P
L
is called leak off
pressure. Routinely the test is over at this point.
E. If pumping is continued, the injection volume increases rapidly meanwhile the injection
pressure rises up slowly. The injection pressure gets its maximum value and begins to
decrease at point B. Point B is called the fracture point of the formation and the injection
pressure corresponding to this point is called the formation fracture pressure, represented as P
fr
.
F. The formation fracture is induced at point A and it begins to absorb fluid from well bore.
However if the injection pressure is reduced at this point, the fracture generated may close
and the fluid loss may cease correspondingly. If the pressure rises to point B, the formation
fracture is generated permanently and it cant be closed again and a remarkable loss occurs
and continues indifferently if the pressure gets lower or not.
From what mentioned above, the drilling fluid density that induces formation fracture and loss
can be calculated using the equation below:
H
L fr
P + = 052 . 0 / 8-1
Where
fr
--Drilling fluid density that induces formation fracture, lb/gal
--Drilling fluid density in well bore, lb/gal
P
L
--Formation fracture pressure, psi
144
H-True vertical depth of the formation, ft
8.2.1.4 Hydrostatic Pressure of Drilling Fluid Column
The hydrostatic pressure of drilling fluid is the pressure of drilling fluid column in static state
exerted on the bottom of the well.
H = P 052 . 0 8-2
Where P --Hydrostatic pressure, psi,
--Drilling fluid density in well bore, lb/gal,
H --True vertical depth of the well, ft.
8.2.2 Prevention of Loss of Circulation()
The following measures can be taken for prevention of loss of circulation:
A. Carefully collect and analyze the regional geological information and properly design casing
program and mud density in different intervals of a well.
B. Reduce surge and swab pressures caused by pipe movement and pump starting by
maintaining suitable mud rheological properties.
C. Determine rational pump rate to ensure effective carrying and suspension of cuttings and to
avoid excessive circulation pressure and wash out of borehole wall.
D. Avoid excessive penetration rate in soft formations and run solid control equipment to
prevent overloading and accumulation of cuttings in annulus and undesired rising of mud
weight.
E. Lower and pull drill string in a gentle way and take measures to avoid bit balling.
F. Break down pipe introduction in several steps and circulate mud for a certain minutes in each
step. Start pump slowly and raise pump rate steadily to the normal flow rate when the bit is
close to bottom.
G. Weight mud to the required density in several circulating circles and conduct pressure control
procedure as required right away when abnormal pressure formations are encountered.
H. Control adequate mud filtration and avoid thick and loose mud cake. Maintain proper mud
rheological properties and adjust mud viscosity steadily in order to avoid induction of
excessive surge and swab.
I. Add a certain amount and proper type of LCM according to the formation nature and mud
properties.
8.2.3 Remedial Measures for Loss of Circulation
8.2.3.1 Seepage Loss
If pump pressure decreases, and reduced flow rate in flow-line and drop of level in mud tanks
are observed during drilling process, it means seepage loss of circulation occurs. The following
measures must be taken without delay:
A. Stop pump for observation: If loss indications are observed, stop pump immediately and pull
the drill string up above casing shoe or 100-165 ft above the loss formation. Inject mud into
annulus to make well bore full of mud. Stop pump again and wait for 1-2 hours. If the mud
level continues to decrease, try to calculate loss rate. If the mud level in borehole remains
unchanged, start pump at a reduced rate (1/2 of normal flow rate), lower drill string slowly
about ten feet above the loss formation, and circulate for a certain time, then restore drilling
operation if possible.
B. Add some viscosifiers such as lime, CMC, PAC, MMH, XC, bentonite or polymers, or a
145
quantity of thick mud. Add some bridging agents or LCM if necessary.
C. If loss indications are no more observed, restore drilling with a reduced pump rate and
lowered penetration rate till loss of circulation ceases completely.
8.2.3.2 Partial Loss
One of the following measures can be taken based on the specific conditions.
A. Add some viscosifiers and LCM of different shapes and sizes.
B. Pump a pill of thick mud mixed with 30-40 lb/bbl LCM of varied shapes and sizes against the
loss interval. Pull up drill string into casing or 65-165 ft above the loss formation and wait for
6- 8 hours.
C. Squeeze a high filtration barite-diatomite slurry into the loss zone at a lowered rate. The
formulation of barite-diatomite slurry is shown in the following table (Table 8-2).
Table 8-2 Formulation of P reparation of 1 bbl Bentonite-Diatomite Slurry
8.2.3.3 Loss of Circulation without Return
A. Squeeze and set cement or soft plug slurries.
Extensively used plug slurries are quick setting bentonite-cement, diesel-bentonite,
lime-bentonite plug and quick setting cement slurries(). The formulations of these plug
slurries are not standardized and usually determined and modified by pilot test according to the
practical conditions. However the slurries must possess a certain flowing property, initial setting
time and strength after consolidation, and if the loss formation is also a productive one, they must
be able to be acidized.
a) Type and formulation of plug slurry (for reference)
Quick setting bentonite-cement slurry (Table 8-3).
Table 8-3 Formulation of Quick Setting Bentonite-Cement Slurry
Wat er 10.0l b/ gal Bent onit e s lurry Cement Li me NaOH Na
2
SiO
3

1 m
3
0.365 m
3
1820 kg 455 kg 9 1k g 270 kg
1 bbl 0.365 b bl 637 1b 159 1b 32 1b 95 1b

The initial setting time of this kind of slurry is about 35-40 minutes so the squeezing operation
can begin only when all preparatory work is surely conducted, and surface equipment and
connections should be dissembled and washed out immediately after squeezing is over.
Bentonite-cement slurry (Table 8-4).
Table 8-4 Formulation of Diesel-Bentonite Slurry
Slurry Density, lb/gal Water, bbl Diat omit e, lb Barit e, lb
9.0 0.87 50
0
10.0 0.84 50
15
11.0 0.80 47
30
12.0 0.77 42
45
13.0 0.74 38 58
14.0 0.70 34 73
15.0 0.67 32 88
16.0 0.63 28 100
17.0 0.60 25 115
18.0 0.56 22 130
19.0 0.52 17 145
146




Diesel--bentonite slurry (Table 8-5)
Table 8-5 Formulation of Diesel-Bentonite Slurry




Lime-bentonite slurry:
11.3- 11.7 lb/gal lime solution: 10.0 - 10.4 lb/gal bentonite slurry = (1: 1), (1:2) or (2: 1). In
the above lime-bentonite slurry prepared, a certain amount of NaOH and Na
2
SiO
3
and an adequate
proportion of LCM of different shapes and sizes can be added and mixed so that the plug slurry
after setting will capture an increased strength.
b) Slurry squeezing procedure.
The volume of slurry prepared must be larger than the volume of the borehole column of
a hight from 5 -8 m above the loss formation to well bottom.
Locate the loss zone and lower drill string to the top of the loss zone.
Pump each 3 - 6 bbl of diesel oil in front and after the slurry as a spacer fluid.
Close annular BOP and pump mud at a rate of 2 - 4 bbl/min from wellhead into annulus
while displacing the plug slurry at a rate of 4 - 4.5 bbl/min into drill string then in annulus up.
After 50 % of the slurry comes out from bit in annulus, continue mud pumping into the annulus
with reduced rate of 1 - 2bbl/min and slurry replacing into drill string with a reduced rate of 2
-2.25 bbl/min. After 3/4 of the slurry is replaced into annulus, try to keep a pressure of 100 -500
psi at standpipe gauge to squeeze the slurry into the loss zone until the moment when about 1 bbl
of slurry remains in the drill string.
Pull drill string up into casing and let the plug slurry to stay for 8 - 10 hours.
B. Drill blind without return and attempt to cure the loss by plugging effect of cuttings.
C. Change to drilling with foam, mist or air.
D. Introduce casing to seal the loss zone, this is the most safe and certain measure.
Nomenclatures:
1)
fr
--Drilling fluid density that induces formation fracture, lb/gal.
2) --Drilling fluid density in well bore, lb/gal.
3) P
L
--Formation fracture pressure, psi.
4) H--True vertical depth of the formation, ft.
5) P--Hydrostatic pressure, psi.
8.3 Drilling String Sticking
Drill string sticking can be divided into the following types: differential pressure sticking,
cutting precipitation sticking, cutting bridge sticking, formation collapse sticking, tight hole
sticking, key-seat sticking and falling object sticking. The first five types are directly related to
Sl urr y Vol u me Cement Bent onit e Di esel
1 m
3
440 kg 440 kg 0. 72 m
3

1 bbl 154 1b 154 1b 0. 7 2 b bl
Sl urr y Vol u me Di esel Bent onit e
1 m
3
0. 70 m
3
805 kg
1 bbl 0. 7 0 b bl 282 1b
147
drilling fluid and the differential pressure sticking is the most frequently encountered. Different
types of sticking are provoked by different causes, have different indications and must be treated
with different measures.
8.3.1 Differential Pressure Sticking
8.3.1.1 Causes and Influencing Factors
When a section of drill string stays in contact with borehole wall of a permeable formation for
a interval of time, the string may be pressed tightly into the wall and the driving power on the
string can not overcome the friction and adhesion of the string on the wall surface and the string
can't be moved (pulled up, lowered down or rotated) under the differential pressure between the
mud hydrostatic pressure and the formation pressure--a differential pressure sticking occurs. In
most cases of differential pressure sticking, even though the drill string can't move however the
circulation is undisturbed and pump pressure is almost the same as before sticking. The following
equation can presumably describe the frictional force between drill string and borehole wall (Eq.
8-3).

( )
h P
F A p p =

P
h

( 0 . 0 5 2 )
P
F A H p = - -
8-3
Where, F--Friction or adhesion force between drill string and borehole wall, lb,

--Friction coefficient between drill string and borehole wall, dimensionless,

A--Contact area of drill string on borehole wall, in
2
,

h
p
--Mud hydrostatic pressure, psi,

--Mud density, lb/gal,

H--Depth of sticking point, ft,

P
p
--Formation pore pressure, psi.
The factors that influence friction or adhesion force on differential pressure sticking are the
following three:
A. The higher the differential pressure (
h P
p p
), the greater the adhesion force F. That means
if the drilling fluid hydrostatic pressure
h
p
is higher (or the mud density

is higher and
H is larger) and the formation pressure
P
p
is lower, the adhesion force F is greater.
B. The greater the contact area A, the greater the adhesion force F.
C. The greater the friction coefficient

, the greater the adhesion force F.

On the other hand, differential pressure sticking is greatly related to time. The time in which
drill string is left unmoved on the borehole wall is longer, then the contact area is larger and the
friction coefficient

is higher, finally the adhesion force F is higher. The frequency of
differential pressure sticking is much higher in directional and horizontal wells because the drill
string above the driving device of the bit is unmoved and lying on the lower wall of the borehole
in drilling process. The mechanism of differential pressure sticking is shown in Fig. 8-2.
148




8.3.1.2 Prevention Measures
A. Apply a reasonably lower mud density.
B. Select adequate drilling fluid system. Maintain low filtration rate, thin and tough mud cake
and low cake friction coefficient.
C. Run solid control equipment properly to maintain reduced total solid and low-gravity harmful
solid content and low cutting content in annulus.
D. Move drill string accordingly in process of mud circulation and equipment repairs.
E. Add some mud lubricants to improve lubrication character of mud and mud cake.
The lubricity of different lubricants and drilling fluid systems are listed in the following tables
(Table 8-6, Table 8-7).


Lubricants
Concentration
lb/bbl
In
Wat er
In
Mud A
a

In
Mud B
b


None 0 0.36 0.44 0.23
Figure 8-2 Differential pressure sticking mechanism
Table 8-6 Comparison of Various Mud Lubricants
149
Diesel oil 0.1 0.23 0.38 0.23
Asphalt 8 0.36 0.38 0.23
Asphalt and di esel oil 8 (As phalt ) 0.1 (Di es el oil) 0.23 0.38 0.23
Graphite 8 0.36 0.40 0.23
Graphite and Diesel oil 8 (Graphit e) 0.1 (Dies el oil ) 0.23 0.40 0.23
Sulphonat ed fatty acid 4 0.17 0.12 0.17
Fatty acid 4 0.07 0.14 0.17
Long chained alcohol 2 0.16 0.40 0.23
Heavy alkylate 4 0.17 0.36 0.23
Petroleum sulfonate 4 0.17 0.32 0.23
Mud detergent brand X 4 0.11 0.32 0.23
Mud det ergent brand Y 4 0.23 0.32 0.23
Mud det ergent brand Z 0.15 0.38 0.23 0.23
Heavy metal soap 5.27 0.28 0.40 0.23
Silicate 4 0.23 0.30 0.26
Commercial detergent 4 0.25 0.38 0.25
Chlorinated paraffin 4 0.16 0.40 0.25
Blend of modifi ed triglycerides and
alcohols
4 0.07 0.06 0.17
Sulfonated asphalt 8 0.25 0.30 0.25
Sulfonated asphalt and dies el oil


0.1 Diesel oil and 8
(Sulfonated-asphalt)
0.07 0.06 0.25
Walnut hulls (fine) 10 0.36 0.44 0.26
a Mud A-15 g bentonite in 350 ml water
b Mud B-15 g bentonite, 60 g Glen Ross shale, 3 g chrome lignosulfonate, 0.5 g caustic soda in 350 ml water

Table 8-7 Lubrication Coefficient of Different Types of Drilling Fluids
Types of Drilling Fluid Lubrication Coefficient
Drilling fluid with organic thinner (14.5 lb/gal) 0.28
Drilling fluid with organic thinner (12.0 lb/gal) 0.26
Drilling fluid with organic thinner (10.0 lb/gal) 0.25
Sea water drilling fluid(12.0 lb/gal) 0.23
Saturated salt water drilling fluid 0.27
Saturated salt water drilling fluid with lubricant 0.18
Salt water drilling fluid with lubricant (10.8 lb/gal) 0.17
Oil base drilling fluid 0.13

8.3.1.3 Spotting for Stuck Pipe Release
The effective procedure for releasing the stuck pipe is submersing the stuck interval of the drill
string by spotting fluid.
A. Preparation of spotting fluid.
a) The density of the spotting fluid prepared must be equal to the mud density applied.
b) According to the requirements of environment protection, an oil base spotting fluid can
be prepared with diesel or mineral oil.
c) The spotting fluid prepared must have good rheological properties and higher filtration
and the filtrate must have high percolating character.
d) The volume of the spotting fluid must be able to submerge the whole stuck interval of
150
the drill string with a reasonable surplus, usually 100- 125 bbl.
e) For preparation of oil base spotting fluid, warm up the base oil to 104(40) then
slowly add PipeFree (or Pipelax) into the base oil though mixing hopper. Circulate and
blend the solution for 30-40 minutes. An adequate percentage of percolating surfactant
may help the stuck drill string be released quickly. Be aware of that percolating
surfactant may damage the mad cake quality of whole borehole interval submerged.
Weight the spotting fluid with barite to the designed density.
B. Spotting procedure.
a) Wash pump with diesel for oil base spotting fluid and 20 % concentration NaCl brine for
water base spotting fluid before preparation.
b) Inject the spotting fluid into drill pipe then replace it into annulus to submerse the stuck
interval in such manner that the volume of the spotting fluid in drillpipe is 12-19 bbl
more than in annulus. Slowly move the drill string up and down till the pipe release.
c) Circulate the spotting fluid out of hole after pipe release. Collect and store it in a
container for next use. Do not leave the spotting fluid in borehole or mix it with drilling
fluid because it contains a percentage of percolating agent that will spoil tightness and
texture of the mud cake.
d) Start pump and circulate borehole mud for a certain time while moving and rotating the
pipe, then restore drilling.
Formulation of oil base spotting fluid can be seen in the following table (Table 8-8).
Table 8-8 Formulations of Oil Bade Spotting Fluids
Formulation A Formulation B
Material Specification Quantity Material Specification Quantity

Diesel 0
#
or 10
#
100 m
3
Diesel 0
#
or 10
#
100 m
3

Oxidized-
as phalt
S. P=150
Mesh=80
12 t
Oxidized
asphalt
S .P = 150
Mes h =80
20 t
Organophilic
bentonite
Mesh=80-100 1. 6 t
Organophilic
bentonite
C.C=90% 3 t
Oleic acid
A. V= 190-205
I. V=60- 100
1. 8 t Oleic acid
A. V= 190-205
I. V= 60- 10 0
2 t
Percolating agent
P. P=1005% 1. 6 t
Percolating
agent
1. 6 t
Lime Mesh =120 3. 0 t Lime Mesh= 120 40. 0 t
ABS / / ABS 2. 0 t
SPAN-80 / / SPAN-80 0. 5 t
Water 5.0m
3
Water
1/50 Na
2
Cr
2
O
7
solution
5.0 m
3

Barite
Mesh =200
4.20 g/ cm
3


200 ,03*4.20
g/cm
3

As req. Barite
Mesh=200
4.20 g/ cm
3

As req





S.PSoftening point, C.C Colloid content, A.VAcid value, I.VIodine value, P.PPercolat ing pot ent ial.

8.3.2 Cutting Precipitation Sticking and Cutting Bridge Sticking()
8.3.2.1 Causes and Indications
A. Cutting precipitation sticking: Precipitation of abundance of cuttings onto bottom may cause
stuck pipe when pump is suddenly stopped since low mud viscosity and gel strength and
severe accumulation of cuttings in annulus resulted from excessively high penetration rate
151
and poor mud suspension capacity. On the other hand, the bit may intrude into cuttings
precipitated on bottom and stuck pipe may occur at pipe connections.
B. Cutting bridge sticking: Cutting bridge may be built up in borehole steps formed by presence
of a series of alternations of soft swelling shale formations overlapped by sloughing shale
formations. If pipe lowering is too fast, the bit may intrude into the cutting bridge and it
results in cutting bridge sticking.
In most cases when cutting precipitation or cutting bridge sticking occurs, the circulation path
is stuffed, start of pump and pipe movement is impossible. However some gentle cases may also
be encountered when the circulation path is partially stuffed, circulation can be carried out but
with higher pumping pressure and reduced rate, and the drill string can be moved in a longer or
shorter limited range.
8.3.2.2 Prevention Measures
A. Maintain good mud rheological properties and its satisfactory currying and suspension
capacity.
B. Control penetration rate in soft formations, circulate mud for a couple of minutes then
conduct connections at every single drilled out.
C. Remove drill cuttings on time and maintain borehole and bottom clean by application of
proper annular hydraulics and running solid control equipment.
D. Gently lower the drill string while vigilantly watch pump pressure gauge and weight
indicator.
E. Avoid long-term circulation with bit unmoved against an interval of hole in order to eliminate
borehole erosion.
8.3.2.3 Remedy
When cutting precipitation or cutting bridge sticking occurs, sudden pump starting with high
output or rode drill string pulling and pressing must be avoided since these manners will make the
case even worse and result in pump burst, irritate formation fracturing and loss of circulation.
A. In case when the circulating path is not stuffed and circulation can be established, start pump
slowly with reduced pumping rate and at the same time move the drill string with care in
order to loosen and wash out the cuttings precipitated and cutting bridge with steadily
increased pump rate and lowered pump pressure. This way may realize the pipe release in the
final. Sometimes injecting a spotting fluid may also help to get a positive result.
B. In case when the circulating path is completely stuffed and circulation can' t be curried on, try
to rebuild circulation using a cementing truck and circulate with steadily increased pump rate
meanwhile gently move drill string to loosen and wash out the cuttings in order to realize
removing the stuck pipe. If it fails, the unique remaining way is to do fishing work.
8.3.3 Formation Collapse Sticking()
8.3.3.1 Causes and Indications
Formation collapse sticking is caused mainly by sudden formation collapses that result from
surge or swab provoked by rude pipe pulling, lowering or collision of drill string on borehole wall
or improper starting of pump. Lumps and blocks of formation rocks broken fall down in annulus
and make the drill string stuck. Formation collapse sticking is characterized by the suddenness of
its occurrence, with less possibility of circulation and with obstruction of drill string movement.
8.3.3.2 Prevention and Remedy
The principal manners for prevention of formation collapse sticking are enhancing borehole
152
stability by raising mud inhibition and avoiding surge and swab caused by pump starting and pipe
movement. When formation collapse sticking occurs, do not take some rude measures such as
enforced pulling or lowering drill string instead of application of some gentle manners. If
circulation can be built, start pump and circulate mud with steadily raised mud viscosity and gel
strength and carefully adjusted pump output, pull and lower the drill string gently. Introduction a
spotting fluid may also be helpful to final release.
8.3.4 Salt Creeping and Tight Hole Sticking
8.3.4.1 Causes and Indications
Rock salt at temperature over 212 (100 ) changes into a plastic state. When a rock salt
formation is drilled out, it will expand or creep continuously into borehole as a plastic object
under the over-burden pressure of the formations above and cause trip difficulty, or even worse, it
may result in sticking. Besides rock salt, some strong sticky swelling shale formations can expand
uninterruptedly into bore-hole due to its strong hydrating and swelling nature. This kind of shale is
widely encountered, for example Gumble shale in North sea and a red soft shale formation in
Shengli Oilfield, Shandong Province, China.
8.3.4.2 Prevention and Remedy
The creeping of rock salt and the related down hole troubles can be resolved only by raising
mud density and borehole hydrostatic pressure to balance the overburden pressure, usually the
mud density must reach 2.40 g/cm
3
or more. Such high mud density may bring a series of troubles
to down hole safety and mud maintenance, therefore if the presence of rock salt formation is
known in advance, sealing it by introduction of casing must be considered.
In order to control the strong hydrating and swelling soft and plastic shale formations, a strong
inhibitive mud system must be selected for use meanwhile adequate high mud density and proper
drilling engineering technology are undoubtedly necessary to be applied. If the troubles can't be
effectively solved by using a water base mud, re-placement of the water base mud by a W/O invert
emulsion or a whole oil drilling fluid can be considered.
8.3.5 Key Seating Sticking
The key seating sticking is originated from inserting of drill string into a key seat in an interval
of formation. It is not related to drilling fluid and is characterized by sudden occurrence with
normal circulation pressure as before and without an abnormal amount of sloughed or collapsed
shale on shakers. This kind of sticking occurs repeatedly at imprudent pulling and lowering of drill
string but always in the same depth and may be released very often by certain manipulation of
string movement. It is important to identify and differ the key seating sticking from other mud
related types of sticking at the first moment when it occurs and not to carry out mud treatments
and spotting blindly.
8.3.6 Falling Object Sticking()
Failing object sticking is provoked by falling objects such as bit cones or some pieces of
manual tools or other equipment into borehole and it is characterized by no observation of rising
of pump pressure and absence of excessive cuttings on shakers. Identify the falling object sticking
nature as soon as possible so that the proper remedial measure can be taken. For elimination of the
trouble, try to pull the drill string out of hole by back off, cutting or exploding the drill string
above the sticking point and eliminate the fish and the objects in the hole by milling.

Exercise
153
CHAPTER 9 SOLDI CONTROL
9.1 Solid Contained in Drilling Fluid()
Solids contained in drilling fluid include bentonite, weighting materials and drilled solids
(drilled cuttings of formation rocks or formation detritus derived from sloughing or collapse).
Weighting materials have higher density (usually > 4.0 g/cm
3
) and are called high-density solids,
and bentonite and drilled solids have lower density (usually <2.7 g/cm
3
) and are called
low-density solids. Weighting materials and bentonite are useful solids and drilled solids are
useless or harmful solids.
9.1.1 Bentonite
Bentonite is strongly hydratable and swelling active clays and its chemical composition is
water-containing silicates-aluminates that can be dispersed into water as very fine colloidal
particles (<2 m) there-with form a stable colloidal suspension. Particle size distribution of a
bentonite in fresh water can be seen in Fig.9-1.

Fig. 9-1 Particle size distribution of a bentonite in fresh water

Bentonite is a useful and important solid component of drilling fluid because it can provide
the drilling fluid with the following necessary behaviors:
A. Rheological properties as PV, YP and gel strengths.
B. Filtration, mud cake building and borehole wall strengthening.
C. Carrying and suspension capacity of drilled cuttings and weighting materials.
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) is a parameter that represents the activity of the bentonite.
The higher the CEC value is, the greater the bentonite ability to build up viscosity at a given
concentration. The CEC values of different clay minerals are listed below in Table 9-1.
Table 9-1 CEC of Different Clay Minerals

Clay Mineral CEC, meq/l00g Dry Clay
Montmorillonite 70-130
Vermiculite 100-200
Illite 10-40
154









The bentonite of higher CEC is preferable to be applied because it may provide the drilling fluid
with upgraded behaviors and performance at its minimum content. Recommended range of
properties and low density solids of weighted water base mud is illustrated in Fig. 9-2 and 9-3.

Fig. 9-2 Plastic viscosity, yield point and Methylene Blue Test (MBT) range for water-base muds


Fig. 9-3 Solids range for barite weighted water-base muds

Bentonite content of a drilling fluid must be controlled in a desired range for obtaining
satisfactory drilling fluid properties. The mud with insufficient bentonite content can't obtain good
enough properties but if the mud has excessive bentonite content, it may lose necessary good
rheological properties that can cause bit-bailing, heavy loading of drilled solids in mud and
difficulty of running of solids control equipment, higher surge and swab pressure, difficulty of
pump starting or some down hole accidents such as differential sticking or loss of circulation etc.
The yield curve of different clays can be seen in Fig. 9-4.
Kaolinite 3-5
Chlorite 10-40
Attapulgite, Sepiolite 10-35
Na-Bentonite (Xiazijie, China) 82.30
Ca-Bentonite (Gaoyang, China) 103.70
Ca-Bentonite (Weifang, China) 74.03
Ca-Bentonite (Quxian, Sichuan, China) 100.00
155

Fig. 9-4 Typical clay yield curve
A good salt clay in salt water approximates the bentonite yield curve in fresh water

9.1.2 Weighting Materials
A good weighting material should meet the following requirements:
A. Higher density.
B. Chemically inactive or inert.
C. Low hardness and abrasiveness.
D. Safe to labor health.
cm
3
Barite (barium sulfate) is the most widely used weighting material as it has a S.G. of 4.20
g/cm
3
, totally inactive and inert and of abundant existence. API specifications of barite are shown
in Table 9-2 and the routine particle size distribution of barite is shown in Fig.9-5. Besides barite,
powders of limestone ( CaCO
3
), hematite (Fe
2
O
3
) and ilmenite (FeTiO
3
) can also be used as
weighting materials.
156

Fig. 9-5 Particle size distribution of a barite

Table 9-2 API Specifications of Barite
Requirements Standard
Density 4.20 g/cm
3
,minimum
Water soluble earth metal,as calcium 250 mg/kg, maximum
Residue greater then 75 m Maximum mass fraction 3.0%
Particles smaller than 6 m in equivalent spherical diameter Maximum mass fraction 30%

9.1.3 Drilled Solids
Drilled solids are cuttings of bit broken formation rocks or detritus derived from formation
sloughing or collapse and intruded into drilling fluid in drilling process. They are predominantly
clays, shale, quarts, feldspar as well as limestone, dolomites etc. The specific gravity of drilled
solids is ranging from 2.0 to 3.0 g/cm
3
(routinely taken 2.6g/ cm
3
). The particle size of drilled
solids is distributed in a very large range (Fig. 9-6).

Fig. 9-6 Particle size distribution of a shale in a native mud

Because the petrographic and mineral components of varied drilled solids are quite different,
they may be active on somewhat degrees or totally inactive and with different size range. The
drilled solids may generate significant harmful results in drilling process. In the strict sense,
almost all drilled solids are undesirable and harmful, with limited exceptions, and they should be
eliminated from drilling fluid. The tolerable content of drilled solids in drilling fluid is less than
6 % (V/V).
157
Harmful effects of drilled solids on drilling fluid:
A. Uncontrolled increase of viscosity.
B. Poor and thick mud cake and increased friction and abrasiveness of mud and mud cake.
Accelerated wear of equipment parts.
C. Enlarged eventuality of differential sticking.
D. Reduced rate of penetration, bit life and footage.
E. Increased frequency of bit-bailing, increased surge and swab pressure and eventuality of loss
of circulation and borehole wall collapse.
F. Greater consumptions of water and chemical additives for mud maintenance.
G. Lost control on increase of mud density, varied down hole troubles and aggravated formation
damage.
H. Enlarged mud drainage and haul-off.
The physical and chemical characteristics of solids contained in drilling fluid are listed in
Table 9-3.
Table 9-3 Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Solids Contained in Drilling Fluid
No. Characteristics Bentonite Barite Drilled Solids
1 Usage Colloidal particles Mud Weighting Useless, harmful
2
Petrographical &
Mineralogical Components
Smectite
Barium Sulfite
(BaSO
4
)
Low quality clays, and
other minerals or rocks
3 Chemical Activity Active Inert Inert & less active
4 S.G., g/cm
3
2.3-2.6 4.20 2.0-3.0
5 Source
Addition or
formation dispersion
Addition Broken formation rocks
6 Particle Size <5 (about 90%) < 74
> 6- 10 usually referring to
those>74m
7 Abrasiveness No No High
8 Mohs Hardness Low Low High
9 Acceptable Content 30-60 As required
Varied in a large range, must
be eliminated

9.2 Contents and Purposes of Solid Control()
Contents of Solids Control
A. Elimination of drilled solids.
B. Elimination of excessive bentonite content and colloid particles.
C. Recovery of barite.
D. Recovery of chemical additives and water.
Purposes and Significance of Solids Control
A. Maintain adequate mud rheological and filtration properties.
B. Improve lubricity and reduce abrasiveness and friction of mud and mud cake.
C. Reduce drilling torque and drag.
D. Reduce frequency of differential sticking and logging troubles.
E. Reduce surge and swab pressure.
158
F. Increase penetration rate and prolong bit footage and life.
G. Reduce water, barite and chemical additives consumption.
H. Smooth casing running and improve cementing quality.
I. Obtain gauge hole and enhance borehole stability.
J. Reduce wear of pump and equipment parts.
K. Control mud weight and mitigate formation damage.
L. Reduce mud drainage and haul-off.
9.3 Solid Control Equipment()
9.3.1 Shale Shakers()
A. Capacity and efficiency of shale shaker
The volume of fluid processed per unit of time by a shale shaker depends on the following
factors:
a) Type of screen motion. The type of motion of shaker screen will influence the ultimate
position of the vibrating assembly relative to the deck of the shaker and the motion track
of cuttings. It can be:circular, circular-elliptical or linear.
b) Vibrating amplitude of the screen.
c) Vibrating frequency of the screen.
d) G-force: This is the force imparted by the vibrating system of the shaker to the screen
surface to vibrate for solids separation. For conventional shakers G-force = 3 and for
strong shakers G-force = 4-6.
e) Mesh and weaving type of screen cloth.
f) Drilling fluid properties such as density, PV, YP and gel strengths.
g) Load of solid on the screen (increases with the increase of pump output and mud solid
content).
B. Screen cloth
There are great varieties of screens that are characterized by structure design of the screen,
mesh, aperture size and shape, open area, mode of weaving of the cloth. The specifications of
common oilfield screens can be seen in Table 9-4 and the equivalent screens used by varied firms
are listed in Table 9-5.
Table 9-4 API Screen Designation Chart
Mesh
Wire diameter
in
Opening Open area
%
API Designation
in m
8x8
1010
1212
1414
1616
1818
2020
0.028
0.025
0.025
0.020
0.018
0.018
0.017
0.097
0.075
0.060
0.051
0.0445
0.0376
0.033
2464
1905
1524
1295
1130
955
838
60.2
56.3
51.8
51.0
50.7
45.8
43.6
8x8 (2464x2464, 60.2)
1010 (19051905,56.3)
1212 (15241524,51.8)
1414 (12951295,51.0)
1616 (l130x 1130,50.7)
1818 (955955,45.8)
2020 (838838,43.6)
208
3030
3020
0.020/0.032
0.012
0.015
0.030/0.093
0.0213
0.018/0.035
762/2362
541
465/889
45.7
40.8
39.5
208 (7622362,45.7)
3030(541541,40.8)
3020 (465889,39.5)
159
3512
4040
0.016
0.010
0.0126/0.067
0.015
320/1700
381
42.0
36.0
3512 (3201700,42.0)
4040(381381,36.0)
4036 0.010 0.0178/0.015 452/381 40.5
4036
(452381,40.5)
4030 0.010 0.015/0.0233 381/592 42.5
4030
(381592,42.5)
4020 0.014 0.012/0.036 310/910 36.8
4020
(310910,36.8)
5050 0.009 0.011 279 30.3
5050 (279279,
30.3)
5040 0.0085 0.0115/0.0165 292/419 38.3
5040
(292419,38.3)
6060 0.0075 0.0092 234 30.5
6060
(23423 ,30.5)
6040 0.009 0.0077/0.016 200/406 31.1
6040
(200406,31.1)
6024 0.009 0.007/0.033 200/830 41.5
6024
(200830,41.5)
7030 0.0075 0.007/0.026 178/660 40.3
7030
(178660,40.3)
8040 0.007 0.0055/0.018 140/460 35.6
8040
(140460,35.6)
100100 0.0045 0.0055 140 30.3
100l00
(140140,30.3)
120120 0.0037 0.0046 117 30.9
20120
(117117,30.9)
150150 0.0026 0.0041 105 37.4
50150
(105105,37.4)
200200 0.0021 0.0029 74 33.6
200200
(7474,33.6)
250250 0.0016 0.0024 63 36.0
250250
(6363,36.0)
325325 0.0014 0.0017 44 30.0
325325
(4444,30.0)

Table 9-5 Screens of Shale Shakers of Different Firms
STANDARD
SQUARE
MILCHEM SWACO
BAROID BRANDT DERRICK IMCO MILCHEM SWACO
30x30 30x30
S30
B50
B60
Dx38
30x30
60 Oblong
30x30 30x30
40x40 50 S40 40x40 40x40 40x40
50x50 S50 Dx50 50x50 50x50 50x50
160
B80
B100
80 Oblong
60x60 80 S60 60x60
60x60
70x30
60x60
70x30
80x80 100
S80
B120
Dx100 80x80 80X40
80x80

100x100 100x100 S100 Dx84 100x100 80x40 100x100
120x120 Dx100
100x100
120x120
120x120


C. Shale shaker applications.
a) Determination of screen mesh: Screen is recommended to use as fine as possible. When
obvious solid plugging is observed or if only 50% or less screen area is covered with
flowing mud, a finer screen must replace the coarser one. In general, solid particles
larger
b) than 74 m are the portion to be eliminated by shale shakers; therefore a finest screen as
200 mesh can be applied when Gumble shale-like formations are drilled, a PDC bit is
applied or ROP is low in a deep well.
c) Number of shakers applied: The number of shakers applied in a rig is mainly determined
by the ratio of the maximum mud circulating output of the rig and the treating capacity
of a single shaker, usually 2 or 3 units on a rig. As a rule of thumb 75- 80 % of the total
length of the screen should be covered by flowing mud and this may permit using the
entire capacity of the shaker including consideration of dealing with mud surge.
d) Arrangement of shakers. Serial arrangement: In this kind of arrangement, the coarse
mesh shaker processes the fluid initially and the fine mesh shakers process the
underflow of the precedent coarse one. Parallel arrangement: The shakers are arranged
in a parallel mode and mud flows onto all the shakers through a distributor.
9.3.2 Hydrocyclones()
A. Classification.
Hydrocyclones are divided in two categories (desanders and desilters). The specifications of
hydrocyclones are shown in Table 9-6.
Table 9-6 Specifications of Desanders and Desilters
Type of Hydrocyclone Size,in Capacity,gal/min Cut Range,m
Desanders 6-12 125-500 >44
Desilters 2-5 25-75 >8-10

B. Application of desanders and desilters.
a) The cut point of 10 in or 12 in desanders is 40-45 m and that of 4 in and 5 in desilters
20-5 m . Since desanders and desilters would discard large amount of barite along with
the drilled solids in a weighted mud, therefore they are usually used only with
unweighted mud. 2 in desilters can be optionally used for removing even finer particles
(7-10 m ) of the underflow of the upstream desilters or mud cleaner.
b) Number of hydrocyclones: the number of &sanders arranged in a set for a rig is
161
determined in the way that the capacity processed by the defined number of
hydrocyclones of a set of desanders must be equal to 125 % of the maximum rig
circulating rate or more. A number of hydrocyclones in a set of desilters must process
150 % of the rig maximum circulating rate.
C. Factors influencing hydrocyclone performance.
a) Mud density.
b) Solid content of the underflow of the preceding equipment or solid content of the mud
that gets into the inlet of this unit.
c) Mud viscosity.
d) Feed pressure.
e) Feed flow rate.
f) Apex size.
g) Cyclone performance: In order to make the hydrocyclones to work efficiently, the solid
content of the underflow of the preceding equipment or that flows into the inlet of this
unit must fit the unit itself. If this condition is satisfied, adjustment of feed rate, feed
pressure or replacement of an apex of another size must be taken.

(a) (b)
Fig. 9-7 Hydrocyclone functioning states
(a) Cone-Spray underflow discharge; (b) Rope underflow discharge


"Cone Spray Discharge" and "Rope Discharge": When a hydrocyclone works in a high
162
performance efficiency, the discharged solids comes out from its underflow apex in a shape of so
called "Cone Spray Discharge" mode. However cyclone underflow may appear very often as
"Rope Discharge". "Rope Discharge" means poor cleaning efficiency and it can cause solids
overloading of cyclone overflow, apex plugging and aggravated wear of vertex finder, overflow
fitting, cone liners and rig pump parts meanwhile discard a big volume of mud. The reasons of the
"Rope Discharge" to happen and the measures to revise it into "cone Spray Discharge" are as
follows:
a) Undersized apex: Enlarge apex size.
b) Feed pressure is too low: Increase feed pressure.
c) High mud viscosity: Dilution with water.
d) High mud solid content: Dilute the inlet mud or run a higher number of cyclones.
A sketch of hydrocyclone functioning states is shown in Fig. 9-7. The performance curves of
different size hydrocyclones is shown in Fig. 9-8.

Fig. 9-8 Typical cyclone perfomance

As Fig. 9-8 shows, the 12 in hydrocyclone removes about 50 % of 44 m solid particles
contained in the fluid that enters into the feed inlet so as 44m is called the CUT POINT, of the
12 in cyclone.

In Table 9-7, the recommended feed pressures of hydrocyclones of some manufacturers are
listed.
Table 9-7 Recommended Hydrocyclone Feed Head Requirements(All Pressures Based on 9 lb/gal Mud)
2in 4in 5in 10in 12in
Maunufactur
e
Pre
ss
psi
He
ad
ft
Vol.gal/
min
press
psi
He
ad
ft
Vol.gal/
min
press
psi
He
ad
ft
Vol.gal/
min
press
psi
He
ad
ft
Vol.gal/
min
press
psi
He
ad
ft
Vol.gal/
min
Brandt-d
rexel
35 75 20 35 75 60 35 75 500
Sweco 35 75 50 35 75 80 35 75 500
Totco 35 75 60 30 64 500
Swaco 60 12 25 45 96 75 35 75 500
163
8
Pinneer
HV 6in
35 75 80 35 75 100 35 75 500
std
Baroid 35 75 50
Raroid 35 75 80 35 75 500
FSI
45 96 25 35 75 70
4in Involute
35 75 90
Demco
35 75 17.5 35 75 39
HType 8in
35 75 75 35 75 140 35 75 375
Triflo 35 75 65

Density difference between underflow and feed inlet of desanders and desilters (D
UNF
- D
feed
),
where D
unf
represents mud density at underflow and D
feed
mud density at inlet, with a "Cone Spray
Discharge":



If the density difference is falling in the above range, the hydrocyclones can be considered
working in the normal state.
9.3.3 Mud Cleaner()
A mud cleaner is introduced for treatment of weighted mud instead of desilters with the
purpose of avoiding waste of barite. A mud cleaner is composed of a set of desilters (usually 4 in
hydrocyclones) mounted above a fine mesh screen shaker (commonly 120-200 mesh, 117- 74m)
so that the underflow of the desilters can pass through the fine screen that discharges the solids
larger than 74m into reserve pit and lets its liquid containing a good part of barite pass through
the screen and be conveyed into circulating system. Mud cleaner operation must be examined and
adjusted frequently so loss of barite can be reduced.
9.3.4 Centrifuges()
A. Functions of centrifuges.
Centrifuges are used to remove very fine solid particles (small down to 10 or 7 m). Since
these fine particles affect mud rheological parameters in a much greater degree than the coarser
particles therefore centrifuges can effectively control mud rheological properties and penetration
rate in a favorable range by removing extra-fine particles. Besides this function, centrifuges are
also applied for recovering barite while discarding fine particles from weighted mud.
Centrifuges can treat only a part of the mud circulating rate (usually 10-20 % ) and they run
usually with water dilution (20 -5 % ) for more efficient separation.
B. Types of centrifuges.
a) Decanting centrifuge: The decanting centrifuge is composed of a rotating bowl and a
screw conveyor inside the bowl. The rotating bowl is a cylinder but with one end in the
shape of a tapered section cone that favorites coarse solids separated to move to the
discharge port. The bowl rotates creating high centrifugal force that throws coarse solid
Equipment (D
unf
-D
feed
)
Desanders 2.50-5.00 lb/gal
Desilters 2.50-3.50 lb/gal
164
particles on its inner wall and the screw conveyor rotates at a slightly slower speed
pushing these coarse solid particles to the underflow discharge port. Meanwhile the
liquid cleaned out of coarse solid particles and retaining the finer particles flows to the
overflow discharge port. There are three types of decanting centrifuges: Barite
Recovery Centrifuge, High Volume Centrifuge and High Speed Centrifuge(Table 9-8 ).
Table 9-8 Operational Parameters of Varied Decanting Centrifuges
Type GPM gal/min RPM r/min G-Force
Cut Point m
Barite Recovery Centrifuge 14-40 1600-1800 500-700
6-10 for L.G.S
4-7 for L.G.S
High Volume Centrifuge 100-200 1900-2100 800 5-7
High Speed Centrifuge 40-120 2500-3300 1200-2100 2-5

b) Rotary Mud Separator Centrifuge (RMS): The RMS centrifuge is composed of a
stationary case and a perforated cylinder that revolves concentrically within the case at a
defined speed. Mud and water is pumped protx)rtionally by two metering pumps into the
annulus between the separator case and the cylinder. The condensed coarse solids are
moved along the wall of the case and pushed out through the underflow port. The lighter
liquid phase moves toward the center of the perforated cylinder and exits through the
perforated rotating tube as overflow.
RIMS centrifuge has greater handling capacity and coarser discard than decanting centrifuge
and its cut point depends on the geometry and mechanical design of the unit. The sketches of
decanting centrifuge and RMS centrifuge can be seen in the following figures (Fig.9-9 and Fig.
9-10).

Fig. 9-9 Solid Bowl Decanting Centrifuge

Fig. 9-10 RMS centrifuge
165
1 -Stationary Case and Underflow, 2 -Rotor (Rotating Perforated Cylinder), 3 -Rotor Shaft-Perforated


C. Centrifuge applications.
Centrifuge can be applied in the following modes.
a) Recovering barite and removing ultra-fine and colloidal size solids in weighted mud with
a single Barite Recovery Centrifuge. The liquid phase containing fine particles is
discarded as overflow to reserve pit and the solids that contain a great percentage of
barite are conveyed as underflow to the circulating mud system (Fig. 9-11). The purpose
of this mode is to remove small colloidal particles from the mud in order to control mud
viscosity. There is a large portion of mud discharged and wasted from overflow port in
this operating mode.

Fig. 9-11 Recovering barite with a single Barite Recovery Centrifuge

b) Dual centrifuging for recovering barite and removing ultra- fine and colloidal size solids
in weighted mud (Barite Recovery Centrifuge-High Speed Centrifuge Combination). The
first Barite Recovery Centrifuge followed by a High Speed one are applied and work
jointly. The solids predominantly barite from the underflow of the first Barite Recovery
Centrifuge are recovered and introduced to the mud circulating system and the liquid
phase retaining fine solid particles comes out from overflow port and is discharged to a
small holding tank and then is pumped to feed the second centrifuge--High Speed
Centrifuge. The solids separated by the second High Speed unit that come out from
underflow port are discarded to the reserve pit and the cleaned liquid that comes out from
overflow port is returned to the circulating system. The cleaned liquid separated by the
High Speed Centrifuge can also b~ used to dilute the feed mud of the first unit--the
Barite Recovery Centrifuge or dilute the recovered barite (Fig. 9-12). This dual
centrifuging design is very cost effective when it is used on mud that contains precious
liquids and chemicals.
166

Fig. 9-12 Dual centrifuging for barite recovery and removing ultra-fine particles

c) High Volume Centrifuge used for un-weighted mud to clean solid particles. The mud
treated by upstream solids control equipment (shale shakers or hydrocyclones) is fed to
the centrifuge. The solids removed by the centrifuge are discarded to the reserve pit and
the cleaned liquid is returned to the circulating mud system. In this mode of centrifuge
application, less mud dilution and haul-off can be achieved and the chemicals contained
in mud can be saved (Fig.9-13).

Fig.9-13 Cleaning low density solids of unweighted mud with one High Volume Centrifuge

a) Secondary recovery of hydrocyclone discharge: The under flow of the upstream
hydrocyclones is fed to the feed inlet of a High Volume Centrifuge or a Barite Recovery
Centrifuge. The solids separated in the underflow by the centrifuge are discarded to the
reserve pit and the cleaned liquid is returned back in the mud circulating system or to the feed
inlet of a High Speed Centrifuge for further cleaning (Fig.9-14). Benefits derived from this
mode of application are less capacity of the reserve pit and less waste haul-off.
167

Fig.9-14 Secondary recovery of hydrocyclone discharge with centrifuge

b) Water recovery from reserve pit. The mud from the reserve pit is fed to a High Speed
Centrifuge for water recovery. The solids separated by the unit are discarded to a dump pit
and the cleaned liquid is reverted to the circulating mud system or collected into a tank for
further use (Fig. 9-15). This operation mode is usually applied in the areas where there is a
difficulty of water supply.

Fig. 9-15 Water recoveries from reserve pit with centrifuge

9.4 Arrangement of Solids Control Equipment System()
9.4.1 Principles of Composing a Solids Control Equipment System
A. Two or three shale shakers can be equipped in a drilling rig. The whole circulating mud
must be treated by the running shakers and never allow whole mud or a part of it to
bypass the shakers and be guided directly into hydrocyclones or centrifuges. The
screen mesh should be chosen as fine as possible in order to create favorable
conditions for the smooth and efficient running of desanders, desilters or centrifuges.
B. The number and operational behaviors of the desanders should be carefully selected
and adjusted so that they can clean completely the larger particles that are out of the
processing range of the downstream desilters or mud cleaner.
C. The capacity of centrifuges is small that represents only a part of the circulating mud.
In order to make them work efficiently, they run usually with water dilution of the mud
at their feed inlet all the time. The water addition percentage or so called dilution rate
168
is usually in the range from 20 % to 75 % depending mainly on the mud viscosity and
solids content. A solids control equipment system, the separating capacity and the cut
point of its components are shown in Fig. 9-16.

Fig.9-16 Minimum particle cut size and capacity of different solid control equipment

D. Because desanders and desilters may discard barite, so they cannot be run when a
weighted mud is applied for the purpose of avoiding barite loss.
High speed
centrifuge
Centrifuge 2in Clone D-Silter D-Sander Screen
Mud
weig
ht
lb/ga
l
RAM
MUD
VO;
gal/mi
n
Mud
weig
ht
lb/ga
l
RAM
MUD
VO;
gal/m
in
Mud
weig
ht
lb/ga
l
Volu
me
Clone
gal/mi
n
SIZ
E
EST
Volu
me
gal/mi
n
SIZ
E
EST
Volu
me
gal/mi
n
SIZE
Mico
on cut
m
EST
Volu
me
gal/mi
n
8.5 90 8.5 40 8.5 25 1T4 150
1-1
2
500 2030 465 1000
9 75 9 38 9 25 2T4 300
2-1
2
1000 3030 541 950
10 64 10 36 10 25 4T4 600
3-1
2
1500 3040 381 900
11 40 11 34 11 15.7 6T4 900 4036 300 800
*Not designed
for weighted
mud systerms
12 31 12 11.4 8T4 1200 5050 279 750
13 27 13 9
10T
4
1500 6060 234 700
14 23 14 7.4 8060 178 600
15 20 15 6.3
1001
00
140 400
16 17 16 5.5
1201
20
117 250
17 13 17 4.8 1501 104 200
169
50
18 10 18 4.0
2002
00
74 120
19 8 19 4.3 *Depends on
the mud
rheology
20 7 20 4.6

9.4.2 Commonly Used Solids Control Equipment Systems
A. Conventional solid control equipment system for un-weighted mud (Fig. 9-17).
B. Conventional solid control equipment system for weighted mud(Fig. 9-18).

Fig. 9-17 Arrangement of solid control equipment for unweighted mud

Fig. 9-18 Arrangement of solid control equipment for weighted mud

9.5 Evaluation of Efficiency of Solids Control Equipemnt()
9.5.1 Calculation of Solids Separation Efficiency of One Unit from Solid Control Equipment
System
A. Calculation of low density solids separation efficiency of one unit:
170

Q V
Q V
E
LS
U LS U
LS R

9-1
B. Calculation of barite separation efficiency of one unit:

Q V
Q V
E
B
U B U
B R

9-2
Where,
LS R
E

--Low density solids separation efficiency of one unit from solid control equipment
system, %,

LS U
V

--Low density solid content in the underflow of one unit from solid control
equipment system (can be determined with retort), %,
Q
U
--Underflow volumetric rate of one unit from solid control equipment system (can be
determined using stop watch pail method), gal/rain,

LS
V --Low density solid content in the inlet of one unit from solid control equipment
system (can be determined with retort), %,
Q--Inlet flow volumetric rate of one unit from solid control equipment system (can be
read from flow-rate meter), gal/rain,

B R
E

--Barite separation efficiency of one unit from solid control equipment system, %,

B U
V

--Barite content in the underflow of one unit from solid control equipment system
(can be determined with re tort), %,

B
V --Barite content in the inlet of one unit from solid control equipment system (can be
determined with retort), %.
9.5.2 Calculation of Drilled Solids Elimination Efficiency
A. Calculation of cuttings removing efficiency of the whole solid control equipment
system:

LS TR
E

=
T TLS
U LS U U LS U U LS U
Q V
Q V Q V Q V

+ + +

...
3 3 2 2 1 1
9-3
Where,
LS TR
E

--Cuttings removing efficiency of the whole solid control equipment system, %,
... , ,
3 2 1 LS U LS U LS U
V V V

Low density solid content in the underflow of one unit from
solid control equipment system, %,
... , ,
3 2 1 U U U
Q Q Q --Underflow rate volumetric of one unit from solid control equipment
system, gal/rain,
171

TLS
V --Low density solid content of mud at the well flowline (before shakers), %,

T
Q --Volumetric flow rate at well flowline (before shakers), gal/min.
The procedure to determine the necessary data for conducting calculation of Equation 9-3 is
very complicated. A simplified method of obtaining ETR-LS can be applied as follows:

LS TR
E

=
TLS
LS BPS
V
V

9-4
Where,
LS BPS
V

is low density solid content of the mud after the solid control system or before
the pump suction, %.
The results of
LS TR
E

calculated from Equation 9-4 and Equation 9-3 can be compared.
B. Calculation of Cuttings removing efficiency of one unit from solid control equipment
system:

R D
Q V
U LS U

=

2
3 1 1
1
10 471 . 1 c 9-5
3) Calculation of cuttings removing efficiency of solid control equipment :
. . .
3 2 1
+ + + = c c c c
T
9-6
Where,
1
c -Cuttings removing efficiency of one unit from solid control equipment system, %

U
Q
1
--Underflow volumetric flow rate of one unit from solid control equipment system,
gal/min

LS U
V
1
--Low density solid content at underflow of one unit from the solid control
equipment system, %
D--Hole diameter, in
R--Penetration rate, ft/h

T
c --Cuttings removing efficiency of the whole solid control equipment system, %
REMARKS:
The underflow of a shale shaker is referring to the cuttings with the mud adhered on and
mixed with them over the screen cloth shaker. The overflow of a shale shaker is
referring to the mud past through the screen cloth of the shaker.
In case when Barite Recovery Centrifuge-High Speed Centrifuge Combination mode is
applied, only the solid separation efficiency and the cuttings removing efficiency of the
second centrifuge, the high speed one, is necessary to be calculated.
Example I:
Hole diameter D = 12 1/4 in (Hole capacity C
H
= 0. 1458 bbl/ft), Penetration rate R = 8 ft/h.
1) Underflow volumetric rate Qu= 6 gal/min ( Qu= 360 gal/h).
2) Low density solid content at underflow
LS U
V

= 12 %.
172
3) Barite content at underflow
B U
V

= 2 %.
4) Weight rate of low density solids at underflow
h lb V Q
DS LS U
LS U
W
/ 12 . 933 33 . 8 6 . 2 % 12 360 33 . 8 = = =

.
5) Weight rate of barite at underflow
h lb Q B U
W
/ 252 33 . 8 2 . 4 % 2 360 = =
.
6) Weight rate of total solids at underflow
h lb Q Q Q B U
W
LS U
W
U
W
/ 12 . 1185 252 12 . 933 = + = + =

7) Weight generation rate of drilled cuttings of the well
h lb R C Q
DS H
GEN
W
/ 4 . 1061 6 . 2 8 1458 . 0 350 350 = = =
8) Cuttings removing efficiency of this unit of solid control equipment
% 0 . 88 ) 10 625 . 9 ( 6 12 10 471 . 1
2 3
1
= = c
Example II:
D = 9 5/8 in (Hole capacity C
H
=0.0900 bbl/ft), R
PEN
= 10 ft/h.
1)
U
Q = 4 gallons per minute = 240 gallons per hour.
2)
B U
V

= 12 %.
3)
B U
V

= 2 %.
4)
LS U
W
Q
= 240 12 % 21.6 = 622.08 lb/h.
5) B U
W
Q = 240 2 % 35.0 = 1681b/h.
6) U
W
Q =622.08+168 = 790.08 lb/h.
7) GEN
W
Q --- 350 0.0900 10 2.6 = 819 lb/h.
8)
1
c -- 1.471 103 12 4 (9.625
2
10) = 76.2 %.
Nomenclature:
UNF
D --Mud density at underflow of a hydrocyclone, lb/gal.
FEED
D --Mud density at inlet of a hydrocyclone, lb/gal.
LS R
E

--Low density solids separation efficiency of one unit of solid control equipment
system, %.
LS U
V

--Low density solid content at underflow of one unit in solid control equipment system, %.
173
U
Q --Underflow rate of one unit in solid control equipment system, gal/min.
LS
V --Low density solid content at the inlet of one unit in solid control equipment system (can be
determined with retort),%.
Q--Inlet flow rate of one unit in solid control equipment system, gal/min.
B R
E

--Barite separation efficiency of one unit in the solid control equipment system, %.
B U
V

--Barite content in the underflow of one unit in solid control equipment system, %.
B
V --Barite content in the inlet of one unit in solid control equipment system, %.
LS TR
E

--Cuttings removing efficiency of the whole solid control equipment system, %.
,... , ,
3 2 1 LS R LS R LS R
V V V

--Low density solid content of one unit from solid control equipment
system, %.
... , ,
3 2 1 U U U
Q Q Q --Underflow rate of one unit from solid control equipment system, gal/min.
..
TLS
V --Low density solid content of mud at the well flowline (before shakers), %.
. T
Q --Flow rate at well flowline (before shakers), gal/min.
..
LS BPS
V

--Low density solid content of the mud at the downstream after the solid control
equipment system or before the mud pump suction, %.
1
c ---Cuttings removing efficiency of one unit from solid control equipment system, %.
U
Q
1
--Underflow volumetric flow rate of one unit from solid con trol equipment system, gal/min.
LS U
V
1
--Low --density solid content at underflow of one unit from solid control equipment
system, %.
D--Hole diameter, in.
R--Penetration rate, ft/h.
T
c ---Cuttings removing efficiency of the whole solid control equipment system, %.
DS
--Density of low density solids, g/cm3.
B
--Density of barite, g/cra3.
H
C --Hole capacity, bbl/ft.
174
LS U
W
Q
--Flow weight rate of low density solids at underflow, lb/h.
B U
W
Q
--Flow weight rate of barite at underflow, lb/h.
U
W
Q -- low weight rate of total solids at underflow, ib/h.
GEN
W
Q --Generation weight rate of drilled cuttings of the well, lb/h.

175

CHAPTER 10 THE NEW DRILLING FLUID TECHNOLOGY
10.1 Silicate Drilling Fluid()
In the mid-1990s, there was increasing pressure to find a high performance water-based
drilling fluid that would be an environmentally acceptable alternative to oil-based drilling fluids.
Since the 1930s, it has been known that silicate-based drilling fluids provide oil-like shale
stability. Aside from containing sodium or potassium silicate(), current
silicate-based drilling fluids would have little in common with these early fluids. Advances in
formulating chemistry have made silicate-based drilling fluids an effective, versatile and low cost
alternative to oil-based drilling fluids. Since their re-introduction in the North Sea, silicate-based
drilling fluids have steadily gained in popularity with service and oil companies.
Drilling fluid using sodium and potassium silicates, offers the flexibility and versatility to
design a mud system for almost any drilling environment and provides:
A. superior well bore stability
B. superior environmental performance
C. excellent ROPs
D. low depletion rates
E. corrosion control
F. improved cementing
10.1.1 The Soluble Silicates()
Soluble silicates are manufactured by fusing sand (SiO
2
) with sodium or potassium carbonate
(K
2
CO
3
or Na
2
CO
3
) in an open hearth furnace at 1100-1200 and then dissolving the glass using
high pressure steam forming a clear, slightly viscous liquid known as waterglass. Liquid silicate
is the most popular commercial form of soluble silicates used in drilling fluids. However, liquid
silicates can be spray-dried to form quick-dissolving hydrous powders. When conditions warrant,
such as limited storage on off-shore rigs, long hauling distances or extended exposure to sub-zero
temperatures, hydrous powders can offer a cost effective alternative to liquid silicates.
One of the key parameters that determines the properties of soluble silicate solutions is the
weight ratio of SiO
2
:Na
2
O. For example, a 2.0 ratio silicate has 2kgs of SiO
2
for
every 1kg of Na
2
O. The molecular weight of SiO
2
and Na
2
O are so close that the molar() and
weight ratios are said to be the same for all sodium silicate products. However, it should be noted
that the molar and weight ratios for potassium silicates differ significantly. In terms of silicate
anion structure and relative concentration, liquid silicates with higher ratios will contain
proportionately greater levels of condensed, complex species with higher molecular weights.
Similarly, the low and mid ratio liquids will contain significant levels of low molecular weight
chains and cyclics as well as free monosilicate. These changes in silicate speciation can have a
measurable impact on drilling fluid rheology, shale inhibition and overall mud stability. Ratio
selection is therefore an important consideration in formulating silicate drilling fluids.

10.1.2 Chemistry Advantage of Silicate()
Drilling fluids using silicate products are known for providing superior well bore stability.
176
In-gauge holes are achieved through a unique combination of versatile chemical reactions; most
notably gelation() and/or precipitation on shale surfaces.
Gelation is the self-polymerization or condensation of soluble silicate
structures to form a hydrous, amorphous gel structure of silicate. Gelation is brought on by a drop
in pH with polymerization beginning to rapidly occur at pH below 10.5.
Precipitation of silicate is the cross-linking of silicate molecules by multivalent cations (i.e.
Ca
+2
, Mg
+2
, Al
+3
, Fe
+3
, etc).
It is generally believed that as the silicate in the mud comes into contact with the slightly
acidic (pH 6-8) and multivalent-rich pore water, a localized gelation reaction, coupled with a
minor amount of precipitation, takes place to block both the influx of mud and pressure into the
formation. These reactions also lead to the sealing of microfractures, cracks and rubble giving a
silicate drilling fluid a decided advantage over any oil mud, significantly reducing potential mud
losses and costs.
These unique gelation and/or precipitation mechanisms also make a silicate drilling fluid a
natural fluid loss agent so there is little transfer of fluids and pressure into the formation, keeping
the integrity of the wellbore intact. In addition to this unique chemistry, silicate drilling fluids
provide a thin, tough, ultra low permeable filter cake significantly reducing drilling problems such
as differential sticking or torque & drag, while providing improved cementing.
The formulations of silicate drilling fluids are proven performers in all parts of the world in a
variety of drilling environments. Whether drilling in the North Sea, the Middle East, the North
American Rockies, Mexico or South America, silicate drilling fluids help deliver an in-gauge hole.
10.1.3 The other Advantages of Silicate()
ROP enhancement. Field results from around the world demonstrate that silicate based
drilling fluids have ROPs that favorably compare to any drilling fluid, including oil based muds.
The high penetration rates are attributed to its excellent inhibitive properties, which prevent drill
solids from being easily dispersed into the drilling fluid. It is not uncommon for a silicate mud to
maintain its initial density throughout drilling. A silicate drilling fluids ability to inhibit also
means very little reaming, leading to little or no downtime.
Runnability. A silicate drilling fluid is an extremely easy system to run. The muds with it are
easy to maintain with very slow and predictable depletion rates, and because they typically contain
fewer components making handling and logistics easier. Rheology tends to be unaffected by
changing mud conditions. Monitoring the fluid condition is easy- a simple check every 24 hours
will ensure optimum down hole performance.
Safety. Sodium and potassium silicates are considered one of the most benign industrial
chemicals in use today. In fact, the pH of silicates is very similar to liquid dishwashing detergent.
Cost. With exceptional performance in the field, the silicate muds are proving to be a cost
effective alternative to oil-based drilling fluids as well as other high performance water-based
drilling fluids, for the above advantages.
Environment. Silicates are one of the few oil field chemicals that can be beneficial to the
environment. Soluble silicates are derived from, and ultimately return to nature, as silica (SiO
2
)
and soluble sodium and potassium compounds. Since these are among the earths most common
chemical components, they offer little potential for harmful environmental effects.
177

10.2 Mixed Metal Hydroxide()
Mixed metal layered hydroxide compounds (MMLHC) mud-MMH mud has a low
environmental impact and has been used extensively around the world in many situations:
horizontal and short-radius wells, unconsolidated or depleted sandstone, high-temperature,
unstable shales, and wells with severe lost circulation. Its principal benefit is excellent
hole-cleaning properties.

Fig. 10-1 Schematic of the structure of MMH

Mixed metal layered hydroxide compounds are inorganic materials which are made up of
discreet layers, consisting of two or more metal ions surrounded by hydroxide ions. Its formula is
described as O mH A OH M M
n
n x
x
x x 2 / 2
3 2
1
] ) ( [ -
+ + +

, where, M
2+
can be Mg
2+
, Mn
2+
, Fe
2+
, Co
2+
,
Ni
2+
, Cu
2+
, Zn
2+
, etc., M
3+
can be Al
3+
, Cr
3+
, Mn
3+
, Fe
3+
, Co
3+
, Ni
3+
, La
3+
, , etc.. A can be Cl
-
,
OH
-
, NO
3
-
, etc.
Due to symmetry considerations, there is not enough room in the unit cell to accommodate a
stoichiometric number of hydroxide ions. Thus, the sheets are electron deficient and a
crystallographic positive charge is generated, Figure 10-1 and Figure 10-2. Because the positive
charge must be balanced by anions in order to achieve electrical neutrality, anions associate with
the basal plane of the crystallite. The surface interacts with these anions through an ion exchange
mechanism, similar to that of anion exchange resin or
clay mineral.

Fig. 10-2 Crystal Structure of MMH

MMH mud is based on an insoluble, inorganic, crystalline compound containing two or more
metals in a hydroxide lattice-usually mixed aluminum/magnesium hydroxide, which is
178
oxygen-deficient. When added to prehydrated bentonite, the positively charged MMH particles
interact with the negatively charged clays forming a strong complex that behaves like an elastic
solid when at rest.
This gives the fluid its unusual rheology: an exceptionally low plastic viscosity-yield point
ration. Conventional muds with high gel strength usually require high energy to initiate circulation,
generating pressure surges in the annulus once flow has been established. Although MMH has
great gel strength at rest, the structure is easily broken. So it can be transformed into a
low-viscosity fluid that does not induce significant friction losses during circulation and gives
good hole cleaning at low pump rates even in high-angle wells. Yet within microseconds of the
pumps being turned off, high gel strength develops, preventing solids from settling.
There are some indications that MMH also provides chemical shale inhibition. This effect is
difficult to demonstrate in the laboratory, but there is evidence that static layer of mud forms
adjacent to the rock face and helps prevent mechanical damage to the formation caused by fast
flowing mud and cuttings, controlling washouts.
MMH is a special fluid sensitive to many traditional mud additives and some drilling
contaminants. It therefore benefits from the careful management that is vital for all types of
drilling fluid.
10.3 Polyol Technology Systems()

Polyol is the generic name for a wide class of chemicals including glycerol(),
polyglycerol(), glycolsand propylene glycol. In drilling fluid,
one type of them can be used individually or two or more of them in combination. Polyglycol(
) is the most extensively used one. Glycol appears as a sticky milk-like white,
water-soluble liquid and is reciprocally miscible with water at lower temperature. The
water solubility of glycol decreases as temperature increases. The temperature at which glycol and
water separate is known as the "cloud point", because, at this point the previously clear
solution becomes cloudy, see figure 10-3.

Fig. 10-3 Cloud point

Once the entire solution temperature has risen above the cloud point, two distinct phases
179
become visible. The clouding process is reversible. When the solution cools, the glycol and water
recombine to form a clear, single phase. Four factors control the cloud point:
A. polyol type
B. polyol concentration
C. salt type
D. salt concentration
Cloud point plays a critical role in the glycol drilling fluid systems improving shale
stabilization. There is an instantaneous reaction whenever the fluid contacts a shale with a
temperature exceeding that of the systems cloud point. The glycol drops out of solution and
attaches to the hot shale. This protective layer prevents the shale from interacting with the water,
minimizing swelling.
10.4 Micro-bubble (Aphron) Drilling Fluid()
10.4.1 The Structure and Stability of Mircro-Bubbles
Fig.10-4 shows the structure of a gas aphron at the molecular level. The aphron is usually
composed of a gas core and a more complex soapy shell, which has an inner as well as an outer
surface with a sheath of viscous water between them. This shell has oriented surfactant molecules
at the outer surface that are hydrophilic group pointing inwards and hydrophobe outwards, which
means that aphrons possess some hydrophobic/lipophilic character. Between this soapy shell and
bulk water there is an interface, and, according to Gibbs adsorption isotherm, there must be a
higher concentration of surfactant at that surface than in the interior of the bulk water. This
surfactant is hydrophobe facing the soapy shell and hydrophile the bulk water, with which the
aphrons are compatible with the continuous aqueous phase. The outermost surfactant layer tends
to be shed when mircrobubbles come in contact with each other.

Fig. 10-4 Structure of a gas aphron

This soapy shell is of viscosified water with a certain minimum thickness, which is sufficiently
strong and impermeable that it resists compression and suppresses transport of air to the aqueous
environment.
10.4.2 Energized Micro-Environment of Aphron Structure and Bubble Flow
Fig.10-5 illustrates the aphron energizing process. An aphron, which has a diameter of 96
microns at the 0.1 MPa surface pressures, is compressed into a smaller one with 16 micron
diameter at 21.89 MPa. Owing to the tough and impermeable viscous water shell, the air in the
core survives and does not achieve the small size expected from compression, with which an
180
energized environment is created.
Aphrons tend to cream or to flow faster than the bulk water.
Sebba
1
indicated that the less dense gas bubbles rise to the
surface owing to their being much lighter than the bulk water
in which are dispersed. Growcock
3
observed bubble flow by
a test of a Radial Flow Cell filled with 2-mm glass beads and
red-dyed water. Aphrons containing blue dye was pumped by
the bore hole of the cell at a pressure of 70 kPa, allowing
invasion of aphrons into the cell. As shown in Fig. 10-6, a
white band of bubble flow (about 3 cm) formed almost
immediately between the two fluids.

10.4.3 Bridging Mechanism in a Loss Zone
In water-wet reservoirs, capillary pressure resists intrusion of
hydrophobic micro-bubbles into capillary restrictions in the
formation, Fig.10-7. Gardescu showed that the capillary
pressure, or resistance, that is offered to fluid displacement by
a bubble of non-wetting fluid, when squeezed from its original
radius to the constriction radius, can be described by the
following expression:


) / 1 / 1 ( 2
2 1
r r p = A o
Where, p A is capillary pressure (resistance), o is interfacial tension,
1
r is capillary radius,
2
r is original radius.
Although p A is very small for a single bubble, Jamin showed that the cumulative resistance
of many bubbles in a capillary restriction may be large. It is highly unlikely that pressure gradients
of sufficient magnitude could be applied in the field to overcome this Jamin Effect and force
deep penetration of aphrons into the interconnected openings in permeable formations. The
effectiveness of the seal formed by aphrons is dependent on the size of the opening and the degree
of hydrophobicity of the micro-bubble shell.

Fig.10-6 Bubble flow of aphrons Fig.10-7 Capillary pressure
Fig. 10-5 The aphron
energizing process

181

Fig. 10-8 When aphrons are driven into a low-pressure, they expand and aggregate to form a seal.
10.5 Formate Drilling Fluid
The industrys changing and so are the drilling and completion fluids. Facing HTHP
environments, horizontal and extended reach drilling, slim-hole and coiled tube applications,
and generally much tougher challenges than fifty or even twenty years ago. Add to that the fast
pace of change that typifies environmental and safety legislation, and its a whole new world
one demanding a whole new fluid. The formate drilling fluids posses the following advantages:
A. No weighting materials means no sag, improved ECDs (Equivalent Circulating Densities)
and better overall circulation rates
B. High compatibility with reservoir fluids and minerals maximises reservoir protection and
improves well productivity
C. Extremely versatile fluids used in all phases of drilling and completion eliminate the costs
of fluid change
D. Optimised hydraulic flow maximises power transmission, facilitates hole cleaning and
increases ROP (Rate of Penetration)
E. Alkaline properties give outstanding corrosion protection
F. Stabilises shales and enhances borehole stability
G. Improves well control and allows faster tripping
H. Excellent compatibility with elastomers and polymers
I. Facilitates faster and more accurate logging even with extended reach drilling
J. Best environmental and safety profile of all drilling and completion fluids
10.5.1 Formates()
Formates are a class of salt originating from formic acid, an organic substance found in nature,
including trees, plants, fruit and berries. The three formate bases cesium, potassium and sodium
used for drilling, completion, workover and fracturing fluids are common in the modern world,
with applications as diverse as de-icing fluids and cosmetics to animal feeds and preservatives.
These three cations naturally occur in the worlds oceans. Sodium and potassium are the second
and sixth most abundant elements respectively, while cesium is surprisingly common at 29th place.
Formates have the following features as drilling fluids:
A. Formate is safe for the environment and crew.
B. Recycling cuts fluid costs by reclaiming formate and using them in multiple wells.
182
C. Naturally weighted. Formate brine drilling fluids are naturally weighted, monovalent fluids
with a maximum density of 2.30g/cm
3
(19.10 ppg) for cesium formate, 1.57 g/cm
3
(13.05 ppg)
for potassium formate and 1.30 g/cm
3
(10.85 ppg) for sodium formate. The graph shows the
freezing and crystallisation profiles for the three brines.

10.5.2 Formate Drilling Fluid and Its Properties
Potassium, sodium or cesium formate can be used individually or two or three of them in
combination to form a solution with a preferable density. The density of formate drilling fluid can
be adjusted in the range of 1.60- 2.30 g/cm
3
by selecting type of formate solution and weighting
with acid soluble weighting materials such as carbonate CaCO
3
or hematite Fe
2
O
3
. When the
concentration of potassium formate (density of potassium formate 1.90 g/cm
3
) is 35%, the density
of formate drilling fluid system is about 1.60 g/cm
3
. Sodium formate is cheaper and potassium
formate is more expensive and cesium formate is the most expensive. An adequate amount of
viscosifier, FL control agent, lubricant and defoamer are concurrently used in the fluid for
obtaining a system with satisfactory properties. This system is characterized by its excellent
stabilizing capacity and evidently reduced formation damage. High cost and enormous quantity of
formate required limit the application range of this system.
To achieve the required fluid loss and rheology, formate drilling fluids are formulated for use
to at least 166C (330F) using common oilfield polymers. Uniquely, formate mud properties are
almost completely independent of density, so rheology and filter cake thickness do not change
between 1.20 g/cm
3
(10.00 ppg) and 2.20 g/cm
3
(18.30 ppg). The example formulations below are
ideal for reservoir drilling where low yield points combine with good circulation rates to provide
adequate hole cleaning. Should a higher rheology be required, the level of Xanthan is increased, as
the 1.40 g/cm
3
(11.70 ppg) formulation demonstrates. Even with such a low level of solids and
temperatures of 149C (300F), the HTHP fluid loss (including spurt loss) is extremely low and
filter cakes become so thin they are transparent. Stable formulations, using HTHP polymers, are
made for temperatures up to a minimum of 204C (400F).
No sag, no problem. No weighting agent means no sag, and no sag means the elimination of a
whole pile of problems, from additional hours circulating and conditioning muds to serious well
control incidents. Sag is at its worst in deviated wells. Consider a 6- or 81/2-inch hole drilled at
45. Here, particles need to drop only an inch or two before the density differential between mud
layers causes an avalanche. The time window for this to occur is a matter of hours, rather than
days, resulting in compromised well control and other problems.
According to Stokes Law, API barite with a P50 particle size of 5 microns will fall one inch in 20
seconds. Grinding the barite much finer to an average size of, say, one micron, may reduce
settlement rate, but in this case only to 5.6 hours per inch a very short time when settlement of a
few inches is the margin between success and failure, as the diagram below shows.
More efficient screening. Solids-free formate brines are dream fluids when it comes to
screening drill cuttings. With traditional fluids, the drilling crew must create a balance between
screening out drill solids and retaining the weighting agent. Either way its a compromise. With
formate brines, the lack of solids means finer screens and increased flow rates are easily achieved.
183
A typical example is a HTHP well in the North Sea drilled with formate brines. Here, 325 and 400
mesh shaker screens were run successfully using 1.62 g/cm
3
(13.50 ppg) mud.
10.6 Non-Invasive Drilling Fluid
10.6.1 Introduction
No-damage drilling
SM
is the ultimate goal of all well construction activities, a way to explore
and produce the hydrocarbon reserves with minimum reduction of natural permeability of the
reservoir rocks. Conventional drilling is conducted with an over-balanced pressure on the reservoir
formation, which causes the drilling fluid to invade and damage the rock. In order to overcome the
problem of formation while drilling, a method was developed to drill with a bottomhole pressure
below the pore pressure, called Underbalanced Drilling-UBD. The development and recent
increase in UBD activity is due to the understanding that there will be no formation damage if a
reservoir is drilled underbalanced. UBD is, most probably, still the best way to achieve no-damage
drilling
SM
. However, the big problem associated with UBD is how to guarantee that no
overbalance periods will happen while drilling or completing the well. Also, there are many
situations in which technically it is not possible to have an underbalanced pressure kept at all
times. Just a small period of overbalance may cause damaging filtrate invasion.
Most of the UBD operations are carried out by injecting gas to reduce the hydrostatic pressure
inside the wellbore, and, therefore, producing an underbanlanced condition at the bottom of the
well. The gas injection creates a complication due to multi-phase flow is that the bottom hole
pressure oscillation, sometimes significantly. This bottom hole pressure oscillation becomes one
more variable difficult to ensure an underbalanced condition at the bottom of the hole at all times,
even if the well is flowing (oil and /or gas). For example, there is no guarantee that the entire
extension of the reservoir can be subjected to an underbalanced condition at all times, this is
especially critical in horizontal wells, with long open hole sections. Another big problem concern
when planning a UBD well is to check the potential for wellbore instability. With the popularity of
UBD, the industry has become much more aware of the importance of delivering a non-damaging
well, regardless of the way the well drilled. In cases UBD is not used, a drilling fluid with an
overbalanced pressure should be used. The goal of the no-damage drilling
SM
approach is to deliver
a close to zero-damage well, in all circumstances. A new drilling fluid called non-invasive fluid

SM
- NIF
SM
has been developed and in the market to fill this gap. This technology has been tested
and approved for more than 13 years in various parts of the world, demonstrating that it can stop
the losses and prevent fluid invasion, even in very adverse conditions, where all other products
failed to succeed.
10.6.2 Comparison with traditional drilling fluids
The most common procedure today is to add particles in the fluid to bridge the pore throats.
The commonly used particles are calcium carbonate and salt, due to the fact that even if they
cannot be removed, an acidification job or dissolution with water would eventually remove the
damage created. The bridging approach requires the particles to penetrate into the rock, and find a
suitable pore size, according to the particle size distribution in the fluid the moment drilling is
happening, to be able to bridge it and avoid further penetration. If, by any reason, this adequate
size is not found, the fluid will not bridge effectively, and the fluid will penetrate deep into the
rock.
184
By just circulation the fluid, the particle sizes are changing constantly, due to frict ion inside
and outside the borehole. Depending on how soft the solids are, the particle sizes will be affected
more rapidly or more slowly.
Two main disadvantages of the bridging approach to seal the permeable formation can be
detected: first, it is extremely difficult to exactly define the actual pore size distribution of the rock
to be drilled. Second, it is hard to believe that the open hole section will contain a very
homogeneous rock, with very small variation in the pore size distribution to be expected. The
consequence of this is a complete inability of the fluid originally used to continue sealing the rock
being exposed as drilling progresses.
Many operators have experienced this problem, with seepage losses being observed. In these
cases, more calcium carbonate is added, and eventually the losses are reduced. If the losses are not
completely stopped, it means that the fluid is invading the rock continually. The big problem here
is that the fluid invading the rock contains a significant amount of solids in its composition, and,
by deeply invading the rock, the damage caused will be virtually impossible to be removed, even
with acidification. Acidification treatments are not effective if the damage is deeper than a certain
value, which is certainly the case when seepage losses are experienced and cannot be controlled.
Maintenance of the NIF
SM
is extremely easy. Addition of the fluid loss controller additive,
FLC2000, is enough to maintain the sealing effectively. And the amount required is dictated by a
test conducted against a sand bed. If the sealing is not effective, addition of more FLC2000, is
needed.
10.6.3 Characteristics of NIF
SM
With conventional mud the filtrate invades as a function of the square root of time; on the
other hand, with the new NIF
SM
fluids the filtrate invasion is limited, and does not continually
invade. This is a different approach from all traditional fluids available.
The NIF
SM
is a new class of drilling fluid, with ultra-low solids content, less than 10 ppb. Its
sealing action uses a unique surface chemistry principle, producing a thin and impermeable
membrane at the face of the formation. Contrary to the traditional approach of bridging the
formation, the NIF
SM
seals the formation by the attraction force of the particles inside the fluid,
concentrating them at the surface of the rock as the fluid is forced to invade it due to the
overbalanced pressure. This characteristic allows it to seal formations of different pore size
distributions with the same fluid composition. The sealing membrane can be removed by acidizing
operation or flushed away by oil flow when the well is brought into production (98-99% according
to the lab tests)and about 95% original formation permeability can be restored.
The characteristics of this fluid are its capacity to build up a sealing membrane of certain
strength into certain thickness of the formations around the borehole by addition of special
polymer type additives into a water base or oil base drilling fluid. This sealing membrane can
block the connection paths between the borehole and the formations, make the formations be not
contacted with the drilling fluid, isolate the pressure system of formations from that of the drilling
fluid therefore the productive zones can be effectively protected from damage meanwhile lost
circulation can be easily avoided or treated. The borehole stability can be ensured by taking away
the shale hydration environment; the frequency of differential sticking and blowout can be greatly
reduced; and the drilling operations can be safely and smoothly conducted.
The main advantages of the NIF
SM
are the following:
A. Totally friendly to the environment
185
Fig.10-9 A schematic representation
of the modified polymers . (1) forming
micelles (2) in solution. The micelles
form the low permeability, deformable
barrier (3) on the rock surface in the
very early stages of mud filtration


B. Effective sealing of hetergenneous permeable formation with the same fluid composition
C. Allows increase of the leak-off pressure
D. Widens a narrow mud weight window
E. Seals permeable formation and micro-crack in shale
F. Can drill the overburden and the reservoir with the same fluid, including completion
G. Reduced transport and storage costs
By effectively sealing against a permeable formation while drilling, the NIF
SM
develops what
is called Virtual casing
SM
. The consequences of this action are:
A. Reduction of differential stuck pipe risk
B. Reduction of fluid losses, virtually eliminating them
C. Reduction of wellbore instability problems
D. Reduction formation damage
The important point here is to show how the sealing membrance is removed.
10.6.4 The components of NIF
SM
The fluid is composed of basically three components:
A. DWC2000, a viscosifier; (max dosage 30 kg/m
3
)
B. FLC2000, a dynamic fluid loss reducer (not for reduction of API filtrate)(routine dosage
6-12 kg/m
3
); and
C. KFA2000(dosage range 20-300 kg/m
3
), a lubricant,
The three additives are of one-sack type and can be used individually or in combination and the
formulation must be determined by pilot tests.
A fourth product, LCP2000, is the material to be used when severe losses are encountered,
when drilling formations with fractures and vulgs, for example. It should be kept as contingency
and used immediately to restore circulation in severe case.
In addition to these products, the final fluid should
have a PH around 10, salinity as desired to inhibit shales
(any kind of salt and any concentration can be used, even
formats), and weight material as needed ,barite or
hematite.
As the sealing membrane is located at the rock face,
without penetrating deep into the rock, with around 1 mm
thickness, just by removing the overbalanced pressure
against the rock the effectiveness of the sealing
membrane is gone. Then, by just flowing in the other
direction the membrane is removed, with extremely small
resistance.
The present Chinese additives of NIF system are
JYW-1 and JYW-2 and the latter is for high permeability
formations.
10.6.5 The mechanism of NIF
SM
FLC2000, a dynamic fluid loss reducer, is a blend of
polymers modified to provide components with a range of
water and oil solubilities (i.e. the blend contains polymers
with a wide range of HLB values). When added to a
186
water-based fluid, some of the polymers in the blend dissolve to provide fluid loss control similar
to many conventional additives. However, other species only partially solvate because of their
oil-loving characteristics; these polymers organize into deformable aggregates or micelles
(micelles are assemblages of molecules that group together in solution to form microscopic
spheres, rods and plates in solution). It is claimed that these micelles have the ability to form
rapidly a low permeability seal over pore throats and microfractures, thereby greatly limiting fluid
invasion. When driven by the fluid overbalance, the fluid starts to invade a permeable rock and
these micelles rapidly form a low permeability seal over pore throats, thereby greatly limiting
further fluid invasion. The micelles in the layer are deformable so, as the pressure is raised, they
compress and reduce the barrier permeability even further. The mechanism is depicted in
Fig.10-8.
Particle size analysis (Fig.10-10) suggests that the micelles range from a few microns to close
to 1000 microns in diameter (the d50 is around 60 microns, the d10 is 9 microns and the d90 340
microns). The material provides excellent invasion control by quickly forming a very low
permeability layer rich in micelles. This greatly reduces any further ingress of solids or fluid. The
micelles in the layer are deformable so, if the pressure is raised, they compress and reduce the
barrier permeability even further.

Fig.10-10 Particle size distribution of the micelle-forming additive in water

In some respects, the micelles act like the water droplets in invert emulsion oil muds; these
water droplets are known to concentrate in the filter cake where they make a major contribution to
the invasion control seen with oil muds. The major difference, and benefit, of the micelles is that
they are more deformable and cover a much wider size range; hence they are better sealing agents
and work over a much wider range of pore sizes and permeabilities.
Because of the range of oil and water solubilities in the blend, the additive works equally well
in oil- and syntheticbased muds as in water-based; in hydrocarbon fluids, the oil soluble
components dissolve instead of forming micelles while the water-soluble entities form the
micelles a reversal of the roles in a water mud.
By functioning as a very low permeability barrier, the additive has the ability to protect weak
formations against pressure transmission and fracturing. This effective increase in fracture
gradient widens the safe drilling window and has great potential for improving drilling
performance, not only in microfractured formations but also in depleted zones, unconsolidated
187
sands, etc.
Cleanup of the protective barrier in reservoir applications is simple, because the micelles only
exist above a critical concentration of polymers in the fluid. Therefore when contacted by a
washing fluid or completion brine free of the polymers, or when contacted by reservoir fluid as the
well is brought on production, the layer simply disperses and is removed in the wellbore fluid.
Effective concentrations are between 3 and 8ppb. The optimum within this range depends on
the base fluid properties and the permeability of the formations being drilled (e.g. higher
concentrations would typically be required to protect very permeable formations and to give good
invasion control in low solids fluids and in high salinity brines).
10.6.6 Application
With all these benefits, the NIF
SM
is applicable to many situations while drilling, not just to drill
the reservoir section without damage but also to deal with these cases:
A. Reservoir interbedded with shales
B. Reservoir with different pressure exposed in the same open hole section
C. Severe wellbore instability problems due to mechanical causes (high tectonic stresses,
for example)
D. Narrow mud weight window
10.7 High-performance Water-Based Drilling Fluid-Polymeric Amine Drilling Fluid
(HPWBM-)
10.7.1 Introduction
As fields mature and the search for new oil and gas reserves continues, operators on the whole
are increasingly moving towards drilling more challenging well profiles. Typical well profiles ever
more frequently present challenges such as extremes of drilled depth, temperature, pressure,
horizontal step out and extreme water depth to name but a few. In most cases, the common drilling
problems found in less complex wells are usually exacerbated by increased complexity of well
design.
Conventional WBM is often excluded from consideration in challenging wells to the technical
shortfalls associated with these problems. To address the drilling problems associated with shale
instability various non-aqueous fluids (NADF) such as mineral oils, saturated and unsaturated
polyalpha olefins and esters have been developed and utilized in the field. Along with the shale
stability benefits of these NADF, various other benefits like lubricity, temperature stability, and
anti-accretion are attributed to NADF.
Along with those advantages, NADF have disadvantages, such as high cost, environmental
limitations, disposal problems, health and safety issues and detrimental effects on the drilling and
completion of the pay zone. Consequently, a water-based drilling fluid which performs like an
oil-based mud has been an ambitious goal of the drilling industry. A HPWBM can become an
attractive alternative option. Two characteristics of the HPWBM have been identified that
contribute significantly to performance of the drilling fluid-shale stabilization and lubricity
properties. These OBM characteristics serve as design targets to many researchers of
aqueous-based systems striving to achieve the performance of OBM system when using a WBM.
A high performance water-based mud (HPWMB-also called amine base drilling fluid)
188
containing clay and shale stabilizers, a ROP enhancer, and sealing agents was developed to drill
the well, being found a wide application in overseas petroleum exploration and development, and
is taken as the substitution for oil base mud. This mud was classified as a new drilling fluid in
2006. The high performance drilling fluids use a new cationic polymerether/glycol polyamine
as shale inhibitor. This amine salt has a high inhibitive and bit balling prevention capacity, and is
environmentally friendly. The high performance mud functions like an oil base mud because of its
filming ability.
Potassium normally in chloride salt form was added to drilling fluids and was found to be
effective shale inhibition for swelling clays. This has become the starting point for the evolution of
some exotic salts as well as ammonium and amine-based chemistry for shale inhibition in high
performance water based mud.
10.7.2 Evolution of Nitrogen-based shale inhibitors
It has been a long history for amine/ammonium salts to be shale inhibitor. Its process is about:
Ammonium Chloride Ammonium Salt mud Systems Organic Cationic Materials
Quaternary Cationic Polymers (PHPA-Partially Hydrolyzed Polyacrylamide) Quaternary
Alkyl-Amine Quaternary Hydroxyl Amines) Amphoteric Poly-amine Acids
Alkyl-DiaminesPolyamine Glycols Ether/Glycol Polyamines.
10.7.3 Characteristics and Mechanism of HPWBM

The laboratory results and field tests reveal that HPWBM drilling fluid system significantly
reduces clay dispersion, hydration, and accretion outperforming previously developed inhibitive
WBM systems and reaching into the performance territory of OBM. The dispersion and lubricity
testing show that the inhibitive performance of newly developed HPWBM performed very close
to OBM. The new HPWBM has been designed with a total system approach. Products have been
chosen to satisfy the requirements of performance of OBM such as high inhibition, nondispersive,
antiaccretion and superior lubricity. The new HPWBM is extremely flexible in mud formulations,
uses a variety of aqueous base fluids and has temperature stability to 275. The system has been
applied with a high rate of success in a variety of field applications. The system can easily be
prepared and exhibits outstanding drilling performance. The overall performance and easy of
handing are significant attributes that significantly brings this system close to performance of
OBM.
The advent in research and development of novel amine chemistry represented the significant
improvement in shale inhibition and development of HPWBM. Key new components of this
HPWBM are the unique primary di- and poly-amines. The HPWBM uses an environmentally
acceptable, water-soluble clay hydration suppressant (CHS) to stabilize highly reactive clays.
The CHS functions in mechanism similar to potassium chloiride in suppressing clay hydration,
without being constrained by the performance and environmental issues associated with KCl. The
CHS effectively inhibits reactive clays and gumbo from hydrating and becoming plastic, which
provides a secondary benefit of reducing the tendency toward bit balling. The data presented in the
following table demonstrate how the CHS effectively reduces the hydration and dispersion of
reconstituted shale wafers in laboratory tests.
CLAY HYDRATION SUPPRESSION
Fluid Base fluid +CHS
% Hardness change 23.40 13.83
% Hydration 14.29 11.22
189
Fig. 10-11 Molecular model of hydration
suppressant binding mechanism to shale layers
% Swelling 31.49 23.50

The reaction of low-molecular weight
polyamines with clay can involve several
mechanisms including hydrogen bonding, dipole
interaction, and ion exchange. Carefully tailored
polyetherdiamines fit perfectly between clay
platelets and binding the plates together. This
prevents water absorption from the surrounding
aqueous liquid and prevents the shale from
swelling. Moreover, the unique molecular structure
and blend of polyamines absorbs on the shale
surface, thus entering inside the clay platelets and
providing excellent shale inhibition (Figure 10-11).

10.7.4 Components of HPWBM
The newly developed high performance water-based mud (HPWBM) comprises a unique
polymeric amine shale intercalator for shale inhibition, an amphoteric polymeric shale
encapsulator, a high performance lubricant/antiaccretion agent and a specialized fluid-loss additive.
The newly developed HPWBM performed like an oil-based mud in laboratory testing as well as in
offset wells using invert emulsion drilling fluids due to highy complicated and reactive shale
formations.
Along with these novel shale inhibitors, four other specifically designed components are
incorporated in new developed HPWBM formulation. The brief description of these four
components follows:
Dispersant Suppressant. This is a low-molecular-weight partially quaternized water-soluble
copolymer. The optimized cationic charges and molecular weight of the copolymer allow it to be
adsorbed on negatively charged clay surface keeping the clay plates together without imparting
excessive viscosity to HPWBM. Unlike other disperse suppressants this copolymer provides
superior shale inhibition without restricting the mud formulations.
Antiaccretion Agent. This is a unique blend of surfactants and lubricants which is
incorporated in the HPWBM to reduce the accretion of hydrated shale cuttings on the drill bit and
prevent the agglomeration of drilled cuttings. The components of this antiacreation agent are
compatible with other drilling fluid additives of HPWBM.
Fluid loss control agent. This is a low-viscosity modified cellulose polymer. The low
viscosity of the polymer allow its functional characteristic and utility in high solids (active and
inert) containing drilling fluids, such as highly solids contaminated or high density water-based
muds. The polymer provides fluid loss control without affecting the other functional properties of
drilling fluid.
Rheology modifier. This is a blend of natural polymers to impart high low-shear viscosity for
efficient carrying capacity in HPWBM. The synergistic performance of this polymer blend with
blend inhibitor extends the utility of rheology modifier in excess of 300.
10.7.4 HPWBM Functionality
In the conceptional phase of the HPWBM, the drilling performance attributes of invert emulsion
190
systems were examined, essentially identifying the technical features which make OBM the fluid
of choice in the most challenging wells. These were key areas in which conventional WBMs were
generally considered inferior or deficient and were used as design criteria for the HPWBM with
the aim of emulating the drilling performance of invert emulsion systems. The key attributes were
identified as:
A. shale stability through reduced or reversed pressure transmission effects
B. suppression of reactive swelling clays
C. improved cuttings encapsulation and solid removal efficiency
D. minimizing differential sticking tendencies
E. maximizing rate of penetration(ROP)
F. minimizing torque and drag
G. environmental compliance
These performance attributes are inherent to non-aqueous fluids, but can also be emulated in
the new high performance water-based mud (HPWBM) that balances high performance drilling
and environmental compliance.
10.7.5 Future Amine Development for Water-Based Mud
Drilling fluids applying cationic and anionic nitrogen centered groups have developed
steadily for more than 35 years. The earliest applied ammonium salts did not provide acceptable
pH or temperature stability for a majority of drilling fluid applications. High-molecular weight
anionic and cationic polymers served as encapsulators of cuttings but not particularly well as clay
inhibitors. It was only in the last decade that low-molecular weight polyamine chemistry and
direct measurement of osmotic pressure in water-based mud have come together to permit
development of inhibitive fluids which also provide a predictable and measurable osmotic
contribution to overall shale stability. Development is continuing which addresses issues pertinent
to amine-based mud chemistry. Developmental goals for the coming years include:
A. Extension of amine and oligomer performance to higher temperatures
B. Economically tailor oligomer to optimum and consistent molecular weight and configuration
for improved filtration control and membrane development.
C. Source less expensive amines which meet performance expectations.
D. Investigate of a broad range of organic and inorganic osmotic drivers which complement
membrane development.

References
1. A Subcommittee of the API Southern District Study Committee on Drilling Fluids. Principles
of Drilling Fluid Control. Published by PETROLEUM EXTENSION SERVICE, the
University of Texas at Austin. Austin, Texas. In cooperation with INTERNATION
ASSOCIATION OF DRILLING CONTRACTORS, Houston, Texas. 1981.
2. Baker Hughes INTEQ/PUBLICATION/FLUIDS/BROCHURES/AQUA-DRILL PLUS
SYSTEM/ AQUA-DRILL
SM
Glycol Technology Systems.
3. Boyd D. Schaneman, ChevronTexaco, Tom Jones, and Anthony B. Rea, M-I L.L.C. Aphrons
Technology A Solution . AADE-03-NTCE-41.
4. Burba J.L., Holman W.E., Crabb C.R. Laboratory and Field Fluid Additive Evaluations of
191
Novel Inorganic Drilling. IADC/SPE 17198.
5. Bourgoyne. A.T., Millheim K.K., Chenevert M.E. and Young F.S. Applied Drilling
Engineering. SPE Textbook Series, Vol.2, 1991.
6. CABOT. High-performance Formate Brines for Drilling and Completion.
www.cabot-corp.com/csf
7. ECODRIL. Silicate Drilling Fluid Technologies.
8. Gray G.R., Darley H.C.H., and Rogers W.F. Composition and Properties of Oil Well Drilling
Fluids. Gulf Publishing Company. Fourth Edit ion. 1980.
9. Green H., Industrial Rheology and Rheological Structure. John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1949, PP.13-43.
10. IDF TECHNICAL MANUAL, THE ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY OF INTERNATIONAL
DRILLING FLUIDDS.
11. Kahn, A. Studies in the Size and Shape of Clay Particles in Aqueous Suspension, Clays,
Clay Minerals, vol. 6(1957).pp.220-235.
12. Magcobar. DRILLING FLUIDS HANDBOOK.
13. Mc Donald M., Barr K., Dubberley. S.R. Use of Silictate-Based Drilling Fluids to Mitigate
Metal Corrosion. SPE 100599.
14. MI. The APHRON ICS Invasion-control system. Micro bubbles.Macro results.
15. Norton J. Laperyrouse. Formulas and Calculating for Drilling, Production and Workover. 2
nd

Edition. Gulf Professional Publishing. 2002.
16. Outmans, H.D., Mechanics of Static and Dynamic Filtration in the Borehole, Soc. Petro.
Eng. J., vol. 3(Sept., 1963). Pp> 236-244; Trans AIME, vol. 228.
17. Schlemmer R., Patel A., Friedheim J., Young S., and Bloys B., Progression of Water-Based
Fluids Based on Amine ChemistryCan the Road Lead to True Oil Mud Replacements.
AADE-03-NTCE-36
18. Schlumberger, PowerPlan Technical Manual.
19. Whittaker, Alun: Theory and Application of Drilling Fluid Hydraulics, Boston, MA, IHRDC
Publishers (1985).
20. . (Drilling Fluid Technical
Handbook).. . 2005
21. . . . . 2006



192
1

ft m 0.3048 10000 ft = 3048 m
in mm 25.4 121/4in = 311 mm
in mm 25.4 41/2 in= 114 mm
in mm 25.4 121/4in = 311 mm
Lb N 4.4 20000 lb = 88000 N
r/min r/min 1.0
l/32in mm 0.7938 10/32 in =7.9 mm
ft/s m/s 0.3048 400 ft/s = 122 m/s
ft/h m/h 0.3048 30 ft/h = 9 m/h
bbl m
3
0.159 3000 bbl = 477 m
3

in mm 25.4 61/2in=165 mm
in mm 25.4 21/2in = 63.6 mm
In mm 25.4 16 in = 406 mm



bbl/min m
3
/min 0.159 8.5 bbl/min= 1.35 m
3
/min
bbl/min L/s 2.65 8.5 bbl/min = 22.53 L/s
gal/min m
3
/min 3.78510
-3
357 gal/min = 1.35 m
3
/min
gal/min L/s 6.30810
-2
357 gal/min =22.52 L/s
psi kPa 6.9 2500 psi = 17300 kPa

ft/min m/min 0.3048 200 ft/min = 61 m/min
ft/min m/s 5. 0810
-3
200 ft/min = 1.016 m/s

0
F C
0

C
0
= 5/9
(
0
F-32)
80
0
F = 27 C
0

s/quart s/quart 1.0

lb/gal g/cm
3
0. 12 10 lb/gal = 1.20 g/cm
3

lb/ft
3
g/cm
3
0.016 74.81 lb/ft
3
= 1.20 g/cm
3

psi/ft kPa/m 22. 6 0.52 psi/ft = 11. 8 kPa/m
psi kPa 6.9 4000 psi = 27600 kPa

lb/100 ft
2
Pa 0. 48 20 lb/100 ft
2
= 960 Pa
dynes/cm
2
Pa 0.1 10 dynes/cm
2
= 1.0 Pa
s
-1
s
-1
1.0
cP mPa.s 1.0 15cP=15 mPa.s
lb/100 ft
2
Pa 0. 48 15 lb/100 ft
2
= 7.2 Pa
lb/100 ft
2
Pa 0. 48 31b/100 ft
2
= 1.44 Pa
dialreading Pa 0. 48 10 dialreading=5.1 Pa
K
Dynes.s
n
/cm
2
mPa.s
n
100 10Dynes.s
n
/cm
2
=10
3
mPa.s
n

lb.s
n
/100 ft
2
mPa.s
n
479 1.21lb.s
n
/100ft
2
=575mPa.
n

API cm
3
/30min cm
3
/30min 1. 0
1/32 in mm 0. 8 3/32 in =2.4 mm
193
Grains
*
-1 =64.8
cm
3
/cm
3 * *
-cm
3
/cm
3

%V %V 1. 0
m m 1. 0

grains
*
/gal mg/L 17.1 500grains/gal=8550mg/L
ppm mg/L S.G 100ppm1.07=107070mg/L
cm
3
cm
3
1.0 cm
3

P
f
M
f
P
1
P
2
cm
3
cm
3
1.0 cm
3

cm
3
/ cm
3* *
cm
3
/ cm
3* *
1.0 cm
3
/ cm
3*




Lb/bbl Kg/cm
3
2.85 10 Lb/bbl=28.5 Kg/cm
3


lb/ft
2
/a Kg/m
2
/a 4.9 87 lb/ft
2
/a=426 Kg/m
2
/a
mils/a mm/a 0.0254 200 mils/a =5.08 mm/a
bbl/U.S ton m
3
/ton 0.175 100bbl/U.Ston=17.5m
3
/ton
hp kW 0.746 600 hp =448 kW
Openings/in Openings/cm 1/2.54 100mesh=39.3 Openings/cm
m m 1. 0
% m
2
/m
2
0.01 30=0.3 m
2
/m
2

Lb/ft Kg/m 1.49 19.5 Lb/ft =29.1 Kg/m