Flow through a Converging Nozzle Consider a converging nozzle connected to a reservoir where stagnation conditions prevail,p = p0, T = T0 , u = 0.

By definition reservoirs are such that no matter how much the fluid flows out of them, the conditions in them do not change. In other words, pressure, temperature, density etc. remain the same always. Pressure level pb at the exit of the nozzle is referred to as the Back Pressure and it is this pressure that determines the flow in the nozzle. Let us now study how the flow responds to changes in Back Pressure. When the Back Pressure, pb is equal to the reservoir pressure,p0, there is no flow in the nozzle. This is condition (1) in Fig.3.1. Let us reduce pb slightly to p2(condition (2) in the Figure). Now a flow is induced in the nozzle. For relatively high values of pb , the flow is subsonic throughout. A further reduction in Back Pressure results in still a subsonic flow ,but of a higher Mach Number at the exit (condition (3)). Note that the mass flow rate increases. As pbis reduced we have an increased Mach Number at the exit along with an increased mass flow rate. How long can this go on? At a particular Back Pressure value the flow reaches sonic conditions (4). This value of Back pressure follows from Eqn.1.47 (See Sonic Point as Reference) . For air it is given by

(3.1)

What happens when the Back Pressure is further reduced (5,6 etc.) is interesting. Now the Mach Number at the exit tries to increase. It demands an increased mass flow from the reservoir. But as the condition at the exit is sonic, signals do not propagate upstream. The Reservoir is unaware of the conditions downstream and it does not send any more mass flow. Consequently the flow pattern remains unchanged in the nozzle. Any adjustment to the Back Pressure takes place outside of the nozzle. The nozzle is now said to be choked. The mass flow rate through the nozzle has reached its maximum possible value, choked value. From the Fig. 3.1 we see that there is an increase in mass flow rate only till choking condition (4) is reached. Thereafter mass flow rate remains constant.

Figure 3.1: Flow through a Converging Nozzle It is to be noted that for a non-choked flow, the Back Pressure and the pressure at the exit plane are equal. No special adjustment is necessary on the part of the flow. But when the nozzle is choked the two are different. The flow need to adjust. Usually this take place by means of expansion waves which help to reduce the pressure further. Flow through a Converging-diverging nozzle A converging-diverging nozzle is an important tool in aerodynamics. Also called a de Laval nozzle, it is an essential element of a supersonic wind tunnel. In this application the nozzle draws air from a reservoir which is at atmospheric conditions or contains compressed air. Back pressure at the end of the diverging section is such that air reaches sonic conditions at throat. This flow is then led through the diverging section. As we have seen before the flow Mach Number increases in this section. Area ratio and the back pressure are such that required Mach Number is obtained at the end of the diverging section, where the test section is located. Different area ratios give different Mach Numbers. We study here the effect of Back Pressure on the flow through a given convergingdiverging nozzle. The flow is somewhat more complicated than that for a converging nozzle. Flow configurations for various back pressures and the corresponding pressure

and Mach Number distributions are given in Fig. 3.2. Let us discuss now the events for various back pressures, a,b,c,.... (a) Back Pressure is equal to the reservoir pressure, pb= p0. There is no flow through the nozzle. (b) Back Pressure slightly reduced,pb< p0 . A flow is initiated in the nozzle, but the condition at throat is still subsonic. The flow is subsonic and isentropic through out. (c) The Back Pressure is reduced sufficiently to make the flow reach sonic conditions at the throat,pb = pc . The flow in the diverging section is still subsonic as the back pressure is still high. The nozzle has reached choking conditions. As the Back Pressure is further reduced, flow in the converging section remains unchanged. We now change the order deliberately to facilitate an easy understanding of the figure 3.2. (i) We can now think of a back Pressure, pb = pi , which is small enough to render the flow in the diverging section supersonic. For this Back Pressure, the flow is everywhere isentropic and shock-free. (d) When the Back Pressure is pd , the flow follows the supersonic path. But the Back Pressure is higher than pi . Consequently, the flow meets the Back Pressure through a shock in the diverging section. The location and strength of the shock depends upon the Back Pressure. Decreasing the Back Pressure moves the shock downstream.

Figure 3.2: Pressure and Mach Number Distribution for the Flow through a ConvergingDiverging Nozzle. (e) One can think of a Back Pressure pf, when the shock formed is found at the exit plane. pf / p0 is the smallest pressure ratio required for the operation of this nozzle. (f) A further reduction in Back Pressure results in the shocks being formed outside of the nozzle. These are not Normal Shocks. They are Oblique Shocks. Implication is that the flow has reduced the pressure to low values. Additional shocks are required to compress the flow further. Such a nozzle is termed Overexpanded. (g) The other interesting situation is where the Back Pressure is less than pi . Even now the flow adjustment takes place outside of the nozzle, not through shocks, but through Expansion Waves. Here the implication is that the flow could not expand to reach the back Pressure. It required further expansion to finish the job. Such a nozzle is termed Underexpanded.