random samplimg,systematic sampling, cluster sampling, stratified sampling ) Simple Random Sampling This is the ideal choice as it is a 'perfect'

random method. Using this method, individuals are randomly selected from a list of the population and every single individual has an equal chance of selection. This method is ideal, but if it cannot be adopted, one of the following alternatives may be chosen if any shortfall in accuracy. 2) Systematic Sampling Systematic sampling is a frequently used variant of simple random sampling. When performing systematic sampling, every kth element from the list is selected (this is referred to as the sample interval) from a randomly selected starting point. For example, if we have a listed population of 6000 members and wish to draw a sample of 2000, we would select every 30th (6000 divided by 200) person from the list. In practice, we would randomly select a number between 1 and 30 to act as our starting point.

The one potential problem with this method of sampling concerns the arrangement of elements in the list.? If the list is arranged in any kind of order e.g. if every 30th house is smaller than the others from which the sample is being recruited, there is a possibility that the sample produced could be seriously biased.

3) Stratified Sampling Stratified sampling is a variant on simple random and systematic methods and is used when there are a number of distinct subgroups, within each of which it is required that there is full representation. A stratified sample is constructed by classifying the population in subpopulations (or strata), base on some well-known characteristics of the population, such as age, gender or socio-economic status. The selection of elements is then made separately from within each strata, usually by random or systematic sampling methods. Stratified sampling methods also come in two types - proportionate and disproportionate. In proportionate sampling, the strata sample sizes are made proportional to the strata population sizes.For example if the first strata is made up of males, then as there are around 50% of males in the UK population, the male strata will need to represent around 50% of the total sample.

In disproportionate methods, the strata are not sampled according to the population sizes, but higher proportions are selected from some groups and not others. This technique is typically used in a number of distinct situations:

The costs of collecting data may differ from subgroup to subgroup. We might require more cases in some groups if estimations of populations values are likely to be harder to make i.e. the larger the sample size (up to certain limits), the more accurate any estimations are likely to be. We expect different response rates from different groups of people. Therefore, the less cooperative groups might be 'over-sampled' to compensate. 4) Cluster or Multi-stage Sampling Cluster sampling is a frequently-used, and usually more practical, random sampling method. It is particularly useful in situations for which no list of the elements within a population is available and therefore cannot be selected directly. As this form of sampling is conducted by randomly selecting subgroups of the population, possibly in several stages, it should produce results equivalent to a simple random sample.

The sample is generally done by first sampling at the higher level(s) e.g. randomly sampled countries, then sampling from subsequent levels in turn e.g. within the selected countries sample counties, then within these postcodes, the within these households, until the final stage is reached, at which point the sampling is done in a simple random manner e.g. sampling people within the selected households. The 'levels' in question are defined by subgroups into which it is appropriate to subdivide your population.

Parameters and Statistics The word 'Parameters ' is associated with the population and it is understood as the measure of the characteristics of the population, such as mean and standard deviation etc. The word 'Statistics ' is used for a random sample and it is understood as the measure of the characteristics of the random sample, such as mean and standard deviation etc. Note : Different symbols are used to denote parameters and statistics.

Inferential or inductive statistics helps us in making an educated guess about the population parameters based on the statistics of its random sample. Random sampling is one of the most popular types of random or probability sampling.

Sampling

1What is Sampling? 2Basic Concepts o 2.1Sample Group o 2.2Research Population o 2.3Sample Size o 2.4Randomization 3Sampling o 3.1Statistical Sampling o 3.2Sampling Distribution o 3.3Sampling Error 3.3.1Random Sampling Error 4Probability Sampling o 4.1Random Sampling o 4.2Stratified Sampling o 4.3Systematic Sampling o 4.4Cluster Sampling o 4.5Disproportional Sampling 5Non-Probability Sampling o 5.1Convenience Sampling o 5.2Sequential Sampling o 5.3Quota Sampling o 5.4Judgmental Sampling o 5.5Snowball Sampling

Your email address: * This article is a part of the course "Sampling". Enter your email to take the full course. In this technique, each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected as subject. The entire process of sampling is done in a single step with each subject selected independently of the other members of the population. There are many methods to proceed with simple random sampling. The most primitive and mechanical would be the lottery method. Each member of the population is assigned a unique number. Each number is placed in a bowl or a hat and mixed thoroughly. The blind-folded researcher then picks numbered tags from the hat. All the individuals bearing the numbers picked by the researcher are the subjects for the study. Another way would be to let a computer do a random selection from your population. For populations with a small number of members, it is

advisable to use the first method but if the population has many members, a computer-aided random selection is preferred.

Advantages of Simple Random Sampling

One of the best things about simple random sampling is the ease of assembling the sample. It is also considered as a fair way of selecting a sample from a given population since every member is given equal opportunities of being selected. Another key feature of simple random sampling is its representativeness of the population. Theoretically, the only thing that can compromise its representativeness is luck. If the sample is not representative of the population, the random variation is called sampling error. An unbiased random selection and a representative sample is important in drawing conclusions from the results of a study. Remember that one of the goals of research is to be able to make conclusions pertaining to the population from the results obtained from a sample. Due to the representativeness of a sample obtained by simple random sampling, it is reasonable to make generalizations from the results of the sample back to the population.

Disadvantages of Simple Random Sampling

One of the most obvious limitations of simple random sampling method is its need of a complete list of all the members of the population. Please keep in mind that the list of the population must be complete and up-to-date. This list is usually not available for large populations. In cases as such, it is wiser to use other sampling techniques.

Read more: Random Sampling

Sampling techniques
What is sampling?
A shortcut method for investigating a whole population Data is gathered on a small part of the whole parent population or sampling frame, and used to inform what the whole picture is like

Why sample?
In reality there is simply not enough; time, energy, money, labour/man power, equipment, access to suitable sites to measure every single item or site within the parent population or whole sampling frame. Therefore an appropriate sampling strategy is adopted to obtain a representative, and statistically valid sample of the whole.

Sampling considerations
Larger sample sizes are more accurate representations of the whole The sample size chosen is a balance between obtaining a statistically valid representation, and the time, energy, money, labour, equipment and access available A sampling strategy made with the minimum of bias is the most statistically valid Most approaches assume that the parent population has a normal distribution where most items or individuals clustered close to the mean, with few extremes A 95% probability or confidence level is usually assumed, for example 95% of items or individuals will be within plus or minus two standard deviations from the mean This also means that up to five per cent may lie outside of this - sampling, no matter how good can only ever be claimed to be a very close estimate

Sampling techniques
Three main types of sampling strategy: Random Systematic Stratified

Within these types, you may then decide on a; point, line, area method.

Random sampling
Least biased of all sampling techniques, there is no subjectivity - each member of the total population has an equal chance of being selected Can be obtained using random number tables Microsoft Excel has a function to produce random number

The function is simply: =RAND()

Type that into a cell and it will produce a random number in that cell. Copy the formula throughout a selection of cells and it will produce random numbers. You can modify the formula to obtain whatever range you wish, for example if you wanted random numbers from one to 250, you could enter the following formula: =INT(250*RAND())+ 1

Where INT eliminates the digits after the decimal, 250* creates the range to be covered, and +1 sets the lowest number in the range. Paired numbers could also be obtained using; =INT(9000*RA ND())+1000

These can then be used as grid coordinates, metre and centimetre sampling stations along a transect, or in any feasible way.

Methodology
A. Random point sampling
A grid is drawn over a map of the study area Random number tables are used to obtain coordinates/grid references for the points Sampling takes place as feasibly close to these points as possible

B. Random line sampling

Pairs of coordinates or grid references are obtained using random number tables, and marked on a map of the study area These are joined to form lines to be sampled

C. Random area sampling

Random number tables generate coordinates or grid references which are used to mark the bottom left (south west) corner of quadrats or grid squares to be sampled

Figure one: A random number grid showing methods of generating random numbers, lines and areas.

Advantages and disadvantages of random sampling

Advantages: Can be used with large sample populations

Avoids bias

Disadvantages: Can lead to poor representation of the overall parent population or area if large areas are not hit by the random numbers generated. This is made worse if the study area is very large There may be practical constraints in terms of time available and access to certain part s of the study area

Systematic sampling
Samples are chosen in a systematic, or regular way. They are evenly/regularly distributed in a spatial context, for example every two metres along a transect line They can be at equal/regular intervals in a temporal context, for example every half hour or at set times of the day They can be regularly numbered, for example every 10th house or person

Methodology
A. Systematic point sampling A grid can be used and the points can be at the intersections of the grid lines (A), or in the middle of each grid square (B). Sampling is done at the nearest feasible place. Along a transect line, sampling points for vegetation/pebble data collection could be identified systematically, for example every two metres or every 10th pebble B. Systematic line sampling The eastings or northings of the grid on a map can be used to identify transect lines (C and D) Alternatively, along a beach it could be decided that a transect up the beach will be conducted every 20 metres along the length of the beach C. Systematic area sampling A pattern' of grid squares to be sampled can be identified using a map of the study area, for example every second/third grid square down or across the area (E) - the south west corner will then mark the corner of a quadrat. Patterns can be any shape or direction as long as they are regular (F)

Figure two: Systemic sampling grid showing methods of generating systemic points, lines and areas.

Advantages and disadvantages of systematic sampling

Advantages: It is more straight-forward than random sampling A grid doesn't necessarily have to be used, sampling just has to be at uniform intervals A good coverage of the study area can be more easily achieved than using random sampling

Disadvantages: It is more biased, as not all members or points have an equal chance of being selected It may therefore lead to over or under representation of a particular pattern

Stratified sampling
This method is used when the parent population or sampling frame is made up of sub-sets of known size. These sub-sets make up different proportions of the total, and therefore sampling should be stratified to ensure that results are proportional and representative of the whole.

A. Stratified systematic sampling

The population can be divided into known groups, and each group sampled using a systematic approach. The number sampled in each group should be in proportion to its known size in the parent population. For example: the make-up of different social groups in the population of a town can be obtained, and then the number of questionnaires carried out in different parts of the town can be stratified in line with this information. A systematic approach can still be used by asking every fifth person.

B. Stratified random sampling

A wide range of data and fieldwork situations can lend themselves to this approach - wherever there are two study areas being compared, for example two woodlands, river catchments, rock types or a population with sub-sets of known size, for example woodland with distinctly different habitats. Random point, line or area techniques can be used as long as the number of measurements taken is in proportion to the size of the whole. For example: if an area of woodland was the study site, there would likely be different types of habitat (sub-sets) within it. Random sampling may altogether miss' one or more of these. Stratified sampling would take into account the proportional area of each habitat type within the woodland and then each could be sampled accordingly; if 20 samples were to be taken in the woodland as a whole, and it was found that a shrubby clearing accounted for 10% of the total area, two samples would need to be taken within the clearing. The sample points could still be identified randomly (A) or systematically (B) within each separate area of woodland.

Figure three: A diagram highlighting the benefits of using stratified random sampling and stratified systemic sampling within certain fieldwork sites.

Advantages and disadvantages of stratified sampling

Advantages: It can be used with random or systematic sampling, and with point, line or area techniques If the proportions of the sub-sets are known, it can generate results which are more representative of the whole population It is very flexible and applicable to many geographical enquiries Correlations and comparisons can be made between sub-sets

Disadvantages: The proportions of the sub-sets must be known and accurate if it is to work properly It can be hard to stratify questionnaire data collection, accurate up to date population data may not be available and it may be hard to identify people's age or social background effectively