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PrePre-conference Event for AEWGAEWG-46 (Aug 44-6, 2003) Live Stream: 11-3 pm PST March 21st 2003
Applied AE
Analysis Methods Data Reduction Paths Activity, Active Sources, Characterization and Evaluation
Process Chain:
Goal of AE Behavior Characterization Correlate (5) AE Response to (1) Stimuli
Wave Propagation
dynamic response of structure to AE source
AE Sensor conversion of
mechanical wave to voltage
Signal Processing
amplification, filtering and measurements
AEWGAEWG-46 PrePre-Conference Primer RN/March 2003
Tensile Test
AE Sensors
Basics for Choosing Sensors
Resonant Type
Choose appropriate Frequency
20 kHz for leak detection 150 kHz for crack detection 300 and 500 kHz for crack detection in noisy environments
Broadband Type
Better for Waveforms SignalSignal-toto-Noise Ratio Suffers at Most Interesting Frequencies More Expensive
AE Amplitude Measurements
dBAE = 20 Log [A [AMeasured / 1 V]
Dynamic Range => Saturation / Discriminate Saturation: Peak Amplitude instrument can measure Discriminate (Resolution): Lowest resolvable change in measurement, usually limited by the noise in the instrument.
AEWGAEWG-46 PrePre-Conference Primer RN/March 2003
Frequency Regimes
AE Filtering
High Pass
Eliminates low frequency mechanical noise (vibration in structures) Works well when noise sources have falling (1/f) characteristics and source is white (more or less)
Low Pass
Serves to limit EMI, RF Limits total bandwidth of signal, keeping overall system noise to a minimum
Filter slope characteristics are given in dB/octave
Process Chain:
Signal Measurements
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Stimuli (Load) AE Source Wave Propagation AE Sensor Signal Processing
Effect of Bandpass
No offset (DC and low frequencies filtered) Oscillation instead of fast edges (high frequencies filtered)
AEWGAEWG-46 PrePre-Conference Primer RN/March 2003
Signal Parameterization
Waveform Acquisition
Increasingly incorporated in lab studies Memory intensive Analysis time intensive Requires settings for trigger, sampling rate, length of signals
Basic AE Parameters that are measured in most multipurpose AE systems: (from example)
Peal Amplitude (53 dBAE = 456 mV) Rise Time (9.6 ms) Duration (17 ms) Counts (6) Energy definitions vary
AEWGAEWG-46 PrePre-Conference Primer RN/March 2003
Source Examples
Cracking (Example from Steel)
Amplitude (General Range within 30 100 dBAE) Signal Duration (from s to several milliseconds) Frequency Characteristics
White (broadband) or 1/f (falling) Partitioned into Guided Wave Modes (Extensional, Flexure, )
Time [ s] Frequency [kHz]
Source Directionality
as Independent of Structure with respect to structure (IP, OOP, Shallow IP/OOP)
AEWGAEWG-46 PrePre-Conference Primer RN/March 2003
Source Examples
Adhesive Failure
Source Examples
Boiling (water, liquid Nitrogen)
General Attributes
Amplitude: up to 60 dB Signal Duration: typically short, can milliseconds Frequency Characteristics: white Directionality: unidirectional
Time [ s]
Frequency [kHz]
Time [ s]
Frequency [kHz]
General Attributes
Amplitude: up to 80 dB Signal Duration: typically short, can milliseconds Frequency Characteristics: white Directionality: unidirectional
Time [ s]
Frequency [kHz]
AEWGAEWG-46 PrePre-Conference Primer RN/March 2003
Wave Propagation
AE Considerations AE travels in one or more types (modes) of wave
Bulk Waves
Wave Speed =Wavelength * Frequency Shear Main AE concerns:
How amplitude changes with propagation distance How arrival time changes with propagation distance How wave shape changes with propagation distance More advance Concern -> Direction of Wave Motion with Surface
AEWGAEWG-46 PrePre-Conference Primer RN/March 2003 AEWGAEWG-46 PrePre-Conference Primer RN/March 2003
Compressional
(also called Longitudinal) Velocity = c1
Bounded Waves
Multiple modes Introduces Dispersion Structure Dependent (some lowest mode Plate waves shown: Flexure, Extensional)
Wave Propagation
Linear Array Example in a Plate
Wave Propagation
Array Example for a Plate
Wave Propagation
Some Velocities: will vary within material types
C1 Velocity of dilatational (P) waves in an unbounded space C2 Velocity of distortional (S) waves in an unbounded space CR Velocity of surface (Rayleigh) Rayleigh) waves Velocities are dispersive In thin walled structures (plates) and viscoelastic materials.
Material c1 m/s Aluminum6325 Brass 4099 Copper 4361 Glass 5660 Ice 3980 Lead Nickel Platinum Silver 1991 5645 3718 3769 c2 m/s 3162 2127 2322 3420 1990 704 2929 1579 1662 3142 550 2862 2657 cR m/s 2980 1998 2177 3149 1876 674 2752 1502 1578 2943 524 2681 2480
When AE Occurs
(traditionally 8080-90% of Applied AE) Correlate to load, such as Kaiser, Felicity ratio
Where AE Occurs
(traditionally 1010-20% of Applied AE)
Important AE Analysis
According to Test Program use of controlled stimuli and any/all of below methods (i.e., applying stairstep loading and looking at activity in each step) According to Activity (when) Acording to Location, Clustering (where and how dense AE occurs at any one spot) Classification Acording to Waveshape and size for instance, with pattern recognition
Steps (by category) of reducing data Raw Activity: All data recorded Active Sources: Grouping of data and elimination by filtering of noise Characteristics of Active Sources: extracting attributes from AE such as Felicity ratio, Kaiser Effect Evaluation: Summarizing Results, often with a simple statement
AEWGAEWG-46 PrePre-Conference Primer RN/March 2003
Raw Activity
All Measured Activity
It is prudent to examine all measured activity before further analysis. At this stage, it is easiest to spot measurement glitches such as saturation, event overlapping For some types of tests, all data together represents entire results or characterization based on raw activity
AEWGAEWG-46 PrePre-Conference Primer RN/March 2003
Location
Used on Events based on how AE arrives at several sensors Only part of AE can be located Requires algorithms which vary from vendor to vendor Can be combined with clustering to enhance efficiency Is used more and more often with activity analysis
AEWGAEWG-46 PrePre-Conference Primer RN/March 2003
Classification
Waveshape and size Can be used with waveforms Data Intensive Usually requires automation (such as pattern recognition)
Active Sources
Grouping of Data
For analysis purposes, grouping breaks data into subsets that are meaningful to characterize by themselves Filtered Data based on noise characteristics Data from Clusters Data from Specific Time Segments (hold period, reload period) Activity by Channel
Often empirical,
without quantitative physical explanation
AEWGAEWG-46 PrePre-Conference Primer RN/March 2003
AE Characteristics
Example Evaluation Criteria used for Pressure Vessels
During hold, AE occurring after specified time above/below specified level Count rate per sensor above/below specified level at specified load increase Number of hits above specified amplitude compared to reference number of hits Relative activity and amplitudes/energy increasing with increasing load
Evaluation of AE Results
Goal Reduce Characteristics of AE into a simple statement, such as: Recommended Action Property Determination of Structure/Material Identify Point on Test Structure State Assessment of Test Structure
AEWGAEWG-46 PrePre-Conference Primer RN/March 2003
Evaluation Example
yes/no result
Simple Easiest to put into a procedure Can be oversimplified Errors are Complete!
ranking result
Difficult to obtain correct ranking function Errors are bounded
Error Tables
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