The role of duplex stainless steels in oil refinery heat exchanger applications

Contents
Introduction Corrosion and Fouling Crude oil Feedstocks Refinery Process Overview Critical Refinery Applications Crude Units Supporting Process Utilities Material selection Guide Heat Exchanger Materials of Construction Selection Criteria for Duplex Stainless Steels in Heat Exchangers Summary Further Reading Reference Deliveries Crude Oil Treating Hydrotreating Gas Cleaning Waste Water Treatment Cooling Water Other Areas

Page
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Recommendations are for guidance only, and the suitability of a material for a specific application can be confirmed only when we know the actual service conditions. Continuous development may necessitate changes in technical data without notice.

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Introduction
The oil refinery represents an environment within which a large variety of different applications put a large number of demands upon the materials used in its construction. One critical operation within this environment is that of the recovery of heat from processes that can then be used as a source of energy elsewhere in the operations. The severe conditions within which heat exchangers operate often dictate the use of corrosion resistant materials to reduce the need for maintenance, prevent contamination of refinery products by corrosion products and allows the potential to minimise heat loss caused by fouling of equipment. In the past, the use of AISI 300 series austenitic stainless steels has been limited by their inherent susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking in chloride bearing environments and the high cost induced by the addition of the large quantity of nickel that can provide protection against this form of failure. There now exists, however; in the form of the duplex alloys, Sandvik SAF 2304, SAF 2205 and SAF 2507, a family of stainless steels that provide the optimum combination of corrosion resistance, mechanical properties and fabricability, to solve many of the problems experienced in todays oil refineries. The super duplex material, SAF 2507 can be used even in seawater cooled exchangers up to extremely high temperatures with and without chlorination. Due to the efficient use of critical alloying elements such as chromium, molybdenum and most notably; nitrogen these materials offer a cost effective alternative to carbon steels, copper base alloys, brasses and bronzes. Duplex alloys can bridge the cost gap between these traditional materials and the expensive, nickel based and titanium alternatives while still giving the performance level of the latter. One of the great attractions of the duplex family of alloys is its compatibility with the other groups of alloys with respect to fabrication. Physical properties such as the coefficient of thermal expansion makes retubing of carbon steel exchangers possible with minimum modification. Also expansion only joining into lower strength tubesheet materials such as CuNi and Al-bronze is possible.

Corrosion and Fouling

Reducing corrosion and fouling is a high priority in the oil refining industry. These two factors can in many cases reduce onstream time, increase maintenance and therefore lower operating efficiency. In these times of strong competition within the industry and in the spirit of increased efficiency, in line with stiffening environmental legislation, retrofitting operations in refineries often involve the addition of new or improved heat transfer equipment. Such investment can be difficult to justify if the new equipment is still subject to corrosion and fouling. Often chemical treatments such as chlorination are employed to reduce fouling by biological growth in cooling water. In addition to preventing such build-up, these treatments can also increase the corrosivity of the cooling water by increasing the severity of an already corrosive environment. There is therefore a demand for cost effective solutions to the potential problems that can be encountered in heat transfer equipment. This demand can be satisfied in many cases by the specification and installation of duplex stainless steels in critical applications.

An increase in API results in a decrease in gravity meaning that a crude oil of 10 API would be a very heavy oil. While the nature of the crude is important from the point of view of the processing, the hydrocarbons themselves are not corrosive. The components of the feedstock that can present corrosion problems during refinery processes are those additional compounds that are produced from a reservoir along with the crude, and chemical addition used during processing. Non-hydrocarbon compounds Sulphur : 0.04% - 5% by weight in the form of either S or H2S. Oxygen : up to 0.5% by weight in the form of organic acids. up to 0.25% by weight contained in neutral nitrogen compounds.

Nitrogen :

Inorganic compounds Water : Inorganic salts : Metals : NaCl, MgCl2, CaCl2 up to 1000 ppm Ni, Va, Cu, Zn, Fe Corrosive additives and products Neutralising agents : NaOH, NH4 Acids : Napthenic from Nitrogen containing crudes, Polythionic from reaction of water with iron sulphides, Hydrochloric through hydrolysis of chlorides in produced waters. Ammonium Chloride, Ammonium Bisulphide.

Crude Oil Feedstocks

Crude oil consists of hydrocarbons with small amounts of organic and inorganic non-hydrocarbons. Crudes can be classified according to the type of hydrocarbons which make up their composition : i.e. Paraffinic Napthenic Aromatic Crude oils are also classified by their specific gravity, the API classification being one of the most widely used. This is based on a non-linear relationship to classify crudes by weight on a linear scaled hydrometer.

Deposits :

1415 API= Sp. gravity(60F) 131.5

Refining Process Overview

The object of the oil refining process is to separate the crude feedstock into its useable constituents such as heavy oil, asphalt, wax, kerosene and gasoline. Since these constituents have different boiling points the primary separation can be achieved by distillation. The lighter fractions such as naphtha and gasoline may be removed by distillation at atmospheric pressure (hence the term atmospheric distillation) but the heavier fractions must be distilled under a vacuum in order to achieve the required separation. Even after vacuum distillation, heavy bottoms exist which must be cracked using catalysts. While simple in principal, the oil refining process is a complex one which consists of many stages. During the different stages of the process the nonhydrocarbon compounds and additives can cause extensive corrosion problems throughout, either by their original nature or due to chemical reactions within the process which can result in corrosive products.

REFINERY PROCESSES
Crude Oil treatment Crude stabilisation to prevent bumping when light fractions boil off, and desalting carried out to control corrosion problems that may occur later in the process. Distillation Crude, vacuum, and downstream conversion unit distillation which separate molecules by their boiling points. Hydrotreating Desulphurisation of distillate fractions with hydrogen by catalytic reaction at elevated pressures. Cracking Thermal, fluid catalytic and hydrocracking are all mehthods by which hydrocarbon molecules are reduced in size in order to produce molecules with lower boiling points.

LPG GAS FROM OTHER UNITS

GAS PLANT POLYMERISATION

CRUDE DISTILLATION

ALKYLATION

GAS
ETHERS ISOMERIZATION

LIGHT NAPTHA

GASOLINE

HEAVY NAPTHA

HYDROTREATER/ REFORMER

AROMATICS EXTRACTION

CRUDE DESALTER

AROMATICS LIGHT GAS OIL

HYDROTREATERS

JET FUEL DIESEL

CRUDE OIL HEAVY GAS OIL

CRACKERS

HEATING OILS
LUBE PLANT

LUBES ASPHALT RESID

LUBES ASPHALT

COKE
COKER

Fig 1. Simplified flow diagram of refinery processes.

Alkylation Production of petroleum from light olefin containing fractions using sulphuric or hydrofluoric acid catalysts. Polymerisation Light olefins are polymerised to petroleum using a phosphoric acid containing catalyst. Supporting Processes Amine Unit Amines are used to absorb hydrogen sulphide which is then fed to the sulphur plant. Sulphur plant Sulphur is removed from acid gases (hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide) by partial oxidation with air. Sour Water Stripper Ammonia and hydrogen sulphide is removed from sour water. Hydrogen Plant Natural gas and steam react catalytically to form carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Carbon dioxide is removed and the hydrogen is used in the hydrocracker and hydrotreaters.

Subsequent to desalting, sodium hydroxide may be added to the feedstock prior to distillation in order to form the more stable NaCl from the traces of MgCl2 and CaCl2 that may remain.
Crude oil

Desalted oil Waste water

Steam from stripper Water

Fig 2. Crude oil desalter. Case story 1: Crude Oil Desalter Feed Water Heater

In 1969 a German refinery decided to install the Sandvik duplex stainless steel 3RE60 after experiencing rapid corrosion rates in the carbon steel feed water heater. In fact the carbon steel unit required retubing 12-18 months after commissioning. Even the ferritic alloy AISI 410 failed rapidly due to pitting. 3RE60 was in service for 17 years before excessive corrosion of the carbon steel shell dictated that the whole unit be replaced. The unit was re-designed and replaced with 3 exchangers fabricated from Sandvik SAF 2205, the duplex material that superseded 3RE60.
Service Conditions: Tube side: Waste water with 700900 ppm chloride, pH 6 Temp :Inlet 190C Outlet 75C Shell side: Feed water with 2 ppm chloride, pH 7.1 Temp : Inlet 35C Outlet 145C

Critical Refinery Applications

The following are critical applications in the oil refinery where corrosion resistant alloys may be used to solve specific problems :

CRUDE UNITS
Crude Oil treatment Crude feedstocks contain traces of brine which are produced from the reservoir along with the hydrocarbon reserves. The brines consist of Na, Mg and Ca chlorides. The most dangerous of these are MgCl2 and CaCl2 since they can hydrolyse on heating generating hydrochloric acid which can condense in the overhead units of the distillation column. NaCl is less of a hazard since it is more stable and does not hydrolyse. Desalting is therefore carried out prior to distillation in order to control problems that may occur later in the process.

For further info see references 1 - 7

Distillation In the distillation process crude oil is heated up to around 300C by way of a fired heater and pump around exchangers containing hot, distilled hydrocarbons. Corrosion can occur in the overhead unit of the atmospheric column due to salts and hydrogen sulphide contained in condensing water.

The environment can be exacerbated by the presence of a hydrochloric acid dewpoint. One method of preventing corrosion in the overhead units is to neutralise the condensed waters by injecting ammonia. This in itself can present problems if solid deposits of ammonium chloride form in heat exchangers under which crevice corrosion can occur. Overhead corrosion is an area of ongoing research and the applicability of duplex stainless steels is still uncertain. Good performance of certain stainless grades has been reported although some failures have also been experienced with lower alloy duplex stainless steels due to general corrosion by hydrochloric acid. The super duplex alloy SAF 2507 may provide a good alternative to Ti although further information and application experience would be required to confirm this. Pump around feed preheaters are also subjected to the risk of the phenomena, commonly referred to as under deposit corrosion, when brines entrained in the feedstock lie on tube surfaces under tenacious hydrocarbons. These two conditions represent two extremely severe environments for heat exchangers and result in frequent retubing of carbon steels units. Tube lifetimes of under six months for these materials are not uncommon.
Overhead Gases

limited to approximately 6 months. 6 different bundles were retubed using the existing carbon steel tubesheets by carrying out a dissimilar weld using Sandvik 25.10.4.L consumables.
Service Conditions: Tube side : Distilled hydrocarbon fractions Temp : Inlet 188 Outlet 196C Shell side : Crude oil feedstock with produced water Temp : Inlet 149C Outlet 157C

Hydrotreating Hydrodesulphurisation is the first upgrading step after atmospheric distillation. The process may also be referred to as hydrofining. The main objective of the operation is to remove sulphur in the form of H2S by reaction with hydrogen and can, in addition, remove nitrogen and other impurities. Typically hydrocarbon feed, together with hydrogen gas is preheated to a reaction temperature of between 350 - 400C in feed effluent heat exchangers and a furnace. The mixture is then passed through a down flow fixed bed catalytic reactor, exchanges heat with the reactor charge and is cooled to around 40C. The effluent is then flashed in high and low pressure separators. Hydrogen is recycled and H2S and other impurities are removed by amine or caustic washing. Hydrogen sulphide is the main aggressive product of this process but is often accompanied by ammonia and ammonium chlorides. One problem related specially to Reactor Effluent Air Coolers (REAC) tubed with carbon steel in hydrotreating equipment is due to solid ammonium hydrosulphide. These solids can cause the erosion of tube ends leading to leakage. Although further work is required to establish firm limit SAF 2205 can be used up to moderate leels of ammonium hydrosulphide which would otherwise cause erosion in carbon steels. If heat exchangers operate at temperatures above 140C, iron sulphides can precipitate on tube surfaces. If, during shutdowns these sulphides come into contact with moisture, polythionic acids can form which have caused problems with intergranular corrosion and cracking in sensitised austenitic steels. These problems are restricted to shutdown periods since polythionic acid is only stable at temperatures below about 30C.

Fired Heater

Distillation Column

Crude Oil

Fig 3. Crude oil distillation. Case story 2: Atmospheric Distillation Feed Effluent Exchangers

In 1993 a refinery in the UK installed the superduplex grade Sandvik SAF 2507 to solve problems caused by fouling of carbon steel tubes on the shell side. Chloride containing water entrained in the crude became trapped under deposits of hydrocarbon that formed on the outside of the tubes causing under deposit corrosion. Carbon steel tube lifetimes were

SUPPORTING PROCESSES
Fired heater Reactor

Cooler Effluent Feed Feed preheater Air cooler

Sour gas cleaning Sour gases such as CO2 and H2S are removed from process gases by absorption in various solvents. The most commonly used are aqueous amines (MEA or DEA), sulphinol and potassium carbonate solutions. After the absorption of the gases at high pressure, the rich absorbents are regenerated by stripping off the gases at lower pressure with steam. These plants involve several heat exchangers exposed to severe corrosion conditions, for example rich/lean exchangers, regenerator reboilers, reclaimers, overhead condensers. Carbon steel can fail due to general corrosion and also severe cracking can occur in welded and bent areas. Case story 4 : Gas Cleaning In a Canadian refinery the carbon steel condenser failed and corrosion testing was initiated to select an alternative material. Of the tested materials 304L failed due to pitting and stress corrosion cracking whereas SAF 2205 performed well together with other higher alloyed materials. SAF 2205 was supplied in the form of U bends with the tightest radii solution annealed. This was an interesting fabrication since the high strength duplex material was expanded directly into a 304 tubesheet. Further information is available on the parameters necessary to successfully perform this potentially tricky operation. SAF 2205 has been in service since 1987.
Service Conditions : Tube side : Steam Shell side : Amines, CO2, cyanides controlled by polysulphide addition, NH3 and H2S

Fig 4. Hydocracker/HDS. Case story 3 : Hydrodesulphurisation Feed/Effluent Exchanger Hydrogen sulphides and ammonium hydrosulphide are aggressive to carbon steels and so 300 series stainless steels have been tried as a solution to problems found in these applications. Due to the chloride content stress corrosion cracking has been a common mode of failure in these cases. In one such case in Sweden 321 failed for precisely that reason in 1981 and was replaced with Sandvik 3RE60. This early 18% Cr duplex has recorded more than 15 years service experience in hydrotreating applications. 3RE60 has now been succeeded by SAF 2205 as the workhorse duplex stainless steel, and SAF 2205 itself has notched up many years of successful duty. In the Swedish case mentioned above, the change from 321 to duplex also enabled reduction of the tube wall thickness from 14BWG to 16BWG by taking advantage of the higher yield strengths of these materials.

Service conditions : Tube side : Reactor effluent with

0.1% H2S and 10 ppm Cl Temp : Inlet 350C Outlet 200C Shell side : Feed with 10-20 ppm H2S and 10 ppm Cl Temp : Inlet 70C Outlet 230C

For further info see references 15 - 18.

For further info see references 8 - 14.

8 6 5 9

10

7 11 12

Fig 5. Amine plant. 1. Sour gas in 2. Absorber 3. Rich amine 4. Rich/lean heat exchanger 5. Lean amine 6. Sweet gas out 7. Regenerator (stripper) 8. Condenser 9. Accumulator (reflux drum) 10. Sour Gas (CO2, H2S) 11. Reboiler 12. Steam

and SAF 2507 were selected for the feed/bottoms exchanger and condenser respectively. Since this was a new installation the optimum materials solution could be selected from the outset. The presence of chloride bearing water on the cooling side and ammonia and hydrogen sulphide on the process side meant that the material alternatives were limited. Of the candidate materials the duplex stainless steels offered the optimum, cost effective solution. Tubes were supplied in U bends of which the tightest radii were supplied with the bend area solution annealed using an electric resistance method of heat treatment.
Service Conditions : Condenser : SAF 2507 Tube side : Cooling water containing 300 ppm Cl Temp: Inlet 23C Outlet 28C Shell side : Sour gas containing 8% NH4, 7% H2S Temp: 115C Feed/bottoms exchanger : SAF 2205 Tube side : Sour water containing 180 ppm Cl, 3000 ppm NH4, 7000 ppm H2S Temp: Inlet 60C Outlet 80C Shell side : Stripper bottoms containing 180 ppm Cl, 100 ppm NH4, 140 ppm H2S, pH 8.17 Temp : Inlet 120C Outlet 100C .

Waste water treatment In sour water strippers, various pollutants are removed from the water stream. Many of the pollutants, such as chlorides, hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and carbon dioxide are aggressive to carbon steels and copper based alloys and brasses.

Condenser Stripper

For further info see references 19 - 21.

Stripped sour water Cooler Sour water

UTILITIES
Cooling water Cooling waters can vary in chloride content from virtually nil in de-ionised and fresh water up to 1.5% in seawater. Water sources may also be polluted with sulphides, ammonia and carbon dioxide amongst others as well as carrying entrained solids. All these factors adjust the corrosivity of the water dictating that careful consideration must be given to which materials may be used in each case. Cu based materials and brasses, for example, may corrode rapidly in polluted water and some of the limiting parameters are given below.

Fig 6. Waste water treatment. Case story 6 : Sulphurous Sour Water Stripper Feed/Bottoms Exchanger and Condenser Owing to the tightening of EEC limits on the sulphur content of diesel fuel, a UK refinery installed a new sour water stripper. Sandvik duplex steels SAF 2205

The nature of cooling, and entrained waters and the effects of the various constituents on the corrosivity towards duplex stainless steels are given in the subsequent section. Case story 7 : Vacuum Distillation Surface Seawater Cooled Condensers In 1995 a Japanese refinery specified Sandvik SAF 2507 for use in seawater cooled condensers to combat problems caused by the seawater cooling medium. A standard 25% Cr duplex stainless steel had failed due to pitting corrosion. SAF 2507 was specified on the basis of its improved resistance to localised corrosion. SAF 2507 has also been used in the same application in Singapore to replace admiralty brass where sand entrained in the seawater led to failure by erosion corrosion at flowrates as low as 1.5 m/s.
Service Conditions : Tube side : Seawater Temp : Inlet 24C Outlet 35C Shell side : Hydrocarbons + 3% H2, 5.4% N2, 0.5% CO2, 11% H2S. Temp : Inlet 55C Outlet 127C

Each of the material groups possess their own set of advantages and disadvantages and an operating window within which they may give acceptable performance. The following comments serve to give a general overview of the limitations of each group with regard to application and corrosion resistance in the refinery environment. The next section will give a more expanded selection guide for the use duplex stainless steels and demonstrate the broadest operating window of all. Copper based alloys Copper based alloys have found wide application in seawater and condenser type applications, mainly in the form of the 90/10 and 70/30 CuNi types. They are characterised by good thermal conductivity, good corrosion resistance in chloride bearing environments and relative ease of fabrication. In contrast to stainless steels, Cu based materials rely upon their intrinsic noble behaviour for their resistance to corrosion. They are further protected by the insoluble corrosion products which form on the surface although the formation of this can be hampered by low pH solutions. The main limitation of these materials is their sensitivity to erosion corrosion under flowing conditions, when the protective coating is removed, and generally it is recommended that 90/10 CuNi and 70/30 CuNi should not be used if the fluid velocity exceeds 2.5 and 3.5 m/s respectively. It must also be noted that these velocity limits refer to fluids that are free of solids. If the fluid contains an abraident such as sand, that is commonly present in seawater cooling streams for instance, then the velocity restrictions must be significantly altered. CuNi alloys are also susceptible to crevice corrosion under salt plugs if fluid flowrates drop below 0.9 m/s. This results in a rather narrow design envelope for these materials when considering them for heat exchanger applications. Cu based alloys are particularly sensitive to sulphide attack and corrosion rates increase noticeably when the sulphur content of cooling waters exceeds 0.007 mg/l or when the process side H2S contents are high. The lifetime of equipment manufactured in CuNi materials is questioned by the susceptibility to dealloying of the nickel under conditions when high temperatures, low velocities and high salt contents are experienced.

For further info see references 22 - 25.

Materials Selection Guide

HEAT EXCHANGER MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
In the refinery, the standard materials of construction are carbon or low alloy steels. In the applications described above, unacceptable corrosion rates can be experienced in these types of materials if optimum process control cannot be maintained. Thus, alternative materials are often utilised. The common candidates for selection of heat exchanger construction materials, giving resistance to corrosion by chloride containing or fresh waters with varying pH are : Copper based alloys Brasses and bronzes Nickel based alloys Titanium Stainless steels

Brasses and bronzes As with the CuNi alloys, brasses and bronzes are susceptible to erosion corrosion in fast flowing fluids. The upper operational limit is, in the case of admiralty brass and aluminium bronze materials, 2.4 m/s. In case study number 7, admiralty brass tubes failed at flow rates as low as 1.5 m/s due to the presence of sand in the water stream. While being more tolerant to corrosion by H2S than the CuNis, brasses and bronzes are likely to suffer from stress corrosion cracking by ammonia if the pH rises above 7.2. Again, in common with CuNi alloys, brasses and bronzes may be prone to dealloying, of the zinc rich phase (particularly if the material contains greater than 15% zinc) under conditions giving rise to high dissolved salt contents, extremes in pH and high CO2 contents. Titanium Out of the materials discussed, titanium exhibits the highest alround corrosion resistance, and although susceptible to crevice corrosion in certain extremely severe environments, is often the most attractive choice of material to combat the variety of situations that may be experienced in refinery heat exchangers. Titanium, however is not without its own set of problems. Two cases where titanium is unfit for use are either when fluorides are present as a contaminant in process fluids or cooling waters, or in handling methanol. The main disadvantages of using titanium are often related to the practicalities of fabricating heat exchangers or the retubing of existing bundles and operations thereafter. Titanium is an unsuitable material for retubing of existing heat exchangers, especially those that have been retubed numerous times before. The reason for this is that titanium is unsuitable for dissimilar welding into tubesheets of; for example, admiralty brass or CuNi, but then neither is it suitable for gross expanding into enlarged holes. If the clearance of the holes to the tubes is large then titanium is liable to split on expansion, particularly at the seam in the case of seam welded tubing. This obviously makes repair expensive.

Vibrational damage of thin walled Titanium tubing can manifest itself in the form of fatigue failure or fretting if the correct baffle configuration is not incorporated into the exchanger design. Another difficulty is related to the exceptional noble behaviour imparted by the passive film of titanium. If coupled to less noble materials galvanic corrosion can take place. In the case of differing tubesheet material this situation can be handled by applying cathodic protection to the tubesheet, but this action gives rise to the risk of cathodic charging with hydrogen of the titanium (this may also be the case if the tubesheet corrodes in the absence of CP). Under these circumstances titanium can precipitate extremely brittle hydrides that will damage the integrity of the equipment and possibly lead to failure.

SELECTION CRITERIA FOR DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS IN HEAT EXCHANGERS

Considerations The process overview illustrates the location of a variety of tubular heat exchangers in certain critical applications as well as highlighting a variety of corrosive constituents that must be taken into account when selecting the correct duplex stainless steel. This of course is also true in any refinery heat exchanger application. Duplex stainless steels may be used in most corrosive environments within the temperature range of approximately -50 to 300 C. When considering which duplex stainless steel to use in a particular heat exchanger application, the main concern is resistance of the material to localised pitting corrosion. The parameters affecting the pitting tendency of a given stainless steel can be defined as : temperature chloride content oxidant content pH sulphide content inhibiting ion content flow rate

Brief consideration of these parameters enables further simplification for grade selection;

The presence of sulphides is known to promote pitting corrosion in stainless steels especially at low pH, BUT; are not able to initiate pitting by themselves. Furthermore their presence has the effect of lowering the corrosion potential and therefore at temperatures below the CPT actually can behave as a corrosion inhibitor to materials exhibiting passive behaviour. Hydrogen sulphide also has a low solubility in water at atmospheric pressures and while being aggressive to carbon steels, requires a high partial pressure to reach contents required to contribute to the corrosivity of an electrolyte when considering passive materials. Many species present in cooling and process waters, such as hydroxides, carbonates, sulphates, nitrates and phosphates have an inhibiting effect on pitting. Oxygen is the most common oxidant found in natural waters. Its content varies between 0 - 9 ppm between boiling and 20C. The corrosivity of the waters drops considerably when the oxygen content drops clearly below 1 ppm. This suggests that as cooling water approaches its boiling point the probability of localised corrosion drops together with the oxygen content. Chlorine is another oxidant which is commonly added to seawater exchangers to mitigate against biofouling. Its effect is to considerably increase the electrochemical potential and thus increase the severity of the environment. Only materials with an exceptionally high resistance to pitting should be used in systems containing chlorinated seawater. The pitting resistance is impaired by stagnant solutions. High flowrates of chloride containing water in tubular heat exchangers will keep the surfaces clean both from deleterious species at pitting sites and from fouling which could otherwise reduce heat transfer. As a general rule flowrates below 1 m/s should be avoided. The following 4 factors are the most critical in assessing the probability of pitting attack : high electrochemical potential high chloride content low pH high temperature

To predict whether pitting corrosion will occur within a given set of environmental parameters it is necessary to relate the Critical Pitting Temperature (CPT) of the material in that environment to the Maximum Tube wall Temperature (MTT) that will be experienced in the exchanger. The MTT can be calculated using the following relation :
Tube Wall T(h)

Temp (C)

Hot Fluid

Cold Fluid

MTT

T(c)

r(o)

r(f,o)

r(w) 1/U

r(f,i)

r(i)

Fig 7. Temperature drop through a tube wall from a hot to cold medium.

(1)

1 1 1 1 1 1 = + + + + U h(o) h(f,o) h(w) h(f,i) h(i) 1 = r(o) + r(f,o) + r(w) + r(f,i) + r(i) = R U r(o)+r(f,o) R T(h) T(c)

(2)

(3) MTT = T(h)

Where: U = overall heat transfer coefficient h = individual heat transfer coefficient R = overall heat resistance (1/U) r = individual heat resistance (1/h) o/i = outside/inside of tube f = fouling w = tube wall T(h) = temperature of hot fluid T(c) = temperature of cold fluid MTT = Maximum Tube wall Temperature

10

Thus, if the MTT is maintained below the CPT of the material in a given set of conditions then the risk of localised corrosion may be disregarded. Should some of the required information not be available, a reliable, but conservative, estimation can also be made simply by using the temperature of the warmest corrosive fluids on the shell or tube side. Many years of experience have enabled Sandvik to formulate a method of laboratory testing for pitting resistance that has correlated well to working conditions when compared with practical experiences. Critical Pitting Temperature Curves A rapid method of testing for the critical temperatures at which localised pitting corrosion takes place has been developed by Sandvik and utilises a potentiostat that simulates the oxidising nature of chloride containing process fluids and cooling waters. The applied potential maintains the constant oxidising power of the solution in which the materials are tested. With a constant potential applied, the temperature of the solution is increased by 5C increments until localised corrosion is determined. This is defined as the temperature at which the current density measured on the surface of the sample rises above a value of 10 (A/cm2). The method has been substantiated by comparing the results of the testing with data collected from real heat exchanger applications.

The following step by step method may be used for guidance : 1. Define chloride content and MTT. 2. Define pH, presence of oxidising species and species that may act as inhibitors. 3. Estimate oxidising character of the solution preferably by measuring the corrosion potential. 4. Check the diagrams and judge the applicability of the steels under consideration. Remember results from testing are likely to be conservative.
CPT, C (F), 600 mV SCE 100 (210)

6939b

90 (195)

SAF 2507 6Mo + N

80 (175)

70 (160) 25 Cr Duplex

60 (140)

SAF 2205 50 (120)

40 (105)

pH

Fig 9. Critical pitting temperatures (CPT) for SAF 2507 and SAF 2205 in 3% NaCl solutions with varying pH at +600 mV SCE.
CPT, C (F), 300 mV SCE 100 (210)

CPT,C (F), 600 mV SCE 100 (210) 90 (195) 80 (175) 70 (160) 25 Cr Duplex 60 (140) 50 (120) 40 (105) SAF 2205 SAF 2507

6878

6941b

Pitting

80 (175)

SAF 2304

SAF 2205

60 (140)

AISI 316L

40 (105) AISI 304L 20 (68) Cl,% No pitting 0 (32)

3 5

6 10

9 15

12

15

20 25 NaCl, weight-%

0.01

0.02

0.05

0.10

0.20

0.50 1.0 2.0 Cl, weight-%

Fig 8. Critical pitting temperatures (CPT) for SAF 2507 and SAF 2205 in various concentrations of sodium chloride at +600 mV vs SCE, neutral pH.

Fig 10. Critical pitting temperatures (CPT) for SAF 2205 and SAF 2304 in various concentrations of sodium chloride at +300 mV vs SCE, neutral pH. 11

Stress Corrosion Cracking

Temperature,C (F) 300 (570) 250 (480) 904L SCC SAF 2507 No cracking

Temperature, C (F) 120 (250)

6946b

Boiling point curve

6877b

100 (210)

N08028/Sanicro 28 200 (390)

80 (175) SAF 2507

SAF 2205 150 (300) SAF 2304

60 (140)

100 (210) AISI 304/304L AISI 316/316L No SCC 0 (32) 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 Cl, weight-%

40 (105)

AISI 316L

904L

50 (120)

SAF 2205 20 (68) 0 1 2 3

6Mo+N 5 4 HCl, weight-%

Fig 13. Isocorrosion diagram for SAF 2507 and SAF 2205 in hydrochloric acid (0.1 mm/year).
Temperature, C (F) 120 (250)
6825b

Fig 11. SCC resistance for SAF 2507, SAF 2205 and SAF 2304 in oxygen-bearing neutral chloride solutions.

oint Boiling p

curve

SAF 2507

General Corrosion In certain areas of the refinery, reducing acids such as sulphuric acid may be used in conjunction with catalysts during processing. Organic acids such as acetic acid may also form under certain process conditions. The MTT approach may also be adopted when predicting the performance of a duplex stainless steel in these environments. The curves shown below illustrate the temperature and acid concentration range within which duplex stainless steels can be used while resisting general corrosion at rates greater than 1 mm/y.

100 (210)

SAF 2304

904L

80 (175) 316L 60 (140) 304L

40 (105)

20 (68)

20

40

60

80 100 HCOOH, weight-%

Fig 14. Isocorrosion diagram for SAF 2507 and SAF 2304 in formic acid.
Temperature, C (F) 140 (285) 120 (250) 100 (210) 80 (175) 60 (140) Boiling point curve
0.15 (6) AISI N08028 Sanicro 28 SAF2507 No attack 0.05 (2) 6Mo+N 0 0 5 10 15 20 30 25 HCOOH, weight-% SAF 2205 Corrosion rate, mm/year 0.25 (10) 50% acetic 0.20 (8)
6757b

6944

AISI 317L

SAF 2507 SAF 230 904L AISI 316L SAF 2507 SAF 2205 40 60 80 1
0.10 (4)

AISI 40 316L (105) SAF SAF 2304 2205 20 (68) 0 20

Fig 12. Isocorrosion diagram for SAF 2507, SAF 2205 and SAF 2304 in sulphuric acid (0.1 mm/year).

Fig 15. Corrosion rate of SAF 2507 and SAF 2205 in boiling mixtures of 50% acetic acid and varying proportions of formic acid. Test time 1+3+3 days.

12

Practical Aspects to Selecting Materials While it has proved effective to select materials for heat exchanger applications based on arbitrary laboratory test results, it is also necessary to consider certain aspects of operating heat exchangers that cannot be suitably represented in the laboratory testing. The most important consideration is perhaps the potential for the build up of deposits in or on the tubes. Such deposits may emanate from the process side, for example from tenacious hydrocarbons and process slurries, or from ammonium chloride deposits as described in crude overhead condensers. Cooling water sources may contain sand or sediment that can lie in horizontally mounted exchangers when operated at low flowrates. Due consideration must be given to the possibility of crevices forming under these deposits which may lead to corrosion taking place at temperatures lower than the CPT of the selected material. It may not always be necessary to specify a higher alloy duplex in these cases but instead measures can be taken to remove the deposits periodically, or prevent them building up in the first place. Ammonium chloride deposits are easily removed by water washing, sediment in cooling water may be filtered out, or exchangers operated at higher flowrates so as to prevent the deposits building up. Probably; two of the most potent tools in selecting material for the upgrading of heat exchangers are : 1. Previous experience with other materials. What has been the mode of failure of the previously installed unit and where have the problems occurred? This information can be gathered during inspection. What material solutions have been used successfully elsewhere? 2. Reference data from plants world-wide where duplex alloys have a proven track record over a period of time. These two items of information, used in combination with the exchanger operating parameters, technical data sheets and corrosion tables will enable effective

Hyrocarbons plus : Water Chlorides Ammonia compounds Hydrogen sulphide Carbon dioxide Acid Species Varying pH Individually or in combination many of these compounds are known to have resulted in the premature failure of Cu based alloys, brasses, bronzes and austenitic stainless steels by corrosion. Duplex Stainless Steels offer excellent resistance to attack by all of the above corrosive compounds. Laboratory produced diagrams can give good guidance for materials selection based on the most critical data. Case studies show also the excellent performance of Duplex Stainless Steels in practical applications. These case studies are further supported by the references that follow this summary. In seawater cooling applications CuNi, brasses and bronzes are susceptible to erosion corrosion at high flowrates. Sand entrainment in the water source can have particularly serious consequences even at relatively low fluid flowrates (ref. Case study 7). Due to attractive fabrication properties and durability Duplex Stainless Steels offer significant advantages over Titanium when considering the retubing of existing heat exchangers.

Further Reading
1.White R A and Ehmke E F, Materials Selection for Refineries and Associated Facilities, 1991, National Association of Corrosion Engineers. 2.The Role of Stainless Steels in Industrial Heat Exchangers, 1977, American Iron and Steel Institute. 3.Performance of Tubular Alloy Heat Exchangers in Seawater Service in the Chemical Process Industries, 1987, Materials Technology Institute of the Chemical Process Industries, Inc. 4.Corrosion Handbook for Stainless Steels, 1994, AB Sandvik Steel. 5.Duplex Stainless Steels fighting corrosion worldwide, 1994, AB Sandvik Steel.

Summary
The refinery process environments described in this brochure can generally be characterised as follows :

13

Reference Deliveries
Crude Oil Treating
1. Crude de-ethaniser (stabilisation) overhead condenser Country Size and quantity Service conditions United Kingdom 19.05 x 1.65 mm Tube side Overhead gases, 9% CO2, 500 ppm Temp inlet 34C outlet 24C Pressure 30 bar Crude oil feed Temp inlet 11C outlet 20C Pressure 16 bar 2. Crude stabilisation unit - flash gas compressor intercooler Country Size and quantity Service conditions Australia 25.4 x 1.65 x 12, 192 mm, 5000 m Tube side 15% mole fraction CO2 2-5 ppm HCl, 2 ppm H2S, traces of mercaptans and water vapour Temp inlet 105C Pressure 17.2 bar Tubes were aluminium finned and air cooled.

Shell side

Shell side

Previous experience CrMo steel failing regularly due to under deposit corrosion on the shell side. Sandvik SAF 2205 Supplied in U-bends in 1994. Tightest bend radii solution annealed using the electrical resistance method.

Previous experience New plant. Sandvik SAF 2205 Installed in 1982.

3. Syncrude stabilisation Country Size and quantity Germany 25 x 2.5 mm, 848 m Cooling water Temp inlet 25C outlet 35C Pressure 10 bar Hydrocarbons Temp inlet 63C outlet 40C Pressure 17 bar

4. Crude oil desalting, feed water heater Country Size and quantity Service conditions Japan 19.05 x 1.65 x 6100 mm, 1420 m Tube side waste water Temp inlet outlet Pressure Feed water Temp inlet outlet Pressure ph 7.6 105C 50C 0.85 MPa 20C 90C 1.8 MPa

Service conditions Tube side

Shell side

Shell side

Previous experience Not known. Sandvik SAF 2304 Installed in 1987.

Previous experience Carbon steel failed after 6-12 months due to general corrosion. Sandvik 3RE60 In service without problems between 1975 and last reference update in 1987.

14

5. Desalter / sour water exchanger Country Size and quantity Service conditions USA 19.05 x 1.65 x 6100 mm, 4060 m 3 different exchangers Tube side waste water from desalter Temp max 138C Shell side Treated water from sour water stripper containing (NH4)2SO4, Na2SO4 (3000 ppm SO42) pH 9.0 - 9.5 Temp max 96C

6. Desalter / sour water exchanger Country Size and quantity Service conditions Spain 19.05 x 1.25 x 6100 mm, 1970 m Tube side Desalter effluent water containing max 6000 ppm Cl Temp inlet 125C outlet 60C Waster water to be stripped with max 1000 ppm Cl, max 5000 ppm H2S, approx 300 ppm NH3 Temp inlet 40C outlet 90C

Shell side

Previous experience Carbon steel (13BWG) failed in less than one year. Admiralty brass showed a corrosion rate of 5 mils/year. Sandvik 3RE60 10 years service with no corrosion reported.

Previous experience New installation. Sandvik SAF 2205 Installed 1984.

Hydrotreating
7. Crude Oil Heaters Country Size and quantity Service conditions Germany 25 x 2.5 mm, 15040 m Tube side Crude oil Temp inlet 20C outlet 60C Pressure 25 bar Steam from prefractionator Temp inlet 150C outlet 90C Pressure 10 bar 8. Desulphurisation Country Size and quantity Germany 20 x 2.0 x 10200 mm - 10870 mm, 2000 m Tube side Gasoil and hydrogen Temp inlet 125C outlet 70 - 80C Pressure 3.7 MPa Water containing 120 ppm Cl, 200 ppm sulphates, 3.5 mg/l zinc and 5 mg/l solids.

Service conditions

Shell side

Shell side

Previous experience New installation. Sandvik SAF 2205 Four exchangers installed 1983.

Previous experience Carbon steel failed after 18 months due to general corrosion on both process and water sides. Sandvik 3RE60 7 years service recorded at last update.

15

Reference deliveries

9. Feed / effluent exchanger in a catalytic hydrodesulphuriser Country Size and quantity Service conditions Singapore 19.05 x 2.11, 2500 m Tube side Reactor effluent containing traces of chlorides. Temp inlet 345C outlet 230C Pressure 2.9 MPa Feed (light virgin naptha) Temp inlet 135C outlet 315C Pressure 3.3 MPa.

10. Reactor effluent exchanger Country Size and quantity Service conditions United Kingdom 19.05 x 2.11 and 1.65 mm, 9300 m Tube side Pre-treated effluent. Hydrocarbons containing approx 10 ppm Cl and traces of H2S. Temp inlet 38C outlet 278C Pressure 0.85 MPa Shell side Reactor effluent. Hydrocarbons with FeS deposits forming on tube surfaces. Temp inlet max 354C

Shell side

Previous experience AISI 321 failed due to stress corrosion cracking. Sandvik 3RE60 7 years service recorded.

Previous experience General corrosion of carbon steel in the lower tubes. Pitting of AISI 321 in the upper tubes. Alkaline wash during shutdowns to prevent polythionic acid attack, together with NaHCO3 and N2 purging. Sandvik SAF 2205 Installed in 1983. Tubes delivered from stock.

11. Hydrocracker effluent air cooler in atmospheric residuum desulphurisation unit Country Size and quantity Canada 25.4 x 3.05 mm, 16000 m H2 pp 1880 psi, H2S pp 59 psi, NH3 pp 7.4 psi and steam. Temp inlet max 262C Pressure total 2480 psi Air

12. Desulphurisation Country Size and quantity Service conditions Iraq 19.05 x 1.65 x 4267 mm, 3200 m Tube side Process gas Temp inlet 385C outlet 190C Pressure 19.4 bar Boiler feed water Temp inlet 105C outlet 199C

Service conditions Tube side

Shell side

Shell side

Previous experience New installation. Sandvik SAF 2304 Delivered 1986.

Previous experience Unknown. Sandvik SAF 2205 Installed 1986.

16

13. Hydrodesulphurisation Country Size and quantity Service conditions France 19.05 x 2.77 x 6096 mm, 1225 m Tube side Steam Temp inlet 340C outlet 300C Pressure 22 bar MPa Gasoil, H2O, NH4HS Temp inlet 140C outlet 170C Pressure 19.5 bar

14. Hydrotreating Country Size and quantity Service conditions Netherlands 25.4 x 1.65 mm, 8500 m Tube side Reactor product containing 2-3% H2S and ammonia Temp inlet 380C outlet 250C Pressure 60 bar Hydrocarbons Temp inlet 125C outlet 300C Pressure 1.8 MPa

Shell side

Shell side

Previous experience C-steel, A179, lasted 3 years. Sandvik SAF 2205 Exchanger installed 1987.

Previous experience AISI failed due to stress corrosion cracking. Sandvik SAF 2205 Three exchangers installed in 1983. Tube wall reduced to 16 BWG from the 14 BWG austenitic tubes used previously.

Gas Cleaning
15. Overhead condenser in recovery section Country Size and quantity Brazil 19.05 x 1.65 x 4880 - 6100 mm, 1880 m Tube side Water containing chlorides Temp 45C 98% H2S Temp 120C 16. Overhead condenser in DEA washing unit. Country Size and quantity Service conditions Service conditions Netherlands 19.05 x 1.65 x 4880 mm, 8528 m Tube side Gas containing H2S, water, CO2, NH4 and traces of DEA, oxygen and acetonitril Temp inlet 95 - 105C Brackish water with 1000 - 1200 ppm Cl

Shell side

Shell side

Previous experience Carbon steel failed after 3 months. Sandvik 3RE60 5 years service recorded at last update. Previous experience Galvanised carbon steel failed after 9-12 months due to pitting corrosion. Aluminium brass had a service life of 2 years but were attacked by DEA and ammonia. Sandvik 3RE60 Installed 1972.

17

Reference deliveries

17. Lean amine condenser Country Size and quantity Australia 19.05 x 2.11 mm Recirculating cooling water with 600 - 1000 ppm Cl inhibited with chromates Temp inlet 30C outlet 33C Pressure 6.2 bar H2S and H2O Temp inlet 114C outlet 46C Pressure 6 bar

18. Lean DEA cooler Country Size and quantity Service conditions Australia 19.05 x 1.65, 259 m Tube side Recirculating cooling water with 600 -1000 ppm Cl Temp inlet 30C outlet 34C Pressure 6.2 bar 25% DEA solution in H2O Temp inlet 79C outlet 45C Pressure 13 bar

Service conditions Tube side

Shell side

Shell side

Previous experience New application. Sandvik SAF 2205 Commissioned 1983.

Previous experience New application. Sandvik SAF 2205 Commissioned 1983.

Waste Water Treatment

19. Feed / effluent exchanger Country Size and quantity Service conditions Finland 19.05 x 1.65 mm x 4880 mm, 250 m Tube side Untreated water with 5000 ppm H2S, 90 ppm mercaptans, 10 - 30 ppm Cl; pH 7. Temp inlet 30C outlet 100C Pressure 1.0 MPa Treated water with ppm H2S, 15 ppm mercaptans, 25 ppm thiosulphate; pH 9-11. Temp inlet 150C outlet 60C Pressure 1.0 MPa 20. Feed / effluent exchanger Country Size and quantity Service conditions Japan 19.05 x 1.65 mm x 6000 mm, 1320 m Tube side Untreated water from topping unit. Temp inlet 95C outlet 110C Pressure 0.75 MPa Water from stripper Temp inlet 130C outlet 115C Pressure 1.1 MPa

Shell side

Shell side

Previous experience New application. Sandvik 3RE60 Commissioned 1974.

Previous experience AISI 430 was attacked by pitting after 6 months, 316L had a lifetime of less than 6 months due to stress corrosion cracking. Sandvik 3RE60 18 9 years service recorded at last update.

21. Stripper feed / bottom exchanger Country Size and quantity Service conditions USA 19.05 x 1.65 mm, 324 m Tube side Water containing Cl, 34 ppm CO2 and 44 ppm H2S Temp inlet 35C outlet 102C Pressure 4 bar Stripped condensate Temp inlet 122C outlet 59C

22. Stripper Reboiler Country Size and quantity Service conditions Taiwan 19.05 x 1.24 mm, 221 tubes Tube side Shell side Low pressure steam Av. temp 141C Reboiling water pH 9.3, 22.924 mg/l H2S, 140 mg/l NH3, 268 mg/l Cl Av. temp 127C

Shell side

Previous experience 316L failed after 18 months due to SCC. Sandvik SAF 2507 Delivered beginning 1997.

Previous experience Not known. Sandvik SAF 2304 Tubes in service for a year before the unit was decommissioned. Tubes still in good condition at that time.

Cooling Water
23. Vacuum distillation overhead condenser Country Size and quantity Service conditions United Kingdom 25.4 x 2.11 x 4622 mm, 5360 m Tube side Seawater. Temp inlet 20C outlet 40C Hydrocarbons Temp inlet 240C outlet 100C 24. Heat exchanger Country Size and quantity Service conditions Finland 19.05 x 1.65 mm Tube side Shell side Brackish seawater. Butane, deposits containing 1-3% inorganic fluorides Temp inlet 80C outlet 30C

Shell side

Previous experience Formerly tubed with admiralty brass but corrosion rates were unacceptably high. SAF 2507 expanded directly into admiralty brass tubesheet. Sandvik SAF 2507 Delivered 1994.

Previous experience Titanium tubes were used but failed on the process side due to the fluorides after only 3 months. SAF 2507 offered the ideal solution due to its excellent resistance to both media. Sandvik SAF 2507 Delivered 1990, process temperature raised from 40 to 80 C at that time.

19

Reference deliveries

25. Seawater condenser Country Size and quantity Service conditions Germany 25 x 1.65 mm Tube side Seawater Temp inlet 28C outlet 45C Dichloromethane, dichloroethane Temp inlet 200C outlet 100C

26. Reactor effluent cooler Country Size and quantity Service conditions Australia 19.05 x 1.65 mm Tube side Hydrocarbons, 1.7% H2S and traces of ammonia Temp inlet 138C outlet 40C Pressure 62 bar Seawater Temp inlet 27C outlet 37C Pressure 2.8 bar

Shell side

Shell side

Previous experience UNS S31803 failed due to pitting after 3 years of service. Sandvik SAF 2507 First unit commissioned in 1989, second unit delivered 1990.

Previous experience New application. Sandvik SAF 2507 Delivered 1989.

Other Areas
27. Aromatics Country Size and quantity Service conditions United Kingdom 19.05 x 1.65 mm Tube side Hydrocarbons Temp max 340C Pressure 0.75 MPa Thermex heat transfer fluid Temp inlet 400C outlet 300C 28. Paraxylene Country Size and quantity Service conditions Indonesia 25.4 x 2.11mm supplied in U-bends Tube side Shell side Steam Temp max 390C Sulfoline, hydrocarbons and traces of water

Shell side

Previous experience Unknown. Sandvik SAF 2507 Delivered in 1995.

Previous experience 5% Cr steel failing regularly every 18 months. Suspected corrosion due to polythionic acid attack during shutdowns. Sandvik SAF 2304 Delivered in 1992. tubes still in excellent condition.

20

29. Splitter tower overhead condenser Country Size and quantity USA 19.05 x 2.11 mm AW x 6400 m

Service conditions

Tube side Shell side

Cooling water 250 ppm Cl Propane Temp 38-43C

Previous experience Corrosion problem due to low velocity fouling on tube side causing under deposit corrosion on carbon steel tubes. Carbon steel lasted less than 2 years. Sandvik SAF 2507 In service Dec. 1995.

21

Sales and service all over the world

Argentina SANDVIK BAHCO ARGENTINA S.A. Buenos Aires Phone 01-484 32 41, Fax 01-482 46 19 Australia SANDVIK AUSTRALIA Pty. Ltd. Wetherill Park, N.S.W. 2164 Phone 02-98 28 05 00, Fax 02-98 28 05 05 Austria SANDVIK IN AUSTRIA Ges.m.b.H. Wien Phone 1-277 37, Fax 1-277 37-225 Bangladesh SANDVIK SOUTH EAST ASIA Pte. Ltd. Dhaka Phone 2-88 17 27, Fax 2-88 65 25 Belgium SANDVIK BENELUX B.V. Bruxelles Phone 02-702 98 00, Fax 02-726 02 51 Brazil SANDVIK DO BRASIL S.A. Sao Paulo - SP Phone 011-525 26 11, Fax 011-525 27 75 SANDVIK DO BRASIL, WIRE Mogi Guau - SP Phone 019-861 98 00, Fax 019-861 98 51 Bulgarien SANDVIK BULGARIA Ltd Sofia Phone 02-958 12 31, Fax 02-958 12 48 Canada SANDVIK STEEL CANADA Arnprior, Ont. Phone 613-623 65 01, Fax 613-623 26 08 Chile SANDVIK CHILE S.A. Santiago Phone 2-676 02 00, Fax 2-623 42 91 China, Peoples Republic of SANDVIK INTERNATIONAL TRADING Ltd., Shanghai Phone 21-58 69 89 69, Fax 21-58 69 61 55 Colombia SANDVIK COLOMBIA S.A. Santaf de Bogot Phone 1-262 56 00, Fax 1-417 57 35 Czech Republic SANDVIK CHOMUTOV PRECISION TUBES s.r.o., Chomutov Phone 0396-61 51 11, Fax 0396-65 26 53 Denmark SANDVIK A/S Brndby Phone 43-46 51 11, Fax 43-96 52 96 Finland SUOMEN SANDVIK OY Vanda Phone 09-870 661, Fax 90-87 06 62 20 France SANDVIK ACIERS Orleans, Cedex 2 Phone 02-38 41 41 41, Fax 02-38 41 43 71 Germany SANDVIK GmbH Geschftsbereich Stahl Dsseldorf Phone 0211-502 70, Fax 0211-502 76 66 Greece SANDVIK A.E. Athens Phone 1-898 16 81, Fax 1-898 13 19 Hungary SANDVIK IN HUNGARY Ltd. Budapest Phone 1-431 27 21, Fax 1-431 27 01 India SANDVIK ASIA Ltd. Pune Phone 0212-79 44 91, Fax 0212-79 50 22 Indonesia P.T. HAKAN NUSANTARA Jakarta Phone 021-830 85 30, Fax 021-830 84 10 Ireland, Republic of SANDVIK IRELAND LIMITED County Dublin Phone 01-295 20 52, Fax 01-295 37 25 Italy SANDVIK ITALIA S.p.A. Milano Phone 02-30 70 51, Fax 02-33 40 35 10 Japan SANDVIK K.K. Kobe Phone 078-992-09 50, Fax 078-992 09 55 Kenya SANDVIK KENYA Ltd. Nairobi Phone 2-53 28 66, Fax 2-53 28 77 Malaysia SANDVIK MALAYSIA Sdn. Bhd. Selangor Petaling Jaya Phone 03-756 21 36, Fax 03-756 23 72 Mexico SANDVIK DE MEXICO S.A. de C.V. Mexico, D.F. Phone: 5-729 39 00, Fax 5-397 88 81 Netherlands SANDVIK BENELUX B.V. Schiedam Phone 010-208 02 08, Fax 010-437 72 07 New Zealand SANDVIK NEW ZEALAND Ltd. Pakuranga, Auckland Phone 9-273 58 88, Fax 9-273 58 99 Norway AVESTA SHEFFIELD A/S Oslo Phone 22-62 99 00, Fax 22-62 32 60 Peru SANDVIK DEL PERU S.A. Lima Phone 1-221 75 60, Fax 1-222 38 49 Philippines SANDVIK PHILIPPINES, Inc. Makati City Phone 02-807-63 72, Fax 02-807 63 83 Poland SANDVIK POLSKA Sp.z o.o. Warszawa Phone 22-647 38 80, Fax 22-843 05 88 Portugal SANDVIK PORTUGUESA Lda. Venda Nova Amadora Phone 01-424 54 10, Fax 01-424 54 15 Romania AB SANDVIK INTERNATIONAL Bucharest Phone 1-330 54 43, Fax 1-330 05 78 Russia ZAO SANDVIK Moscow Phone 095-956 50 80, Fax 502-221 50 21 Singapore SANDVIK SOUTH EAST ASIA Pte. Ltd. Singapore Phone 265 22 77, Fax 264 11 78 Slovak Republic SANDVIK SLOVAKIA s.r.o. Bratislava Phone 07-531 24 97, Fax 07-531 24 87 South Africa SANDVIK (Pty) Ltd. Benoni Phone 011-914-3400, Fax 011-914 48 34 South Korea SANDVIK KOREA Ltd. Seoul Phone 02-785 17 61/8, Fax 02-784 35 95 Spain SANDVIK ESPANOLA S.A. Martorelles, Barcelona Phone 93-571 75 00, Fax 93-571 75 55 Sweden SANDVIK STL FRSLJNINGS AB Stockholm Phone 08-793 05 00, Fax 08-793 05 29 Switzerland SANDVIK AG Spreitenbach Phone 056-417 61 11, Fax 056-401 54 80 Taiwan SANDVIK TAIWAN Ltd. Taipei Hsien Phone 02-22 99 34 27, Fax 02-22 99 78 49 Thailand SANDVIK THAILAND Ltd. Bangkok Phone 02-379 46 61, Fax 02-379 46 41 Turkey SANDVIK End.Mam.San ve Tic. A.S. Kartal Phone 216-309 15 15, Fax 216-377 00 26 United Kingdom SANDVIK STEEL U.K. Halesowen, West Midlands Phone 0121-504 51 00, Fax 0121-504 51 51 U.S.A. SANDVIK STEEL Co. Tube and Wire Divisions Scranton, PA Phone 717-587-5191, Fax 717-586 17 22 Strip Division Benton Harbor, MI Phone 616-926-72 41, Fax 616-926 27 18 Venezuela SANDVIK VENEZUELA C.A. Caracas Phone 02-945 09 22, Fax 02-941 72 09 Vietnamn SANDVIK SOUTH EAST ASIA Pte.Ltd. Ho Chi Minh City Phone 08-846 57 50, Fax 08-823 00 14 Zambia SANDVIK (ZAMBIA) Ltd. Ndola Phone 02-65 09 29, Fax 02-65 01 76 Zimbabwe SANDVIK (PRIVATE) Ltd. Harare Phone 4-62 10 95, Fax 4-62 10 99

Regional offices
Printed in Sweden on chlorine free paper. Sanmedia/Sandvikens Tryckeri

SANDVIK SOUTH EAST ASIA Pte. Ltd. Jurong Town, Singapore Phone 265 22 77 Fax 264 11 78 South East Asia and Taiwan

SANDVIK LATIN AMERICA Inc. Coral Gables, Florida 331 34, USA Phone (305)444 5220 Fax 305-444 60 52 Latin America and the Caribbean Area

SANDVIK INTERNATIONAL AB SE-811 81 Sandviken, Sweden Phone 026-26 26 00 Fax 026-27 13 40 Other European countries, P.R. China, CIS and Middle East and parts of Africa

S-1541-ENG, October 1997 Cancels Sept. 96

AB Sandvik Steel, SE-811 81 Sandviken, Sweden, Phone: +46 26-26 30 00 www.steel.sandvik.com