Developmentsin the control of fineparticulate air emissions* K.DARCOVICH, K.A.JONASSON and C.E.

CAPES** Institute Chemical Process and Environmental National Research Council Canada, for Technology, of KIA OR6 Canada Ottawa, Ontario, Received 21 October 26 November 1996 1996; accepted Abstract-A review ofemerging and recent inair comprehensive technologies developments pollution and removal isprovided here. control is equipment processes specifically addressing particulate Emphasis with ahigh of and/or new modifications toconventional on placed approaches degree novelty involving Some such as waste have new matter control areas, incineration, systems. emerging produced particulate needs which will be discussed. The and areas are followed abrief introduced, subject key problem by of the various mechanisms and the which description particle capture principal technology groups exploit these mechanisms to achieve More details are then for innovative particle capture. given specific projects, aswell asby sector. alternatives toend-of-pipe organized principally by technology, industry Finally, treatment are discussed. An extensive list of references isincluded, of athorough strategies representative literature survey. 1.INTRODUCTION Inthe1970s, it became thatfine from industrial widely recognized particles processes and automobiles had a significantly more environmental than negative impact therelatively ofwindblown dust large particles regulated bytheUSEnviromental Protection as'total matter' Interms of (EPA) (TSP). Agency suspended particulate airpollution with diameters less than 10 referred control, Lm, particles aerodynamic toasPM10, have been forremoval. Studies inCanada and theUShave targetted identified sources such asfugitive and fuel dust, construction, agriculture typically combustion asthe main contributors toPM10 Atpresent inthe PM10 US, loadings. is a guideline used forairquality standards. Pressure has been totighten building inthis onhuman thestandard toPM2.5. With finer size fraction, impacts particles relative health are more due toanincreased toxics aswell concentration, pronounced asready respirability. *NRCC No. 37624. whom be **To should addressed. correspondence

180 Advanced fine removal are considered tobeend ofpipe particle technologies systems oftreating PM10 even material toproduce stream emis(or PM2.5) capable gas sions incompliance with airquality and with some tobeeffective standards, margin under future Emission arealso tighter anticipated regulations. prevention strategies included. In 1990 theUSEPA a listof 189 AirPollutants Hazardous (HAPs) produced under the Clean Air Act Amendments. This Act identifies chemical elements specific andcompounds asharmful tohealth and and restrictions on environment, places thepermissible emissions levels. The control ofHAPs removal impacts particulate inthat some HAPs arereleased in solid form orin the metals), (mostly practice case ofsome volatile are adsorbed onto also (VOCs), organic compounds particulates inthe emission stream. present The removal ofparticles solids ormixtures) from agas stream their (liquids, requires and attachment toa surface. The surface becontinuous, such asthe deposition may wall and cone ofa cyclone orthe collection ofanelectrostatic or plates precipitator, thesurface bediscontinuous such asspray water ina scrubbing tower. may droplets a means Once ona surface, must beprovided toremove thecollected deposited oratintervals without reentrainment into thegas particles continuously appreciable stream. The ofthe force tomove a particle toward a collecting surface isinflumagnitude enced size and ofthe will beefficient markedly bythe shape particle. Gravity settling onlarge 40-50 is thelower limit ofeffectiveness. Flow line /-tm only particles; and inertial will beeffective onparticles down to2-3 Lm. interception impaction and Diffusional thermal become efficient with deposition precipitation increasingly inparticle and decrease size arehighly efficient onparticles smaller than 0.2itm. Electrostatic forces arethestrongest forces that canactonfine particles (loosely defined asparticles than smaller 2-3um). Control for fall into five i.e. classes, equipment particulates general gravity/inertial electrostatic settlers; fabric, centrifugal separators (cyclones); precipitators; packed bed orrigid barrier and wet scrubbers. Such must bematched to filters; equipment theparticle characteristics aswell asvariables such asflow and rate, temperature nouniversal removal Itiswell that removal particle required efficiency. recognized method exists which will allproblems and conditions. The choice is often satisfy based ona compromise between technical and economic factors. This review stems from ina techno-economic assessment of present participation airpollution control overviews ofthefield offine [1].Other emerging technologies removal are available ina number ofmonographs various particle technology having [2-7]. perspectives This article first a brief overview ofparticle removal then a mechanisms, presents ofthe that have been toexploit these technology summary generic groups developed mechanisms. The bulk ofthe review will then focus onspecific novel technologies, and fundamental mechanisms that have been identified from anextensive processes literature onthesubject. The will betohighlight innovative survey emphasis precommercial aswell asrecent research with to systems findings potential application advanced fine removal particle technologies.

181 removal mechanisms 1. I. Particle When a gasstream matter 1.1.1. Sieving. containing particulate passes through a screen) where thegaps between thecollectors are device a collection (typically theparticle thesolid isretained onthebarrier. smaller than dimension, Generally, this mechanism isbest suited for and isnot common for industrial larger particles gas cleaning. 1.1.2. All are togravity and will attain a terminal Gravity settling. particles subject under conditions. Brownian turbulent motion, thermal, settling velocity quiescent convective forces actonvery small tostabilize their and may particles suspension a netdownward will inair. Generally, motion arise forparticles however, larger than 5 ttm.The collector befibrous, a granular bed orsimply thefloor ofa may chamber. is nota common fine matter removal settling Gravity settling particulate mechanism. ina gasstream 1.1.3. Inertial will impaction. Larger particles possess enough momentum todeviate from the fluid streamlines and collide with acollecting obstacle intheir These areseparated Collection is path. particles byimpaction. efficiency diameter orconversely, a smaller dimension enhanced collector bylarger particle that will enhance contact. Certain offibre filters, beds, types packed spray systems, stream collectors and this removal mechanism. cyclones employ impinging Aparticle carried a grazing 1.1.4. Interception. being byafluid may experience which collision with a collector, isknown asinterception. This mechanism differs from inthe sense that the does not need todepart from the impaction particle actually tocontact the collector. The nature ofthe fluid flow isless fluid streamline important and for this mechanism. Interception impaction may operate simultaneously, although athigher ina filter thelatter becomes dominant Internal gasvelocities. tortuosity medium will cause numerous direction and will increase the gasstream changes orimpaction would occur. that interception probability Collection increases with tocollector size efficiency generally increasing particle ofparticles infibrous filter ratio. include the collection orgranular media. Examples 1.1.5. Concentration ofparticles ina gaseous medium will Diffusion. gradients induce ofparticulate matter toregions oflower local concentration. The migration concentration next tocollector surfaces isnormally sothat small, gas phase particle there isusually a diffusional force onthe tocause them toapproach acting particles the collector. Small velocities and diameters enhance collection gas phase particle by this mechanism. Alarge collector surface area isnormally forseparations required tobeeffected inthis Fibrous and media and small can way. granular liquid droplets remove matter mechanism. particulate bythis

182 1.1.6. Electrostatics. matter will some of Inherently, particulate possess degree surface electrical Various ofconditioning the feed stream can enhance charge. ways this Anexternally electrical field will a force oncharged charging. imposed apply matter and will setit in motion towards a collector ofopposite electrical charge. Electrostatic collection is improved themagnitude oftheelectrical byincreasing size and the flow rate ofthe stream. attraction, decreasing particle decreasing gas Electrostatic are a technology this mechanism. The precipitators employing capture ofother ofcollectors such asfabric filters and some scrubbers is performance types enhanced with electrostatic charging. 1.1.7. Other mechanisms. Other exist which cannot beused alone phenomena ascapture butknowledge oftheir effects is constructive indesigning mechanisms, advanced fine removal Particles ina gas are known to particle equipment. suspended descend thermal a tendency tomove towards cold surfaces oraway gradients, having from hotsurfaces. This is known asthermophoresis. a cold collection Basically, will enhance removal from a hot stream. system particle gas Inaparallel ofgas within a carrier stream will induce fashion, any species diffusing a flux. For would becarried toward a surface where example, particles generally condensation isoccurring and from a surface where isoccurring. away evaporation 1.1.8. General removal mechanism considerations. While allofthe above particle have more marked removal mechanisms canactatthesame effects for time, they sizes. 1shows the effect ofparticle diameter on specific particle Figure schematically the ofthevarious mechanisms Itcan beseen here ifthe that [8]. efficiency capture contributions ofthe various mechanisms are there exists a particle diameter summed,

1.Relative extent of removal mechanisms as afunction of diameter. from Figure particulate [8]. Adapted

183 forwhich theparticulate matter removal is least efficient. Ingeneral, for allowing inthematerial variations ofwhich theparticulate matter iscomposed, the diameter of0.2-2 themost forairpollution control ttmpresents range difficulty equipment. InFig. removal onthe isdefined asthe ratio ofthe 1,the y-axis efficiency particulate matter concentration inthe stream a system tothat it. gas entering leaving 1.1.9. Additional Inaddition tothe considerations. summarized above, technologies there are a few more technical toconsider for the removal ofairborne options particulate matter. Process control can beused tooptimize the of equipment performance almost alltypes ofexisting equipment. can bemade toprocesses which emissions. For examChanges generate particulate cleaner fuels orcombustor controls can reduce ple, burning temperature significantly the amount ofparticulate matter created and carried its byflue gases, thereby making removal less difficult. ofunit can also bebeneficial. Anunderstanding ofhow Modelling performance alltherelevant variables interact can tosystem modifications which enhance point matter removal from Areview streams. and ofvarious gas particulate analysis performance models forfilters and electronic aircleaners was done etal.[10]. byLawless fluid simulations have been made toevaluate (CFD) Computational dynamic recently dust laden stream flow inside airpollution control gas two-phase patterns equipment [11, 12]. 2.RECENT ADVANCES IN UNIT OPERATIONS FOR AIRBORNE PARTICULATE CONTROL Described below are thevarious conventional that have been technologies developed toremove matter from The mechanisms described particulate gasstreams. capture are inthese units orprocesses. previously exploited Each unit will betreated initsown section. will beintroduced operation They with a generic ofthe and This isthen followed description process equipment. bya discussion ofspecific recent innovations and The technology developments. emphasis inthis section isonthedesign and ofthe Section 3 operation physical equipment. discusses emission control from a process particulate perspective. 2 is a graphical a suggested treatment method fora Figure guideline, mapping defined removal level and particle-laden gasstream byadesired particulate operatfiltration is a rough monotonic between the [3].There ing velocity correspondence filtration and the across the filter fora given flux. efficiency pressure drop 2.1. Cyclones The ofinertial isthat the laden isforced to general principle separation gas particulate the inertia ofthe causes them direction. As the direction, change gas changes particles inthe tocontinue direction and beseparated from the stream, original gas exploiting the inertial mechanism. separation

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2.Unit for airborne with of filtration treatment, Figure operation map particulate parameters efficiency and filtration from [3]. velocity. Adapted where thegas isforced tospin ina vortex a tube, are the most Cyclones, through common ofinertial Atypical is shown in types separators. cyclone configuration 3. Fig. Inertial arewidely used forthecollection ofmedium-sized and coarse separators Their low and absence of construction, particles. relatively simple pressure drops mean that both thecapital and themaintenance costs arelower than moving parts foralternative methods. Ingeneral, ifthefines however, cyclone efficiency drops content ofthe matter issignificant. are used asprecleaners particulate They typically ofother devices toreduce and toremove abrasive upstream particulate loadings larger, particles. Conventional areseldom ofthe removal efficyclone separators capable necessary ciencies for anentire size ofanindustrial under particle range gas cleaning application PM10 ifdesigned tostandard theopresent guidelines, according elementary cyclone The deviation between and arises from the ry[13]. prediction performance presence within ofsecondary currents thecyclone which disturb thepredicted body, process ofseparation. flow character can berestored tothedetailed Primary byattention ofthe the ofthe the chamber, design cyclone, including geometry separation position ofopenings, use offlow within the the dimensions and the guides cyclone, geometry ofthe and ofthe use ofmulticyclones, and means for hopper, bleeding bypassing gas, dust a 'dust strand' can bedesigned, agglomeration. Alternatively, cyclone exploiting

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3.Simplified schematic of acyclone. Figure local solids which attain thesecondary flows concentration, vortices) (Dean higher removal [14]. enhancing particle been made toconventional units. The innovative modifications have Some cyclone electric field toa cyclone unit low silica ofanexternal filtering resistivity application indiameter at the collection ofparticles less than 5 Am doubled efficiency roughly was considered low flow rates Built-in matter removal [15]. capability particulate for the ofpulverized coal with the ofacyclonic combustor suspension burning design soot are also considered asdiesel orcoal-water [16]. slurry Cyclonic separators being agas inthe UK involves collectors. Aunit through designed byKudos Corp. spinning down to0.1 This the tube toseparate a tube while also itself, 1 /,Lm. spinning particles rates of and atrotation flows vortices) (Rankine operates system exploits secondary makes use tested. A competing It hasyettobefield 60000 [17]. system r.p.m. sothat ofa spray electrode which neutralizes) particles they charges (presumably, Between 75and 90% ofthe and are particulate bya cyclone. agglomerate captured were down todiameters ofabout 0.6 emissions, >m, during captured bythis system tests with a Peugeot diesel [18]. engine 2.2. Electrostatic (ESPS) precipitators tomove out ofthe that uses electrical forces ESP isa particle control device particles The are anelectric stream and onto collector charge particles given flowing plates. gas a corona, a region inwhich ions flow. The topass them gaseous through byforcing comes from electrodes field that attracts thecharged tothewalls electrical particles channel. This maintained at high in thecenter oftheflow voltage arrangement

186 is shown in Fig. 4. Chapter 10of [4]contains a number ofgood schematically illustrations the construction and ofentire ESP units. showing configuration Once theparticles arecollected, must beremoved from theplates without they reentrainment into the This isusually any appreciable gasstream. accomplished by them loose from theplates, thecollected ofparticles to knocking allowing layer slide down into a hopper. Some remove the or precipitators particles byintermittent continuous with water. washing ESPs have use forfine matter removal enjoyed very widespread particulate applications. area mature, established and themove forinnovation in They technology theESP area somewhat less than elsewhere. there is Nevertheless, appears urgent still and forupdating ESP for the significant interesting activity technology improved collection ofultrafine extensive onrecent work particulates. Quite reporting appears [19, 20]. regularly Inview ofthe number ofESP aconsiderable market exists installations, present large for retrofit The ofemissions standards for and and opportunities. S02 NOx tightening matter onthe sub-10 ofthe ESP infrastructure. 0 >m particulate may impact capabilities An overview ofsome ofthe issues the ESP user and anintroduction facing community, tosome ofthe basic ofretrofit was and Altman types [21]. options given byOffen the need tocondition the flue include Beyond gas, typical upgrade options enlarging the theESP, ESP flue into a greater number of sectionalizing (dividing gas passages which can beoperated atmore the segments individually levels), optimum spacing collector further control and/or plates apart, implementing process improved rapping and collection Two onthetechnostudies, [22]. equipment independent focussing economics ofESP usefound that with theincreasing useofhigh-resistivity coals, ESPs cannot with fabric filter when emissions compete pulse-jet systems particulate allow 0.01 lb/MBtu [23, 24]. regulations only

4.Schematic of atypical electrode and collector found inside an electrostatic Figure arrangement precipitator.

187 Anumber ofrecent detail modifications toESPs tohandle papers specific physical Case studies arediscussed where ESP installations high-resistivity flyash. existing were rebuilt tohouse and wider The ESP can [25]. large plate heights plate spacings beplaced downstream ofa non-leaking, dust load heater water (with high gas-gas asthe heat toreduce the the ESP tothe medium) exchange gas temperature through 90-100C rather than theconventional 130-140C Pilot [26]. range range testing hasshown that thedecreased decreases theelectrical ofthe temperature resistivity collection Hitachi has introduced two new dust, improving efficiency. configurations forESPs The electrode ESP has theplates sectioned into short [27]. moving panels that circulate like a vertical belt. The dust iscollected brushes conveyor byrotating inahopper zone where nogas flows and matter reentrainment isminimal. particulate have also a 'saw-edged' wire that shows static They developed superior discharge useful for submicron matter which ismore characteristics, rapidly charging particulate abundant when theboiler fuelis oilinstead ofcoal.Operating with experience intermittent ofthe ESP tosuppress back corona and thus increase ESP energization forthe ofhigh-resistivity matter was efficiency capture [28, 29]. particulate reported were cited ongas stream treatment from coal-fired oil-fired boilers, boilers, Examples Kraft boilers and iron-ore pulp sintering plants. Anovel ESP with anelectrostatic between thestages has two-stage agglomerator been tested atthelaboratory scale Aquadrupole AC electric field isapplied to [30]. the fines after the first ESP motion and electrical remaining stage, inducing oscillatory which have been shown toincrease submicron mean diameters polarization, by400% and increase collection from 95to98%. Asystem has been with efficiency designed flow diversion tominimize fines entrainment estimates [31].Cost during rapping forthis show that thistechnique benefits foremissions limits technology provides below 50mg/Nm3. horizontal collectors without baffles have been Special strip shown toincrease ESP onlarge installations [32].Seoul-Sharp-CED performance has what term a 'SUPER-ESP' thecharging and [33]. developed they Byseparating both can bedone ina more consistent and functions, collecting steps independently Ahigh can beimparted for level ofresistivity, and optimized way. particle charge any then these can besubjected tothe electric field for collection. The particles appropriate can becontrolled intheseparate area tomodify the temperature charging resistivity. Instead ofanESP with several conventional a smaller ESP results from sections, long this when a number ofcharging and short collector are used. For configuration pairs matter this can aunit about one-third the low-resistivity particulate design provide size ofa conventional ESP and thesize isfurther reduced toone-sixth for physical matter. high-resistivity particulate The electrical nature ofprecipitators make them suitable fordigital conespecially trol.Arecent controller allows some ofthe expert system employing fuzzy logic more difficult toberunina more such asdiagnosing fashion, operations optimized and shutdown routines aswell ascontrolling theoperating efficienfaults, start-up Field has shown emissions reductions aswell aslowered cy[34]. testing significant Other ofcontrollers forspark rate and energy consumption. types spark anticipation can better enable ESP units tohandle flue inan existing gasand flyash variability efficient manner [35]. energy

188 to play role forspecialized Wet ESP continue matter a key systems particulate Forcertain lower thedewremoval (below temperature applications applications. electrostatic can beused. chemical inthe wet systems Dissolving agents point) only can a means tofix unwanted with the wash provide gaseous components along liquid matter InJapan, Mitsubishi Industries Ltdhave [36]. Heavy suspended particulate and tested a 'high wet ofworking atface velociESP, velocity' capable developed of10m/s, itsinstallation within in ties thereby allowing existing plant configurations cases Wet ESPs arewell suited toapplications such ascoal-fired some [37]. maginthe flue issubstantial where the fines content [38]. systems gas netohydrodynamic wet have been added Asa retrofit forwaste incineration ESPs after a option plants, acid Aunit known asthe wet scrubber totreat matter and SonicKleen particulate gas. ofhexagonal downflow tubes wet ESP consists ofa bundle (tosave system space) contain electrodes made ofaconducting steel which Condensed [39]. discharge alloy, tothe bottom ofthe from thegas stream and liquids irrigate help carry particulates unit. innovations have been made toaddress needs. The Various specific application matter from wood fired boilers is often done with ESPs final particulate cleanup forsuch is ofparamount since theflyash hasa low resistivity. Rapping systems material bepresent onthecollector asresins and unburned surface, may importance it to ignite. horns were installed and and could cause Sonic tested, any sparking internals for wood fired for [40]. replacing rappers cleaning precipitator applications with sonic horn were shown tohave decreased. Emissions ofparticulate matter rapping soot is with anelectrostatic Anoptional oftreating diesel [41]. agglomerator way tocollect diesel soot Acorona-less ESP isused and pipe-type agglomerate particles with which into and becollected downstream a simple grow larger particles may inertial device. Anumber oftheoretical models have been tocharacterize ESP developed recently ofexisting ESPs can beenhanced with feed behaviour. The performance improved volume. ACFD was conducted to stream distribution their internal through study inthe cement The a flow distributor for ESPs used [42]. help design industry design recommendations were used tobring a dry-process cement into complant regulatory inIndiana, USA. Ona more a CFD was made onionic micro-scale, pliance study which isthe flow that under mass conservation wind, secondary develops requirements when ionized towards thecollecting It was found that ionic wind gasdrifts plate. effects aresignificant forsuperficial flow velocities under 0.6m/sand a collection reduction ofover 10% occur when thesuperficial flow falls efficiency may velocity below 0.2m/s[43]. thecarrier increases thefeed stream Conditioning gasoften The influence ofhumidity onthe and the electric field ina charge density humidity. was modelled and solved with results [44]. good precipitator 2.3. Fabric filters Fabric filters remove dust from a gas stream thestream a porous bypassing through fabric. Dust form a porous cake onthesurface ofthe fabric. Itisnormally particles this cake that does the bulk ofthe filtration. actually

189 The manner inwhich the dust isremoved from the fabric isa crucial factor inthe ofafabric filter sothat flux losses from excessive system, performance pressure drop with a thick cake are balanced dust with too thin a cake. against leakage occurring Fabric filter arefrequently called since thefabric is usually systems baghouses, mounted incylindrical The two most common are the reversebags. baghouse designs These names describe airand the the affiliated fabric pulse-jet types. cleaning system. There has been anincreasing recent trend towards fabric filters fornew selecting installations and inexisting infabric filter upgrades plants. Improvements equipment ofoperation and low cost have been factors. performance, simplicity capital motivating have come inthearea The most innovations offabric materials. significant the installations have toappear Since late 1980s, baghouse begun featuring pulse-jet fabric filters These are conventional (PJFFs). systems quickly replacing reverse-gascleaned asthemost used fabric filter unit.PJFFs are (RGB), baghouses widely characterized use ofperiodic bursts ofairtoclean the short, bytheir powerful bags, the unit tobeoperated attwo tothree times the face velocities ofthe reverseallowing Ingeneral exhibit characteristics gas-cleaned systems. they improved pressure drop and can beretrofitted into ESP See 5. casings. Fig.

5.Schematic of apulse-jet fabric filter The filter on the left-hand side are shown Figure baghouse. bags infiltration mode and those on the side are shown inthe mode. right-hand pulse-jet cleaning

190 A three-part series ofpapers was to provide anoverview oftheperpublished formance and with PJFFs forcoal-fired a leading boilers, operating experiences apExtensive data onvarious PJFF installations were In [45-47]. plication provided. these units below 0.03 lb/MBtu which istheUS (0.054 general, operate mg/Kcal) EPA matter emissions standard. Woven felts such asDralon T8,Ryton particulate Nomex were recommended and materials. Teflon have shown some diffibag bags with matter tothelarge fibre collection, diameters, culty particulate possibly owing inhotter their tooperate and more corrosive Part 2 of atmospheres. despite ability the series onpilot tests for fossil fuel oil-fired boilers installations, reported including with results. was for ash uniformly good Higher frequency bag cleaning required high coals. Part 3 oftheseries aneconomic with ESPs and RGBs. provides comparison ESPs could with PJFF with feeds. only compete systems low-resistivity Compared toRGBs, the PJFF offer a 10% less levelized cost over a 30year life systems plant tothis according analysis. There are some commercial PJFF available. The OPTIPULSE from systems system ABB isaimed atsteelmaking The Hosokawa was [48]. applications Micropul system with inlet diffusers toprovide uniform face over the filter designed gas pressures bag anoverall inperformance filter surface, [49, 50]. giving improvement Similarly, cage made from metal rather than wire sheet, mesh, designs perforated subject pulse-jet toless stress and their lives [51]. bags prolong are often tocollect matter from some ofthe feed Baghouses employed particulate discussed inSection 3.3.Filter made from 3M Nextel conditioning processes bags woven ceramic 312 alumina/boria/silica fibre have been installed intheSNRB process and have been tested attemperatures EPA the successfully upto590C against standards [52, 53]. The fabric materials themselves are ofcourse thesubject ofconsiderable research. The extra mechanical demands onpulse-jet make filter placed systems glass-based media tofailure. As a consequence ofthis, there have been numerous prone synthetic felts forsome ofthese such asindustrial boilers, combusting developed applications, beds orGore-Texe fluidized and incinerators [54]. (PTFE) Polytetrafluoroethylene filter materials have been Some work shows that thefavourable developed. early PTFE surface dust and attemperatures removal, properties permit easy layer operation Fine matter still a problem, with 50% at upto 260C. particulate poses escape 0.86 and bark boilers asthese [55]. jum Pulp paper present special problems gas streams can contain incandescent resistance is particles. Temperature upto600C with Biothermica stainless steel fabric filters. Afault-free test was provided 4-year conducted atanindustrial site with this material [56, 57]. Ona more fundamental there have been studies conducted onsome ofthe level, fabric Aparametric detailed was conducted onthe effects ofyam properties. study and variables onthefiltration ofwoven fabrics. processing weaving efficiency glass It was found that conditions which theglass intheyarn filaments processing keep bundle thebest Anumber ofcommercially [58]. separated produced performance available conductive fabrics have been toreduce electrostatic indust designed charge collectors where flammable dusts arepresent, such asinflour wood mills, working and chloride [59]. operations polyvinyl manufacturing

191 Analternative tothe filter isthe filter 'box' orcartridge filter. These units are bag ofstiff made filter which can offer much filter surface materials, corrugated higher area tobaghouses ofthe same ofthe technical compared footprint. Many capabilities are similar tobaghouses, but their makes them less cleanable. design inherently They are for rated matter ofabout 25% ofthat forbaghouses particulate loadings [60]. have been avanadium/titanium coated Owens-Coming Fiberglas developing catalyst woven fabric forsimultaneous and matter control. Over 90% NOx glass particulate removal has been but toachieve N0? obtained, many operating parameters required this level have toberesolved [61, 62]. economically yet Fabric filter canbeelectrostatically enhanced. Anearly showed systems study thatanelectric field canalter thedust inside a bag, a deposition pattern giving lower ofanalytical and [63].Anumber pressure drop experimental investigations ofthis arereviewed and Aportable electrostatic [64]. phenomena byRao Murthy filter hasrecently been forapplications such ascooking cartridge-type developed, odour control and smoke treatment. Over 98% matter hasbeen particulate capture achieved atdiameters between 0.01 and 1.0 however face velocities must beless than 0.1 m/s[65]. 2.4. Wet scrubbers Inthese a particle laden is subjected toa spray ofliquid which units, gasstream contacts and thesolid material. A variety ofgeometries and are captures designs available for this The mechanisms implementing technique. of impaction, interception and diffusion allplay inparticulate a role matter inwet scrubbers. capture Condensation scrubbers can beconsidered tobea subclass ofwet scrubbers. In condensation water is brought into contact scrubbers, usually supersaturated vapour with matter and condensation occurs onthesurface ofthesolids. particulate liquid This can create a nucleation site foragglomeration with other wetted The particles. mass oftheparticles inthis and can bemore collected grows way they readily by inertial oreven The mechanism is also impaction gravity settling. thermophoresis incondensation scrubbers [9]. exploited Wet scrubber continue toenjoy favour forparticulate matter removal, technologies incoal-fired where the flue also contains especially power generation applications gas and can beremoved ConS02and NOx simultaneously bythescrubbing liquid. ventional units include venturi aided scrubbers, scrubbers, mechanically pump-aided wetted-filter scrubbers and orsieve scrubbers. An overview scrubbers, type tray type ofrecent work inthis field isprovided inanNTIS database See [66]. bibliographic 6. Fig. Some recent inwet are inthe area ofrotary or developments scrubbing equipment One such based onaConfined Vortex Scrubber for centrifugal designs. system, (CVS), fine removal from combustion flue has been and consists particulate gases developed ofa cylindrical vortex chamber with flue inlets Water [67]. multiple tangential gas isintroduced into thechamber and is confined within thevortex chamber bythe forces The confined water extremely high centrifugal generated bythegasflow. forms a layer which theflue is forced tobubble, tocollection through gas leading

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of astandard venturi scrubber. The outlet isoften connected toamist eliminator 6.Components Figure where the water and streams are gas separated. inexcess for fine ofdiameter 3gmand 98% for 0.3 efficiencies of99.5% Lm flyash makes useof A commercial unit known astheRotorfilterTM diameter particles. inconjunction with a series ofrotating sothat the water airfoils, arranged scrubbing and solid contact each other atright two streams theliquid phases angles. carrying Inthis occurs inrecirculation created chevron bythe way, particulate capture regions units aredesigned forsmall andcanhandle [68].These industry shaped spokes at0.25 between 50and 500 m3 minute. of99% ofparticulates gasper Upwards A system forthepower industries a diameter can berecovered. designed employs towithstand reactor and vessels made from reinforced jetbubble fibreglass plastics anESP, this scrubber elements inthestreams Downstream from thecorrosive [69]. matter while also was able toremove of90% oftheescaping particulate upwards control. S02 achieving good with venturi scrubbers. Aspecial New continue tooccur integrated developments has been with atwo-fluid nozzle which can becontrolled toenhance designed system aided inthe vessel Another such removal, [70]. plates system, particle byimpingement aswell, isintegrated with a steam aimed atacid control which scrubs gas particulates Amulti-staged toremove and saleable and VOCs S02 [71]. system stripper separate chamber to aidinthenucleation ofwater-wettable suba saturated using vapour removal at0.15 with turbulence micron matter can achieve 99% 5 >m, high particulate toparticle atthescrubber walls [72]. contributing capture work has been carried out onthe electrification ofwet Some recent scrubbing systems. An wet scrubber has been toremove fine matter developed particulate ionizing area of down to0.05 while acid Itsmain [73]. itm, simultaneously removing gases incineration. The unit combines the ofwet iswaste application principles scrubbing

193 and electrostatic andagglomerating matter with precipitation, charging particulate collection and force attraction within anirrisubsequent byinertial impaction image bed. Ascrubber with brushes downstream gated packed oppositely charged rotating ofanionizing atomizer toremove matter ispresently inthe particulate development matter below 5 ttmdiameter, and can [74].This stage design targets particulate atcomparatively low addition rates. Treatment ofmetal fume from a operate liquid hazardous waste incinerator inanionizing wet scrubber was Col[75]. investigated lection efficiencies from 22to71% and were for less volatile ranged generally higher metals. Afundamental has modelled a complex ofthe study interdependence applied the and the direction ofthefield relative toparticle motion for field, particle charge electrified wet scrubbers afundamental the influ[76]. Additionally, study examining ence ofsurface electric ofspray and inconjunction properties droplets particulates, with surfactant addition for dust has been carried out[77]. The most imsuppression effect forenhanced matter was anelevated portant particulate capture droplet charge forcationic solutions. droplet Some recent work has addressed wet needs. Mist eliminasector-specific scrubbing tors used influe desulfurization are tohave some gas expected difficulty complying with 0.002 lb/MMBtu emissions Ithas (14 [78]. anticipated mg/Nm3) regulations been shown that horizontal flow can the ofsysconfigurations upgrade performance which need toremove of99.5% ofPM10 dust.A two-stage tems, may upwards scrubber for the aluminum has been shown toremove over of 99% designed industry matter aswell asHCl and more than 90% ofC12 from aluminum reducparticulate tion cast-house furnace with chemical allow [79]. offgas Irrigation cleansing agents scrubbed materials toberecycled into the reduction process. a less butrarely is that ofcounterflow recent, Finally, implemented technology inertial wet scrubbers An for the collection ofalunite dust [5]. impaction early study had two with (an alumino-silicate) streams, colliding axisymmetric dusty gas sprayed fluid atthe zone. Deceleration ofthe and turbulent atthe impaction particles mixing zone about ofthe out impaction bring agglomeration particulates, whereby they drop ofthe stream and can beremoved [80]. 2.4.1. Condensation scrubbers. Condensation scrubbers can beconsidered a subthere class ofwet are differences inthe mechanisms scrubbers, although key employed toremove matter. Inthe case ofcondensation the travel scrubbers, particulate particles inavapour saturated where condenses ontheir surfaces and acts as stream, gas vapour anagglomerating One such for the treatment ofsub-0.25 agent. design, itm particulate matter from wastewater incinerators is documented wet [81].Existing municipal scrubbers can beretrofitted inthecondensation tooperate mode. Asimilar design formunicipal waste incinerators makes use offlue moisture mixed with a cold gas stream influx force condensation gas [9]. resulting scrubbing 2.5. Granular (GBFS) bed filters In ananalogous fashion to wetscrubbers, a particle laden stream canbepassed a bed ofsolid material where the matter iscaptured. The bed can through particulate

194 orfluidized. The collector material some bestationary, typically possesses moving surface toenhance oftheparticulate matter. Granular favourable capture properties bed filters are often used when waste water problems posed bywet scrubbing systems control insome aluminum Fluidized areunacceptable, such asforfluorine plants. under consideration forhotgas GBFs arecurrently cleanup applications, especially filters which have had a troublesome debut. Aretoceramic candle asanalternative to found that the economic ofGBFs cent has compares favourably performance study These units are mefilters forcoal-fired facilities candle [82, 83]. power generation and less and maintenance. The collector moving require fine-tuning chanically simple value and also eliminates the need forcostly filter media bed hassome by-product More than 97% offlyash can beremoved ata face of byGBFs velocity cleaning. 1.6 m/s(based onthe but are known tohave cross-section), standpipe they problems 2ttm. Atface velocities over 4m/s, the collection matter under collecting particulate 80% toabout [84]. efficiency drops enhancement. have also been combined with electrostatic GBFs Moving investigated Power Co. well for unit Combustion The basic performed particulate developed bythe under AC and DC mode were tested. over Various field both matter 2 >m. strengths, also showed at75Hz aslight DC The AC enhancement produced optimum. operation but itsimplementation isconsidered tobeless initial results, practical very promising of98% of0.5 could Atlow face velocities [85, 86]. (0.11 m/s), >m upwards flyash off to50% atface velocities near 0.7m/s. The becollected. efficiency drops Anovel hasbeen with a fluidized GBF across a metal exiting developed system Asketch ofthe unit isshown inFig. 7. The screen surface can be filter screen [87]. inthis cleaned thegas flow. The pressure drop system bymomentarily interrupting This material finer than about 1.5 tocapture. islow, pmisdifficult system although allows face over 2.5 m/s. velocities, relatively high matter where GBF a good There area few instances systems provide particulate for traditional airpollution control devices areineffective removal solution. Most which often arises in waste incineration. One submicron metal fume, collecting ina fluidized bed filter another has has been totest various sorbents [88]; approach beds been touse activate charcoal [89]. packed the understudies have been conducted tofurther Anumber offundamental recently was found tobemore collected ofgranular bed filters. Fine material readily standing number effects were considered inanother atelevated [90]. temperatures Reynolds [91]. study filters are referred toasdry but more often Sometimes bed scrubbers, dry granular Anumber means a somewhat but different ofunit. ofsystems scrubber similar, type for exist where the stream dust beremoved, but then a sorbent isintroduced NOx may a need forsubsequent matter removal and/or removal. This creates SOx particulate material can bechosen sothat Inview ofthis, thesorbent from thegasstream. tobeeasily and uncohesive it is sufficiently separated bylow pressure drop large the sulfur and choice ofsorbent, With anappropriate nitrogen containing baghouses. An electron tomake a number ofsaleable can beused [92, 93]. by-products product inwhich the electrons OHradicals which oxidize beam scrubber exists generate dry into and nitric formaking fertilizers and sulfuric acid, [94]. S02 NOx precursors

195

7.Fluidized bed filter fitted with metal screen toprevent filter material entrainment. Figure granular from [87]. Adapted 2.6. Ceramic filters Ceramic filters are barrier filters constructed with sizes toremove rigid pore designed fine airborne solids. The ofthe ceramic material allow these units physical properties tobeoperated under and incorrosive environments aswell asbeing high temperatures forcleaning suitable with corrosive are made intwo standard formats: agents. They dead-end low 'candle' filters and multi-channel cross-flow modules. density Inthe field ofhot ceramic filter elements have filtration, rapidly evolving gas proven tobesuitable forefficient with theability toperform inharsh removal, particulate environments. Ceramic membranes were first used inthe1940s foruranium enrichittook until the for mid-1980s matter removal from ment, yet particulate applications streams tofirst General overviews ofthis field are gas appear. provided byEggerstedt etal.[95] aswell asbyWhite ceramic etal.[96]. materials have also found Recently, their into hotgasapplications asstructural filter exotic way components, replacing and Anumber ofdifferent ceramic filtration dealloys simplifying design approaches. are each with vices and These devices available, currently advantages disadvantages. include ceramic cross flow orceramic membrane ceramic fabric filter filters, bags, and filter ceramic tubes or'candles'. Inaddition, these are available in porous designs

196 different ceramic each which not besuitable materials, having properties may or may fora given application. process the 40% cost unit filtration area tobag filters roughly higher per compared Despite ceramic units aregaining Inaddition tobenefits [97]. (1991), popularity previously velocities of can also handle dust and face mentioned, loadings upwards they heavy 3 cm/s, toabout 1.5 cm/s forfabric Provided that thesystem compared systems. with selected iscleanable, the unit life can beseveral times than other materials. longer been inexistence forover 50 air(HEPA) filters have High-efficiency particulate made ofglass andareused forvery aretypically microfibres high years. They removal of submicron matter. HEPA filters aresuitable for efficiency particulate where a very level ofairpurity is required orfortheremoval of applications high hazardous materials [98]. particulate 2.6.1. 8shows a schematic unit where ceramic candle filters Candle filters. Figure matter from a gas stream the filter medium are used toremove [3]. Here, particulate isprovided intheform oflong, hollow tubes or'candles', closed atone end and from a support sothat the from the outside inwards. hung vertically plate gas passes Adust cake accumulates onthe outside surface ofthe candle and iscleaned atregular intervals with a strong orjetofgas sent from the inside out via the nozzles. pulse pulse offiltration media used inceramic candles. The first There are two common types isa high-density sintered orbonded silicon carbide The other (SiC). granular type

8.Simplified schematic of aceramic candle filter unit with air Figure pulse cleaning.

197 isprimarily a low-density inthe alumina form ofbonded fibres. The low(ash03) units show less resistance toflow, areless tothermal shock and are density prone less [99]. expensive The most attractive feature ofceramic candle filters is their to perform ability athigh near 1000C. The demand forhotgas gas cleaning temperatures, presently isstrongest incoal-fired fluid bed combustion cleaning power plants using pressurized orintegrated combined Conventional (PFBC) gasification (IGCC) cycle processes. filters have thermal tolerances which that streams becooled, bag require gas typically thestream with air.Direct hotfiltration eliminates the need bydiluting atmospheric forextra reduces thegas volume fortreatment and allows waste process equipment, heat toberecovered, a 2-3% increase inoperating giving [100]. efficiency The Schumacher SiC candle filters were some ofthe first toundergo extensive testing inpilot In1988 facilities. atGrimethorpe inthe apilot hot removal UK, gas particulate ceramic candle filters was built inaPFBC test tests system using [101]. facility Early were conducted with Schumalith SC40 model candles size 100 as (mean /tm), pore well astheDiaSchumalith F40 candles which aremade with anadditional surface ofalumina fibres. The DiaSchumalith F40 candles were found tobesuperior layer because were able towork ina surface filtration mode athigher face velocities they and lower stresses fordust cake detachment. The F40 candles were in used required most work atGrimethorpe where dust removal results subsequent they gave promising over 800 h tests conducted at 850C and 10barpressure Further at [102]. testing revealed that extended use with cold caused the candles to Grimethorpe pulse cleaning lift and descend infractures both inthe candles and their repeatedly resulting sealing Asimilar testwas with [103]. themselves, gaskets pilot reported bySchumacher over h attemperatures 4000 between 780 and Attemperatures 850C. above 700C more than 99.999% ofallparticulate matter was with themost removed, penetration inthe 0.2-0.4 size fLm 1)[104]. occurring range (cf. Fig. ofthe DiaSchumalith F40 has been more Increasingly, demanding testing reported Concerns over have focussed oncandle over recently. performance integrity repeated hot-cold The ofthe candle was found todecrease cleaning cycles. strength by2.2% over a 4 month attests conducted at 850C. Athermal shock period (temperature ofover 600C was found tooccur simulation ofthecleaning change) bynumerical flow inside the candle new tests had shown versions [105]. pulse By1993, improved oftheDiaSchumalith F40 butstill a recommendation forhotpulsing was candles, made tominimize thesevere materials Other tests have revealed that [106]. duty ofcandle filters arose from themechanical stresses associated with breakage lifting and the deterioration mechanisms were theoxidation ofSiC dropping. Specifically, toform cristobalite and inthe bond necks (Si02), microcracking crystallization glass and interface and ofthe bond Service lives of glass/SiC pitting [107]. glass byCaS04 one could beexpected from the SiC candle filters. The thermal shock uptoabout year resistance ofthe DiaSchumalith F40 filters was toother SiC candles made compared aswell ascandles from Asahi Glass Co. made ofcordierite byRefracton [108, 109]. Schumacher SiC candle filters have been tested for hotgas ata lowpilot cleaning level-waste incinerator ata German nuclear and were found tobepromising facility, when the feed stream matter contains little submicron material particulate very [110].

198 candle filters made alumina-silica based Fibrous, byFoseco layered, low-density These tests have been tested for PFBC hot Cerafil 2000i) [111]. (Foseco cleaning gas and of99.9% ofthe were conducted attemperatures typically upwards upto740C size forthese units is less than matter was removed. The nominal pore particulate thetesting of none ofthefilters inthese tests 10fLm failed, [3].Although period ontheir h was considered tooshort tocomment 340 durability. made of?-cordierite Glass Co. were tested onPFBC Candle filters bytheAsahi isthat these candles filter from the inside a positive dusts Ofnote out, [112]. using than suction. Atcomparable were found to rather rates, they permeation pressure under 3 p.p.m.w., toless than 1 p.p.m.w. a downstream dust level compared give filters were tested forover 2000 h at SiC candles. The Asahi fortheSchumacher size of due totheir (length Likely quite large physical temperatures upto 880C. shocks related to fastened tothevessel atboth thethermal 5.8 ends, m)and being rate offilter mechanical failure a much the compared pulse cleaning produced higher candle filters was An onthestatus ofthe Asahi with other candles. provided update and Maeno [113]. byHigashi SiC candles Cer made has been conducted onsurface treated 50/5) (Lay by Testing have a nominal and Filter Co. the Industrial (USA) [114]. They Manufacturing Pump and a filtration near 100%. of24ttm, were tested at870C size gave efficiency pore surface and how onthenature ofthe cake onthefilter This focussed study buildup conditions related tothe different relationship. operating pressure-flux a new unit for candle filters and has tested the has housing Westinghouse developed toreplace the SiC filters with F40 candles were DiaSchumalith [115]. They expected Aproject is being conducted alumina/mullite candles. sponsored bytheUSDOE of that meet theoperational hotgasfilter todevelop designs requirements practical PFBC [116]. toconsider forimplementing ceramic candle The economics and options process are discussed et filter [117]. byZieversal. systems ce2.6.2. Particulate filters can also bemade from dense sintered Cross-flow filters. into box-like structures. Such include ramic constructed designs separate passageways which are linked ceramic filter material. forthefeed and cleaned gas bythe porous ofa generic block ceramic a schematic sketch ofone comer 9shows shaped Figure area beseen, this a very filtration cross-flow filter. Ascan arrangement gives high inother All theother toconfigurations used tovolume ratio technologies. compared filters inthe section toceramic attributed toceramic candle benefits previous apply the matter which Backflow isused toclean cross-flow filters [95]. particulate pulsing walls. cakes onthe passage from diesel hasposed a problem from a regulatory The emission ofsoot engines these and since it is notpractical tocool exhaust Tomeet standards, standpoint. use ofceramic cross-flow filter from avehicle, various traps making particulate gases ofceramic have been since other (and filters) being investigated technology types The EPA airquality standards for1994 have theearly 1980s [118-120]. proposed interest inthis renewed [121]. topic

199

9.Simplified schematic ofaceramic cross-flow filter. Shown here isthe comer ofaboxFigure top unit. shaped The Asahi Glass Co. hasdeveloped a new It [122, 123]. particulate trap system features both a cross-flow ceramic filter and reverse The type cleaning regeneration. filter ismade elements ofmodified cordierite. Each has a row of plate plate upofthin some two dozen oval-sectioned channels. Aperiodic reverse open-end, jetcleaning airinjection removes the from thefilter wall and it bycompressed particulate drops into thevessel bottom. Itisburned heater. The ofthis byanelectric trap efficiency from 88to95%. The has been confirmed ranges system durability byboth laboratory tests and field tests with buses inLos USA. public Angeles, NGK Insulators Ltd also a cordierite diesel Recent [124]. produce particulate trap attention has focussed oncleaning under combustion flow rates requirements specified with minimal thermal shock. The unit has NGK been tested onbuses in extensively well inprinciple Itwas and recommended that the cross-flow [125]. Italy performed filter unit beenabled with continuous filter tobring matter control, loading particulate collection toacceptable levels forpractical conditions. efficiency operating InNorth Motors incooperation General with have a America, Coming developed cordierite wall-flow filter forlight diesel The thermal [126]. duty engines durability was tested and toachieve a required 120000 vehicle miles ( 192 000 km), designed without the 0.13 emissions The use ofComexceeding g/mile particulate regulation. onheavy diesel inunderground mines has been shown ing particulate traps equipment toimprove airquality [127]. Inrelated research onfilter ithas been shown that itispossible toproregeneration, vide a more uniform toa filter energy byincorporating input microwave-susceptible materials inthe filter and then RF toinitiate combus(microwave) body using energy tion This method control over thesoot combustion and lower [128]. gives improved thermal stresses within the filter. For airpollution control commercial units have generic applications, preliminary been made available The matter removal (USA) [129]. byCeraMem particulate isnear 100% with nominal sizes from to0.004 >m, onthe 0.5 ability pore depending surface membrane used. Asetof36modules each with external dimensions coating

200 of12x 12x 30cmand over 3.4 m2 filterarea was able toclean the satisfactorily 0.28 m3/s flue at120C from anEPRI over aperiod of1100 h. gas baghouse facility onhotgas streams from a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Testing power generation combustor revealed some unit with sealing problems along unsatisfactory pressure and face velocities Ceramic cross-flow filters forMHD [130]. were, drops plants still considered tobea promising Arecent advance was the however, technology. use ofacatalytic vanadia forsimultaneous NO and matter removal coating particulate from hot streams The US DOE isalso acatalytic mixed metal [131]. gas investigating oxide onceramic cross-flow filters forintegrated S02, N0?and coating particulate matter removal [132]. Across-flow ceramic filter unit has been under and development byWestinghouse Coors Ceramics Itunderwent tests at900C for hwith of1000 various [133]. periods ofPFBC Ingeneral, matter removal was but quite high, post types flyash. particulate testinspection revealed a number ofmaterial flaws. When themean size ofthe airborne matter fellbelow theflow 5 tim, resistance from thedust cake particulate and the increased required cleaning pulse intensity markedly. Anew and Surface uses a novel product byCeraNova Specific Corp. powder promethod totailor ceramic cross flow filter elements a [134]. cessing They employ 'three-dimensional functional ceramic are creprinting' process, whereby components ated from model structures which control a fabricating directly computer generated The within each buildunit which the monolith, 'prints' layer bylayer. composition can beselectively controlled thecomposition ofpowder and susplane byvarying fluid. An ink head isused tometer the materials. Inthis the pending jetprinting way microstructure can becontrolled influence ofcohesive and bytherelative capillary forces ofthematerials introduced toeach filters have layer. Functioning yettobe made inthis but monoliths have been inthe way, sample prepared laboratory. 3.RECENT PROCESSING INNOVATIONS In addition to improvements made onairpollution control there has equipment, been much recent attention toaddressing airborne emission removal given particulate and/or reduction from anintegrated Research and onproperspective. development cess modifications atproducing aimed a higher emission arediscussed quality gas below. 3.1. Hybrid systems The need forsimultaneous control ofparticulate matter and toxic or even gases, matter ofvariable size and character results intheuseofhybrid often, particulate These either a single unit ora process inwhich various systems. systems comprise matter collection methods areemployed inseries toobtain particulate significantly solids reduced emissions. For the ofthis treatise a hybrid will beconsidered tobea single purpose system unit which combines two ormore matter removal physical particulate technologies.

201 with inthe US combines electrostatic Atechnology precipitation developed byEPRI asthe Particulate Collector This isknown fabric filtration. Compact Hybrid system the either inseries oractually inside The follows ESP, [135]. (COHPAC) baghouse theairleaving a power flows first Ina COHPAC theESP plant housing. system, a baghouse. The initial ESP treatment anESP, then through significantly through some electric to theparticles reduces theconcentration andoften imparts charge more liable torepel each other as thebaghouse. The are charged particles entering isreduced and asthefabric filter sothat thelevel ofpore well material, clogging intheCOHPAC is increased. For these theface reasons, velocity cleanability bag Inturn, can befour toeight times than inconventional installations. higher baghouse Anumber allows a much smaller unit size the increased [136]. throughput physical scale tests oftheCOHPAC have been made. The ofpilot and commercial system emission were met but life concerns matter satisfactorily, bag requirements particulate tothecomparatively face velocities towhich the were raised, higher perhaps owing aresubjected [137]. bags been Aprocess and have Afew miscellaneous developed. hybrid-type technologies unit has been matter and acid fortreating patented gasinone apparatus particulate isfirst exhaust from orfuel-fired the Here, (i.e. [138, 139]. plants) gas sintering plants then after controlled moisture de-dusted inacyclone addition, passed carefully stage, matter collected ishumidified but where theparticulate toanESP essentially stage theacid industrial module it tobeseparated from thus gas.Asmall dry, allowing wet for which combines and has been scrubbing particulate developed centrifugation carbon the stream activated matter followed removal, sponge bypassing gas through fixation and/or The can include acid fordemisting [140]. demisting step gas bags odour removal. 3.2. Feed and control sampling process on-line control ofESPs makes them well suited for The electrical nature implementing have been for Some ofthese control strategies systems, principally power efficiency. for ofemissions tothe noted inSection 2.2. On-line regulatory monitoring atmosphere some for this have isa different matter and recently technologies purpose compliance been developed. fluoresAprototype ESP device was a total-reflection containing X-ray developed intended todetect elements and metals At cence [141]. (TXRF), heavy spectrometer 100% ofsubmicron matter iscolflow rates under 1.3 1/min, particulate essentially ofHAPs inthestream beaccurately monitored. lected and theconcentration may has been formeasuring VOC concenAnon-line airsampling developed apparatus Two initial filtration remove matter trations ingas streams [142]. stages particulate make size classes beindiameter, atwhich above 2.5 separators fLm point impaction matter can then beanalyzed 0.8and 0.32 low 1.5, 2.5, itm.The captured particulate foron-line measurement of foradsorbed VOCs. Some devices have been developed Aglass fibre filter hasbeen concentrations ingasstreams. incorporated particulate ofparticulates down to0.01 in into agravimetric device for continuous 1 >m sampling which characteristics can beexploited for size. The fibres have glass superior optical

202 other measurements and are available with this a analytical [143]. sampler Similarly has been aseries ofimpinging collectors which conceptual design patented featuring a gasstream concentration and size distribution Practical provide particulate [144]. have notyet been established. operating ranges The BHA have a line ofcontinuous devices a Group particulate monitoring using modulated LED which tomoving soitremains light signal responds only particulates, unaffected ofdust ormoisture The extent ofsignal modulation byaccumulation [145]. can becalibrated todust concentration inthegasstream. Aprimary intended use is in baghouse installations asa monitor forfilter orfailures. Another bagleaks useful device for installations isthe HansentekTM detector potentially baghouse spark and ofdiameters down to 0.4itmcanbedetected [146]. extinguisher Sparks by infrared sensors and anappropriate can betriggered toeliminate them. extinguisher Such a system would allow theintroduction offabric filters to control particulate emissions from wood-fired and boilers. Fabric filters have been slow to pulp paper use inthis sector due tothe risk offire from airborne micro-embers. gain widespread Process control have found amore limited inparticulate control systems application installations. The Harwell inEngland hasbeen anexpert Laboratory developing forthecontrol offabric filters The state oftheartin this area is [147]. system somewhat because theprimary the at variable, rudimentary operating pressure drop is notreadily on-line state, steady predictable. measurements, Using pressure drop theflow, and can beadjusted inreal and compressor pressure time, pulse periods results have shown inpower early upto20% savings consumption. 3.3. Feed stream conditioning Often the ofairfiltration units can beenhanced ifthe matter performance particulate inthefeed stream these units is given some treatment. Feed entering preliminary stream consist ofsuch treatments asinjecting additives tothe 'conditioning' may itorsubjecting ittoacoustic shock. The are to stream, irradiating objectives typically thesurface toimprove the matter collection modify properties particulate efficiency ortoagglomerate the matter tolarger, more removable entities. particulate readily Awell known isthe ofS03 into the exhaust streams conditioning approach injection from low-sulfur coal which isknown asflue-gas burning power plants, conditioning The oftheS03 reduces the ofthe inthese streams (FGC). presence resistivity flyash foreasier Areview ofrecent inthis advances area isprovided capture byESPs. by and Coe Some innovations include hot-side [148]. Krigmont injection, co-injection ofammonia and infront offabric filters where (dual-conditioning), dual-conditioning theresulting filter cake can besignificantly reduced. Apatented was drag process where and are ata ratio of2:1, inconcentrations of1to NH3 S03 designed injected 100 Fabric filter forcleaning from #8 [149]. p.p.m. pressure drops flyash Pittsburgh and Monticello coal were found tobetypically two tothree times lower, samples and the matter was also This result was followed particulate capture improved. upby tests inAustralia which showed where a highly cohesive filter cake results, opposite was The intheresults was attributed todifferences inthe [150]. reported disparity coal and fabric materials.

203 anumber ofdifferent sulfur and ammonia Tests have been conducted with containing cost ammonium forESP feeds. effectiveness, Regarding conditioning compounds inlow was found toperform best forlow sulfur coal sulfate [(NH4)2S041 dosages [151]. fiyash Inthis solid A related is known assorbent sorbent case, technology injection. are into such assilicates, calcium etc. a gas stream salts, limes, injected particulates review sixsuch commercial to adsorb from thegas.Arecent SOx propresents sorbent that Afollow onhigh-temperature cesses [152]. uparticle injection reports matter is increased and the theelectrical oftheparticulate substantially resistivity The oftheelectrostatic isdegraded resistivity precipitator accordingly. performance level bebrought back toanacceptable bytheuseofflue gashumidification may reactive sorbent do orconditioning with mixtures ofashand S03.Certain highly Various additives were viewed toS03 notappear torespond conditioning. catalytic asa potential means tomake sorbent a more viable high-temperature injection proincreased loads onparticulate matter collection cess Sorbent [153]. injection puts and also modifies theparticulate with humidified especially equipment properties, sorbent Recent research has focussed ondesigning sorbent which systems injection. oratleast donothinder theperformance ofthe matter benefit, particulate possibly removal The ADVACATE US EPA uses a spedeveloped bythe equipment. process calcium silicate sorbent which tobequite cohesive and enters appears cially prepared thesystem inanagglomerated state which aids the overall matter control particulate additional submicron material Babcock &Wilcox have de[154]. bynot introducing a sorbent towork infront ofbaghouses Itisknown [155]. designed veloped process isanadvanced airpollution asthe BoxTM and control (SNRB) SO,-NO,-Rox system that reduces sulfur oxide oxide and (NOx) (SOx), significantly nitrogen parprocess The uses a high-temperature ticulate emissions from coal-fired boilers [156]. process forintegrating reduction analkali sorbent SOx (such catalytic baghouse byinjecting orsodium removal ammonia ashydrated lime bicarbonate), NOx through injection and selective and collection. reduction, catalytic particulate ILEC Low Emissions a The Westinghouse (Integrated Cleanup) system represents use ofceramic filters isenvisioned for different tofeed The approach conditioning. indirect control attemperatures above 900C coal-fired turbine particulate applicawill beemitted that could form a difficult-totions. Some adhesive flyash particles toeither remove remove filter cake. The ILEC sorbent the process injects particles the barrier ormodify the adhesive adhesive before reach ceramic filters, particles they removable nature ofthe filter cake sothat itismore [157]. easily a recent review is available onhow the From a more fundamental perspective, and electrostatic used tocollect ash from offabric filters precipitators performance ofcoal onbulk oftheash, such ascohesivity or thecombustion depends properties ofrecent have been thesurface electrical Anumber cited; [158]. findings resistivity interms ofchemical sorbent offlyash was found tobeextremely species; complex can beadded toenhance surface forstreams treated materials charge properties by added alone orwith the ofash, ESPs; S03 NH3 cohesivity changes reducing rapping emissions from small sized sorbent have been found toact assteric ESPs; particulates inhibitors toreduce ofcoal ash cleaned ahumidified stream filters; byfabric cohesivity

204 infabric filters will exhibit a lower due tothehigher inthe pressure drop porosity dust which forms more ash AUSDOE cake, compact agglomerates. experimental isnow tofollow the mechanisms atwork in program underway uponcharacterizing flue [159]. gas conditioning Acoustic has been toenlarge thesize ofsubmiagglomeration recently employed cron material sothat can beremoved more Atpresent, some they readily byESP. hasshown results onmodel Some [160, 161]. laboratory testing improved systems theoretical that andturbulent mechaorthokinetic, analyses suggest hydrodynamic nisms contribute toanincrease ofparticle-particle collisions forsystems subjected toacoustical vibration Anumerical simulation was run tomodel bimodal [162, 163]. with acoustic with some toexperimental sorbent) (flyash agglomeration, comparison data The net effect ofthe collision mechanisms was estimated provided. contributing nomodelling ofthe adhesion between was bycurve-fitting; process particles provided[164]. The is aiming USDOE todevelop acoustic methods that agglomeration would allow the use ofconventional toachieve collecvery high particulate cyclones tion and eliminate the need for barrier which have been filters, efficiency problematic inview ofdurability and economics forproposed direct coal-fired turbines [165]. Apatent has been and initial isunderway [166] [167]. procured testing Yet another novel to beinvestigated is known astheelectron beam technology also envisioned forcoal removal. An electron beam isem[168], precharger flyash toionize molecules ina precharger a bipolar of ployed gas region, producing plasma ions and electrons ina continuous state offormation and recombination. When subtoa strong electric the isseparated into two fractions. field, jected plasma monopolar the fraction isused and isdrawn across theduct tocharge the dust to Only negative which facilitates itsremoval The electron beam levels, very high byESP. prechargerwas found toimprove the collection ofa conventional ESP. particulate efficiency has also been conducted tocompare instead ofdirect current Testing pulse charging which can bedone athigher where it should create a more stable charging, strength environment forfree electrons toprecharge particles. 3.4. Process toreduce emissions modifications Aspart ofanoverall to with environmental a preferred standards, strategycomply term solution is simply tomodify theprocess which emits theparticulates longer tolower emission levels. reduced load isplaced ontheparticulate removal Thus, Without ofexisting lower emission levels of equipment. augmentation equipment, matter can beattained. particulate For inthe ithas been demonstrated that example, steelmaking industry, byreducing thequantity oflime added to thefurnace intheoxygen the early blowing cycle, becomes more viscous and emissions resulting slag foamy, reducing particulate by [180]. upto59% The chrome atoxic hexavalent chromium emission. electroplating process produces infour conditions were with the ofreducing Changes process implemented objective emissions from These included the freeboard the ofthe electro[181]. process height elimination ofcompressed airfor bath the offloating balls use bath, plating agitation,

205 additive. Infour test facilities onthe tank surface and ananti-mist bath different using inchromium their common matter control reductions existing particulate equipment, emissions of85-95% were allmeeting thequantitative observed, industry objective of0.006 mg/Ah. there arenotmany ofsuch inthe atthis time, examples processes Unfortunately inthe future. but use ofemission reduction isexpected toincrease literature, strategies 3.5. airborne matter control considerations Sector-specific particulate Asubject isthe treatment ofemissions from considerable attention receiving recently incinerated have incineration sites. and industrial wastes Medical, municipal being been to increasingly dueto thepotentially toxic content subject tight regulations oftheemissions. The wet ESP described in Section hasbeen (also 2.2) system found tobeaneffective means forreducing and toxic emissions from particulate incinerators under theproposed Part 503 USEPA 1989) sewage sludge (February Part would limit 503 arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, [169]. regulations beryllium, emissions tomaximum concentrations of and nickel contents ofparticulate mercury The has 135.5 and 72.6 USEPA 6.3, 42.3, 1.8, 233.9, 125.1, mg/kg, respectively. of that more than 50% ofthe incinerators will beout projected existing sewage sludge with these Pilot with a post-scrubber feed compliance proposed regulations. testing ofparticulate matter which was 50% below 0.6 was able toincrease consisting ftm, theoverall matter removal from 98.3 to99.88%. particulate efficiency Equipment and cost considerations are discussed forclean airactcompliance forwaste options incinerators Astudy ofthe the nature and ofincinerator [170]. composition generated matter asrelated tofuel was done and Borchardt [171]. particulate type byHackfort Ashort review isavailable matter inthe minerwhich discusses treatment particulate alprocessing industries Four main sources ofpollution are considered: [172]. mining and scale combustion Attenand site treatment, smelting, recycling large processes. tion isgiven toprocess modifications which reduce matter emissions or particulate more amenable toparticulate matter removal. Apaper devoted produce gasstreams torecent iniron oresintering discusses environmental includaspects developments control are noted aswell Pertinent ESP and [173]. ing particulate scrubbing systems assome Steel and which have been toproduce processes byBritish Lurgi updated lower matter emission levels. The USDOE conducted a study particulate providofparticulate matter control forhotgassteams from inganoverview technologies coal-fired installations The control device issues addressed [174]. major particulate the utilization included ofthe control devices into coal integration particulate systems, on-line chemical and thermal ofcomponents, cleaning techniques, degradation fatigue orstructural collection asa function ofparticle and failures, size, blinding, efficiency ofparticulate control tocommercial size. scale-up systems Particulate control is also anissue in thepulp and sector. Powers al. et paper conducted a survey ofapplicable formagnesium orammonium sulfite technologies furnaces inpulp mills Wet are recommended inthis case as [175]. recovery systems simultaneous removal isalso desired. mills have a waste water S02 Normally, pulp treatment sotransfer ofairborne contaminants toanaqueous stream does not system,

206 anadditional environmental concern. Successful tested ona pilot scale pose systems were wet ESPs from Fluid-Ionics and and Monsanto's Scrubber. Beltran, Dynawave A similar istaken intheparticleboard Fine approach industry. particulate cleaning hasbeen successful with wet ESPs fortreating thegasstream from a sander dust fired drum [176]. dryer With environmental ofheavy metal emissions is tightening regulations, recovery amore crucial issue. Ofthe189 HAPs under the new Clean Air becoming regulated 11are metals and most are asPM10. The ofvarious Act, heavy captured viability and for metal isdiscussed existing emerging technology particulate heavy capture by Nudo Ageneral overview onthescrubbing ofinorganic toxics is given [177]. by McInnes etal.[178]. Wet orabsorption are the most common scrubbing particulate matter removal methods for nonmetallic while ESPs and are the inorganics, baghouses effective means ofcontrolling metals. Aspecial venturi scrubber at primary operated a larger when tostandard venturi was to scrubbers, pressure drop compared designed remove metals from waste incinerator streams down toUS EPA heavy gas guideline levels The increased costs ofthis hinder itswidespread [179]. operating system may acceptance. 4.SUMMARY Ingeneral, ofthe conventional units used forairborne conmany process particulate trolareconsidered toemploy effective mature The choice ofspecific technology. units and theway are inserted into anengineering onthe source they design depend oftheairborne and thefinal emission Asurvey ofrecent particulates requirements. relevant scientific and literature onthissubject hasrevealed that most engineering oftheresearch and inthis area isincremental, and is often undertakdevelopment entoachieve site toreach with emissions specific objectives compliance tightening i.e. airpollution control units are installed asadd-ons and some regulations, typically research bedone tofine tune the unit tofunction foreach may properly specific gas stream inquestion. Most ofnew describe enhanced versions of reports technologies conventional which are sometimes mechanisms units, improved bycombining capture that are inisolation electrification offabric normally exploited (i.e. filters). The US Clean Air Act Amendments of1990 did not specifically update regulations for all but there isgrowing that stricter is emissions, particulate expectation legislation inthis area Asstated emission [182]. forthcoming previously, particulate compliance at present does notpose a serious However, technological challenge. particulate emissions areoften concentrated inthe0.1-2.0 diameter since Am range, existing units arecollectively least efficient inremoving solids ofthis size from process gas streams. thelistof 189 AirPollutants Hazardous forcontrol in Further, targeted the USClean Air Act Amendments contains metals and many heavy heavy organics which exist assubmicron matter Health related studies recommend [183]. particulate ofsub-2.5 since material inthis size class isrespirable and cleaning Am particulates, contributes tohuman illness. The EPA US has anAirand Research which also Energy Engineering Laboratory monitors trends and inairpollution control. cite developments They development

207 inthe area where variations ofcombinations and design occurring process sequences ofparticulate control units can some desired benefit of [1].The produce concept fornew and isincreasingly installations where, process design integration important forexample, novel heat-resistant filter materials beused forparticulate removal may sothat the heat atelevated bemore retained. temperatures energy may efficiently with are methods toreduce theat-source ofparemission process design Coupled ticulates sothat their areminimized. For post-processing requirements regulations emissions asmass ofenergy which allow fossil fuel based (i.e. perunit generated ofthefuel source tocombustion become instations), upgrading prior may power Scrubbers and where and creasingly necessary. agglomerating systems particulates toxics are removed are also under consideration. simultaneously gaseous inairborne One area where new advances are made control techbeing particulate is that offilter materials. ofthefabrics used inbaghouses are now Many nologies available with thermal and chemical service lifeand finer resistance, higher longer diameter control. ceramic tubular and candleCross-flow, particle pulsed-jet, rigid filters are also and show results. ofthese filter type employed promising Many types offer the ofbeing and cleaned. Ceramic cross-flow advantage readily easily particulate have been shown toperform atlevels EPA 1994 standards. traps meeting For theproblematic submicron much attention hasbeen devoted toagparticles, ofthese toform treatable units. Modilarger glomeration particles conventionally fications towet have been made with a pre-treatment where the scrubbing step gas stream was toa condensing steam which induced subjected injector particle agglomeration Similar are studied forstreams sent toESPs [81]. [184]. being pre-treatments Other new directions inparticulate control relate tothesources the generating polisa relatively lution. waste incineration recent and Municipal process poses difficulty tothevariability inthefeedstock. scrubbers and owing Special catalytic process combinations have been studied for from waste incineration. design particulates From thepresent scientific and technical thefollowing trends can be perspective, identified asemerging inthe ofadvanced fine control technolodevelopment particle gies. simulation and control forimproved (1)Process modelling, performance. As a result o r related to a re tointegrate several techof, closely (2) (1), opportunities models which between the nologies through process identify synergy techniques. which move sub-3 into the more (3)Size fLm enlargement techniques particles larger treatable range. modules and materials tohigh situations and/or (4)Filtration applicable temperature which are cleanable and anti-fouling. Acknowledgements The literature used inpreparing this review was commissioned survey byDrK.Ramachadran ofEnvironment Canada fortheir Advancement for Technology Program Advanced Fine Particle under DSS contract no. K2610-4-2050. Removal,

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