TheBasicsof Alignmentand Balancing Abstract Misalignment and imbalance are two of the most common faults found in rotating

equipment. Understanding how to properly diagnosis and correct for misalignment or imbalance in plant equipment and how to deal with common pitfalls while out in the field is essential in doing the job right the first time. This paper discusses the importance of precision shaft alignment and balancing, including the negative effect on bearing life. Technical information on balance and alignment theory, including the proper diagnosis of misalignment or imbalance, will be reviewed. Alignment Basics The alignment of shaft centerlines on coupled machines is one of the most important aspects of machine installation. Contrary to popular opinion, flexible couplings will not always compensate for even moderate amounts of shaft misalignment. Misalignment is any condition in which the shaft centerlines are not in a straight line during operation. Misalignment generates unnecessary forces. Precision alignment removes these forces resulting in reduced vibration and noise levels, minimized shaft bending and cyclic fatigue, reduced energy costs, and increased bearing, seal, and coupling life. Shaft centerline misalignment can be classified as either angular or offset (also called parallel). Angular misalignment occurs when the shaft centerlines meet at an angle. Offset misalignment occurs when the shafts are parallel, but offset from each other. The misalignment may be vertical, horizontal, or a combination of the two. Most shaft misalignment is a combination of both angular and offset misalignment. Figure 1 graphically illustrates the alignment types.

Figure 1: Types of Shaft Alignment Another type of misalignment not associated with couplings is bearing misalignment. The centerlines of two coupled shafts can be properly aligned, but the bearings on one side of the coupling may be misaligned. Bearings can be misaligned if they are not mounted in the same plane; if they are not normal to the shaft, i.e. they are cocked relative to the shaft; or because of machine distortion due to soft foot, an uneven base, or thermal growth.

Economics of Misalignment There are a number of cost benefits of precision alignment. It can help reduce plant operating costs by reducing energy costs. Precision alignment also results in increased maintenance savings through reduced parts consumption and reduced overtime. Finally, it can help decrease equipment downtime and increase product quality. There has been much debate in recent years concerning the energy costs that alignment can save a facility. In theory, an aligned machine needs less power to perform its job. Typically, a plant that moves to precision alignment can reduce their energy costs from 3% to 10%. Energy savings can be calculated from the following formulas.

Savings = Hours * kW * Cost Pf = Motor Power Factor Hours = Yearly Hours of Operation Cost = Cost of Electricity A recent study performed at the University of Tennessee found that even small amounts of misalignment could significantly reduce bearing life. The study found that if, on average, a motor was offset misaligned by 10% of the coupling manufacturer's allowable offset, there was a corresponding 10% reduction in inboard bearing life. Furthermore, if a motor was offset misaligned by 70% of the coupling manufacturer's allowable offset, there was a corresponding 50% reduction in inboard bearing life (Hines et al) . The results of the study are summarized in the following table.

Table 1: Offset Misalignment and Bearing Life (Hines) Alignment Tolerances Alignment tolerances have often been treated with a halfhearted "just get it close" attitude. But, alignment tolerances are actually the measurement of a job well done and they provide the definition of what close actually is. There are two reasons to use tolerances. The key reason is to establish goals. If you do not have a goal, how do you know when the job is finished. If there is not a goal, there cannot be a quality

alignment. The second purpose of alignment tolerances is to establish accountability. Accountability is the evaluation of alignment quality. If there is no tolerance to compare an alignment to, how can the quality of the alignment be judged? Accountability can create competition, driving a mechanic to get the job done better. An early attempt to establish tolerances was probably Total Indicator Runout, TIR. Many equipment manufacturers still use TIR in their installation and maintenance manuals. However, TIR can be confusing and misleading. As shown in Figure 2, 4 mils TIR is a worse alignment condition for Case A than for Case B because of the distance between fixtures.

Figure 1: TIR Tolerance Another commonly used tolerance is machine moves. Using machine moves as a tolerance can also be very confusing. Even though the move at one of the feet in Case A in Figure 3 is double digits, the offset at the coupling is 1 mil. In the second case, the machine moves are 3 mils at both feet but the coupling offset is 7 mils. The angle is the same in both cases. The alignment in Case B is worse than the alignment in Case A.

Figure 3: Machine Moves Tolerance A more accurate tolerance is offset and angle. The offset is measured as close to the power plane as possible. Offset and angle are not dependent on the size of the machine or on the

position of the fixtures. This is not true for TIR or machine moves. True alignment consistency can be achieved because one set of tolerances can be used plant-wide. Another type of tolerance is jackshaft tolerances. This tolerance should be used when a machine has a jackshaft or spool piece or when the alignment fixtures are more than 20 inches apart. Often, applications that use jackshaft tolerances have two distinct points of power transmission and it is not practical to measure offset at each plane. Jackshaft tolerances consist of two angles, as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Jackshaft Tolerances Regardless of the type of tolerance used, the tolerance levels should vary with speed. Faster running machines should have tighter tolerances. Diagnosing Misalignment There are a number on non-intrusive methods of diagnosing misalignment including vibration analysis and infrared thermography. The traditional rules for diagnosing misalignment include high vibration at 1xRPM and/or 2xRPM and 180 phase shifts across the coupling. Specifically, when a machine has angular misalignment, the coupling effect pulls on the shafts, producing movement and distortion of the shafts as they attempt to align themselves. The shafts are forced in the axial direction once each revolution and move radially as the coupling pulls on them. In spectral data, we expect to see a peak at shaft turning speed in the axial direction. The radial directions, horizontal and vertical, will also have a peak at shaft turning speed. With offset misalignment, the shafts tend to move or bump the sensor twice during each rotation in the radial directions. There is very little movement in the axial direction. In spectral data, we expect to see a peak at two times shaft turning speed in the radial directions.

But, how accurate are these traditional rules? A study was performed on five coupling types to investigate these rules. A summary of the amplitude trends for the various coupling types is shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Amplitude Summary (Nower) For the grid coupling, misalignment was easy to track. The 4xRPM amplitude was the best to track; it also had the highest amplitude. The 3xRPM peak was the best amplitude to track misalignment for the jaw coupling. Misalignment was easy to track when using the 3xRPM peak. For the bun coupling, the 2xRPM peak was the best to track. Horizontal misalignment was difficult to track. Misalignment was difficult to track with the rubber gear coupling because the amplitudes were very low. The 6xRPM peak was the best to track misalignment but it was only correct 50% of the time. The 2xRPM peaks had the highest amplitudes but only trended correctly 40% of the time. Misalignment was very difficult to track for the shim coupling. 6xRPM was the best amplitude to track but was only correct 30% of the time. 2xRPM had the highest amplitude but did not trend correctly. To further emphasize the effect of the coupling on the vibration characteristics of a machine, figure 5 shows a similar misalignment condition for each coupling.

Figure 5: Spectra from each Coupling, Similar Misalignment (Nower) The traditional rules state that the phase relationship across the coupling can be an indication of shaft misalignment. Compare the horizontal phase readings taken on the bearing on one side of the coupling with those taken on the opposite side bearing. If there is approximately 180 shift between readings, the shafts are moving in opposite directions. Phase readings made in the axial direction across the coupling can also be used to detect misalignment. Readings approximately 180 apart mean the machines are moving opposite each other and indicate angular misalignment. This assumes that the sensors are facing the same direction when readings are taken. The study found that, like vibration characteristics, the phase characteristics of a machine are also coupling-dependent. The jaw, shim and bun couplings followed the traditional rules; however, the grid and rubber gear couplings did not. The results of the phase analysis are summarized in table 3.

Table 3: Phase Results (Nower) The traditional rules also state that temperature can be used as an indication of misalignment. Misaligned machines run hotter than aligned machines. The coupling study found that as with the vibration and phase characteristics the temperature response varied with the coupling type used. The coupling temperature showed the most consistency during the test. Temperatures were also taken on the motor and generator bearings. The grid coupling showed an upward trend in coupling temperature 75% of the time. However, overall the grid coupling showed an upward trend in temperature 50% of the time. When the shim coupling was used, the machine temperatures did not trend upward. The results are summarized in table 4.

Table 4: Temperature Results The Alignment Process Machinery alignment is a process. The process begins with PreShutdown and Pre-Measurement preparation. Then, you take alignment data and reposition the machine. Once the alignment is within tolerance, return the machine to service and take follow up data to verify the alignment.

The pre-shutdown preparation should include an inspection for machinery problems. Any problem that can affect the quality of the alignment should be corrected before the alignment is attempted. This inspection should include:

Complete visual inspection of the machine including the foundation, baseplate, bolts, welds, etc. Vibration and phase analysis of the machine. Motor electrical data for later efficiency calculations. Thermal temperature readings or infrared thermography on the machine.

Also, during pre-shutdown, gather all tools and supplies needed including the alignment kit and stainless steel shims and assign the necessary personnel. Finally, follow all safety procedures for equipment lockout. Once the machine is shutdown and properly locked out, there are a number of items that should be completed. First, remove the coupling guard and inspect the coupling. Check for rubber powder for couplings with rubber inserts or for leaking grease for lubricated couplings as a symptom of coupling looseness and wear. Also, check for looseness and play between the coupling halves. Inspect the keyway. A loose key is a sign of a loose coupling. Foundations, grout, and baseplates should be checked for cracks, bows and any other weaknesses that may hinder the alignment. Ensure that the baseplate and machine feet are clean, and are burr and corrosion free. The original shim pack should be inspected. It is important to know the amount each foot has been shimmed so that you know how much a machine can be lowered. Clean the shims and replace any shims that are in bad condition. There should be no more than five shims under each foot because stiffness of the foot decreases as the number of shims increases. If several shims are to be used, sandwich the thinner shims between the thicker ones. Next, measure the shaft and coupling runout. If the coupling runout is greater than 5 mils, replace it. It is especially important to have a true

coupling when using the Face-Rim method. Check for and correct any soft foot that exists in the system. The machine will run better and you will have an easier time aligning the machine to the tolerances if you correct the soft foot. Piping strain is any condition where pipe flanges do not freely make a perfect match, but must be forced to make a match. This distorts and weakens both the pipe and pump. The connecting piping can force the pump and motor into misalignment. Check for and correct any piping strain. Once all the pre-measurement checks have been performed, it is time to measure the misalignment. First, set the required end float on the coupling and perform the rough alignment. Finally, measure the initial misalignment. Once you have measured the initial misalignment, calculate the required machine moves and reposition the machine. Acquire new data to check the alignment condition. If the alignment is within tolerance, prepare to return the machine to service. Otherwise, calculate the new machine moves and reposition the machine. Continue taking data and repositioning the machine until the alignment is within tolerance. Once the alignment is within tolerance, follow all safety procedures to return the machine to service. Once the machine has reached operating load, speed, and temperature, acquire follow-up data to verify the thermal growth parameters and the alignment condition. Balancing Basics Imbalance is one of the most common faults found in rotating equipment. Imbalance is the force created by a rotating object when its center of mass does not coincide with the center of rotation. Simply put, there is a heavy spot on the object. As the object rotates, this force causes vibration. Imbalance can be caused by a number of situations including wear and corrosion, incorrect assembly, structural damage, and build up of foreign matter. There are two types of imbalance in rotating equipment. In static imbalance, there is a single heavy spot on the rotor. In a dynamic

imbalance situation, there are two heavy spots on the rotor. Couple imbalance is a specific type of dynamic imbalance with two equal heavy spots space 180 apart on the rotor. The following figure graphically illustrates the types of imbalance.

Figure 6: Types of Imbalance There are many benefits to machine balancing. Precision balancing prolongs the life of the machine's bearings and other components. The imbalance force is transferred to the bearings, housing, piping, and other fixed machine positions. This added force has an exponential effect on the life of the bearings and has a similar effect on the other machine components. Balancing also translates to reduced maintenance cost through reduced spare parts inventory and reduced labor costs. Machinery downtime is decreased and product quality is increased. Diagnosing Imbalance Before attempting to balance a machine it is important to verify that the fault is imbalance. Since imbalance is believed to be the most common machine fault, balancing is often attempted with little vibration analysis. The vibration due to imbalance will have the same characteristics as the force that caused the vibration. The dominant vibration will occur at the shaft turning speed (1xRPM). The vibration will be highest in the radial directions. Check the characteristics of the 1xRPM peak. The peak should not be a double peak. The vibration

must be from the shaft under analysis not transmitted from other sources. Axial vibration should be low except for overhung rotors. Overhung rotors will have high axial vibration at shaft turning speed. This vibration is due to the rocking of the structure in response to the imbalance force, which is outboard to the supporting structure. The vibration amplitude should be steady and repeatable. If harmonics of shaft turning speed are present, they should have very low amplitudes. Figure 7 illustrates a typical spectrum due to an imbalance problem. Furthermore, 1xRPM peaks in the radial directions should have similar amplitudes. If the vibration in one direction, either horizontal or vertical, is greater than two times the other direction, other causes of the vibration should be investigated.

Figure 7: Typical Imbalance Spectrum In addition to the vibration spectrum, the waveform data should also be checked. The waveform should be symmetric at 1xRPM. It should not have any truncations or sharp discontinuities. Beats in the waveform indicate closely spaced frequencies. The cause of these frequencies should be investigated before attempting to balance the machine. A typical waveform is shown in the following figure.

Figure 8: Typical Imbalance Waveform The phase angle of the vibration should be steady and repeatable. The phase shift from horizontal to vertical on a bearing housing should be approximately 90 (30). If the phase shift is near 0 or 180, system resonance should be suspected. If the imbalance condition is a static imbalance condition, the phase relationship between horizontal end-to-end readings should be the same as the vertical end-to-end readings. For dynamic imbalance, the phase relationship between the end-to-end horizontal and vertical readings will depend on the relationship of the heavy spots. Imbalance always causes vibration at shaft turning speed. But, a 1xRPM peak is not always caused by imbalance. There are many machine faults that can cause a 1xRPM peak in the spectrum. Shaft or bearing misalignment will often cause vibration at shaft turning speed. However, harmonics of running speed are usually present in the spectrum. A bent or bowed shaft also causes vibration at shaft running speed. The vibration is similar to misalignment. Because of the bend or bow, a significant amount of imbalance also exists. If the vibration is steady, balancing can be attempted. However, acceptable levels of vibration are rarely achieved. Eccentric machine components generate vibration that is identical to the vibration

caused by an imbalance condition. The force and resulting vibration from eccentricity is often strongly directional. If the vibration in one direction, either horizontal or vertical, is greater than two times the vibration in the other direction, test the system for eccentricity or resonance before attempting to balance the machine. When a machine operates near a system resonance, high vibration at running speed results from small amounts of imbalance. While this vibration appears to be pure imbalance, slight changes in machine speed cause changes to the vibration amplitude and phase. These changes make balancing the machine very difficult. Mechanical looseness, electrical faults, and v-belts can also generate vibration near shaft turning speed. It is important to check for these other faults before attempting to balance a machine. The Field Balancing Process Field balancing is an efficient, and often necessary, practice to achieve an acceptable running condition for a machine. Field balancing is simply balancing a machine after it has been installed. The balance condition of the rotor may change when put into service because of factors like stress relieving, erosion, and buildup. Vibration specifications, which were met in the shop, may no longer be satisfied in the final running condition of the machine. There are several advantages to field balancing. The rotor is balanced in its own bearings and at its normal operating speed and load. Also, the rotor is driven in the same manner that it will be driven during normal operation. Tear down of the machine is not necessary. And therefore re-assembly and re-alignment are not necessary either. Finally, due to all of these factors, downtime is greatly reduced. However, starting and stopping the machine during the balance job can be difficult. Also, adding or removing the correction weights can be very difficult. Dynamic balancing is a process. The process begins with preshutdown and pre-measurement preparation. Then, you measure the imbalance, perform the trial run(s) and apply the correction weight(s) and check the results. If the results are not within tolerance, perform a trim run. Once the vibration is within tolerance, return the machine to service and take follow up data to verify the balance results.

The pre-shutdown preparation should include an inspection for other machinery problems. Any problem that can affect the balance job should be corrected before the balancing is attempted. This inspection should include a complete visual inspection of the machine including the foundation, baseplate, bolts, and welds, and vibration and phase analysis of the machine. Also, during pre-shutdown, gather all tools and supplies needed including the balancing kit and assign the necessary personnel. After completing the pre-shutdown inspection and verify that the problem is imbalance, a number of items should be completed before beginning the balancing job. First, if the rotor dirty with process or environmental material, clean the rotor. In many cases, cleaning the rotor will result in an acceptable balance condition. Next, set up the machine for the balance job. First, determine the number of weight planes needed for the job. A weight plane is a cross section though the rotor where weight can be added or removed. To determine the number of weight planes, use the ratio of the diameter to the width of the rotor as a guideline. If the ratio is greater than 4, a single weight plane can be used. Figure 9 illustrates the weight plane ratio. Remember that the ratio is a guide; there are always exceptions to the rule.

Figure 9: Weight Planes Also, determine the number of measurement points. A measurement point is the point where the vibration of a plane is measured. Each weight planes requires at least one measurement point. Using multiple sensors, even for a one-plane job, provides better data from more consistent readings, better results because vibration is minimized across the entire machine not just at one location and helps identify other faults that can complicate the balance job. After determining the number of weight planes and measurement points, set up the machine. Mount the transducers at the bearings. Avoid moving the transducers during the balancing process. Set up the phototach to read phase; take the phase readings from one shaft reference throughout the job. Check that the machine speed is steady and repeatable. Also, determine where the correction weights will be placed and how they will be attached to the rotor. Finally, gather the correction weights, a scale, and all tools needed to apply the weights. Once the equipment has been set up, acquire the reference data. Perform the trial runs and calculate the needed correction weight and location. Permanently apply or remove the correction weight. Check

the results of the balance job. If the vibration is not within tolerance, perform the necessary trim runs. Be sure to follow all safety procedures during the balance job.

Summary Misalignment and imbalance are among the most common faults found in rotating equipment. Because of their frequency of occurrence, machines are often aligned or balanced without taking the time to properly diagnose the machine fault. Diagnosing misalignment in a machine can be difficult because the vibration, phase, and temperature characteristics are dependent on the type of coupling used. Diagnosing imbalance can be complicated by other machine faults. Misalignment and imbalance lead to reduced bearing, seal and coupling life. Precision alignment and balancing reduce plant operating costs through reduced maintenance and energy costs as well as reduced equipment downtime.