Mechanical Narendra

CHAPTER 10
ADVANCED KINEMATICS OF THE PLANE MOTION
This chapter deals with a number of concepts of kinematics which,
though quite fundamental and of considerable usefulness in mechanism
design, are usually omitted from undergraduate curricula.
10-1. The Inflection Circle; Euler-Savary Equation
As shown in Chaps. 4 and 6, radii of curvature of the paths of moving
points are of great importance in kinematic analysis of mechanisms.
They are of equal significance in synthesis. The only method discussed
thus far of determining the path curvature is based on the knowledge of
the velocity and acceleration of the point concerned: p = v2/an or
p = v3/(vxay vyaz). Clearly, as far as mechanisms are concerned, this
is a roundabout procedure, because here, as in any constrained motion,
the points describe paths which are a geometrical property of the system,
and thus independent of the actual velocities and accelerations. The
inflection circle, dealt with in this section, offers a direct, purely geo-
metrical solution of the problem.
Figure 10-1 shows the fixed and moving polodes, TT/ and wm, which
characterize the displacement of the plane m; Of and Om are the centers of
curvature of the polodes at their point of contactthe instant velocity
pole Pfmdenoted here by P; pn is the pole normal, which originates at
P and points away from 517 (see also Fig. 3-22); pt is the pole tangent, the
positive sense of which is obtained by turning pn through 90 in the posi-
tive, i.e., counterclockwise, sense.
S is an arbitrary point on m, defined by the ray angle 08, measured
counterclockwise from pn, and the distance PS. In the following, dis-
tances on a ray will be treated as directed line elements, i.e., taken as
positive or negative, the positive sense being from P to the moving point.
Hence fs P > S is always positive. (The overbar will be used to
indicate that the particular quantity is directed.) The positive sense
along a line perpendicular to a given ray is obtained by turning the posi-
tive ray through 90 counterclockwise. 0s is the instantaneous center
of curvature of the path of S.
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218
KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS OF PLANE MECHANISMS
Because of an infinitesimal rotation d<pm of the plane m (about P), Om
moves to O'm, S moves to S', and the point of contact of the polodes moves
to the new position P'. P' is thus the position of the instant velocity
pole after the time interval dr. The elemental displacement P > P' is
denoted by dl.
Rays
P-S=rs ; 0S-S= ps
ts = Kvolute of the path of S
(a)
FIG. 10-1
The following relations may now be established:
and (Os > P) da = dl cos 6,
Elimination of da from Eqs. (a) and (b) leads to
cos 6, =
dlfm
dl
(a)
(c)
Since d<pm is the rotation of the plane, and dl the consequent shift of the
velocity pole, dtpm/dl is the same for all points on m and is always positive.
219
With the substitution
dl
where d,- has the dimension of a length, Eq. (c) becomes
(d)
or
and
(1
I r\ j
cos 6, = -T-
cos 08 = -T
_1
Cos , ~ di
(10-1)
Usually, the only directly available, or easily obtainable, details of the
motion of a plane are the position of the velocity pole and the angular
velocity. The direction of the pole normal, specified by the angle 0,
Rays
Qf
FIG. 10-2
from a given ray, and the length rf, are not known. The objective of the
following investigation is the determination of these two quantities, to
permit the general evaluation of Eq. (10-1).
The Inflection Circle. Equation (10-1) shows that points such as Si,
82, etc., on a given ray describe paths which differ in shape in the vicinity
of the position under observation. It is therefore reasonable to assume
that there exists on the ray a point I, which passes, at the given instant,
through an inflection of its path. For such a point, the radius of curva-
ture of the path and the distance Oi. > P are both infinite. Equation
(10-1), applied to / reduces, therefore, to
and
cos 6, = -j
di
> /.
i cos 6,
(10-2)
220
which shows that on any given ray there really exists one, and only one,
inflection point and that the locus of all inflection points in a given
position of the moving plane m is a circle of diameter df, centered on pn
and passing through P. This circle is known as the inflection circle.
Figure 10-2 shows the inflection circle for the kinematic system of
Fig. 10-1.
The following alternative derivation of Eq. (10-2) is interesting.
By Eq. (3-17),
However,
and by Eq. (3-15),
ap, = a>m2c?,ip.
From Fig. 10-3, (as)n = aP,(cos 0,)i, + (aspjn
= ,2d,.(cos 0.)i. - (P -
Rays
apm Pn
FIG. 10-3
For the inflection point I,, p/, = o and (a/.)n = 0, so that
0 = um2di(cos 0,)i, - (P -> /.)wm2
and (P -> I,) = cWcos 08)i.
(10-2)
The unit vector i, may be omitted because di is in effect a directed length.
The result obtained shows that d,-, as defined by Eq. (3-15), is identical
with di = dl/dtfm. A more direct proof of this fact is given below.
Euler-Savary Equation. The first form of the Euler-Savary equation
is obtained by combining Eqs. (10-1) and (10-2), thus:
I.
(10-3)
To make this equation more amenable to graphic treatment, it is trans-
formed as follows.
221
From Fig. 10-2,
and
Hence
Os
(O&
P = (Oa-*S) - (P
I, = (p _> S) - (I, -
.-*+- l
S)
and
S)(I,-
S (P-
') = (P -
8)-
(10-4)
which is the second form of the Euler-Savary equation. Since (P > <S)2
is always positive, Os> S and I,*S must both be either positive or
negative, which means that 0s and / are always on the same side of S.
ToOD
Eaye
'Ray h
FIG. 10-4
For points S inside the inflection circle, I8*S is negative and, con-
sequently, the center of curvature of the path is beyond S, relative to P.
Hence such points describe paths which are convex when viewed from P,
while the paths of points outside the inflection circle are concave. For
points S on the pole tangent, I, and Os coincide with P. These kinematic
peculiarities are clearly illustrated in Fig. 10-4.
If the position of the inflection point on a given ray is known, then the
location of the center of curvature of the path of any point on the ray may
be determined either by computation, by the use of the Euler-Savary
equation, or graphically, by means of the following construction, shown
in Fig. 10-5a. Through S draw an arbitrary auxiliary line, and select
222
on it at random a point Y. Connect I, with Y (line |), and Y with P
(line ||). Through P draw a line parallel to line |, intersecting the auxil-
iary line at Z. Through Z draw a line parallel to line ||, and obtain Os at
the intersection of this line with the ray s.
I.
Oa
FIG. 10-5
The correctness of the construction is proved by considering two sets
of similar triangles.
From the similarity of the triangles SI,Y and SPZ,
I.>8 Y->S
and from the similarity of the triangles SOSZ and SPY,
OS>S Z>S
Hence
Figure 10-56 shows the same construction for a different relative dis-
position of the points P, S, and /,.
10-2. Analytical and Graphical Determination of d,-
A moving point S and the center of curvature 0s of its path form a
conjugate pair of points.
Equation (10-1) shows that di and the direction of pn can be determined
if (a) one pair of conjugate points and the corresponding ray angle are
given, or (6) two pairs of conjugate points, on different rays, are specified.
Case a. The most usual example of this case is illustrated in Fig. 10-6.
Given are the conjugate points Om and Of for which the ray angle is zero.
(Of is the center of curvature of the path of Om. See Sec. 3-13.)
223
Analytical Solution. By Eq. (10-1), . .. .
1,1 1
Of
and
With Of > P = pi and P > Om = /5m, this relation becomes
or
(10-5)
(10-5o)
where the plus applies if the two polodes are convex, and the minus if one
polode is convex and the other concave. The result is thus identical with
di, denned by Eq. (3-15).
Graphical Solution. The graphical solution, shown in Fig. 10-6,
consists in performing the construction of Fig. 10-5 in reverse order.
FIG. 10-6
Case b. Specified are two pairs of conjugate points, Q and OQ on ray q
and S and Os on ray s. The given included ray angle 6q, = 0, 08
(Fig. 10-17).
Analytical Solution. By Eq. (10-1),
cos
or
cos q =
cos '8
The above equation is solved for 0,, and d,- is then found by Eq. (10-1),
applied to Q.
Graphical Solution. The problem may be solved graphically by
determining separately the inflection points /, and I,, using the con-
struction of Fig. 10-5 in reverse order, and then erecting normals through
these points to the respective rays. The two normals intersect at /, the
224 KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS OF PLANE MECHANISMS
terminal point of di. Alternatively, the problem may be solved by
Bobillier's construction, described next.
10-3. Bobillier's Construction; Collineation Axis
Bobillier's construction differs from the reverse construction of Fig. 10-5
only in that the auxiliary line and point Z are no longer arbitrary. Here
the auxiliary line coincides with the line through the moving points Q and
S, and point Z is located at the intersection of QS with OQ()S. Because of
this particular combination of line and point, the two inflection points Iq
and /, are obtained simultaneously.
Figure 10-7 shows the application of Bobillier's method to the con-
struction of the inflection circle for the coupler 3 of a four-bar mechanism
'Raya ' Pole normal,,. Construction. (QB oA)-Z-P18-Y-(/t,
FIG. 10-7
(P = Pis). It can be seen that Z coincides with the instantaneous
relative-velocity pole P24 of the driving and driven links.
Collineation Axis. The line PZ in Bobillier's construction is known as
the collineation axis of the rays q and s. Thus, in a four-bar mechanism,
the line connecting the relative instant centers Pis and P24 of the physi-
cally separate links is the collineation axis of driving and driven links; it is
also referred to as the collineation axis of the mechanism.
Bobillier's Theorem. This theorem states that the angle between the
pole tangent and one ray is equal to the angle between the other ray and
the collineation axis of the two rays, both angles being measured in the
same sense. The usefulness of the theorem in analysis and synthesis will
be demonstrated later in this chapter.
The correctness of the theorem may be verified with the aid of Fig. 10-7.
= < /6/0Pis property of circle
and < IbIP13 = Z0PisP:*
ADVANCED KINEMATICS OF THE PLANE MOTION 225
because lines hi* and PuPu are parallel. Similarly,
10-4. Hartmann's Construction
Hartmann's method of determining the inflection circle is somewhat
indirect, in that it is based on the displacement velocity of the instant
center. It is applicable without difficulty in the most complex situations.
From Sec. 10-1, Eq. (d),
, _ dl _ dl dr
d<p dr dtp
or di = (10-6)
wm
In Eq. (10-6), wm is the angular speed of the plane m, and vp the speed
with which the instant center of rotation changes its position along the
fixed polode or along the instantaneous pole tangent. Vp is therefore
called the displacement velocity of the instant center. As shown pre-
viously, di is directed along the positive pole normal. Consequently, the
direction of Vp along the pole tangent is obtained by turning di about P
through 90 in the sense of com. Conversely, with VP known, the direction
of di, and thus of the pole normal, is obtained by rotating VP through 90
against the sense of om.
In applying Hartmann's method, an arbitrarily assumed value is
assigned to the angular velocity wm, and the corresponding displace-
ment velocity of the instant center is determined graphically, with the
aid of an auxiliary linkage. In general, the absolute instant center P
of the plane whose inflection circle is to be determined is defined by the
intersection of two moving rays. The auxiliary linkage consists, there-
fore, of links which are pivoted to the frame at appropriate points, and
rotate with the rays, and of blocks which are free to slide along these links,
in appropriate directions, but are pin-connected together at P. Thus
the velocity of the pin connection P, in the auxiliary linkage, is identical
with the required pole-displacement velocity.
In the following examples, the auxiliary linkages have been drawn
separately, to facilitate the explanations. In practice, however, the
constructions are carried out on the original plan, a procedure which
saves time and enhances accuracy.
Illustrative Example 1. Construct the inflection circle for a moving
plane if the velocity pole, one pair of conjugate points (S and 0s), and
the direction of the pole normal are specified.
Solution. The original system is shown in Fig. 10-8o, and the auxiliary
linkage in Fig. 10-86. The latter consists of the bar s, pivoted to the
226
frame at O and two blocks q and r, pin-connected together at P, with
q guided along the pole tangent pt and r free to slide along s. The point
on s, coincident with P, is denoted by X,.
The velocity of the "pin" P, corresponding to the arbitrarily assumed
angular velocity u. = rad/sec, ccw, is the required pole-displacement
VOm = Um(POm)
Fig. 10-8
velocity. The input velocity of the linkage is vs = um X (P > S).
The velocity of X, is found by proportion, and the velocity of P follows
from
Vp = Vx. + VPX,
227
Figure 10-8c shows the construction for the particular case of specified
centers of curvature of both polodes.
Illustrative Example 2. Construct the inflection circle for the coupler 3
of the four-bar mechanism of Fig. 10-9a. (Two sets of conjugate points
are prescribed: A and 02, B and 04.)
a n -- 0.5 rad/sec (assumed)
P on 5 and 6)
X2 on 2 \
Xt on 4 \
FIG. 10-9
Solution. Figure 10-96 shows the auxiliary linkage. It consists of the
bars 2 and 4, pin-connected to the frame at Oz and 04, respectively, and
the blocks 5 and 6, pin-connected together at P, with block 5 free to slide
on bar 2, and block 6 free to slide on bar 4. The points on bars 2 and 4,
coincident with P, are denoted, respectively, by X2 and Xt.
228
The input velocities are v^ = w3 X (Pis > A) and VB = wa X (Pis > 5);
, and v^, are found graphically, by proportion, and VP follows from
and
= 0.5rad/sec
(assumed)
(a)
0.5rad/sec
FIG. 10-10
Illustrative Example 3. Construct the inflection circle for link 3 of the
conchoidograph (Fig. 10-10a). (The name of the mechanism derives
from the fact that any point on link 3 describes a conchoidal path.)
Solution. The auxiliary linkage consists of the extended slider 2, the
rotating link 4, pivoted to the frame at 04, and the two blocks 5 and 6,
pin-connected together at P, of which block 5 is free to slide along link 4,
and block 6 along slider 2. The coincident points are again denoted by
X2 (on 2) and Xi (on 4). Since links 3 and 4 form a sliding pair, t>4 = u3.
For this reason vx, = ujX (04 > Xi). Since link 2 is in rectilinear
translation, vx, = Va = u3 X (P13 -* 4). vp follows from
Vp = vx, + Vpx,
and Vp = vx, + vpx,
Illustrative Example 4. Construct the inflection circle for the bar 3 of
the mechanism shown in Fig. 10-1 la. The mechanism consists of the
crank 2, the bar 3 hinged to the crank at A, and the stationary surface 1
which serves as a guide for bar 3.
Solution. The auxiliary linkage is shown in Fig. 10-116. Its elements
are the bar 2, pivoted to the frame at 02, the bar 4, pivoted to the frame
at the point 04 which coincides with the center of curvature M of the
guiding surface 1, and the blocks 5 and 6, pin-connected together at P, of
which block 5 is free to slide along bar 2, and block 6 along bar 4. The
points coincident with P are X2 (on 2) and X4 (on 4). Since the aux-
iliary link 4 remains perpendicular to the link 3 during an elemental
displacement, u4 = u3, and consequently, vx, = u3 X (04* Xi). Also,
Va = w3 X (P11> A), vp follows from
Vp = vx, + Vpx,
and Vp = vx, + vpx,
Illustrative Example 5. Construct the inflection circle for the ternary
link 5 of the mechanism shown in Fig. 10-12a.
Solution. This is a most complex problem, and can only be solved in
two stages. The first state, shown in Fig. 10-126, involves the determina-
tion of the absolute displacement velocity of the center P2t, which, to
avoid confusion, will be denoted by R. The auxiliary linkage for this
stage consists of the eccentrically pivoted bars 3 and 4 and the blocks 7
and 8. Bar 3 is pivoted to the frame at 03 = P13, and bar 4 at Oi = P14.
The blocks are pin-connected together at R, with block 7 free to slide on
bar 3, and block 8 on bar 4. The points on bars 3 and 4, coincident with
R, are denoted, respectively, by X3 and Xi. The input velocities are
vc = ub X (Pn > C) and Vd = uj X (P1t > D). vR follows from
Vr = Vx, + Vfix,
and vR = vx, + vRx,
The second stage of the construction, shown in Fig. 10-12c, is con-
cerned with the determination of the displacement velocity of P1t. The
auxiliary linkage for this stage consists of the bar 10, pivoted to the
frame at On, = 02 and passing through R, the bar 6, pivoted to the frame
at Ot, and the blocks 11 and 12, pin-connected together at P = P15,
FIG. 10-11
rad/sec, ccw
P on 5 and 6
Inflection circle
X4 on 4, X2 on 2
'j rad/sec (assumed)
231
R on 9
X,0 on 10
FIG. 10-12
P on 11 and 12
Y6 on 6, YIO on 10
= 0.25rad/sec (assumed)
232
with block 11 free to slide on bar 10 and block 12 on bar 6. The point
on bar 10, coincident with R, is denoted by Xi0> and the points on
bars 10 and 6, coincident with P, are shown as YIO and y6, respectively.
The input velocities are VE = w5 X (Pi6> E)andvXl, = component of^v
normal to OWR. Vp follows from
VP = Vr, + VPY
Vp = Vr10
and
10-5. The Inflection Circle for the Relative Motion of Two Moving Planes
Thus far the discussion centered around the construction of the inflec-
tion circle associated with the absolute motion of a plane. Occasionally
it is of interest to determine the curvatures of paths traced by the points
of one moving plane on another plane, also in motion. The inflection
circle associated with the relative motion of two planes is constructed
simply by considering the kinematic inversion in which the particular
Pn
(m rel. /)
<f f points in the sense of the respective pole normal
FIG. 10-13
reference plane is held stationary, and otherwise following the procedure
described in the preceding section. It should be noted that, as shown in
Fig. 10-13, the two inflection circles involved (motion of m relative to /,
and motion of / relative to m) are polar images of each other, a fact which
emerges from Eq. (10-5).
Illustrative Example. Construct the inflection circle associated with
the motion of the follower 3 relative to the cam 2 in Fig. 10-14.
Solution. Figure 10-146 shows the auxiliary linkage for the inversion in
which the cam is held stationary. The linkage is basically the same as the
one discussed in Illustrative Example 4 of the previous section and shown
in Fig. 10-11. The input velocities for the inversion are
B)
and vx, = 0)32 X (04 > Xt). VP follows from
and
Vp = Vjf, +
VP = Vx, +
ADVANCED KINEMATIC!? OF THE PLANE MOTION
233
10-6. Application of the Inflection Circle to Kinematic Analysis
Since the inflection circle provides the means for a purely geometrical
determination of path curvatures, it becomes possible to analyze complex
mechanisms without recourse to the indirect analytical and graphical
methods of Chap. 6.
w32=-lrad/sec
(assumed)
(a)
of 3rel. 2
B(03) J ; ->
FIG. 10-14
Illustrative Example. Figure 10-15a shows the skeleton of a certain
steam-valve actuating mechanism whose input crank 2 revolves at con-
stant speed. Required are the angular acceleration of link 4 and the
acceleration of C.
234
Solution. With link 4 straight, as shown, the solution by means of
conventional methods is rather difficult, and the problem is best solved
with the aid of the inflection circle. After the path curvature of B has
(a)
(b)
,>., (PC)
v*s
FIG. 10-15
been determined, either graphically or by computation
the problem becomes elementary.
With link 4 curved, as shown in Fig. 10-16a, the problem may be solved
either with the aid of the inflection circle or by the substitution of the
235
(6) Kinematically equivalent mechanism
FIG. 10-16
instantaneously equivalent low-complexity mechanism of Fig. 10-166.
The former approach is much less cumbersome.
10-7. Polode Curvature (General Case)
The shapes of the polodes, which, by rolling on one another, reproduce
a given motion, depend on the characteristics of the constraints. The
nature of this relationship is investigated in the following sections.
236
In Fig. 10-17, the plane m, defined by QS, is constrained to move in a
certain manner by virtue of the fact that the centers of curvature OQ
and 0s of the paths of Q and iS, respectively, are made to traverse the
prescribed loci e0 and es- (The locus of the center of curvature of a given
curve is known as its evolute.)
(c)
FIG. 10-17
Although the curvature of the fixed polode is a geometrical property
of the system, it will be determined here indirectly, i.e., by considering
the displacement characteristics of the velocity pole:
Pf
(ap)n
(a)
where VP = displacement speed of velocity pole
(ap)n = normal component of its displacement acceleration (not to be
confused with acceleration of point Pm, aPm = wm2d,-)
In order to evaluate Eq. (a), a.p will be computed with the aid of the
same auxiliary linkage that was used in determining Vp by Hartmann's
method, by solving the equations
and Ep = EX, + &PX,
with an arbitrarily assumed wm, which, to simplify the calculations, will
be assumed constant. Hence, in the following, du/dr = 0.
The conventions relating to the positive and negative sense along a
given ray, and at right angles to it, were laid down in Sec. 10-1. Since,
in Fig. 10-17, which forms the basis of the subsequent derivations, all
relevant directed lines are positive, the diacritical overbar will be omitted
in the calculations. It will be reintroduced in the final expressions.
The component of ap, perpendicular to 0s > S = ps, consists of two
parts, viz., the tangential component of &x, and the Coriolis component
of P relative to X,:
(ap)perpps = (a*x.)t + (apx.)c0r (b)
(ax.)t = dvxjdr is computed as follows:
*. = up,(Os -> X,) = Um(Oa -> X.) - (c)
Ps
because a>pgps = wmrs = vg; and
_ dvx, _ dvx. dl dvx. __ , dvx.
wi uw vm \MV <.<i(/
u y. [ra d(Os -> X,) _ (Os > X,)rs dps + Os>X, dri]
' [ps dl ps2 dl ps dl J
(d)
The three derivatives in Eq. (d) may be expressed in terms of the given
quantities in the following manner:
Since X, and S are fixed points on the ray s,
d(Os -> X,) d(Os -> S) dps
dl dl ~ dl
But from Fig. 10-la,
dps = pfada
[dps is positive because (O's ->-S') > (Os -* S).] From Fig. 10-16,
(0s > P) da = dl cos 6.
Hence -f: = , = -=r ^ cos 6, {&)
Also, from Fig. 10-16,
-^ = - sin 6. {/)
[drs is negative because (P' -> S') < (P -> S).] With
0s -> .ST. = 0s -> P = PS - rs
and (0s -> -S) - (0s -> X,) = P -> S = rs
substitution of Eqs. (e) and (/) into (d) yields
(ax.), = w'4 " cos 0. - s~g sin 0,
|_Ps2ps rs ps
The Coriolis component (apx.)car is calculated as follows :
(opjrjc0r = 2upsvpx.
From Fig. 10-17,
VPX. = WP sin 0,
n O
Hence (apA-.)00p = - <^mvp sin S, = Wm2d,- - sin 68 (h)
Ps ps
Equations (g") and (h) may now be substituted into (6), giving
T-^r cos e. + 3f^_-fa Sin 0. (i)
ps Ps rs PS
or
and similarly, (ap)perPPa = UmWiKo (j)
From Fig. 10-17c,
cos (e, - S) ~ cos (0, -
tan 5 =
From Fig. 10-17c,
TT ^Q cos ^8 ~~ ^S COS 6q .7.
Hence tan 5 = . - - ^. ^ (Z)
Ks sin 6q /^Q sin 08
,, Ks tan 5
= wm2d,--
cos 0, + sin 0, tan 5
which, with Eq. (l), reduces to
/ N ,j KQ cos 9, Xs cos
Equation (a) combined with (m) yields the final result
di sin (6, - 0.) nft _.
P/ KQcos6, - Kscos6q
where the coefficients KQ and X's are defined by Eqs. (i) and ( j) .
The radius of curvature p/ of the fixed polode, as determined by
Eq. (10-7), may be positive or negative. A positive result shows that
pf = O/>P points in the direction of the positive pole normal, which
means that Of and the inflection circle are on opposite sides of the pole
tangent.
10-8. Polode Curvature (Special Case) ; Hall's Equation
Equation (10-7) is an expression for the polode curvature in the most
general case. Consider now the special case where the path curvatures of
both moving points, denoted in the following by Y and Z, have instan-
taneously stationary values; that is, dpy/dl dpz/dl = 0. It is obvious
from Eq. (e) that, to satisfy this condition, the evolutes er and ez must
have cusps at the corresponding instant; that is, pfr = pfl = 0.
Equation (10-7) reduces, therefore, to
di sin (0, - gv) _
3fz ~pz sin 6, cos Sy - 3fr " ~PY cos 0, sin 6y
pz PY
With the introduction of
. ~ sin (0. - 0,)
the expression for p/ is further simplified, and
sin (6, + 6y)
"
P/ =
-ia
2di (10-8)
This important equation was first reported in the literature by A. S. Hall.1
In the particular case of stationary path curvatures, the polode curva-
ture may also be expressed in terms of a ratio (R (whose physical signifi-
cance will be made clear in Sec. 10-10) and its derivatives, in the following
manner.
By definition,
1 d(OY -> P) Or -> P d(P -> Y)
'
dr, =~ P -> Y dr, ' (P -> YY dt,
From Fig. 10-186,
d(OY - P) = (0r -> P) dr, tan 6a
and d(P > Y) = - (OY -> P) dr, tan ^
*A. S. Hall, Jr., Inflection Circle and Polode Curvature, Trans. Fifth Con/, on
Mechanisms, October, 1958, pp. 207-231, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind.
Hence -,- = I - "' ,, - ^'-^r I tan 6y = ((R - (R2) tan ey
Further, ^ = (1 - 2(R) ^- tan 0,
P(
cos2 6y
From Fig. 10-18a,
and
p/
OY > P
cos
Also Or -> 7 = (OY -> P) + (P -> F) = (0r -> P)
Consequently,
d2(R ,. _ , d(R .
-j-;- = (1 - 2(R) -5- tan 0v
(R - 1
(R
241
If, in Eq. (r), cos 6U is expressed in terms of tan 6y, and the latter in
terms of d(R/dij and (R by Eq. (q), then the following expression results:
p/ =
- I)2
- 1)3[(R2((R - 1) - 2(CR')2
where
and
(R" =
The identical result would be obtained by substituting
P) _,,_d2(0r->P)
r = 0,
r' =
r=
into Eq. (2-11), which expresses the radius of curvature in polar
coordinates.
10-9. Polode Curvature in the Four-bar Mechanism; Coupler Motion
The polodes associated with the motion of the coupler 3 relative to the
frame 1 are ir/ = iri and 7rm = 7r3. It is obvious from Fig. 10-19a that
242
Hall's equation may be used directly for the computation of the curvature
Of T1l
2d,
P1 =
[^ -]a + + [-#-](. -
sin (04 02)
fc)
(10*10)
(10-11)
Illustrative Example. Determine the polode curvatures for the coupler
3 of the four-bar mechanism of Fig. 10-20.
OÔb
Fig. 10-20
Solution. Here P -> = 1.3 in., 04 -> B = -2.3 in., P -> A =1.7 in.,
and 02 > A = 1.2 in.
Construction of the inflection circle yields the following particulars:
di = 4.22 in., 04 = 61, 02 = 346 = -14. Hence, by Eq. (10-11),
and by Eq. (10-10),
k = 0.755
1 = 2.45 in.
The radius of curvature of in is calculated by Eq. (10-5), with m = 3
and / = 1:
Ps(-2.45)
4.22 =
p3 + 2.45
and
p3 = 1.55 in.
The polodes in the vicinity of P13, with the centers of curvature denoted
by 0i and Ot3, respectively, are shown in Fig. 10-20.
10-10. Polode Curvature in the Four-bar Mechanism; Relative Motion of
the Output and Input Links; Determination of the Output Angular
Acceleration and Its Rate of Change
An inspection of Fig. 10-196 reveals that Hall's equation, with appro-
priately modified symbols, may be used to determine the curvature of the
polode 7T2, associated with the motion of the output link 4 relative to the
input link 2:
sin (03
(10-12)
, , 3 1 ,in 1Q,
where k = - ^ - ^4 (10-13)
sin (03 0i)
It should be noted that, since the discussion is concerned with the motion
of link 4 relative to link 2, the positive sense along bars 1 and 3 is the
sense from P = Pu to the corresponding points on link 4, i.e., from P to
04 and from P to B, respectively.
Equation (10-9), with a suitably altered notation, is also applicable in
this case. Comparison of Figs. 10-18 and 10-19& shows that dtp2 = dy
and that Oz corresponds to 0r and Ot to Y. Hence
= giZLg = = 21 (10-14)
_-
P > Ot 04 > P d<pz W2
Thus, in connection with the relative motion of the output and input
links, (R represents the velocity ratio of the mechanism. ((R may be
positive or negative.) Also,
- [(R2((R - I)2 + ((RQIt
((R 1)3[(R2((R 1) 2((R')2 + (R(R'
where (R' = -= and (R" =
Equation (<?), with a modified notation, yields
(R' = -p-| = ((R2 01) tan 0i
Also (R' = -j- -T-^- = j
For a constant input angular velocity o>2, from Eq. (10-14)
d(R a4
so that (R' = ((R2 - 61) tan &i = 2 (10-17)
and (R" = j?l = -L ^ (10-18)
Equation (10-14) relates the position of the relative instant center P-u
to the instantaneous velocity ratio (R of the mechanism.
Equation (10-17) shows that, in a mechanism with a uniformly rotating
input link, the tangent of the angle 61 between the pole normal and the
fixed link is a measure of the output angular acceleration.
Finally, a combination of Eqs. (10-15) and (10-18) yields an expres-
sion which makes it possible to determine the time rate of change of the
output angular acceleration.
FIG. 10-21
Although these equations may be used in the analysis of a given mecha-
nism, their chief application is in the field of synthesis, particularly in
function generation.
Illustrative Example. The driving crank 2 of the four-bar mechanism
of Fig. 10-21 revolves at a constant speed of u2 = 2 rad/sec, ccw. Deter-
mine <at, o<t, da^/dr, p2, and 4.
Solution. The direction of the pole tangent (and consequently of the
pole normal) is determined by Bobillier's theorem, i.e., by making the
angle formed by link 1 and the pole tangent equal the angle formed by the
collineation axis and link 3. By measurement,
61 = 104.5
and
03 = 123
The diameter of the inflection circle may be determined graphically or
by calculation, using the Euler-Savary equation in the form
(P -> S)* m (Ob -> S)(I. -> S) - (Os -> 5) [(P -> 5) - d, cos 0.]
Hence (P24 -> 04)2 = (02 -> 04)[(P24 -> 04) - d. cos O1]
where P24 > 04 = 6.57 in.
02 -> 04 = 4.00 in.
A -> P. = 1.87 in.
p24 _> B = 5.20 in.
With these values: di = 16.9 in.
By Eq. (10-14), (R = 0.39 and w4 = 0.78 rad/sec
By Eq. (10-17), a4 = 3.68 rad/sec2
By Eqs. (10-13) and (10-12), p2 = 10.12 in.
(Since p2 is positive, the center of curvature 0r2 of t2 lies on the side of
the pole tangent opposite to the inflection circle.) By Eq. (10-5), with
m = 4 and / = 2,
j54 = 25.4 in.
By Eq. (10-15), with flt = 0.39 and (R' = 0.92,
fit" = 0.72
and finally, by Eq. (10-18),
^P = 5.76 rad/sec8
ar
10-11. Freudenstein's Collineation-axis Theorem;1 Carter-Hall Circle2
Apart from the important property on which Bobillier's theorem is
based, the collineation axis possesses a number of other characteristics
which are useful in mechanism design.
Freudenstein's Theorem. In a four-bar mechanism, in the phases cor-
responding to the extreme values of the velocity ratio, the collineation
axis is perpendicular to the coupler. (In these phases, if w2 = const,
a4 = 0.)
Proof. Equation (10-16) states that (R' = ((R2 (R) tan 0i. Hence,
if (R = (Rmai or (R = (Rmi, and consequently (R' = 0, 0i = 0 also. Thus,
for the conditions stipulated, the pole normal coincides with the fixed
1 F. Freudenstein, On the Maximum and Minimum Velocities and the Accelerations
in Four-link Mechanisms, Trans. ASME, vol. 78, no. 4, pp. 779-787, 1956.
!W. J. Carter, Kinematic Analysis and Synthesis Using Collineation-axis Equa-
tions, Trans. ASME, vol. 79, no. 6, pp. 1305-1312, 1957, with discussion by A. S.
Hall, Jr.
246
link, the pole tangent is perpendicular to the fixed link, and by Bobillier's
theorem, the collineation axis is perpendicular to the coupler.
Carter-Hall Circle. Another kinematic property which may be
ascribed to the collineation axis is the following. If a family of four-bar
mechanisms is constructed on the same fixed base line 02 > 04, whose
members have the same instantaneous velocity ratio (R, the same first
derivative (ft' = d(R/d<p2, and the same second derivative (R" = d2&./d<pz",
then the instant centers PIS of the couplers lie on a circle which is centered
on the fixed link and passes through the common pole P24.
FIG. 10-22
Proof. In Fig. 10-22, by Bobillier's theorem,
(pole tangent-link 1) = (link 3-collineation axis) = 61 90 = t?i
(pole tangent-link 3) = < (link 1-collineation axis) = 03 90 = t?3
By inspection,
Hence
= AP24Pi304 -
(P24
and
04)(P24->B) sin (03 -0i)
= (P24 -> 04)(P24 -> P13) sin 03 - (P24 -
D . D (P24-^04)(PZ4^B) sin(0
3) sin
(P24 -> 04) sin 03 - (P2
sn
Hall's equation (10-12), applied to the relative motion of link 4 with
respect to link 2 and with k expressed in terms of the angles t?i and #3,
reads
'=
0Q Jf, . sin
02^04
The Euler-Savary equation, applied to link 1, yields
(P24 -* 04)2 = (0, -> 04)[(P24 -> 00 - tU cos 0,]
= (0s -> 04)[(P24 -> 00 + * sin t?J
f u- u ^*24 > 04 (P24 > 04) + di sin t?i , .
from which -^^- = i ' (c)
and, in a similar manner, for link 3,
P24-> E (P24 -> g) + di sin
(d)
Substitution of Eqs. (c) and (d) into (6) and rearrangement of terms yields
the following expression:
D 3(P24 > 04)rf, sin t?i cos #3 sin i?3 sin (?3 t?i)
i*U^> B = -------------------- - --- -- -----------
------- -------------------- -; --- -p-
(P24 -> 04) sin (t?3 - ?i) ( 2 -- - 1 + 3d,- si
\ P2/
sn #, cos t?i sn
If now the right-hand side of Eq. (e) is substituted for P24 > B in Eq. (a),
the expression is simplified to
3(P24 -> 04)d,- sin tf ,
^ --------- ------ --- - cos #3 (J)
24 .IS --------- ^ ------ r --- -
(P24^04)(2 - J] + 3d.- Bind,
\ P2/
By Eq. (10-14),
02 -> P24 = (R(04 -> P24)
Hence 02 -> 04 = (02 -> P24) + (P24 -> 04)
= (R(04 -> P24) + (P24 -> 00
= (1 -(R)(P,4->00 (0)
Equations (c) and (<?) combined yield
d,- sin 0, = (0, -> 00 2 W
With the aid of Eqs. (<?) and (A), Eq. (/) is transformed to
P , P 3(R(02 -> 04
P24 -> Pis = j= -. -pr =j CC
(1 - (R) (1 - (R) 2 -^) + 3(R
L \ P2/ J
Equations (10-14) to (10-16) show that mechanisms which have the same
instantaneous values of (R, Si', and (R" have, ipso facto, the same inflection
circle and the same polode curvature. Hence, for such a family of
mechanisms,
Pu >qP13 = const = dc (10-20)
COS #3
which is the equation, in polar coordinates, of a circle having the char-
acteristics stated above.
If p2 is eliminated between Eqs. (10-15) and (10-19), then, after some
lengthy and tedious algebraic operations, the following expression is
obtained which relates (R" to quantities directly determinable by
construction:
COS ui I dc
Illustrative Example. For the mechanism of Figs. 10-21 and 10-22,
02 -> 04 = 4 in., (R = 0.39, 0i = 104.5, and dc = 5.6 in.
With these values, Eq. (10-21) yields (R" = 0.72, which agrees with the
result obtained in the illustrative example of Sec. 10-10.
10-12. The Circling-point Curve (General Case)
The last item to be discussed in this chapter is the circling-point curve,
or cubic of stationary curvature, the locus of all those points on a moving
body whose paths, at the instant considered, have stationary curvature.
This curve, too, is of importance in synthesis, and particularly in the
design of multilink mechanisms with prolonged dwell requirements for
the output link.
Let Y denote a point on the circling-point curve, and apply the Euler-
Savary equation to it:
or (0r -> Y)[(P -> Y) - d,- cos 0,] = (P -> F)2
which, with the substitutions OY > Y = py and P > Y = f y, becomes
PY(TY - d{ cos 0v) = ry2 (a)
(As in Sec. 10-7, the overbar indicating directed line elements will be
omitted in the calculations, but reintroduced in the final expression.)
If the path curvature of Y is to be instantaneously stationary, then
dpy
dl
where l = elemental displacement of the pole P.
Differentiation of Eq. (a) yields, therefore,
\drr d(dl) , . d0] _ drr ,,.
pr [w - srcos e+ di sin 6v w\= 2ry it (6)
From Fig. 10-18,
-# = sm 0, (c)
d0 _ dr\ d
dl dl dl
d| = J.
dZ p/
(d)
(e)
, d; ryd<pm ry 1 ,,,.
and -jj = -tt = t (/)
dZ py ^ py d,-
(The relation d, - = dl/d<pm = vP/um, was derived in Sec. 10-1.)
_j. d0 ry 1 1 , >
Hence -^ = T (#)
at py a,- p/
Introduction of the expressions (c) and (g) into (b) leads to
py sin 0 -j~- cos 0 + d,- sin 0 f -r ) = 2ry sin 0 (A)
Finally, elimination of py between Eqs. (h) and (a) yields the equation of
the circling-point curve in polar coordinates, with the variables fy and 0:
sin 20
' ' * sin 0 jr-r -V1 cos
K2-t>
3d,\ p/;/ Zdi dl
sin 20
M sin 6y + JV cos 0B
(10-22)
where ilf and N are constants in the phase considered.
As a preliminary step to the evaluation of Eq. (10-22), it is necessary
to determine the instantaneous rate of growth of the diameter of the
inflection circle with the phase of the moving body; that is, d(d,)/dl. The
computation becomes feasible if, as shown in Fig. 10-17, the path curva-
tures of two moving points are given.
The following expressions, relevant to the present investigation, were
derived in Sec. 10-7, with the assumption um = const:
Equation (m), normal component of the pole-displacement acceleration:
. , ,, KQ cos 0 Ks cos 0, ,..
(ap)n = u"di sin (0, - e.) W
Equation (l), angle between pole-displacement acceleration and pole-
250
displacement velocity:
tan 5
Kq cos 0 Ks cos 0,
Ks sin 0, Kq sin 0,
with Kq and Ks defined by Eqs. (t) and (j) of Sec. 10-7.
From Fig. 10-176,
(ap)t =
(ap)n
tan 5
um2di
Ks sin 0, Kq sin 0.
sin (0, 0.)
However,
. . dvp dvp dl dvp
Since vp = Umdi and wm is constant,
d(d<)
dl m dl
Finally, the combination of the last three equations yields
d(df) Ks sin 0, Kq sin 6,
d'l
sin (0, - 0.)
0)
(*)
(0
(m)
(10-23)
Fig. 10-23
Normally, as shown in Fig. 10-23, the circling-point curve is a looped
third-order curve whose branches cross at right angles at the instant
center and then continue to infinity in an asymptotical approach to a line
which makes an angle 0 with the pole normal. 0M is obtained by
equating to zero the denominator in Eq. (10-22):
6- = arctan
B)
(10-24)
The asymptote itself does not pass through the instant center. Its offset
n is determined as follows:
n = lira TY sin (6a 6y)
,. sin 26y sin (0M 6y)
M sin Oy + N cos 6y
which is indeterminate for 6g = 6m. However, if the numerator and
denominator are differentiated separately with respect to #v, the limiting
value is found to be
sin 20,, nno^
" = N sin 0M - M cos g. (10-25)
The circling-point curve degenerates into a circle and a straight line
whenever di has an extreme value. By Eq. (10-22), if d(di)/dl = 0,
N = 0 also, and Eq. (10-22) reduces to
2 cos 6y .
Y Sln 0" =
where ry (2 cos 6y)/M = 0 = equation of a circle of diameter 2/M,
centered on pole normal and passing through
instant center P
sin 6y = 0 = equation of a straight line coincident
with pole normal
10-13. The Circling-point Curve for the Coupler of a Four-bar Mechanism
In a four-bar mechanism, the two coupler hinges are obviously points
on the circling-point curve. Hence, if their polar coordinates are sub-
stituted into Eq. (10-22), two independent equations are obtained, from
which the constants M and TV can be calculated. With M and TV known,
the circling-point curve is easily constructed.
Illustrative Example. Draw the circling-point curve for the coupler of
the four-bar mechanism of Fig. 10-24.
Solution. The positions of the pole tangent and pole normal are found
by Bobillier's theorem, and the polar coordinates of A and B are deter-
mined by measurement:
rA = 4.27 in. 0A = 145.5
TB = 5.75 in. 6B = 108.1
These two pairs of values, substituted into Eq. (10-22), yield
M = -0.0273 and N = 0.2460
With these constants, points on the curve are located as shown in detail
for point C, whose polar angle 6C = 125. By Eq. (10-22),
sin 250
rc =
-0.0273 sin 125 + 0.2460 cos 125'
= 5.44 in.
Figure 10-24 shows clearly the degree to which the actual path of a
point on the circling-point curve may be approximated, in the vicinity of
the phase considered, by the osculation circle. For the point C, the two
Osculation
circle at C
Fia. 10-24
arcs are practically indistinguishable from one another for about 70 of
input-crank rotation. Hence, if two links 5 and 6 were added to the
mechanism as shown, the output link 6 would remain sensibly at rest dur-
ing this period.
The location of the hinge between links 5 and 6 which coincides with,
the center of curvature of the path of C may be found either graphically,
after constructing the inflection circle, or by calculation, as follows:
The Euler-Savary equation, applied to A, yields the diameter of the
inflection circle:
(P1. -> Ay = (0, -> A)(h -> A) = (0, -> A)[(PU -> A) - di cos .]
where Pu > A = 4.27 in.
02-> A = 1.00 in.
0O = 145.5
giving d,- = 16.96 in.
The Euler-Savary equation, applied next to point C, yields the required
radius of curvature:
(P1, -> C)2 = (Oc^ OKPu -> O - di cos tfj
where P13 > C = 5.44 in.
d,- = 16.96 in.
0c = 125
giving Oc-^ C = 1.95 in.
CHAPTER 11
INTRODUCTION TO SYNTHESIS;
GRAPHICAL METHODS
A very important aspect of the designer's work is the development, or
synthesis, of mechanisms for the performance of specified operations.
Although, in general, inventiveness and intuition play a major part in
mechanism design, there are certain fundamental problems of synthesis
which can be solved in a rational way. Such problems include:
1. Guiding a body through a number of prescribed positions
2. Coordination of the positions of the output and input links, i.e.,
function generation
3. Guiding a point along a prescribed path, i.e., path generation
4. Production of specified instantaneous motion characteristics
Chapters 11 to 13 present a number of methods, both graphical and
analytical, for the solution of these problems. The accent will be on the
graphical approach, because it is the more direct of the two and yields
results, of acceptable accuracy, with much less effort.
Since in most cases the solution will be based on the four-bar mecha-
nism, a preliminary investigation of the characteristic properties of this
apparently simple, but surprisingly versatile, linkage is called for.
11-1. The Four-bar Linkage
The general symbols used in the following discussion are listed below
and, with the exception of the rotocenters, are defined by Fig. 11-1.
p Fixed link or frame
q Driving or input link
r Connecting link or coupler
s Driven or output link
Oq, O, Fixed pivots
<t>mn = [<p8]mn Angular displacement of q between phases m and n
lAmn = [<p,]mn Angular displacement of s between phase m and n
Xmn = [<pr]mn Angular displacement of r between phases m and n
n Transmission angle; angle between r and s
254
INTRODUCTION TO SYNTHESIS; GRAPHICAL METHODS
255
[Rr]mn Rotocenter of link r with respect to the frame, defining the
displacement from phase m to phase n
[R<i*]mH Rotocenter denning the relative displacement of links q
and s between phases m and n
Other symbols will be introduced and defined as required.
Types of Four-bar Mechanism. Figure 11-2 shows the three types of
four-bar mechanism:
Figure ll-2a illustrates the crank-rocker mechanism. The rotation of q
is completely unrestricted, while s can only oscillate through a limited
(a)
FIG. 11-1
range. It should be noted that the forward and return strokes of s do not
correspond to equal rotations of q.
Figure 11-26 shows the double-crank, or drag-link, mechanism. The
rotations of both q and s are unrestricted. A uniform rotation of q
produces a nonuniform rotation of s.
Figure ll-2c depicts the double-rocker mechanism, q and s can only
oscillate.
All three types can be obtained as inversions of the same linkage, pro-
vided the sum of the lengths of the shortest and longest links is less than
that of the other two (Grashof's rule):
256
With the shortest link as crankcrank-rocker mechanism
With the shortest link as framedrag-link mechanism
With the shortest link as couplerdouble-rocker mechanism
In the double-rocker mechanism, derived from Grashof's linkage, the
coupler performs a complete revolution while the rockers move through
their full range. If a four-bar linkage does not satisfy Grashof's criterion,
FIG. 11-2
then, no matter what arrangement of links is used, only double-rocker
mechanisms with oscillating couplers result.
Transmission Angle. Experience has shown that mechanisms with
proportions approaching the limits of Grashof's rule are not satisfactory
in practice. During the motion cycle, links assume relative positions
close to "toggling" (dead-center positions), with consequent chatter and
possibly excessive stresses. Moreover, since such linkages require the
maintenance of very close machining tolerances, if undesirable effects on
the required motion characteristics are to be avoided, they are more
257
costly to manufacture than linkages with a more substantial inequality
margin. A rough guide, in the design stage, to the eventual performance
of a mechanism is the transmission angle n or its supplement n'. Alt,1
who first suggested the use of this parameter as a quality index for the
FIG. 11-3
transmission of motion, recommended a minimum value of 40 for low-
speed and 50 for high-speed applications. Other kinematicians have
reiterated these values. However, it is extremely doubtful whether such
generalizations should be accepted uncritically. Clearly, in low-speed
applications the motion transfer will be "best" if n = 90 and impossible
1 H. Alt, Der Uebertragungswinkel und seine Bedeutung fuer das Konstruieren
Periodischer Getriebe, Werkslattstechnik, vol. 26, no. 4, p. 61, 1932.
258
if n = 0, but it is just as obvious that the effect of inertia forces in
high-speed applications cannot be accounted for by a simple geometrical
criterion. The values of n suggested by Alt may be used safely as a
starting point or basis for the initial design in a given situation. A
subsequent analysis will disclose the suitability or satisfactoriness of the
Line r3
Line rt
~f~~ Locus (not a straight line)
Line r3
Line rj
Fig. 11-4
assumptions. It may be found, for instance, that the inertia effects
would permit a substantial reduction of n, which may be quite desirable
in the particular case.
Figure 11-3 shows that n reaches its extreme values in a motion cycle
when the driving link q is collinear with the fixed link p. The corre-
sponding phases are denoted by 1 and 3. A kinematically optimum
259
linkage, as regards transmission angles, is one in which ^min = ^Vn. The
synthesis of such a linkage for prescribed values of Mmin and ^13 is shown in
Fig. 11-4.
In the solution of Fig. ll-4a, the driven link, of arbitrary length
s = O,B, is drawn in its phases Si and s3, and the lines TI and r3 are drawn
in the appropriate directions, determined by the specified transmission
angle. Varying coupler lengths rx = BiAix = B$A3X are then tried until
aline A3xj4ix = A 3Ai is obtained which passes through O,. The required
fixed pivot Oq is located at the midpoint of A3Ai. In the alternative
approach, shown in Fig. 11-46, a bundle of rays is drawn through O,,
intersecting line ri in points A* and line r3 in points A*. The solution
consists in locating those points A* = Ai and A$ = A3, for which
BiAi = B3A3, which is accomplished by plotting the lengths BiAf versus
the corresponding lengths BtA*. The intersection of the locus obtained
FIG. 11-5
in this manner, with the line drawn through B3 at 45 to the ray r3, clearly
identifies the solution.
The Crank-rocker Mechanism as Quick-return Motion.1 Figure 11-5
shows a crank-rocker mechanism in the two extreme positions of the
driven link. It will be observed that the crank angle <24, corresponding
to the forward stroke of the rocker, is larger than the return angle <t>n ',
that is, <24 > 180. Thus the crank-rocker mechanism is inherently a
quick-return motion.
From Fig. 11-5,
Hence
and
0gB2 = r + q
and 05Z?4 = r q
+ OgBi = 2r
- OqB4 = 2q
(a)
(6)
1 A. S. Hall, Mechanism Proportions, Machine Design, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 111-115,
1948.
260
Figure 11-6 shows the synthesis of a crank-rocker mechanism for a
given degree of quick-return action, i.e., for prescribed values of <24 and
^24-
The driven link s is drawn in its extreme positions $2 and s4. The
length O,B is arbitrary. The locus of Oq is a circle whose center and
radius are obtained by erecting on BzB^, as base line, an isosceles triangle
with base angles /3 = 90 - (<24 - 180) = 270 - <24.
(6)
(c)
FIG. 11-6
With Oq located in a suitable position, the crank length q is determined
by means of Eq. (6).
Since the position of Oq on the "pivot circle" is arbitrary, and thus the
number of possible solutions infinite, additional conditions may be
stipulated, such as:
1. The mechanism should have the largest possible value of /umin. The
problem is solved by trying various positions of Oq.
2. A prescribed link ratio p/s. Oq is located at the intersection of the
pivot circle with a circular arc of radius p, centered at O,.
INTRODUCTION TO SYNTHESIS) GRAPHICAL METHODS 261
3. A prescribed link ratio q/s. Since, by Eq. (6), OqB2 OqBt = 2q,
Oq is located at the intersection of the pivot circle with a hyperbola of
focal axis 2g and foci at B2 and Bi (Fig. 11-66).
4. A prescribed link ratio r/s. Since, by Eq. (a), OqB2 + OqBt = 2r,
Oq is located at the intersection of the pivot circle with an ellipse of major
axis 2r and foci at B2 and BA (Fig. 11-6c).
5. A specified initial crank position fa. Oq is located at the intersection
of the pivot circle with another circle, of radius MO whose center M is
located on the normal bisector of O,B2 so that the central angle
3 O,MB2 = 2fa
However, the choice of fa is not completely free; an inspection of
configurations similar to Fig. 1 l-6a reveals immediately that:
If (024 - 180) < fai, O. is inside pivot circle and fa < (90 - ^ J
If (024 - 180) > ^24, O, is outside pivot circle and fa > (90 - ^ J
The special case of ^24 = #24 180 can be realized by means of a
four-bar mechanism only if the initial crank position fa = 90 ^24/2.
As shown in Fig. 11-7, the pivot circle passes through O and any other
point on it is a suitable location for the pivot Oq. Since, in this case, the
(^-180) = *2
262
number of possible solutions is infinite, additional design requirements
may be prescribed, such as conditions 1 to 4 above.
The conditions i/'24 = 024 - 180 and <2 ^ 90 - $u/2 may be
achieved with an offset slider-crank quick-return motion, shown in
Fig. ll-8a.
The eccentricity e and the crank length q are determined as follows.
From Fig. ll-8a,
and
Hence
and
q + e = p cos <2
q e = p cos (360
2q = p(cos <2 + cos
2e = p(cos fa cos
= p cos
(c)
Figure 11-86 shows that the special conditions ^24 = <24 180 and
<t>2 = 90 ^24/2, obtained with the four-bar mechanism of Fig. 11-7,
are also attainable with a symmetrical slider-crank quick-return motion.
11-2. Guiding a Body through Two Distinct Positions
Figure 11-9 shows a body r, defined by the line AB, in two distinct,
i.e., finitely separated, positions. The transfer from position 1 to posi-
263
tion 2 can be accomplished in many ways, e.g., by attaching r at A and
B to links q and s, whose fixed pivots Oq and O, may be located any-
where on the normal bisectors [n^]i2 and [na]u of AiAz and BiB2, respec-
tively. The number of such four-bar linkages is evidently infinite.
The displacement of r can also be brought about by a simple rotation
about an axis through the point of intersection of [nA]u and[ns]i2. This
FIG. 11-9
point, denoted by [Rr]u, is the rotocenter of the body, or plane, r for the
particular displacement ri-r2. In the following, since there is no possi-
bility of confusion, the suffix r will be dropped, and the rotocenter will
be denoted simply by R^. An inspection of Fig. 11-9 reveals that, as
the triangles AiRuBi and A2R^B2 are congruent, the amount of rotation
about RII is equal to the actual angular displacement [tpr]u of the body.
The following geometrical properties can also be deduced by inspection:
1. The effective lengths of the guiding links (cranks or rockers) q and s
of all four-bar mechanisms, capable of guiding their coupler r through
two given positions, subtend equal angles at the rotocenter [Rr]u = R^;
furthermore, these angles are equal to half the angular displacement of r:
2. The fixed links p = OqO, and effective lengths (between hinges) of
the couplers r of all such mechanisms also subtend equal angles at Ri2:
265
Since the number of practicable mechanisms is infinite, it is possible
to stipulate additional, but mutually compatible, requirements to be satis-
fied by the particular design. Examples of such additional criteria, the
maximum number of which is four, are the following:
1. Prescribed positions of the fixed pivots Oq and O, and rotations of
the two guiding links, that is, [<pq]u and [<p,]u
2. Prescribed positions of Oq and O, and lengths q and s of the guiding
links
3. Specified positions of the coupler hinges, length of one guiding link,
and the length 0,0, of the fixed link
All such problems are solved with the aid of one or the other of the
foregoing relations (a) and (6).
Illustrative Example 1. The two positions of the plane r, defined by
the positions of the line AB, the locations of Oq and O,, and the rotations
[cpji2 and [<p,]u of the guiding links are specified. Required are the loca-
tions of the coupler hinges C and D (Fig. 11-10).
Solution. The rotocenter .Ri2 is located at the intersection of [nû
with [nB]i2. The normal bisectors [nc]i2 and lnD]u are obtained by
joining Ru with 0, and O,, respectively. Point Ci is located at the
intersection of the line gi and the ray ci, drawn, respectively, through Oq
at an angle [p,]i2/2 to [nc]i2 and through Ru at an angle [<?,-] i2/2
to [nc]i2. Point DI is located in a similar manner, at the intersection of
of the line Si and the ray di.
Illustrative Example 2. Figure 11-11 shows a slider-crank mechanism
in two distinct phases. The problem is to locate a point C, on the
extended coupling rod AB, which is equidistant in both phases from a
given stationary point D.
266
Solution. In the two phases under consideration, points Oq and D
may be regarded as fixed pivots of a four-bar mechanism whose coupler
hinges are located at A and the required point C, respectively. The
rotocenter R12 of the coupler is located at the intersection of the normal
bisectors [7i^]i2 and [MB] 12. The position of Ci is obtained by making
DRuCi = OqRuAi. (Guiding links subtend equal angles at the
rotocenter.)
If two additional links, l and m, were attached to the slider-crank
mechanism as shown in dashed lines, a dwell mechanism would result,
since the hinge D, and with it link m, would remain virtually at rest
while the crankpin A moved from AI through A2 and A3 to At.
11-3. Guiding a Body through Three Distinct Positions
One practical method of guiding a body r, defined by the line segment
AB, through three specified positions would be by means of two links,
pivoted to it at A and B and to the frame at the centers of circles drawn,
respectively, through Ai, A2, A3 and Bi, B2, B3.
However, since points other than A and B may be used equally well
as coupler hinges, the number of four-bar mechanisms capable of guiding
a body through three prescribed distinct phases becomes infinite. This
fact permits the imposition of additional restrictions on the design.
Center Cl
FIG. 11-12
Center DI
INTRODUCTION TO SYNTHESIS; GRAPHICAL METHODS 267
Thus, in Fig. 11-12, the locations of Oq and O, are specified in addition to
the three positions of AB.
The problem of locating the corresponding moving hinges C and D is
best solved by means of a kinematic inversion in which the body itself is
kept stationary in one of the three phases, for instance, AiBi, and the
frame made movable. The relative positions of O, and O3 are determined
by referring the triangles A2B2Og, A2B2O, and A3B3Oq, A3B3O, to the
base line A^L (Aîfii01,1 = A42B20,, etc.)
The positions Ci and DI of the moving hinges in phase 1 are then
located at the centers of the circles drawn, respectively, through Oq, 011,
0J11 and O., O]\ 0,m.
11-4. The Rotocenter Triangle
Figure ll-13a shows a body m = AB in three distinct phases and the
three related rotocenters RU, RM, and Ru.
A study of the properties of the rotocenter triangle yields a number of
interesting and useful theorems.
The Angles of the Rotocenter Triangle. In Fig. 11-136, the body has
been extended to embrace the points C and D, judiciously placed so that,
in positions 2 and 3, C coincides with R^ and, in positions 1 and 2, D
coincides with R^. Thus the extended line RuRi3 coincides with [nc]i2
and [ttc]is, and the extended line RuR^ coincides with [nc]is and [rio^s,
and it becomes obvious that the angles of the rotocenter triangle are
equal to half the corresponding body rotations.
In order to facilitate the determination of the rotational sense, the
following notation is recommended:
RuRi3 = side 1 digit 1 common to both rotocenters
R^RM = side 2 digit 2 common to both rotocenters
RnRn side 3 digit 3 common to both rotocenters
In Fig. 11-13, the body m may be transferred from position 1 to posi-
tion 3 by a simple counterclockwise rotation <pn = 80, about Rn. Clearly,
the same displacement may also be achieved by a clockwise rotation
tp'13 = 280, about the same rotocenter. In the rotocenter triangle <pn/2
is the rotation of side 1 into side 3. Obviously, there are two possibilities:
either a counterclockwise rotation 1 > 3 of 40 or a clockwise rotation
1 -> 3 of 140.
Correlated Point Positions. Ai, A2) and A3 are correlated positions of
the point A. Given the rotocenter triangle and the position of the point
in one phase, the correlated positions in the other two phases may be
determined by means of the simple construction shown in Fig. 11-14.
The given position of the point is reflected about the corresponding
268
Side 3
Fig. 11-13
269
side of the rotocenter triangle, for example, AI about side 1, yielding the
cardinal point Ac. The reflections of Ac about the other two sides of
the triangle are the required correlated positions. The correctness of
the construction is rather self-evident:
A ifli2A2 = 2(a + |8) =
Although not particularly useful in itself,
leads directly to the next important theorem.
the above construction
FIG. 11-14
The Point of Intersection of the Heights. The correlated positions of
the point H , whose cardinal point Hc coincides with the orthocenter (the
intersection of the heights) of the rotocenter triangle, are located on the
circumscribed circle.
The theorem may be proved as follows.
In the right-angled triangle R^XR^, in Fig. 11-15,
e+X+
Hence, in the isosceles triangle H2R^
= 90
Since YRi3 is perpendicular to R^R^ and RitRn is perpendicular to XR23,
< YRuRu = n
Consequently,
< RuRisHi = n
Since YRu is perpendicular to RuR and R^Ru is perpendicular to fli2Z,
< Fflisff23 = X
(o)
Image circle 3
Image circle 1
FIG. 11-15
Consequently,
Hence, in the isosceles triangle
=X
and in the right-angled triangle RuZH3,
RuH3Z = 90 - X =
Consequently,
271
Thus, since the line segment RuH^ subtends equal angles p, at H2,
RM, H3, and Ru, it follows that all six points lie on one and the same circle.
That the point H is unique in this respect may be seen from Fig. 11-156.
The locus of all cardinal points Pc whose correlated position PI is on
the circumscribed circle is the image circle 1, i.e., the reflection of the
circumscribed circle about side 1. Similarly, image circle 2 is the locus
of all points Pc whose correlated phase Pz lies on the circumscribed circle,
Image circle 3
Circumcircle
FIG. 11-16
and image circle 3 is the locus of all cardinal points Pc whose correlated
position P3 is located on the circumscribed circle. However, the three
image circles have only one point in common, viz., the orthocenter Hc.
Three Correlated Positions of a Point in a Straight Line. If three
correlated positions of a point are collinear, they are also located on the
corresponding image circles, and the line containing them passes through
He.
Figure 11-16 shows three collinear correlated positions of the point A
and the corresponding rotocenter triangle. Hc is located at the inter-
section of the heights. Consideration of the angles around the vertex A i
shows that
<P23
Also, since RMHC is perpendicular to R^Rn and RiJIe is perpendicular
to R^RM,
Thus, since R^Ru subtends equal angles at Ai and Hc, it follows that
AI lies on the same circle as Ri2, Ru, and Hc, that is, image circle 1.
It may be shown in a similar manner that A 2 lies on image circle 2, and
A 3 on image circle 3.
It remains to be verified that, as indicated by the construction, H c
really lies on the line AiA3.
At Ru,
(ion ^12 Vn\ , i , oeno
180 - --- 1 + T) + <f>u + o- = 360
which, with <pis = <pu + ^23
leads to 7, + ^ + ^ + <7= 180
Since Hc, Ru, Ru, and AI lie on the same circle, RÂi subtends equal
angles at Ru and Hc. Consequently,
Similarly, since Hc, Rn, RM, and A 3 lie on one circle,
AsHcR^ = v
Hence, at Hc,
= r,
2* + + a = 180
Three Correlated Positions of a Line through a Point. If the three
positions of a line l intersect at a given stationary point S, then li, l2,
and ^3 pass, respectively, through HI, H2, and H3, and S is located on the
circumcircle of the rotocenter triangle.
In Fig. 11-17, the three positions of Z, denned by the correlated posi-
tions of the segment AB, uniquely determine the rotocenter triangle.
(Ru is located at the intersection of the normal bisectors [n^]i2 and
[WB]^, etc., which have been omitted so as not to clutter up the drawing
with inessential construction lines.)
The lines 613 and ?>23 bisect, respectively, the angle liSls = <pu and the
13 -"23
FIG. 11-17
angle Z2<S'Z3 = <p^. Consequently,
Jf h <Sh ^13 ^23 ^12
* buSbn = I" ' ' -3- = -g-
Since RuS is perpendicular to 6i s and R^S is perpendicular to 623,
"~
which shows that S lies on the same circle as Ru, Ru, and #23.
It has been shown previously that HI, H2, and H3 are correlated posi-
tions of a particular point. Therefore the directions HiS, HzS, and H3S
must be correlated positions of a line. That these directions are identical
with Zi, I2, and l3, respectively, follows from the fact that, as shown in
Fig. 11-176, the rotocenter triangle and a given point S on the circum-
circle uniquely determine the correlated line positions. [The construc-
tion of Zi, Z2, and Z8 would proceed as follows. The rotocenter triangle
yields the magnitude and sense of the rotation ^13. Since the ray Ri3S
is the bisector of the positions 1 and 3, lines Zi and l3 are inclined to it at
+ (90 (pis/2), and Ni and N3 are correlated positions of the point N.
Line Z2 is obtained by making the angle Zi<SZ2 = <pi2, and Nz is located on
Z2 at its intersection with a circular arc of radius RizNi, centered at R^.]
Illustrative Example 1. Locate a point C on the coupler r of the four-
bar mechanism of Fig. 11-18 so that its correlated positions, correspond-
ing to the three crankpin positions A i, A2, and A3, lie in a horizontal line.
Solution. The rotocenter triangle is constructed in the usual manner
and the orthocenter Hc is located at the intersection of the altitudes.
(As a check on the accuracy of the working, Hc must coincide with the
intersection of the three image circles.) A horizontal line drawn through
Hc intersects the image circles at Ci, Ct, and C3, respectively. (A further
check on the accuracy of the result is the condition that the distances
BiCi, BzC2, and B3C3 must be equal.)
Figure 11-18 shows also the possibility of utilizing the motion of C for
the design of a dwell mechanism. During the rotation of the crank from
qi to q3, linkw would remain virtually at rest.
Illustrative Example 2. Figure 11-19 shows an oscillating slider-crank
mechanism whose coupler r is used to actuate a lever-follower u. The
problem is to find a suitable location for the center M of the follower-
roller t and a corresponding straight cam surface on r so that, in the
three phases of the mechanism, denned by Ai, A2, and A3, M occupies
the same position.
Solution. The solution of this problem is based on the theorem dis-
cussed last. M will be located on the circumcircle of the rotocenter tri-
angle, and the cam surface will be made parallel to a line whose correlated
positions pass through M and HI, H2, and H 3, respectively.
Fig. 11-18
/Image circle 3
Circumscribed circle
^Center image circle 1
Center circumscribed circle
276
The rotocenter triangle and its circumcircle are constructed in the
usual manner, with the aid of the correlated positions of A and of a suit-
ably chosen point B on the coupler. The orthocenter Hc is located at the
intersection of the altitudes, and its position checked by means of the
image circles. Points Hi, H2, and H3 are located, respectively, at the
intersections of the circumcircle with the extended altitudes HM^, HcRu,
and HcRu. Point M is placed in a convenient position on the circum-
circle, and the cam surface in phase 1 is made parallel to HiM. (An
excellent check on the accuracy of the working is the condition that O,,
being the point of intersection of the three correlated positions of the
line AB, must lie on the circumcircle and that the extended lines AiBi,
AzBz, and A3B3 must also pass through Hi, HI, and H3, respectively.)
11-6. Guiding a Body through Four Distinct Positions; Burmester's Curve
The problem of moving a body, or plane, through four distinct posi-
tions by means of bar linkages is rather complex. Its solution entails the
location, in the moving plane, of points whose four correlated positions
lie on circular arcs. Such points (of which there is an infinite number)
may then be used as moving hinges, and the centers of the corresponding
circles as fixed pivots. The locus of the fixed centers is known as Bur-
mester's curve, or the center-point curve.
Construction of Burmester's Curve.1 Figure 11-20 shows a body r,
defined by AB, in four distinct positions, together with the six associated
rotocenters ^12, RM, RU, RM, Rzt, and Rat, which are located at the
intersections of similarly identified normal bisectors [HA] and [UB\. (The
construction lines for R13 and R-u have not been shown because they
are not essential to the subsequent discussion.)
In order to facilitate the recognition of the geometrical relations, point
A has been assumed to move in a circular path. Thus all normal
bisectors [HA] pass through the point OA. The radius 0Â moves from
position 1 to position 2 through an angle 5i2; from position 2 to position 3
through 523; and from position 3 to position 4 through 534. Hence,
and
S14 ^12 + ^23 + 834
5s4 Si2 + 23 Si;
2 22
Figure 11-20 shows that the angle included by the bisectors [n^]i4 and
v r> r\ T> ^14 834
1 R. A. Kraus and K. S. Rangasami, Graphical Linkage Analysis, Machine Design,
vol. 25, no. 6, pp. 177-182, 1953.
278
and that the angle included by the bisectors [uaJu and [nA]23,
jr p n p - 5u + 5m -
* K12UAK23 = e
Thus the rotocenter distances #14^34 and R12Rn subtend equal angles
at the point Oa- It may be shown, in a similar manner, that other pairs
of rotocenter distances also subtend equal (or supplementary) angles at
Oa, in accordance with Table 11-1.
Burmester's
curve
512 + ^23
2 &l
[a]u /-
[a]23
5l4 - Sm _
Burmester's
curve
Fig. 11-20
The implication of the above analysis is that, if a point Om is to serve
as the center of a circle containing four correlated positions of some
moving point M, it must be the common vertex of two triangles which
have equal vertex angles and have corresponding rotocenter distances
as bases. The simple construction shown in Fig. 11-21 yields two points
which obviously satisfy these conditions. The radii of the two circles
and their center distances may be determined either graphically or, alter-
natively, by adjusting the slide rule to the ratio of the base distances
and reading the corresponding values. A repetition of the construction
with different pairs of circles (and consequently different apex angles e)
yields Burmester's curve. The curve passes through the six rotocenters
279
TABLE 11-1. BASIS OF BUBMESTER'S CURVE
Rotocenter distances
Common
digits
Subtended
angle
Point of
intersection
RiiRM and ft M /I'M
1 and 2
812
Su
/fci2*t23 and /ii.jA;i.i
1 and 3
Sn
Sis
RizR24 and RuHsi
1 and 4
5l4
S14
Ri2Ris and R-t\Rn
2 and 3
823
23
RuRn and R2aR>i
2 and 4
624
(824
RisRit and A'sa/i'si
3 and 4
34
S,4
FIG. 11-21
280
KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS OF PLANK MECHANISMS
R, the reason for which will become clear later, and through the six points
of intersection S of corresponding rotocenter lines, as here e = 0. Thus
12 points on Burmester's curve are known immediately.
After a suitable point on Burmester's curve has been selected as a loca-
tion for a fixed pivot O,, the corresponding moving point is located by
the method of kinematic inversion, as shown in Fig. 11-22. (Figure
11-22 depicts the same situation as Fig. 11-20. O, has been placed arbi-
trarily in the rotocenter R3t.) The body r is assumed to be stationary,
and the relative positions of O, are determined by referring the triangles
AzBzO,, A3BzO,, and AtBtO, to the base line AiBi. The coupler hinge
C, in its position Ci, is located at the center of the circle through O,,
O}1, O}11, and O}v. (In the present example, because O. has been selected
FIG. 11-22
so as to coincide with a rotocenter, two of its relative positions coincide.
Thus, since it is always possible to draw a circle through three points, it
becomes obvious that rotocenters must be points of Burmester's curve.)
When faced with the problem of having to design a linkage for the
four-position transfer of a body, the designer should check first whether
fixed pivots, placed in any of the available rotocenters or points of inter-
section S, would yield practicable mechanisms. If, for some reason, no
satisfactory solution can be obtained in this manner (e.g., the mecha-
nisms may have inadequate transmission angles or may have to pass,
between phases, through an in-line position of all links, which normally
would prevent further motion), then Burmester's curve must be devel-
oped in more detail, and other locations of the fixed pivots investigated.
Illustrative Example. The body r (Fig. 11-23) is hinged at A to the
oscillating lever q, pivoted to the frame at Oq. The point B is to move
281
through the collinear positions Bi, B2, B3, and B^ A second guiding
link s is to complete a suitable four-bar linkage.
Solution. With the length AB known, the correlated positions Ai,
A2, A3, and At are easily located and the four rotocenters Ru, Ru, RM,
and R3t constructed. With these centers, part of Burmester's curve is
plotted, and on it O, is selected arbitrarily as location for the fixed pivot
of link s. The relative positions of O, are determined by kinematic
Burmester's curve
O,
FIG. 11-23
inversion: A42B208 = A-AiBi0J1, etc. Since O, is entirely arbitrary,
there are four distinct relative positions, O} = O,, O]1, O}11, and O}v.
These points lie on a circle, in whose center Ci is located.
11-6. Function Generation; General Discussion
An interesting and important facet of kinematic synthesis is the devel-
opment of function generators, devices used in mechanical control systems
and analogue computers, in which the displacement of the output link
is a specified function of the input.
The fact that, in constrained mechanisms, a definite relationship exists
between the displacements of the driving and driven links which is gov-
erned by the linkage proportions suggests the possibility of using bar
(and slider) mechanisms for function generation. The idea is attractive
because such mechanisms offer a number of constructional and opera-
tional advantages, e.g., ease of manufacture within close tolerances, excel-
lent wear resistance of pivots and sliders, and absence of abrupt changes
in acceleration, resulting in smooth and quiet operation. However, two
factors appear to tell against their use as function generators, viz., their
inherent inability, due to the finite number of links, to reproduce a given
function with mathematical exactitude over a finite range and the extreme
difficulty of synthesizing mechanisms with more than four members.
Fortunately, few engineering problems require rigorously exact answers.
Thus even the simple four-bar linkage and its slider derivatives possess
enough design flexibility to allow, in general, the finding of a solution in
which the unavoidable "structural" error is kept within a prescribed
narrow tolerance band. Function generation by means of bar and slider
linkages is therefore only approximate. Moreover, because of the phys-
ical limits of the input and output displacement ranges, only a limited
region of a given function can be mechanized.
The following approaches to function generation are possible.
a. Precision-point Generation. The generated and specified functions
agree in a number of distinct points. Between these "precision" points,
the two functions diverge, but the error is kept within permissible limits.
(Geometrical and analytical procedures.)
b. Precision-derivative Generation. The specified and generated func-
tions agree in successive derivatives at one point. The approximation
is closer than with precision points, but within a much shorter range.
(Analytical and grapho-analytical procedures.)
c. Combination of Methods a and b.
d. Method of "Best Fit." Neither precision points nor precision deriva-
tives are prescribed, but the error is confined to an acceptable tolerance
band throughout the whole range. Nomographic procedures (not dealt
with in this book), "overlay" methods, and experimental methods fall
into this category.
Transformation of Function. The first step in the synthesis of a func-
tion generator is the conversion of the given function
V = /(*)
into a relationship involving the output and input displacements, e.g.,
in the case of rotating links,
283
by means of the linear transformation equations
<t> = k$x + <o and ^
- fa (11-1)
where k^,, k+ = scale factors, in degrees per unit of corresponding variable
<t>o, ô = input and output link positions corresponding, respec-
tively, to zero values of x and y
Bar function generators may be of the open or the crossed type. The
latter arrangement of links generally yields the more compact mechanism.
Its characteristic feature is the fact that the input and output displace-
ments are of opposite sense. Consequently, if a crossed linkage is desired,
the scale factors must be chosen as follows:
k$ always positive
k+ positive for a falling function (y decreasing with increasing x) and
negative for a rising function
Characteristic Equation of a Four-bar Mechanism. The characteristic
equation is the expression linking the positions of the output and input
links.
From Fig. 11-24,
22 = p2 + g2 2pq cos
and $ = 180 - a ft
Q sin <t>
---
T> j
But a = arcsin
,,
and 8 = arccos
Hence
s2 + 22 - r2
2sz
iono
= 180 - arcsin
arccos
cos <)*
2 + </2 + s2 r2
--
2pq cos
0,
2s(p2
cos
,,,_,.
(11-2)
v'
Design Parameters. Equations (11-1) and (11-2) show that the
number of independent design parameters involved in the mechanization
of a given function within a specified range is seven:
Three side ratios, for example, q/p, r/p, s/p
Two scale coefficients, k$ and k$ (or ranges A< and A^)
Two zero positions, <t>o and ^0 (or positions <t>i and fa, corresponding to
the initial conditions)
Thus the maximum number of points of agreement between the
prescribed and generated functions is normally limited to seven. (It
should be noted that the first derivative is equivalent to two infinitely
close points, the second derivative to three, etc.) However, since the
amount of work required to synthesize a mechanism for a seven-point
approximation is prohibitive, two parameters, at least, are assumed in
practice, giving correspondingly fewer points of agreement. (In a
five-point approximation, the following parameter combinations could
be assumed: both scale factors, one scale factor and one initial position,
one scale factor and one side ratio.) Should the resultant mechanism
prove unsatisfactory, e.g., by exceeding the permissible error margin,
then another attempt must be made, based on different assumptions.
Unfortunately, there are no rational methods for choosing the parameters,
and the designer must either be guided by past experience or simply rely
on good luck.
The following rules of thumb may serve as a rough guide for the start:
1. Ratio of ranges, ^ < A^/A< < 2.
2. Maximum range, A< and A^ < 120.
3. Maximum link ratio <3. (This limit ensures that the injurious
effect of unavoidable manufacturing tolerances on the accuracy of the
mechanism does not become too pronounced.)
11-7. Function Generation; Relative-rotocenter Method
The complex problem of coordinating the displacements of the output
and input links may be reduced to the simpler problem of guiding a body
through a number of prescribed positions. Consequently, the methods
discussed in the preceding sections of this chapter may be used in its
solution. The simplification is accomplished by the application of the
principle of inversion: one of the two links is temporarily regarded as
stationary, and the relative motion of the links is considered. The first
step consists in locating the positions, in the reference phase, of the roto-
centers associated with the relative motion. (In the following, since
there is no possibility of confusion, the relative rotocenter Rq, will be
denoted simply by R.)
Two Positions. Figure ll-25a shows a four-bar mechanism in two
distinct phases. The output link s has rotated through an angle ^12,
corresponding to a rotation <i2 of the input link q.
The position of the relative rotocenter Ru, in phase 1, may be deter-
mined in the following three ways:
1. Crank q is assumed to remain stationary in its phase qi = OqA i,
and the configuration of the mechanism of phase 2 is referred to it by
means of the rotation <f>u about Oq, as shown in Fig. 11-256. Because
of this rotation A2 moves to Ai, O, to O}1, and B2 to B11. Ru is then
located at the intersection of the normal bisectors of O,O}1 and BjBu.
It will be noted that the bisector of O,O}1 passes through Oq, and is
inclined at an angle <i2/2 to the line of centers O,O,.
285
Bisector [O, O"]
Bisector [5,5"]
Bisector [A 1A11]
Bisector [OqO"]
Fig. 11-25
2. Link s is assumed to remain stationary in its phase Si = O.B1, and
the configuration of phase 2 is referred to it by means of the rotation
î2 about O as indicated in Fig. 11-25c. Because of this rotation B2
moves to Bh 0, to O\1, and Ai to Au. The rotocenter Ru is then located
at the intersection of the normal bisectors of 0,OJ1 and A1Au, and it will
286
be observed that the bisector of OqOl* passes through O, and makes an
angle \pu/2 with the line of centers OqO,.
3. An inspection of Fig. 11-256 and c reveals that Ru may be located
simply by intersecting two rays drawn, respectively, through Oq and
0 at angles 4>u/2 and î2/2 to the line of centers OqO as shown
in Fig. 11-25a.
Three Positions. Figure 11-26 shows a four-bar mechanism in three
distinct positions. There are therefore three rotocenters associated
with the motion of s relative to q, namely, R12, Ru) and Ru-
Fig. 11-26
The positions of Ru and R13 are determined as in the two-position
problem. However, the determination of the location of R23 relative
to link q in its phase 31 requires further discussion. The intersection of
the rays drawn, respectively, at 023/2 and ^23/2 to the line of
centers OqO, through the appropriate pivot points defines the relative
rotocenter for the rotation 2-3 in phase 2oi the mechanism. Conse-
quently, this point is denoted by Rnm. Its position referred to qh
Ri>(1) = #23, is then obtained by rotating the ray OqR23(2) through 4>u-
Similarly, R23 referred to Si would be obtained by rotating the ray
0,fl23(2) through -^12.
287
The same argument may be extended to the construction of relative
rotocenters for more than three positions.
Relative Rotocenters in Slider-crank Mechanisms. Figure 11-27
shows the construction of the relative rotocenters in mechanisms which
embody a slider. The construction is self-explanatory. In Fig. 11-276,
(o)
Note: R = R0I
-o A
Fig. 11-27
the rotocenter Rn has been referred to q%. In order to refer it to Si,
#23(2) would have to be moved a distance lu.
Illustrative Example. Design a slider-crank mechanism for the genera-
tion of the function y = log x, with precision points at x = 1, 2, 3, and
4; that is, y = 0, 0.30103, 0.47712, and 0.60206. The independent
variable x is to be represented by the horizontal displacement of the
slider from right to left, and the dependent variable y by a counterclock-
wise rotation of the crank.
288
Solution. Because of the requirement of a four-point approximation,
three design parameters may be chosen arbitrarily. The most con-
venient ones to choose are the two scale factors and the initial position
of the crank. Here
ki = 1 in. per unit of x, giving Al = k1 Ax = Ax
and k$ = 100 per unit of y, giving A0 = fc* Ay = 100 Ay
Hence l = 1 in., lu * 2 in., lu = 3 in.
0U = 306', 0U = 4743', <t>u = 6012'
The synthesis of a four-position mechanism involves the construction
of Burmester's curve, which requires the determination of two related
rotocenter distances, in accordance with Table 11-1 for example, R^Ru
and #23#34. In Fig. 11-28, these centers have been referred to qt.
Burmester's curve
for the motion of
s relative to q
Fig. 11-28
Since any point on Burmester's curve is a theoretically possible location
for the hinge A in its phase A i, the choice of the initial position is arbi-
trary. With A1, Ai, A3, and Ai located on the crank circle, the construc-
tion of the initial position of the second coupler hinge B proceeds as
follows. The slider is assumed to be stationary in its phase s1, and the
289
relative positions of A are found by making A2 > A11 = lu,
As> A111 = Zis, and At> AIV = ln; Bi is the center of the
circumcircle of Ai, A11, A111, and AIV.
Note: It is theoretically possible to synthesize, by this method, a
mechanism for a five-point approximation. The choice of the initial
position of the hinge A would no longer be arbitrary. The point would
be located at the intersection of two Burmester's curves, developed,
respectively, with different sets of four positions. Of course, the solution
may prove impracticable.
11-8. Function Generation; Reduction of Point Positions1
Three Precision Positions. The three-position problem is trivial, and
is introduced here only as a means for explaining the principle of the
reduction of point positions.
B1 is center of circle
through A 1i A", A
FIG. 11-29
Since agreement between the specified and generated functions is
required in only three points, four design parameters are arbitrary.
The most convenient choice is that of the two scale factors k^, and k+, of
the initial position fa, and of the link ratio p/q. (The actual dimensions
of the links will not affect the solution, except for the over-all size of the
mechanism.) The assumptions lead to the values of fa2, fa3, ^12, and
^13, which must be satisfied by the design.
1 K. Ham, "Angewandte Getriebelehre," pp. 326-341, Hermann Schroedel Verlag,
Hannover, 1952; C. W. Allen, Point-position Reduction, Trans. Fifth Con/, on
Merhnnisms, 1958, pp. 181-193, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind.
290
Solution. In order to locate the position of the coupler hinge B, the
configurations of phases 2 and 3 are referred to the output link s in its
phase 1. B1 is the center of the circle through the three relative posi-
tions of A, which are obtained as follows:
A1 coincides with A1.
Au the ray O.A 2 is rotated through 0i2.
Alu the ray O,A3 is rotated through 0i3.
The basis of the method of reduction of point positions is the fact that
it is always possible to draw a circle through three points. In the four-
and five-point approximations, the design parameters are so chosen that
some relative positions of the point
A coincide and the total number of
their distinct positions is reduced to
three.
Four Precision Positions. In this
case, the assumed design parameters
are the scale factors k$ and fc^ (or
ranges 0i4 and 0i4). In order to
obtain only three distinct relative
positions of A, that is, in order to
ensure coincidence of the relative
positions An and An+1, the initial
position 0i of the input link must
be so chosen that the angle 0,+i
The link ratio p/q is then adjusted
is bisected by the line of centers OqOs
so that AOsA+1 = 0n.+i, as shown in Fig. 11-30
Hence
-(^r+V1)
sin
0n.
= cos
0n.
sin
0n,n4
n+1
n+1
tan
0,
n+l
(11-3)
(In this expression, the negative sign of 0,n+i is disregarded.)
Illustrative Example 1. Mechanize the function y = log x in the
range x = 1 to 10, with precision points at x1 1, y1 = 0; X2 = 4,
2/2 = 0.6021; x3 = 7, y3 = 0.8451; and x4 = 10, 2/4 = 1.0000.
Solution. With the arbitrary assumptions, k$ = 10 per unit of x
and k+ = 60 per unit of y, the link displacements are calculated as
i2 = fc,x12 = 10(4 - 1) = 30 i3 = 60 0i 4 = 90
and
0i 2 = hyu = -60(0.6021) = -368' 0 = -5042' 0 = -60
The design position is so chosen that one of the input angles, here 0i2,
is bisected by the line OqO and the corresponding link ratio p/q is
291
calculated by Eq. (11-3):
= cos 15 +
sin 15'
tan 184'
-, = 1.762
With the position of O, determined, the remainder of the solution
becomes elementary. The resultant mechanism is shown in Fig. 11-31.
Should the errors between precision points exceed the permissible
tolerances, then the alternative solutions, obtained by bisecting either
angle <23 or fat, might have to be investigated. Other changes which
could be made involve the redistribution of precision points within the
design range or variation of the assumed scale factors.
B! is center of circle
through A1,Aa,Am,ATf
FIG. 11-31
Five Precision Positions. If only three distinct relative positions of A
are to be obtained, then <t>i and the distribution of the precision points
must be so chosen that two input displacements <f>m,n are bisected by the
line OqO,. Thus the choice of the precision positions is no longer com-
pletely free. For this reason, only one design parameter, viz., fc$ may
be assumed at will.
Figure ll-32a shows an arrangement in which the crank positions 1, 4
and 2, 3 are symmetrically disposed with respect to OqO,. The problem
involves the determination of a link ratio p/q such that the output-
displacement ratio (Jfy, given by the linkage, is equal to that obtained by
calculation from the precision values of the specified function, where
"inner" output displacement _ A^j _ Ay.-
"outer" output displacement A^0 Ay0
(U-4)
ft,
Asymptote
Inner chord/ /Outer chord
This ratio corresponds to the input-displacement ratio R^,, similarly
denned by
__ "inner" input displacement _ A<^>, _ Az, - ,. . .^
* "outer" input displacement A</0 Az0
(In Fig. 11-32, ffi* =
and (R^ =
The solution is obtained by a trial-and-error procedure. A small
number of link ratios p/q between 1 and 3 is tried graphically, and the
corresponding angles A^, and A^0 are measured. Thus the approxi-
mate location of O, is soon established. Its exact position is found by
reiterative calculation.
Figure 11-326 shows a typical (R* versus p/q curve. It has the fol-
lowing characteristics:
1. (R^, has a maximum value of 1.
2. (R* = (R* at p/q = 0 and p/q = 1.
3. Between these values, Gfy is slightly smaller than (R^; outside this
range it is larger.
The last characteristic imposes a serious restriction on the type of
function capable of being mechanized to a five-point approximation by
the method of reduction of point positions:
A ?/ At Aw , \ll
(R* > (R* means that > -r-1 and consequently -~ > -r2-
that is, the function must be such that the slope of the "inner chord" is
larger than that of the "outer chord," as shown in Fig. 11-32c.
When applicable, the method of reduction of point positions has the
virtue of simplicity. However, the restrictions placed on the design by
the limited number of possible crank arrangements often preclude the
finding of a practicable solution. In general, the relative-rotocenter
method offers better prospects for the successful development of a useful
mechanism.
Illustrative Example 2. Mechanize the function y = sin* x within the
range 0 < x < 90, with precision points at xx 0, y1 0; x* = 2230',
2/2 = 0.1465; x3 = 45, y3 = 0.5000; x4 = 6730', yi = 0.8535; and
Xi = 90, 2/6 = 1.0000.
Solution. Because of the "central symmetry" of the given function,
a symmetrical crank arrangement may be expected to result in a good
solution. For this reason, a design is chosen in which the angles 4>n and
024 are bisected by the line of pivots OqOs, as shown in Fig. 11-33. The
scale factor k$ is assumed at 1 per degree of x. The required ratio ffl*
is computed as follows:
^ . yu _ yJLZJH = 0.707
2/i6 2/6 - 2/i
A trial-and-error procedure eventually yields p/q = 1.85, giving
<pls = 6330'
*24 = 4454'
and (R, = 0.7069
a very satisfactory agreement.
294
Hence
and
ki, = ^-s = 6330' per unit of y
2/15
* = 918' i
3145' +u = 5412'
With 0, located and the output rotations known, the relative positions
of A are constructed in the usual manner. A1 and Av coincide with A1,
Ob.O,
(0,0,) =p = 1.85g
Au and AIV form the second coincident pair, and A1u occupies the
third distinct position. Since the three point positions happen to be
collinear, a slider mechanism results. (B1, the second coupler hinge in
phase 1, lies in infinity, at right angles to the line A1AuAUI.)
Table 11-2. Errors in the Generated Function y = sin's
Input
Desired output
Generated output
Error
<t>l,n
(.Hn)t
(*..)
W'l.rOd (^!,n)d
029'
105'
+36'
10
155'
239'
+44'
15
415'
449'
+34'
2230'
918'
918'
30
1553'
1526'
-27'
35
2053'
2024'
-29'
40
2614'
2555'
-19'
45
3145'
3145'
295
The exact and generated functions are compared in Fig. 11-34, and
the calculated errors are shown in Table 11-2.
The maximum positive and negative errors may be equalized by a
slight increase of the "inner" range. Should the resultant maximum
Exact function
- - - - Generated function
10
'a
-i
60
40 50
4j>, degrees
(a)
40
90
10 20 ^--^
JL ^^"^ SO 60 ^
<t>, degrees
>^^_ 80^x^90
(b)
FIG. 11-34
error (about 36', or 1 per cent of the output range) be considered exces-
sive, then alternative designs, based on different values of the scale
factor fc^, would have to be investigated.
11-9. Function Generation; Overlay Method1
The overlay method is a graphical trial-and-error procedure which
yields a mechanism whose generated output has neither precision points
nor precision derivatives in common with the specified function, but
1 A. Svoboda, "Computing Mechanisms and Linkages," pp. 147-154, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1948.
296
whose deviation is kept within a narrow tolerance band throughout the
whole range. Either three or two design parameters are chosen arbi-
trarily, and the remaining ones are varied in a systematic manner until a
solution of acceptable accuracy is obtained.
O.
(b) Overlay
FIG. 11-35
Three-parameter Assumption. The chosen parameters are k$, k*, and
the coupler-crank ratio r/q. The design procedure is as follows:
1. The range of the function to be mechanized is suitably subdivided,
and the corresponding angular increments <f>m,n and \f/m,n are computed.
2. A layout is made, on a sufficiently large scale, of the successive
positions of the input crank, and with the assumed length of the coupler
as radius, a family of coupler circles is drawn, centered in the successive
positions of the crankpin A (Fig. ll-35a).
297
3. A separate layout is made, on transparent paper, of the successive
positions of the output link. In addition, marked on this overlay,
is a number of concentric circles, centered in O,, whose radii represent
possible lengths of the output link (Fig. 11-356).
4. The overlay is placed on the first layout and moved across it until
a position is found in which the coupler circles 1, 2, 3, etc., pass through
corresponding points B on one circle of the overlay. (In trying to
obtain the best fit, different overlay circles will be scanned in turn. It
may be necessary to interpolate.)
FIG. 11-36
Once a satisfactory fit is found, as shown in Fig. 11-36, the lengths of
the frame and of the output link and the initial position of the input
link relative to O,O, may be read off the drawing.
If, despite thorough scanning, no acceptable solution can be found,
one or the other of the initially assumed parameters must be changed,
and the procedure reiterated.
It is obvious that a change in the sign of k+ will have the effect of
reversing the sense of the overlay. It should be noted that the same
effect will be achieved by turning the overlay face down.
Two-parameter Assumption. The two chosen parameters are fc^, and
r/q. Because k+ is not known, it is not possible to construct a specific
298
overlay for a given output function. However, if the range Aj/ of the
dependent variable is subdivided into n intervals which increase in a
geometric progression, and an overlay is constructed of z angular spaces
(z > n) which increase in the same ratio as the function intervals, then
any n successive overlay spaces may be used to represent the n corre-
sponding increments of the output range A^. Thus this type of overlay
has general validity and may be used in the solution of any problem.
(In order to obtain a best fit, different sectors of the overlay will be
tried in turn.)
Table 11-3. General Overlay, Interval Ratio fffc = y/2
(Angular spacing measured from the reference line)
Line
Angle
Line
Angle
Line
Angle
100'
13
2512'
25
10436'
206'
14
2849'
26
11629'
319'
15
3249'
27
12936'
440'
16
3714'
28
144 06'
609'
17
4207'
29
16006'
748'
18
4730'
30
17745'
936'
19
5327'
31
19715'
1136'
20
6000'
32
21847'
1349'
21
299
Table 11-3 contains full data for the construction of a general overlay,
based on the arbitrarily selected interval ratio (R,- = -\/2, which doubles
every eighth space. Figure 11-37 shows a portion of this overlay.
From the design point of view it is advantageous to have the input
range subdivided as evenly as possible. For this reason, in the case of
a function with increasing slope, as shown in Fig. 11-38a, Ay is divided
so that the smallest interval is at the lower end of the range, and the
opposite arrangement is chosen for a function with decreasing slope, as
shown in Fig. 11-386.
60^
to
go a*
2J
(a)
jjj 1ncreas1ng
(b)
- decreasing
Fig. 11-38
Table 11-4 lists magnitudes of the output intervals as fractions of the
total range, for subdivisions into 4, 6, and 8 spaces. The values are
based on the interval ratio (R, - = -\/2.
Illustrative Example. Mechanize the function y = logio x, between
the limits 1 < x < 10, with the range divided into six intervals.
Solution. The input range and the coupler-crank ratio are assumed.
The chosen values are A0 = 60, giving k$ = A0/Ax = ^- = 6f per
unit of x, and r/q = 1.5.
Table 11-4 yields the following values for the output intervals (Ay = 1,
dy/dx decreasing):
2/78 = 0.1282, 2/75 = 0.2698, yu = 0.4262
j/73 = 0.5989, 2/72 = 0.7895, yn = 1.0000
Hence, with j/i = 0, 2/7 = 1, and <t>m,n = k^cm,n,
2/1 = 0
2/2 = 0.2105
2/3 = 0.4011
2/4 = 0.5738
2/6 = 0.7302
X1
x3
Xi
Xi
1.000
1.624
2.519
3.748
5.373
xu = 0.624
X13 = 1.519
Z14 = 2.748
xu = 4.373
xi = 6.444
2/, = 0.8718 x, = 7.444
2/7 = 1.0000 x7 = 10.000 xn = 9.000
*i 2 = 410'
0i, = 1008'
*i< = 1820'
*u = 2910'
*u = 4258'
0,r = 6000'
Table 11-4. Interval Magnitudes Based on (Ri = y/2
dy.
Number of intervals, n
-4
increasing
Vu
>/u
Vu
dx
Per cent of Ay
21.42
45.06
71.17
100.00
decreasing
dx
Vm
1/62
1/61
dy .
Number of intervals,
n=6
increasing
2/u
2/u
yu
2/u
2/17
dx
Per cent of Ay
12.82
26.98
42.62
59.89
78.95
100.00
dy
decreasing
2/75
2/74
2/73
2/72
2/71
dx
Number of intervals,
n=8
increasing
dx
2/12
2/u
2/
2/15
2/1
2/17
2/18
2/19
Per cent of Ay
8.62
18.13
28.63
40.23
53.03
67.17
82.77
100.00
301
11-40, which shows its location in crossed and open mechanisms, makes it
obvious that the method is more suited to the former arrangement.
The approximation is based on two precision points cum derivatives,
generally, but not necessarily, corresponding to the extremes of the
Fio. 11-39
range, and precision derivatives at a number of selected values of the
independent variable. The solution proceeds as follows:
1. The scale factors fc^ and fc^ and the link ratio q/p are assumed.
2. The pole distances l, corresponding to the prescribed or selected n
values of x or <t>, are calculated and marked off on p [Eq. (10-14)]:
(R
l = pj positive in direction Og > O,
(H 1
where
d\f/ Jcj, dy
d<t> k$ dx
(11-6)
(11-7)
3. The initial position Af is chosen arbitrarily on the crank circle.
(Because < AfOqA+ = A<, the choice of Af also determines the position
302
of A+.) The coupler positions AfPi and A+Pn are drawn in, and the
coupler length A+B+ is adjusted until Bf and B+ lie on the same circular
arc, centered in O,.
(a)
ToP
4. The resultant output angle \f/^n is compared with the required
value. If, as is usually the case at the first attempt, the two angles
differ, the construction is reiterated
with different positions Af, until the
desired output range is obtained.
5. After this stage has been reached,
the intermediate coupler positions
are drawn in. If the corresponding
points B+ do not fall on the same
circle as B| and B+, as shown in
Fig. 11-41, the whole procedure is
repeated with varying link ratios q/p
until either a satisfactory solution is
found or the conclusion is reached
that the assumed scale factors are
unsuitable.
Because of the rational way of scan-
ning each assumed crank ratio, which,
with some practice, takes only 10 to 15 min, this approach leads to the re-
sult more quickly than the overlay method with a "free" output scale.
303
Illustrative Example. Mechanize the function y = log x, between
the limits 1 < x < 10, with precision points at x = 1 and 10 and precision
derivatives at x = 1, 2, 4, 7, and 10.
Solution. Ax = 9, and Ay 1. Assume
and
A<f> = 60; that is k, = ^ = ^ per unit of x
A$ = -90; that is, fcf = ^ = -90 per unit of y
Fig. 11-42
The pole distances are calculated by Eqs. (11-6) and (11-7), where
-*- -13.5^429
/C4, OX
giving h = 0.854p, Z2 = 0.746p, h = 0.594p
Z4 = 0.456p, h = 0.369p
The best possible solution (but not a very satisfactory one) obtainable
with the chosen scale factors is shown in Fig. 11-42. The particulars
of the mechanism are
2 = 0.710 - = 1.028
= 0.573 <t>1 - 3100'
304
11-11. Path Generation; Hrones's and Nelson's Motion Atlas1
Path generation is the synthesis of mechanisms for the production of
specified closed curves possessing certain desirable characteristics, or
the guiding of points through a number of prescribed positions.
The utilization of coupler curves in the design of single-dwell mechanisms
has been suggested previously in Figs. 11-11 and 11-18. Other uses
include straight-line motions of engine indicators, special indexing devices,
double-dwell linkages, and applications associated with agricultural,
textile, and food-processing machinery.
segment 2, center at D2, radius DC
\\ /-Path segment 1, center at D1i radius DC
Hrones's and Nelson's Motion Atlas contains some 7,000 coupler curves,
obtained with an electronically operated four-bar mechanism whose link
ratios were varied in a systematic manner. In each setting, the coupler
carried a considerable number of tracing points, arranged in a grid
pattern.
If a given curve is to be produced by mechanical means, the pages of
the Atlas are scanned until a family of coupler curves is found whose
members appear to have the desired general shape. Corresponding to
each coupler curve, a separate overlay of the given curve is then con-
1 J. A. Hrones and G. L. Nelson, "Analysis of the Four-bar Linkage," John Wiley
& Sons Inc., New York, 1951.
INTRODUCTION TO SYNTHESIS; GRAPHICAL METHODS 30")
structed, so that the major axes of both are equal, and their shapes are
compared in detail. The procedure is laborious, but often yields a
mechanism which will generate the specified curve within an acceptable
error margin.
The Atlas is also useful as an aid in the design of dwell linkages. For
example, the mechanism of Fig. 11-43, with a rise-dwell-fall-dwell
motion pattern of the rocker u, was developed in this manner. Its basic
four-bar linkage pqrs was obtained as a result of a methodical search of
the Atlas, aimed at finding a coupler curve which had two appropriately
spaced segments of finite length with the same curvature. The linkage
has the proportions q/p = and r/p = s/p = %, and as far as can be
ascertained with ordinary drawing instruments, the path of the coupler
point C, denned by < ABC = 90 and BC/p = 1.6/3, satisfies the
essential requirements.
11-12. Path Generation; Reduction of Point Positions1 (Fixed Pivot
Coincident with Rotocenter)
As in the case of function generation, the method of reduction of point
positions provides a simple approach, of somewhat limited scope, to
problems of path generation. The basis of the method will again be
explained by means of the trivial three-point construction, and the
procedure will then be extended to the more complex problems involving
four, five, and six specified positions of a point.
Three-point Synthesis. In Fig. 11-44, the coupler point C is required
to pass through the three prescribed positions Ci, C2, and 3. If no
other requirements are to be met, the problem admits a sixfold infinity
(o6) of solutions because of the free choice of the following design
parameters: position of O, (2 d.o.f.), direction of the base line and
position of Oq (2 d.o.f.), length OqA of the crank (1 d.o.f.), and the
distance between C and A (1 d.o.f.).
The position of hinge B is found by means of kinematic inversion, i.e.,
by keeping the coupler stationary in its phase TI and moving the frame.
The relative positions of O, are found, therefore, by making
AAid0," = AA,C,0. and A^d0J" = A^3C30.
Bj is located at the center of the circumcircle of the triangle O,O}1O}11.
In the synthesis of mechanisms for more than three prescribed point
positions, the arbitrary design parameters are so chosen that some rela-
tive positions of O, coincide, leaving three distinct positions through which
a circle can be drawn.
1 K. Main, "Angewandte Oetriebelehre," pp. 326-341, Hermann Sohroeder Verlag,
Hannover, 1952.
306
Four-point Synthesis. In order to achieve the required reduction of
point positions, the fixed pivot O, of the driven link is made to coincide
with one of the rotocenters of the coupler, for example, [Rr]u, as shown
in Fig. 11-45. (The actual position of these points on the normal
bisector [WC]i 4 is completely arbitrary.) As a consequence of this
artifice, AI and At are symmetrically disposed with respect to the
arbitrarily chosen base-line
(Because A is a point on q, A
O, coincides with [Rr]u, AI
< AiO.A4 = î4.)
direction O,Oq, and < AiO,Oy =
and
and
A4 are equidistant from Og; because
At are equidistant from O,, and
! is center of circle
through OÔJ' and OJ"
FIG. 11-44
The distance O.Ai is arbitrary, but once assumed, determines the
length CA. The position of Oq on the base line is also arbitrary, but
once assumed, fixes the crank length OqA. The intermediate positions
of A(A2 and A3) are marked on the crank circle [(C2A2 = CiAi), etc.],
and the relative positions of O, constructed in the usual manner. Because
of the coincidence of O, with [Rr]u, 0,IV coincides with O} = O,, and the
number of distinct point positions is reduced to three.
The problem has a fourfold infinity of solutions (4), as follows:
position of O. on [nc] (1 d.o.f.), direction of base line and position of
Og on it (2 d.o.f.), distance between C and A (1 d.o.f.).
Five-point Synthesis. In this case O, is made to coincide with two
rotocenters simultaneously. It is therefore located at the intersection
of two normal bisectors in one of the following combinations (one point
307
pair must enclose the other) :
[nc]u
The direction of the base line O,Oq is arbitrary.
In Fig. 11-46, 0B has been made to coincide with [Rr]n and [Rr]3t-
Consequently, AiO,Og = ^16/2 and $. A3O,Oq = ^34/2. Points A\
through O.,0?, Of
FIG. 11-45
and A 3 are located on the respective rays with an arbitrarily assumed
length CA, and 0, is found at the intersection of the base line with the
normal bisector [nA]n. A2 is marked on the crank circle, and the relative
positions of O, are constructed. As a consequence of the particular
location of O,, O? coincides with O] = O,, O}v coincides with 0J11, and
O1 1 occupies the third distinct position.
The number of possible solutions has been reduced to a twofold infinity
(o2), namely, direction of the base line (1 d.o.f.) and distance between
C and A (1 d.o.f.).
308
Six-point Synthesis. Normally, the coupler point is not merely
required to pass through a number of discrete positions, but to trace a
specific path on which certain design positions are chosen. It is possible
to extend the five-point construction to six points, provided the sixth
design position is located on the same circle, centered at 0 as the
"unattached" fifth position. Thus the three rotocenters [Rr]u, [Rrhs,
and [ftr] 34 are made to coincide with O as shown in Fig. 11-47.
B! is center of circle
through 0],0", O"1
The only arbitrary choice is that of the direction of the base line.
After the rays oi, 02, and a3 have been drawn, a suitable length CA+ is
assumed. With this length, the points Af, A$, and A^ are located on
the corresponding rays, and the center 0+ of their circumcircle con-
structed. If, as is normally the case with the first random attempt, 0+
does not fall on the chosen base line, the construction is reiterated with
different lengths CA+, and the locus of O+ developed. The intersection
of this locus with the base line yields the true position of Oq. Next, the
309
correct distance CA is determined by interpolation, the actual positions
of A are marked on the rays, and the relative positions of O, constructed.
0.VI coincides with O} = O,, 0,v with 0.11, 0JV with 0.m, and Bi is located
at the center of the circumcircle.
The number of potential solutions has been reduced to a single infinity,
because of the arbitrary choice of the base-line direction. Thus it would
through O.,Olf,O
FIG. 11-47
be possible to go a step further and specify a seventh design position.
The solution would consist in a systematic search for a particular base
line which would permit drawing a circle through four distinct relative
positions of O,.
11-13. Path Generation; Reduction of Point Positions (Moving Hinge
Coincident with Rotocenter)
The reduction of point positions, accomplished by placing the fixed
pivot O, in one of the rotocenters of the coupler, has certain limitations.
310
For instance, it does not lend itself to the synthesis of coupler curves
suitable for the derivation of double-dwell linkages with extended dwell
periods. The shortcomings are overcome to a large extent by the
variant of the method in which the moving hinge B, rather than the
pivot, is made to occupy the same position as the coupler rotocenter.
FIG. 11-48
Thus, in general, two approaches are available to the designer; should
one fail to produce the desired result, the other could be successful.
Four-point Synthesis. Figure 11-48 shows four positions, Ci, C2, C3,
and C"4, which are to be traversed by the coupler point C. As shown in
the preceding section, the problem has a fourfold infinity of solutions.
In order to accomplish the required reduction of point positions, the
moving hinge B is made to coincide in two positions of the coupler with
the corresponding rotocenter, for example, [Rr}u, whose position on the
normal bisector [nc]u is entirely arbitrary. Also arbitrary is the position
of the fixed hinge Oq. Because of the coincidence of fi1|4 with [Rr]u
the coupler positions BiAi and BzAz are symmetrical with respect to
the line Bi,tOq and are inclined to it at an angle Xu/2, where XH is the
angular displacement of the coupler between positions 1 and 4; that is,
The last design parameter to be chosen is either the length CA or the
crank length OqA. The intermediate positions of A and B can now be
located; for example, CzAz CiAi, which determines the position of
A 2 on the crank circle, and the position of B2 is found with A2B2 = AiBi,t
and C2JB2 = CiBiA. The fixed pivot O, is located at the center of the
circle through Bi,4, B2, and B3.
Although not used in the solution of the problem, the following kine-
matic properties should be noted (Fig. 11-48). In the inversion, in
which the coupler is kept stationary in the phase ri, the four relative
positions of Oq lie on a circle centered at AI; furthermore, the rays
BnOq = BiÔ] and Bi,40Jv are symmetrical in relation to the line Bi,tAi
and are inclined to it at Xi4/2.
Five-point Synthesis. The moving hinge B is made to occupy two
double positions, coincident with the respective rotocenters. In Fig.
11-49, Bi,6 coincides with [.RJis, and Bs,4 with [/2r]s4. The point pairs
must be chosen so that, in the sequence in which the point positions are
to be traversed, one pair encloses the other. Consequently, the following
combinations of rotocenters are possible:
[Rr]ib [flr]24j [Rr]16 [Rr]^; [Rr]16 [Rr]!H;
[Rr]14 [Rr]^'t [Rr}z6 [Rr]34
The distance CB and the direction of the line Bi,6Oq are arbitrary, but
the position of Oq on this line is no longer so, as will be seen from the
following.
In Fig. ll-49a, Oq has been located in an arbitrary position on the ray
Bi,6Oq. O\ = Oq, 01,11, 0JV, and Ovq are the positions occupied by Oq in
the inversion in which the coupler is kept stationary in its phase rI.
Normally, with Oq chosen at random, these points will not satisfy the
essential requirement that they lie on one and the same circle. To
ensure this condition, the rays Si,60J and Bi,sO must be mirror images,
with respect to the line Bi.iAi, of the rays Bi,6O\ and Bi,6O\11; that is,
and
Nvt-u
Fig. 11-49
as shown in Fig. 11-496. In this diagram, the ray B3,tOq is inclined to
the normal bisector [nc]u at an angle
and the ray Bi,6Oq is inclined to the normal bisector [ncjis at
Thus, since the rays JBi,60g and B3itOq make equal angles with the corre-
sponding bisectors, the angle included by them (vertex Oq) is equal to
the angle included by the bisectors (vertex ^15.34) ; i.e.,
< B1,lOqB3,4 = .81,6^15-34.83,4
which proves that the points Oq, B1i6 B3,4, and #15.34 (the point of
intersection of the normal bisectors [nc]is and [nc]n) lie on the periphery
of one circle. This circle, denoted by k ] 5.34, is the locus of all possible
positions of Oq. With Oq located at the intersection of the chosen
position line Bi,6Oq with k16.3t, the positions of Oq relative to ri are
constructed and A i is located at the center of the circle through
O\ = Oq, 0J 07 and 0y
The crank length q and the distance AC are thus determined. Next,
the positions of A2 and 52 are found, and the mechanism is completed
by locating O, at the center of the circle through J5i,6 B2, and #3,4.
(CzAz = CiAi marks the position of AI on the crank circle; A 2,82 = AiBi
and CzB2 = CiBi determine the position of B2.)
Six-point Synthesis. The above construction may be extended to six
point positions. The problem has a single infinity of solutions, due to
the arbitrary choice of the length CB. The coupler hinge B is made to
occupy the three double positions Bi,e = [Rr]u, #2,5 = [Rrlu, and
B3,4 = [Rr]3t, and O, is located at the center of the corresponding circum-
circle. Oq is determined by the condition that it must lie simultaneously
on the circles fci6.25 and fci6-34.
Figure 11-50, which is self-explanatory, shows the application of the
construction to the design of a double-dwell mechanism. In practice, the
standstill periods of the rocker arm may have to correspond to definite
intervals of the motion cycle. The required correlation may be obtained
by making q the output link, or follower, of a drag-link mechanism,
placed in series with the double-dwell linkage. The coordination of the
314
positions of the uniformly rotating primary driver (determined by the
time requirements) with the positions qiq3 and qtq^ (which define the
dwell periods) is accomplished by means of Burmester's curve.
["cl
Crank circle B, center O,
-_. Dwell circle 4-5-6
FIG. 11-50
11-14. Path Generation; Roberts's Theorem1
The theorem states that the curve generated by a given coupler point
of a four-bar mechanism can be reproduced by two other four-bar
mechanisms, coplanar with the first. It is of practical importance
because it offers the designer concerned with the synthesis of a mechanism
for the generation of a particular curve two additional alternatives,
either of which may prove to be more favorable than the original design
as regards transmission angles or space requirements.
1 S. Roberts, On Three-bar Motion in Plane Space, Proc. London Math. Soc., no. 7,
pp. 14-23, 1876; R. S. Hartenberg and J. Denavit, The Fecund Four-bar, Trans.
Fifth Con/, on Mechanisms, pp. 194-206, 1958, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind.
315
Figure 11-51 shows the primary four-bar mechanism, p = OgO,,
q = OqA, r = ABC, s = O,B, to which additional links are attached,
as follows.
On the left, links OgD and DCE, such that OqD and DC form a parallelo-
gram with AC and OqA, and ADCE is similar to AABC.
On the right, links O,F and CFG, such that O,F and FC form a parallelo-
gram with BC and O,B, and ACFG is similar to AABC.
Finally, the links EH and GH are added, which form a parallelogram
with CG and CE.
Length
(C)
FIG. 11-51
The resultant 10-link mechanism has 13 lower pairs (two each at Oq, O,,
and C, and one each at A, B, D, E, F, G, and H) and is therefore constrained:
By Eq. (4-1), / = 3(n - 1) - 2l = 3(9) - 2(13) = 1
It will be shown now that throughout the motion of this compound
mechanism, point H remains stationary, so that the linkage could be
pin-connected there to the frame without affecting its mobility. If
this is so, then the 10-link mechanism may be split up into three separate
four-bar mechanisms, as shown in Fig. 11-52, each of which will give the
identical coupler curve for C.
The coordinates x and y of the point 0< = H, in Fig. 11-51, are cal-
culated as follows:
316
x = - c cos (X + a) + - q cos (<t> + a) + - s cos (^ + a - 180)
ccc
= - c cos (X + a) + - q cos (<t> + a) s cos (^ + a)
ccc
= - [(c cos X + q cos <f> s cos ^) cos a
and similarly,
(c sin X + q sin <t> s sin ^) sin a]
y = - [(c cos X + g cos < s cos ^) sin a
+ (c sin X + g sin < s sin *) cos a]
To ^2 at intersection
\ with GO, extended
FIG. 11-52
However, from the quadrilateral OqABO,,
and
Hence
Consequently,
and
c cos X + q cos < s cos ^ = p
c sin X + q sin <t> s sin ^ = 0
6,6
x = - p cos a
tan
and
y = - p sin
0,0,0, = = tan a
(a)
(6)
(c)
317
Equations (6) and (c) not only prove that 0< is a fixed point, but also
show that the triangles OqO,Ot and ABC are similar.
Figure 11-53 shows the construction of the cognate mechanisms for the
special case in which the tracing point C is located on the line AB.
Except that the four triangles degenerate into the similar line segments
ABC, DCE, CFG, and OqO.O,, the construction is identical with that of
Fig. 11-51. (Note sequence of letters!)
The following additional kinematic properties are easily deduced:
1. The instantaneous velocity poles Pr, Pri, and Pr, of the three
couplers (Fig. 11-52) and the tracing point C are collinear in the com-
pound configuration of Fig. 11-51, and the line containing them is
perpendicular to the coupler curve. (This property follows from the
fact that the velocity of a point is normal to its instantaneous radius.)
2. Since DC is always parallel to OqA, and OtG to EC,
Similar considerations yield
tl = o>rj = w.
and
These relationships lead to the conclusion that the following combi-
nations of cognate mechanisms are possible:
1. Two crank-rocker mechanisms and one double-rocker mechanism
2. Three drag-link mechanisms
3. Three double-rocker mechanisms
Roberts's construction may be applied also to slider-crank mechanisms.
Following the general rules, while noting that O, is at infinity, it will be
found that one of the cognate mechanisms vanishes. Thus there exist
only two slider-crank mechanisms which will produce the same coupler
curve. However, this extension of the theorem is of little practical
value.
CHAPTER 12
INTRODUCTION TO SYNTHESIS;
ANALYTICAL METHODS
The main advantage of the analytical approach to synthesis is its
extreme accuracy. Unfortunately, this superiority over graphical
methods is more than offset by a number of adverse features. For
instance, the absence of progressive physical images of the mechanism
precludes the introduction of desirable modifications during the develop-
mental stage, and the result, obtained after lengthy and laborious
computations, may prove to be completely impracticable. Moreover,
because it is difficult, if not impossible, to assess intelligently the effects
of parametric changes on the design, the method often degenerates into
a tedious trial-and-error procedure. Its full potentialities can be
realized only with the aid of a high-speed digital computer.
12-1. Function Generation; Freudenstein's Equation1
If the links of a four-bar mechanism are regarded as directed line ele-
ments, as shown in Fig. 12-1, then
r cos X = p + s cos \p q cos 4> (a)
and r sin X = s sin \p + q sin <t> (b)
Squaring and addition of Eqs. (a) and (b) yields the relation
r2 = p2 -f q* -f s2 + 2ps cos ^ 2pq cos <t> 2qs cos (0 \p) (c)
which, with the introduction of the side ratios
, = (*, = ? P' + 9M-s'-r2
q s 2qs
reduces to <R( (R, cos <t> + 61, cos \p = cos (<t> 4d (12-2)
Equation (12-2), first derived by Freudenstein, forms the basis of a
1 F. Freudenstein, Approximate Synthesis of Four-bar Linkages, Trans. ASME,
vol. 77, no. 6, pp. 853-861, 1955.
319
320
powerful analytical approach to synthesis. It is adaptable to both the
precision-point and precision-derivative methods of function generation.
The following will be recalled from the discussion of Chap. 11. In
the first method, the generated and specified functions agree in a number
of discrete precision points, and everywhere else an unavoidable structural
error e is introduced, whose magnitude depends on the spacing of the
precision points and the nature of the function. (The lowest maximum
error is obtained with a spacing in which e reaches the same value between
each pair of precision points and between the limits of the range and the
adjacent precision points.) In the second method, the generated and ideal
functions agree in one point and have a number of derivatives in common.
FIG. 12-1
As a preliminary step to the design of a function generator, the given
function y = f(x) is converted into the function ^ = /(<) by means of the
linear transformation equations
and
<t> = fc^c + <fr>
or
or
8<t> = k$ 8x
d$ = A> 8y
(12-3)
where k$, k+ = scale factors, degrees per unit of variable
<t>o, ô = values of <t> and ^ corresponding, respectively, to x = 0
and y = 0
Equations (12-2) and (12-3) demonstrate anew that seven independent
design parameters are involved in the mechanization of a function by
means of a four-bar mechanism, viz., the three side ratios, the two scale
factors, and the angles <0 and ^0 (or the initial positions fa and ^,).
Consequently, the maximum possible number of points of agreement
between the generated and specified functions is seven, e.g., seven pre-
cision positions; one precision position with six precision derivatives;
two precision positions, one with four and the other with three deriva-
tives. In practice, however, at least two parameters are assumed, so
that the maximum number of attainable points of agreement is reduced to
five.
synthesis: analytical methods 321
12-2. Function Generation; Precision-point Approximation
As in the preceding chapter, precision points will be designated by
fa, fa n = 1, 2, 3, etc.
while the limits of the range will be denoted by the new symbols
<t>i, fa fa, fa
The initial point fa, fa may, but need not, coincide with the first precision
point fa, fa..
Three Precision Points. The chosen parameters are ft*, ft*, fa, and
fa. The precision values are computed by means of Eq. (12-3), as
follows:
fa = fa + <t>i.n = fa + ft*i,7i, etc.
Substitution of these values into Eq. (12-2) yields three equations from
which the three side ratios may be calculated:
(R( (R, cos fa + (R9 cos fa. = cos (fa \p1)
(Rj (R, cos fa + (R, cos fa> = cos (fa fa)
(R( (R, cos fa + (R, cos fa, = cos (fa fa,)
Four Precision Points. The parameters assumed are ft*, ft*, and fa,
leading to the following four equations:
(R, (R, cos fa + 91, cos (fa + fa,1) = cos [(fa fa,1) - fa]
(R, (R, cos fa + (R9 cos (fa + fa,2) = cos [(fa fa.i) - fa]
(R( (R, cos 03 + (R9 cos (& + fa,3) = cos [(fa fa,3) fa]
(R, - (R, cos fa + (R, cos (fa + faA) = cos [(fa - fa,i) - fa]
Gradual elimination of the side ratios yields a cubic equation in tan fa,
of the form
wii tan3 fa + m2 tan2 fa + m3 tan fa + ml = 0
(For details of the coefficients m, the reader is referred to Freudenstein's
original paper.) With fa and fa known, the side ratios are found as in the
three-point approximation.
Five-point Approximation. The arbitrary choice of ft* and ft* leads to
the following equations:
(R, - (R, cos (fa + fa,l) + (R, cos (fa + faA) = cos [(fa,1 - faA) + fa - fa]
(Rt - (R, cos (fa + fa,i) + (R, cos (fa + fa,i) = cos [(fa,i - fa,i) + fa- fa]
(Rt - (R cos (fa + fa,3) + (R, cos (fa + fa,3) = cos [(fa,3 - fa,3) + fa- fa]
(R( - (R. cos (fa + <fc,) + (R, cos (fa + ^,-,4) = cos [(faA - faA) + fa - fa]
(R, - (R, cos (fa + fa,t) + (R, cos (fa + fa,s) = cos [(fa,s - fa.t) + fa- fa]
Gradual elimination of the side ratios yields, after extremely tedious and
lengthy algebraic operations, the following expressions, which must be
solved simultaneously:
tan <t>i = ^r (-Fi y/Fi* - WJ)
and tan *, = [-F'2 y/{Ftf - 4F[F'3]
where F1, F2, and F3 are cubic expressions in tan ^t-, and F[, F2, and F'3
are similar expressions in tan #,-. (For details of these expressions, the
reader is referred to Freudenstein's original paper.) After 0,- and \pf have
been computed, the side ratios are determined as in the three-point
approximation. The solution of a particular problem, based on the use
of a desk calculator, may take 10 to 12 weeks.
12-3. Function Generation; Precision-derivative Approximation
Preliminary Work. As a preliminary step in the mechanization of a
function y = f(x) by the method of precision derivatives, it is necessary
to convert its derivatives into corresponding derivatives of the function
+ =/(*):
, _ d\p _ d\p dy dx
d<t> dy dx d<t>
But, by Eq. (12-3),
d\p = k+ dy and d<t> = k^ dx
Hence *'= rV (12-4)
Further $" =
and +" = Wy" (12"5)
Similarly $" = t y"' (12-6)
and +"" = t y"" (12-7)
Substitution of the prescribed values of these derivatives into the basic
equations yields the conditions which determine the particular linkage.
Basic Equations. The basic equations are obtained by successive
differentiations of Eq. (12-2).
Freudenstein's equation:
(R( (Rs cos <t> + & cos \p = cos (<t> iA) (12-2)
First derivative:
R, sin <t> - Rjj,' sin ^ = - (1 - <A') sin (<*> - $) (12-8)
*'
fC,f,
d<t>
d-ty' dy1 dx
dy' dx d<t>
v2'
V"
kfy
^""
SYNTHESIS: ANALYTICAL METHODS 323
Second derivative:
R, cos </> - tfJW1')2 cos ^ + V sin }}
= i(>" sin (< - $ - (1 - ^')2 coa (0 - tf) (12-9)
Third derivative:
ff, sin <t> + Rg{3W cos ^ + W''" - (^')31 sin ^}
= -3(1 - W' cos (*-*)- [*"' + (1 - ^)3] sin (< - *) (12-10)
Fourth derivative:
R, cos < +
= [3(,n2 - (1 - VY - 4(1 - Wl cos (* - *)
- [*"" - 6(1 - ^)V] sin (<t> - tf) (12-11)
Third-order Approximation. The arbitrary design parameters are the
scale factors k$ and k+ and the link positions <f>p and ^p which define the
chosen precision point. The known values, that is, <t>p, lf/p, \l/'p, and \l/'p ,
are substituted into Eqs. (12-2), (12-8), and (12-9), yielding three equa-
tions from which the side ratios can be computed.
Fourth-order Approximation. The arbitrary parameters are fc^, fc^,
and <t>p. Substitution of the known values into Eqs. (12-2), (12-8),
(12-9), and (12-10) and progressive elimination of the side ratios leads
to an equation of the form
Mi tan4 $p + nz tan3 \f/p + I*3 tan2 ll/p + m tan \f/p + ^5 = 0
After \l/p has been found, the side ratios are computed as in the third-
order approximation.
Fifth-order Approximation. The arbitrary parameters are kt and fc^.
The known values are substituted into Eqs. (12-2) and (12-8) to (12-11).
Elimination of the side ratios and of the angle $p finally yields the
equation
Xi tan6 \f/p + X2 tan4 $p + X3 tan3 $P + X4 tan2 $p + X6 tan $p + X6 = 0
After $p has been found, <t>p and the side ratios are determined from the
intermediate equations obtained during the reduction process.
12-4. Path Generation1
Using the complex-number representation of vectors (Fig. 12-2),
Freudenstein and Sandor have developed a very elegant approach to the
1 F. Freudenstein and G. N. Sandor, Synthesis of Path-generating Mechanisms by
Means of a Programmed Digital Computer, Trans. ASME, vol. 81B, no. 2, pp.
159-168, 1959; G. N. Sandor and F. Freudenstein, Kinematic Synthesis of Path-
generating Mechanisms by Means of the IBM 650 Computer, IBM 650 Program
Library File 9.5.003.
synthesis of four-bar mechanisms for the purpose of generating a path
through four or five arbitrary points, with prescribed crank rotations.
The four-point synthesis is still manageable with the aid of a desk
calculator, but the five-point synthesis demands the use of a high-speed
electronic computer. The procedure has been programmed to suit the
IBM 650 digital computer, which automatically determines all existing
solutions (a maximum of 12 linkages), selects one on the basis of a
FIG. 12-2
"quality index," and then computes the coordinates of the tracing point
for 1 increments of crank rotation.
The usual quality index is defined as
Q = Â*
where zmln, zoaa. = minimum and maximum skeletal dimensions of linkage
(including distances between coupler hinges and
tracing point)
A< = range of rotation of driving link
Because of the desirability of an unrestricted crank rotation, the quality
index is weighted 2 to 1 in favor of linkages possessing this character-
istic, by setting A< = 4ir, rather than 2w.
12-5. Synthesis of Four-bar Mechanisms for Specified Instantaneous
Conditions; Method of Components1
The configuration, velocity, and acceleration diagrams of the four-bar
mechanism shown in Fig. 12-3 are defined by the vector equations:
Configuration diagram: p + s = q + r
Velocity diagram: VB = VA + VBA
Acceleration diagram: &B &A + &BA
By resolving each vector into components in the direction of the x and
y axes, these vector equations can be replaced by six algebraic equations :
1 J. Hirschhorn, The Synthesis of Four-bar Mechanisms by the Method of Com-
ponents, ASME J. Appl. Mechanics, vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 22-24, 1957.
SYNTHESIS: ANALYTICAL METHODS
325
qx + rx = sz + p
Qu t~ fy ^ 0
+ TzWr =
+ ryar =
+ 7yor2 rxotr =
These equations contain 13 variables, viz. :
sya,
(12-12)
(12-13)
(12-14)
(12-15)
(12-16)
(12-17)
The projections qx and qy of the driving link, its angular velocity W3,
and angular acceleration a,
O, p O, x
(a) Configuration diagram
(c) Acceleration diagram
(b) Velocity diagram
FIG. 12-3
The projections rx and ry of the coupler, its angular velocity <ar, and
angular acceleration ar
The projections sz and sy of the driven link, its angular velocity a>,, and
angular acceleration a,
The length of the fixed link, p
With the aid of these equations, problems of synthesis in which seven
of the parameters are prescribed may be solved either directly or by the
method of gradual approach.
Illustrative Example 1. The following design parameters are specified:
Fixed link: Length p
Driving link: w, and a,
Driven link: Length s, position <p, = arctan > w and a.
(A similar procedure to that outlined below would be adopted if the data
for the driving and driven links were interchanged.)
General Solution. By combining Eq. (12-12) with Eq. (12-15), and
Eq. (12-13) with Eq. (12-14), the following equations are obtained in
which qx, qy, rx, and ry are expressed in terms of the unknown angular
velocity wr and the prescribed quantities:
Sz(w. o>r) pwr
qz = (a)
CO, - C0r
qy = "'- u' ^
rx = - ? (c)
= sy(W, C0,_
COg C0r
Next, Eqs. (12-16) and (12-17) are combined to eliminate ar, giving
UJ(qxrx + qyry) + aq(qyrx qxry) + ur2(rx2 + rv2)
= w.^rxSz + rysy) + a,(rxsy rysx) (e)
Substitution of Eqs. (a) to (d) into Eq. (e) yields a quadratic equation
in of the form
One root of this equation is equal to uq, giving infinitely long links q
and r, while the other root, which represents the actual angular velocity
of the coupler, is given by the expression
-,-!-.. m
Numerical Example 1. The mechanism shall satisfy the following
particulars:
Fixed link: p = 3.375 in.
Driving link: wg = 10 rad/sec aq = 0
Driven link: sx = 4 in. sy 4.625 in. w, = 5 rad/sec
a. = 10 rad/sec2
From Eq. (a), q. = ^^
From Eq. (c), r, =
From Eq. (<f), r0 -
synthesis: analytical methods 327
Equation (e) reduces to
8,765wr2 - 104,259wr + 166,090 = 0
from which, by Eq. (/),
104,259 ,.
ur = 0 Zar 10 = 1.895 rad/sec
8,765
Hence qx = 0.745 in. q = 1.77 in. q = 1.92 in.
rx = 6.64 in. r = 2.85 in. r = 7.22 in.
Illustrative Example 2. The following parameters are specified:
Fixed link: Length p
Driving link: Length q, o>9, and aq
Driven link: Position <p, = arctan > u and a,
sx
(A similar procedure to that outlined in the following would be used if
the data for the driving and driven links were interchanged.)
General Solution. In this case the gradual elimination of the unknown
quantities would finally yield an equation of the fourth degree in qx, thus
making advisable the use of the gradual-approach method of solution.
A value of qx is assumed, and the corresponding values of wr and tan
ips sv/sx are calculated, using the general procedure outlined in Illus-
trative Example 1. This step is reiterated a number of times, and the
results are either plotted against qx or tabulated. The final result is
obtained by a refining procedure.
Numerical Example 2. The mechanism shall satisfy the following
requirements:
Fixed link: p 5 in.
Driving link: q = 2 in. &q = 10 rad/sec aq = 0
Driven link: tan <p, = (<p, = 5308' approx) w, = 5 rad/sec
a, = 0
Table 12-1 gives the results of the preliminary approach. It can be seen
that the required value of tan <p, = sy/sx = -| will be given by two values
of qx, one between 0 and +0.5, the other between 1.0 and 1.5.
There are therefore two mechanisms which satisfy the prescribed
requirements of p, q, coq, aq, w a and tan <p but only one of these gives
the correct position <p,.
The details of the two mechanisms, which are shown in Fig. 12-4, are:
Mechanism 1: qx = 0.38 in. qv = 1.97 in. q = 2.00 in.
rx = 8.40 in. r = 3.08 in. r = 8.95 in.
sx = 3.78 in. s = 5.04 in. s = 6.30 in.
328
PLANE MECHANISMS
KINEMATICS AND
OF
DYNAMICS
Mechanism 2:
Q* =
-1.02
in.
ft
=-
-1.72 in.
= 2.00
in
rx =
+3.57
in.
-1.55 in.
= 3.89
in
sx =
-2.45
in.
*.
-3.27 in.
= 4.09
in
Table 12-1. Preliminary Results for Numerical Example 2
?*
t.
Sy/Sx
+2.0
+2.85
+1.5
1.323
+2.61
0.41
+1.0
1.732
+2.31
0.69
+0.5
1.936
+1.90
1.15
2.00
+1.38
2.35
-0.5
1.936
+0.625
+ 11.6
-1.0
1.732
-0.525
+ 1.38
-1.5
1.323
-2.50
TO.53
SYNTHESIS: ANALYTICAL METHODS 329
Driving link : , = 10 rad/sec aq 0
Coupling rod: wr = 2 rad/sec ar = 15 rad/sec2
Driven link: co, = 5 rad/sec a, = 10 rad/sec2
From Eq. (12-12), qx + rx = sx + p (a)
From Eq. (12-13), qy + ry = sy (b)
From Eq. (12-14), I0qy + 2ry = 5sy (c)
From Eq. (12-15), 109z + 2rx = 5sz (d)
From Eq. (12-16), lOOgz + 4rx + 15ry = 25sz + 10sv (e)
From Eq. (12-17), 100g0 + 4ry - 15rx = 25sv - 10sz (/)
First, qy is eliminated by combining (b) with (c), and (6) with (/):
8r0 = 5s0 (g)
and 96rv + 15rx = 75sy + lOs^ (A)
The system has been reduced to five equations, Eqs. (a), (d), (e), (g),
and (h), containing the five unknown quantities qx, rx, ry, sx, and sy.
Next, sy is eliminated by combining (g) with (e), and (g) with (h):
1009z + 4rx - r0 = 25sx (t)
and -24r0 + 15rx = I0sx (j)
The field has been reduced to four equations, Eqs. (a), (d), (i), and (j),
containing the unknown quantities qx, rx, ry, and sy.
The next quantity to be eliminated is ry. Equation (i) combined with
(j) yields
2,4009l + Sirz = 590sx (k)
The term sx is eliminated next by combining (k) with (a), and (k) with (d) :
l,SWqx - 5097V = -590p (/)
and 1,22% 155rz = 0 (m)
Elimination of rx from (l) and (m) results in
34,043gx = 9,145p (n)
giving qx = 0.268p
The link ratios of the mechanism are:
= 0.268 = 0.449 = 0.523
PPP
= 2.110 ^ = 0.746 - = 2.240
PP
^ = 1.195 -
PPP
- = 1.380 = 1.195 - = 1.825
12-6. Synthesis of Four-bar Mechanisms for Prescribed Extreme Values
of the Angular Velocity of the Driven Link ; Method of Components1
In the four-bar mechanism (Fig. 12-3) the driving crank q is assumed to
rotate with a constant angular velocity w,. Since the driven link s
performs an oscillatory motion, co, is variable both in magnitude and in
sense.
The problem is to design a linkage which would give prescribed values
of maximum u, and minimum w, with a specified constant wg.
For a mechanism in which o>g = const, Eqs. (12-16) and (12-17) reduce
to
gzwg2 + r^r2 + ryar = s^w,2 + sya, (12-16a)
and 9iA>2 + 7y>r2 rxar = s^Wj2 sxa, (12-17o)
In the present case, because of the requirement that w. = max or min,
a. = 0, and the foregoing equations are further reduced to
q*>,2 + r^ + ryar = s^,2 (12-166)
and qÛg2 + r^? rxar = svw,2 (12-176)
With the aid of the configuration, velocity, and reduced acceleration
equations, the x and y projections of the links may be expressed in terms
of the other quantities as follows:
z _ (o>g o>r)(w, wr)2wgo>, o>.[(o>3 wr)2(w, Wr)2 + ay*] ,. -.
~ "" "
= 7TiT^Y2?'^\2 I21 (b)
p" " ' (w, - .)[(, - <r)2(w! - o>r)2 + ar2]
p - (a,;-ô.)[K - wr)2(. - o,r)2 + af2] (d)
IT = 7 V?7 \? i '> '^/
p (co, a,r;z(,w, Wr;-1 + ar-'
/\9/\oioW/
P (o>g Ci)r) (U, ^r) + <*r
By combining these equations in pairs, expressions for the lengths of
the links are obtained:
1 J. Hirschhorn, The Synthesis of a Four-bar Mechanism for Prescribed Extreme
Values of the Angular Velocity of the Driven Link, ASME J. Appl. Mechanics,
vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 349-351, 1958.
synthesis: analytical methods
331
S2 _ sx2 + sy2 _ w,2a:r2 + (w, wr)2w,2wr2
(12-19)
(12-20)
p2 p2 (w, - ws)2[(w, - wr)2(w, - wr)2 + ar2]
r2 _ rx2 + r2 _ w,2w,2
p2 p2 (w, wr)2(w, wr)2 + ar2
If now all variable quantities corresponding to maximum w, are
distinguished by the suffix 1, and those referring to minimum w, by the
suffix 2, the following system of three equations is obtained:
Wsl2arl2 + (w,l Wrl)2Wl2Wrl2
(w
wsl)2[(w, wrl)2(wi wrl)2 + ari2]
W22Q!r22 + (w,2 Wr2)2w,22Wr22
(9)
(03q U,j)2[((0, wr2)2(w,2 Wr2)2 + ar22]
arl2 + (w, Wrl)2Wri2
(w9 -
wsl)2[(w, Wrl)2(Wsi wrl)2 + ari2]
ar22 + ^, Wr2)2wr22
(h)
(i)
(CO, CO,2)2[(w9 Wr2)2(w,2 0)r2)2 + ar22]
w,l2 W22
Elimination of ar22 between Eqs. (g) and (i) yields
[(w, W2)2 W22l , /
7 V2 2 a'l = fa"2 _
(w5 w,l)'! tO,i2J
Wr
2)2Wr22 (w, Wr2)2(w,2 wr2)2
(w9 Wrl)2(w,l Wrl)2tO,22 _ (Wg W.2)2(w,l Wrl)2Wrl2 , ..
"'" w,,2 K-w,,)2 W
Finally, elimination of ari2 [accomplished by eliminating ar22 between
Eqs. (A) and (i) and combining the resultant equation with Eq. (J)] gives
W22(w, w,2)2{w,l2(w, W,2)2[(w,l Wrl)2 (w9 Wrl)2]wrl2
w,i2(w, w,l)2(w,i wrl)2[wri2 (w, wrl)2]
+ w,22(w, Wl)2(w9 Wrl)2[wrl2 (w,l Wrl)2]} = T (Jk)
The term T on the right-hand side of Eq. (k) is similar to the left-hand
side, except that the suffixes 1 and 2 are interchanged. Equation (k)
is a cubic equation in &>rl and wr2. Since it contains two unknown quanti-
ties, it becomes obvious that the problem has an infinite number of
solutions.
The best method of obtaining a definite result is to assume a value for
either wri or wr2, within the limits set by the following criteria:
w,l[w,(3wrl W3) 0),l(3Wrl w,l)] < 0 . .
w,2[w9(3wr2 W,) w,2(3wr2 w,2)] > 0
The foregoing expressions, derived in the Appendix at the end of this
chapter, represent the second time derivative
d2u,
of the angular velocity of the driven link at the instant when the latter
assumes its extreme values.
With a suitable ur1 substituted into Eq. (A;), the cubic equation is
solved for wr2. Of the three roots, the one which satisfies condition
(12-21) and yields positive values for ari2 and ari2 has physical meaning.
It is worthwhile noting that, if either uT1 or wr2 is taken as zero, the
cubic equation is reduced to a quadratic, and the calculations are simpli-
fied considerably.
The following should also be borne in mind. In the case of a crank-
rocker mechanism, w,i and w,2 have opposite sense:
w.
jl > 0 w,2 < 0
while in the case of a drag-link mechanism, wi and w,2 have the same
sense as uq, and
Illustrative Example 1. Design a crank-rocker mechanism to the
following specification:
aj, = 10 rad/sec, w,i = 6 rad/sec, w,2 = 8 rad/sec, p = 10 in.
Solution. In this case uT1 may be taken as zero since this value
satisfies condition (12-21).
Equation (fc) reduces to
21wr22 - 60wr2 - 108 = 0
with the roots
wr2 = 1.25 rad/sec wr2 = 4.11 rad/sec
The first root does not satisfy condition (12-21) and is discarded. The
second root agrees with this condition and yields positive values for
arl2 and ar22, namely, arl2 = 197 and ar22 = 3,740.
These results are substituted into Eqs. (a) to (/), yielding:
Position 1, corresponding to wi:
qx = -0.78 in. qy = 3.32 in. q = 3.41 in.
sx = 1.30 in. sy = 5.53 in. s = 5.69 in.
rx = 9.48 in. rv = 2.21 in. r = 9.74 in.
Position 2, corresponding to w,2:
qx = 3.03 in. qv = -1.56 in.
sx = 0.46 in. s = 5.67 in.
rx = 6.51 in. r = 7.23 in.
synthesis: analytical methods
333
The mechanism is shown in Fig. 12-5. The correctness of the result
may be verified by means of Freudenstein's theorem, according to which,
if w, has an extreme value, the collineation axis is perpendicular to the
coupler (Sec. 10-11).
Illustrative Example 2. Design a drag-link mechanism for the follow-
ing conditions:
w, = 10 rad/sec, w,i = 15 rad/sec, u>,2 = 5 rad/sec, p = 10 in.
Crank-rocker mechanism
Fig. 12-5
Solution. In this case, in order to satisfy condition (12-21), wri >
8.33 rad/sec. However, further calculations reveal that, if only integer
numbers are considered, the choice of suitable values of ur1 is limited to
the range 11 to 18 rad/sec, since values outside this range give negative
ari2 and ar22. With a selected value of wri = 15 rad/sec, Eq. (k) reduces
to
10wr23 - 225a)r22 + l,500o!r2 - 3,125 = 0
The equation has only one real root, wr2 = 12.5 rad/sec, which satisfies
condition (12-21) and yields an2 = 9,490 and ar22 = 703.
The details of the mechanism are:
Position 1, corresponding to w,i:
qx = 30.00 in.
s* = 20.00 in.
r. = 0.00 in.
qv = 0.00 in.
sy = 15.40 in.
ry = 15.40 in.
q = 30.00 in.
s = 25.24 in.
r = 15.40 in.
Position 2, corresponding to wl2:
qx = -23.32 in.
sx = -24.42 in.
8.90 in.
rx =
qy = 18.85 in.
sy = 6.30 in.
r = -12.25 in.
The mechanism is shown in Fig. 12-6.
A2
Position 1
Drag-link mechanism
Fig. 12-6
Appendix: Derivation of Equation a, = w,[w,(3wr uq) &j,(3wr w,)]
First, ar is eliminated by combining Eqs. (12-16a) and (12-17a):
wq2{qxrx + qyry) + uT2{rx2 + r2) = w,2^* + rysy) + a,(rxsy r^) (l)
Since the terms qxrx + qyry and rxsx + rysy are recognized, respectively,
as the scalar products q - r and r - s, and the term (r^ r^x) as the
vector product r x s, Eq. (l) may be written in the following form:
w,2 qr cos (<pq <pr) + wr2r2 = w,2rs cos (<p. <pr) + asrs sin (<p <pr)
(m)
Next, Eq. (m) is differentiated with respect to time and, with aq = 0
and a, = 0, the following relation is obtained:
w929(w8 wr) sin (<p9 <pr) = 2wrarr
= w,2s (w wr) sin (<ps <f>T) as sin (<p, <pr) (n)
In the next step, arr is expressed in terms of the other quantities, thus:
Equation (12-16b) is multiplied by ry, Eq. (12-176) by rx, and the
resulting equations are added together, giving
uq2(qxry qyrx) ar(rx2 + r2) = W,2^^ rysx) (o)
or asq2rq sin (<pq <?r) arr2 = us2rs sin (<ps <pr) (p)
from which aTr = uq2q sin (<pq <pr) w,2s sin (<p, <pr) (g)
Substitution of Eq. (q) into (n) yields the following expression for a,:
. _ w,2g(3wr w,) sin (^, ^>r)
s sin (^s <pr)
o.2(3a
.)
(r)
SYNTHESIS: ANALYTICAL METHODS
335
Since the components of the velocities VA and VB in the direction AB
are equal, then, as shown in Fig. 12-7,
sin (<pq <pr) = u,s sin (<p, <pr)
and Eq. (r) becomes
a, - CO.[w5(3wr w,) w,(3Wr w,)]
(12-22)
Note: Equation (12-22) is not a general expression for a.. It applies if
w, is constant and w, is either a maximum or a minimum.

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CHAPTER 10

ADVANCED KINEMATICS OF THE PLANE MOTION

This chapter deals with a number of concepts of kinematics which,

though quite fundamental and of considerable usefulness in mechanism

design, are usually omitted from undergraduate curricula.

10-1. The Inflection Circle; Euler-Savary Equation

As shown in Chaps. 4 and 6, radii of curvature of the paths of moving

points are of great importance in kinematic analysis of mechanisms.

They are of equal significance in synthesis. The only method discussed

thus far of determining the path curvature is based on the knowledge of

the velocity and acceleration of the point concerned: p = v2/an or

p = v3/(vxay vyaz). Clearly, as far as mechanisms are concerned, this

is a roundabout procedure, because here, as in any constrained motion,

and thus independent of the actual velocities and accelerations. The

metrical solution of the problem.

characterize the displacement of the plane m; Of and Om are the centers of

curvature of the polodes at their point of contactthe instant velocity

pole Pfmdenoted here by P; pn is the pole normal, which originates at

positive sense of which is obtained by turning pn through 90 in the posi-

tive, i.e., counterclockwise, sense.

S is an arbitrary point on m, defined by the ray angle 08, measured

tances on a ray will be treated as directed line elements, i.e., taken as

Hence fs P > S is always positive. (The overbar will be used to

indicate that the particular quantity is directed.) The positive sense

along a line perpendicular to a given ray is obtained by turning the posi-

tive ray through 90 counterclockwise. 0s is the instantaneous center

of curvature of the path of S.

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KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS OF PLANE MECHANISMS

Because of an infinitesimal rotation d<pm of the plane m (about P), Om

ts = Kvolute of the path of S

The following relations may now be established:

and (Os > P) da = dl cos 6,

Elimination of da from Eqs. (a) and (b) leads to

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ADVANCED KINEMATICS OF THE PLANE MOTION

With the substitution

where d,- has the dimension of a length, Eq. (c) becomes

Usually, the only directly available, or easily obtainable, details of the

velocity. The direction of the pole normal, specified by the angle 0,

following investigation is the determination of these two quantities, to

permit the general evaluation of Eq. (10-1).

of the position under observation. It is therefore reasonable to assume

(10-1), applied to / reduces, therefore, to

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KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS OF PLANE MECHANISMS

position of the moving plane m is a circle of diameter df, centered on pn

and passing through P. This circle is known as the inflection circle.

The following alternative derivation of Eq. (10-2) is interesting.

and by Eq. (3-15),

From Fig. 10-3, (as)n = aP,(cos 0,)i, + (aspjn

For the inflection point I,, p/, = o and (a/.)n = 0, so that

0 = um2di(cos 0,)i, - (P -> /.)wm2

and (P -> I,) = cWcos 08)i.

The unit vector i, may be omitted because di is in effect a directed length.

with di = dl/dtfm. A more direct proof of this fact is given below.

Euler-Savary Equation. The first form of the Euler-Savary equation

is obtained by combining Eqs. (10-1) and (10-2), thus:

To make this equation more amenable to graphic treatment, it is trans-

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ADVANCED KINEMATICS OF THE PLANE MOTION

From Fig. 10-2,

is always positive, Os> S and I,*S must both be either positive or