CHEMICAL BONDING Chemical Bond- A force that acts between two or more atoms to hold them together as a stable

molecule. Valency of an atom- It is the combining capacity of an atom i.e. the number of atoms with which an atom can form a chemical bond. OR It is the number of chemical bonds formed by an atom with other atoms. Valence Shell or Ultimate shell- It is the outermost shell. Valence electrons or Valency electrons- These are the electrons present in the valence(outermost shell). They are called so because valency of an atom depende upon them. Cause of formation of a chemical bond/Cause of chemical combination- 2 main causes1. Decrease in energy- A system with lower energy is more stable. It is an observed fact that the bonded state is more stable than an unbounded state. Hence, two or more atoms combine only when there is a decrease in energy. 2. To acquire the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas- The noble gases are known for their lack of chemical activity. The reason being their valence shell configuration. Except helium, whose electronic configuration is 1s2(duplet), all the other noble gases have 8 electrons(octet) in their outer most shell i.e ns2np6 valence shell configuration, n being the valence shell. It is thus, concluded that ns2np6 configuration is most stable and has minimum energy. The atoms of the other elements try to achieve the noble gas configuration to attain stability. This they do so by forming bonds with other atoms. This tendency to achieve 8 electrons in their valence shell is known as Lewis Octet Rule. But helium has 2 electrons and lighter elements like H, Li, Be, etc try to achieve helium configuration(2 electrons) hence, in general, it can be said that all the other atoms try to acquire the configuration of the nearest noble gas by forming bonding. Lewis electron dot(or cross) Symbol of elements- It is written by writing the symbol of an element around which its valence electrons are shown by dots or crosses. Electronic theory of Valency (Kossel & Lewis)- Postulates - Valency of an element depends upon the number of electrons present in the outermost(valence or ultimate) shell. - For atom having 1, 2 or 3 valence electrons, their valency is equal to the number of electrons present in their valence shell. - For atoms having 5,6 or 7 valence electrons, their valency=(8-the number of valence electrons) - Electronic configuration of noble gases is most stable, i.e. 8 electrons in their outermost shell(except helium which has 2 electrons).
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Atoms of all the other elements apart from noble gases have less than 8 electrons in their outermost shell. They try to achieve the configuration of the nearest noble gas. This they do by 2 ways:a. By electron transfer(by losing or gaining electrons) b. By sharing electrons- This may be done in ways:i. Equal sharing of electronsii. Unequal sharing of electronsCorresponding to the above three ways of acquiring noble gas configuration, there are 3 types of chemical bonds or linkages1. Electrovalent or Ionic Bond(Electron transfer) 2. Covalent Bond(equal sharing of electrons) 3. Coordinate Bond or Dative Bond(unequal sharing of electrons)

Electrovalent or Ionic Bond or Polar Bond - It is a bond formed by electron transfer. - One atom loses one or more electrons and forms positive ion(cation) while the other atom gains one or more electrons and forms negative ion(anion). - The atom which loses electrons and forms cations is also referred to as electropositive atom while the atom which gains electrons is also referred to as electronegative atom. - The cations & anions are attracted to each other by an electrostatic force of attraction which is known as ionic bond. - It is always formed between dissimilar atoms & not in similar atoms. - Since permanent charges(poles) are developed, hence, it is also known as polar bond. Conditions for the formation of Ionic Bond1. Number of valence electrons- The atom which loses electrons must have 1, 2 or 3 valence electrons. It generally belongs to group IA, IIA or IIIA in the periodic table & is metallic or electropositive in nature. The other atom which gains electrons must have 5, 6 or 7 valence electrons. It generally belongs to group VA, VIA or VIIA and is nonmetallic or electronegative in nature. 2. Difference in electronegativity- The two atoms can only form an ionic bond if the difference in their electronegativities is high. A difference in the electronegativity of more than 1.9 is required for the electron transfer to take place. 3. Low ionization energy of the metal & high electron affinity of non-metal- The metal should have low ionization potential so that it easily loses electrons and the non-metal should have high electron affinity so that easily gains electrons. Low ionization energy of metal & high electron affinity of non-metal results in an overall decrease of energy. Active metals of group IA & IIA have very low ionization energy due to their large sizes and easily lose electrons & form cations while the typical non-metals of VA, VIA & VIIA have high electron affinities and easily gain electrons & form anions.
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4. High lattice energy- Cations & anions attract each other by electrostatic force of attraction. Since, the electric field of a charged particle extends in all direction, a cation is surrounded by a number of anions and an anion is surrounded by a number of cations resulting in a systematic alternating cation-anion pattern. Such a definite pattern of ions is known as Crystal Lattice or simply Lattice. The formation of lattice is accompanied by loss of energy which is known as lattice energy. Higher the lattice energy, more is the stability of the ionic compound. Electrovalency- It is the number of electrons lost of gained by an atom. It is also the number of ionic bonds formed by an atom. Electron dot structures of some ionic molecules- Refer to class copy & book. Variable Electrovaleny-Certain metals show more than one electrovalency in their ionic compounds & thus exhibit variable electrovalency. Causes- 2 causes:1. Instability of core or kernel- The residual structure left after the loss of the valence electrons is known as core of kernel. In case of certain elements, the core or kernel left is not very stable, on or more electron is lost giving rise to metal ions of higher valecnies. Example- IronFe(26)- 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6 Fe2+ - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s0 3d6(unstable) Fe3+ - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s0 3d5(half-filled hence, more stable) 2. Inert pair effect- Some of the heavier elements of group III, IV & V having valence shell configurations ns2np1 , ns2np2, ns2np3, ns2np4(n=valence shell) show two variable valencies-one equal to their group number and other less than by 2, i.e. (1, 3 of group III), (2,4 of group IV), (3,5 of group V). In case of normal group valencies, all the electrons present in ns & np sub-shells are lost but in case of lower valencies, only np electrons are lost and 2 electrons of ns sub-shell remain intact. This reluctance of the electron pair in ns subshell to take part in bonding in case of the heavier members of groups III, IV & V is known as the inert pair effect. Due to this effect, higher members of groups III, IV & V show variable valencies. A partial explanation of the inert pair effect can be given on the basis of the effect that ns2 electrons penetrate to some extent to penultimate shell(second last shell) consisting 18 electrons thereby strongly attracted towards nucleus. Inert pair effect increases in a group as the atomic number increases. However, when sufficient energy is available, the ns electrons also enter bonding and higher valencies are observed. It can be explained as follows: Tl(81)(Group III)- 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 6s2 6p1 Tl+ - 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 6s2 6p0(only 6p electron is lost)
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Tl3+

- 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 6s0 6p0(both 6s & 6p electrons are lost)

Sn(50)(Group IV)- 2, 8, 18, 18, 5s2 5p2 Sn2+ 2, 8, 18, 18, 5s2 5p0(only 6p electron is lost) Sn4+ 2, 8, 18, 18, 5s0 5p0(both 6s & 6p electrons are lost)

Pb(82)(Group IV)- 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 6s2 6p2 Pb2+2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 6s2 6p0(only 6p electron is lost) Pb4+2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 6s0 6p0(both 6s & 6p electrons are lost) Bi(83)(Group V)- 2,8,18,32,18, 6s2 6p3 Bi3+ 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 6s2 6p0(only 6p electron is lost) Bi5+2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 6s0 6p0(both 6s & 6p electrons are lost)

Characteristics of Ionic Compounds1. Physical state(Crystalline Nature)- They are crystalline in nature i.e they have a definite geometrical shape and exist as crystalline solids. It is because the the constituents particles are ions and not molecules. These ions are arranged in a definite pattern known as lattice. In a lattice of an ionic compound, each ion is surrounded by a definite number of oppositely charged ions & this number is known as Coordination number. Example-In NaCl crystal, each Na+ ion is surrounded by 6 Cl- ions and each Cl- ion is surrounded by 6 Na+ ions such that coordination number is 6. 2. Melting & Boiling Points-Due to strong electrostatic force of attraction, the oppositely charged ions are tightly held in their positions in the crystal lattice. To dislodge them, a large energy is required and hence, ionic solids have high meting & boiling points. 3. Hard & Brittle- They are hard in nature because the ions are tightly held at their positions due to strong electrostatic force. The brittleness is due to the movement of a layer of a crystal on the other layer when some external force is applied when same charge ions come infront of each other. As a result the force of repulsion comes into play and the crystal breaks. 4. Solubility- Ionic solids are fairly soluble in polar inorganic solvents like water while insoluble in non-polar organic solvents like benzene. They are readily soluble in polar solvents having high dielectric constants(it is the capacity of a solvent to weaken the force of attraction between the opposite ions of an ionic compound ). Due to high
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dielelctric constant, the electrostatic forces decrease and ions get separated from each other and ultimately they are surrounded by polar solvent molecules.(Solvation) 5. Electrical conductivity- Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in solid state because there are no free mobile ions(charge carriers). But they conduct electricity in molten state or in aqueous solution because of the availability of free mobile ions. Covalent Bond or Non-Polar Bond It is formed by equal sharing of one or more electrons between two atoms. Both atoms contribute one electron each to a particular pair which is then shared by both the bonding atoms. The electron pair becomes a common property to both the atoms. The shared electron pair occupy such position between the nuclei of the two bonding atoms where there is a maximum force of attraction between the two nuclei. This force of attraction between the shared electron pair & the two nuclei is known as covalent bond. It can be formed between similar as well as dissimilar bond. Since charges are formed as there is only sharing of electrons and no transfer, hence, it is also known as non-polar bond. When one electron pair is shared between two atoms, it is a single covalent bond. It is represented by a single dash. When two electron pairs are shared between two atoms, it is a double covalent bond. It is represented by two dashes. When three electron pairs are shared between two atoms, it is a triple covalent bond. It is represented by three dashes.

Conditions for the formation of covalent bond1. Electronegativity difference- The electronegativity difference between the two bonding atoms should be 0 or less than 1.6 for the formation of a covalent bond otherwise the electron transfer will take place. 2. Number of valence electrons- Except hydrogen which has one electron in the valence shell, such atoms having 5, 6 or 7 electrons in the outermost shell enter covalent bonding. Non-metals of group VA, VIA & VIIA satisfy this condition. Covalency- It is the number of covalent bonds formed by an atom. Electron dot structures of some covalent molecules- Refer to class copy & book Variable Covalency- Elements like Phosphorus, Sulphur & chlorine show variable covalency because they can expand their covalency because of the availability of vacant d-orbitals whereas elements like Carbon, nitrogen,etc shown only one covalency because they cannot expand their covalency due to lack of vacant d-orbitals. Characteristics of Covalent Compounds5

1. Physical state- At normal temperature & pressure, they exist as soft solids(S, P,etc.) or liquids or gases because very weak force of attraction(known as Van der Waals force) between the discrete molecules. 2. Melting & boiling point- Relatively low meting & boiling point except some compounds like silica(SiO2,etc.) 3. Solubility- In general they are insoluble in polar inorganic solvents like water but soluble in non-polar organic solvents like benzene. (Like dissolves like) 4. Electrical Conductivity- Generally are poor conductors of electricity because they lack charge carriers.

Comparison between Ionic & Covalent Bond-

1 . 2 . 3 . 4 .

Ionic Bond Formed by electron transfer.

1 . Consists of electrostatic force of 2 attraction between the ions. . Non-rigid & non-directional. 3 . It is weak bond. 4 .

Covalent Bond Formed by sharing of electrons. Consist of shared electron pair which is attracted by nuclei of both the bonding atoms. Rigid & directional. It is strong bond.

Comparison between Ionic & Covalent CompoundsIonic Compounds Covalent Compounds 1 Crystalline solid at room temperature. 1 Soft solids or liquids or gases at room . . temp. 2 High melting & boiling point. 2 Low melting & boiling point. . . 3 Hard & brittle. 3 Soft & waxy. . . 4 Soluble in polar inorganic solvents like 4 Soluble in non-polar organic solvents like . water but not soluble in non-polar organic . benzene but insoluble in polar inorganic solvents like benzene. solvents like water. 5 Good conductors of electricity in molten 5 Poor conductors of electricity. . state or in aqueous solution. . 6 Since ionic bond is non-directional, hence, 6 Since covalent bond is directional, hence, . ionic compounds do not show isomerism. . covalent compounds show isomerism.
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Polarity in Covalent Bond- Partial ionic character in covalent bondWhen covalent bond is formed between two atoms which have same electronegativity, then the bond is assumed to be perfectly non-polar i.e. the shared electron pair lies exactly at the mid-way between the two bonding atoms. Covalent bond between atoms of same element like H-H, Cl-Cl, etc. or between C-H, etc. But when covalent bond is formed between two such atoms where there is a significant electronegativity difference, then the shared electron pair is shifted(not transferred) towards the more electronegative atom. As a result, the more electronegative atom acquires fractional negative charge(shown as -) while the less electronegative atom acquires fractional positive charge(shown as +). Such a covalent bond is known as polar covalent bond. Example, H-Cl molecule. Thus, it can be seen that the molecule develops slight polarity. Such a molecule has a finite dipole moment which can be calculated as follows:Dipole Moment()= magnitude of one of the charge x distance between the charges(bond length) Applications of Dipole Moment1. Polarity of Bond-Covalent molecules having zero dipole moment are non-polar while for molecules for which 0 are polar. 2. Percentage ionic character of a covalent bondPercentage ionic character= Experimental or Observed /Calculated or theoretical x 100 % Polarisation(Change of ionic character to covalent character)- A cation is smaller than an anion. When a cation & an anion approach each other closely during the formation of an ionic bond, the smaller ion i.e. the cation attracts the outermost electron of the bigger ion i.e. the anion and repels its nuclear charge. The net result is that the distortions of the electron cloud of the bigger ion i.e. the anion takes place i.e it no longer remains symmetrical. This distortion of the electron cloud of the anion by the cation is known as Polarisation. The ability of a cation to polarise(distort) an anion is known as its Polarising power. The tendency of an anion to get distorted or polarized is known as its Polarisability. Effect of Polarisation- Due to polarization in an ionic molecule, the electron density shifts somewhat to the centre of the two bonding atoms. In other words, sharing of electrons occurs to some extent between the two ions and the bond shows some covalent character. Factors affecting the magnitude of Polarisation-Fajans Rules 1. Charge on cation- Higher the charge on the cation, more is the polarization, hence, more is the covalent character in the ionic bond. ExampleNaCl MgCl2 AlCl3
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Cationic charge-

+1 +2 +3 Covalent character increasing

2. Size of the cation-Smaller the size, more is the polarization, hence, more is the covalent character in the ionic bond. ExampleBeCl2 MgCl2 CaCl2 SrCl2 BaCl2 Cationic radius(A0) 0.31 0.65 0.99 1.13 1.35 Covalent character increasing 3. Size of the anion- Larger the anion, easier is its polarization, hence, more will be the covalent character in the ionic bond. ExampleCaF2 CaCl2 CaBr2 CaI2 0 Anionic radius(A ) 1.36 1.81 1.95 2.16 Covalent character increasing 4. Configuration of the cation- The cations with 18 electrons in the outermost shell bring greater polarization than those with inert gas configuration i.e with 8 electrons in the outermost shell even if both the cations have same size & same charge. ExampleNaCl CuCl + Cationic configuration: Na -2, 8 Cu+- 2, 8, 18 Covalent character increasing Coordinate Bond or Dative Bond It is also a type of covalent bond. It is formed by unequal sharing of electrons between two atoms i.e. both the electrons of a shared pair are contributed by only one of the two bonding atoms. It is shown by an arrow directed from the donor to the acceptor atom. After its formation, a coordinate bond is indistinguishable from a normal covalent bond.

Conditions for the formation of a Coordinate Bond1. One atom should have its octet complete. Such an atom acts as donor i.e. it contributes both the electrons of a pair. 2. One atom should have two electrons short of octet i.e it should have 6 electrons in its valence shell. Such an atom acts as acceptor. Examples of some molecules having a coordinate bond-Refer to book & class copy

Failure of Octet Rule- There are certain cases of covalent molecules where the octet rule is violated. 2 types of cases are there where the octet rule has been violated:1. Incomplete Octet- In certain molecules like BeCl2 , BCl3, etc, the central atom has incomplete octet i.e. it has less than 8 electrons in the valence shell after bonding. 2. Expanded Octet- In certain molecules like PCl5 , SF6 , IF7, etc, the central atom has more than 8 electrons in its valence shell after bonding. Sudgen gave the concept of singlet linkage i.e single electron bond in favour of octet rule in order to explain the cases of expanded octet. These singlet linkages are shown by half arrows. (Refer to class copy) Modern Theories of Covalent Bonding- Shapes(Geometry of Covalent Molecules)- Following 3 theories have been proposed to explain how a covalent bond is formed:1. Valence Bond Theory(VBT) 2. Valence Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion Theory(VSEPR Theory) 3. Molecular Orbital Theory These are discussed in detail:1. Valence Bond Theory-Orbital Overlap Theory: This theory was developed in 2 phases:VBT Phase 1- In this phase it was proposed that the atomic orbitals of the atoms overlap with each other which results in the pairing of the electron. Greater the extent of overlap, shorter is the bond length, greater is the bond energy and stronger is the bond. Overlap of atomic orbitals may be of two types and thus, there are two types of covalent bonds:Sigma Bond- This covalent bond is formed due to direct or head on overlap of the atomic orbitals. Direct overlap may be of following types:a. s-s overlap- direct overlap of two s atomic orbitals. b. s-p overlap- direct overlap of one s & one p atomic orbitals. c. p-p overlap- direct overlap of two p atomic orbitals. Pi Bond- This covalent bond is formed due to sideways or lateral overlap of atomic orbitals. Only p orbitals undergo sideways overlap form pi bond. A pi bond is never formed alone but it is formed always in association of a sigma bond. Also, a sigma bond is stronger than a pi bond. Based on the above concept, the shapes of various covalent molecules were explained. But the above approach had few defects. For example, in methane (CH 4) molecule, out of the four covalent bonds between C & H atom, one is formed as a result of direct overlap of 2s orbital of C with 1s orbital of one H atom while remaining three bonds are formed due to direct overlap of three 2p orbitals(2p x, 2py, 2pz) of C with three 1s orbitals of three H atoms, that is, one C-H bond is formed due to s-s direct overlap while other three C-H bonds are formed due to s-p direct overlap. Therefore, the three C-H bonds of methane must be identical but one must be different from the other three. But, experimental studies show that in 9

methane, all C-H bonds are identical in all respects. Such anomalies were later removed by the concept of hybridization of atomic orbitals. VBT Phase 2-Hybridisation of Atomic Orbitals- It is the process of intermixing of pure atomic orbitals of slightly different energies so as to redistribute their energies resulting in the formation of new set of orbitals known as hybrid orbitals having same shape and same energies. Salient features of hybridization1. The number of hybrid orbitals formed is equal to the number of pure atomic orbitals that undergo hybridization. 2. The hybrid orbitals have same shape & same energy. 3. The hybrid orbitals are directed in space in some preferred direction to have minimum repulsion between electron pairs. Therefore, the type of hybridization indicates the shape of the molecule. Conditions for hybridization1. The orbitals present only in the valence shell of the atom are hybridized. 2. Atomic orbitals undergoing hybridization have almost same energies. 3. Promotion of electron is not an essential condition prior to hybridization. 4. Half-filled, fully filled or vacant orbitals can take part in hybridization.

Types of Hybridisation1- sp hybridization- It involves mixing of one s and one p atomic orbitals of slightly different energies to produce two sp hybrid orbitals having same shape & energy. The two sp hybrid orbitals are directed in a liner fashion with an angle of 180 o between them. Examples- BeCl2, C2H2(ethyne or acetylene)(Refer to class copy for structures)

2- sp2 hybridization- It involves mixing of one s and two p atomic orbitals of slightly different energies to produce three sp2 hybrid orbitals having same shape & energy. The three sp 2 hybrid orbitals are directed in trigonal planar(or triangular planar) fashion with an angle of 120 o between them. Example- BCl3 , C2H4(ethene or ethylene) (Refer to class copy for structures)

3- sp3 hybridisation- It involves mixing of one s and three p atomic orbitals of slightly different energies to produce four sp3 hybrid orbitals having same shape & energy. The four sp 3 hybrid orbitals are directed in regular tetrahedral fashion with an angle of 109.5 o or 109o28. Examplesi. CH4(methane),NH3, H2O(Refer to class copy for structures) Hybridisation involving d orbitals10

4. sp3d hybridization- It involves mixing of one s, three p & one d atomic orbitals of slightly different energies to produce five sp3d hybrid orbitals. The five sp3d hybrid orbitals are directed in trigonal pyramidal fashion at two angles- 120 o & 90o. Example- PCl5(Refer to class copy for structures)

5. sp3d2 hybridization- It involves mixing of one s, three p & two d atomic orbitals of slightly different energies to produce six sp3d2 hybrid orbitals. The six sp3d2 hybrid orbitals are directed in octahedral fashion at two angles- 180o & 90o. Example-SF6(Refer to class copy for structures) NOTE: The configuration of atomic orbitals undergoing hybridization and of the hybrid orbitals produced remains the same. For instance,If all atomic orbitals under going hybridization are singly-filled, then all the hybrid orbitals will also be singly-filled. If one atomic orbital has an electron pair while the other atomic orbitals are singly-filled, then one hybrid orbital will have an electron pair while other hybrid orbitals will be singly-filled. If all the atomic orbitals undergoing hybridization are vacant, than all the hybrid orbitals produced will also be vacant. No. of hybrid orbitals= No. of sigma bonds + No. of lone pairs Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory(VSEPR Theory)Postulates:-The shape of the molecules depends upon the number of valence shell electron pairs(bonded of non-bonded) around central atom. -Electron pairs in the valence shell repel one another due to like charges. -These electron pairs tend to occupy such positions in space that minimize repulsion and thus maximize the distance between them. -There may be two types of electron pairs:- bond pairs(bp) and lone pairs(lp)(non-bonded pairs) -The repulsive interaction of electron pairs follows in the order:lp-lp repulsion lp-bp repulsion bp-bp repulsion -Molecules having only bond pairs have regular shapes. -Molecules having lone pairs in addition to bond pairs have distorted shapes. Molecule No. of pairs CH4 4 NH3 3 H2O 2 Bond No. of pairs 0 1 2 lone Shape Regular tetrahedral Distorted tetrahedral pyramidal Bent or V-shaped Hybridization sp3 sp3 sp3

or

trigonal

Molecular Orbital Theory(MOT)11

Postulates:- When two atoms approach each other to form a covalent bond, all the orbitals of both the atoms overlap together to produce new orbitals belonging to the molecule called molecular orbitals. - Out of the total molecular orbitals, half are bonding molecular orbitals & remaining half are antibonding molecular orbitals. - The molecular orbitals are polycentric whereas atomic orbitals are monocentric. - According to MOT, the identity of atomic orbitals is completely lost in the molecule. - MOT presumes that a molecule is a collection of many nuclei & many electrons. - The filling of molecular orbitals follow Paulis exclusion Principle, Hunds rule & other rules regarding the stability of the system. - The molecular orbitals are designated as , ,, etc. Mathematical Treatment of MOTSuppose, A =wave function of electron in an atom A B =wave function of electron in an atom B Then by Linear combination of Atomic orbitals(LCAO):b= A + B *= A - B (Addition or atomic orbitals are in phase) (Subtraction or atomic orbitals are out of phase)

Where b = wave function of an electron in bonding molecular orbital & * = wave function of an electron in antibonding molecular orbital

We know that, probability of finding an electron around the nuclei 2 Therefore, (b)2 = (A + B)2 = (A)2 + (B)2 + 2AB (*)2 = (A - B)2 = (A)2 + (B)2 - 2AB From the above equations, it is clear that : 1. (b)2 (*)2 2. In bonding molecular orbitals, the electrons spend most of their time in the vicinity of the nuclei & hence, produce a net attractive force which helps in the formation of a covalent bond and thereby stabilizing the system. 3. In antibonding molecular orbitals, electrons remain maximumly away from the nuclei, leading to net repulsive force and thereby de-stabilizing the system & hence, opposing the formation of a covalent bond. 4. The energy of the anti-bonding molecular orbitals is higher than those of the atomic orbitals as well as the bonding molecular orbitals. 12

5. The molecular orbitals are filled in the following sequence:For molecules like O2 , F2, etc, the sequence is:1s, *1s, 2s, *2s, 2pz ,[2px = 2py], [*2px = *2py], *2pz For remaining molecules like Li2, Be2, B2, C2, N2, etc, the sequence is:1s, *1s, 2s, *2s, [2px = 2py], 2pz, [*2px = *2py], *2pz Bond Parameters: 1. Bond Length- It is defined as the equilibrium distance between the nuclei of the two bonded atom. In covalent bond, it is the sum of the radii of the two atoms. Stronger the bond, shorter will be the bond length. 2. Bond Energy- It is the energy required to break one mole of bonds between two atoms in the gaseous state. Stronger the bond, higher is the bond energy. 3. Bond Angle- It is the angle between the orbitals containing the bond pair around central atom in a molecule. 4. Bond Order- It denote the number of bonds between two atoms. It is calculated as follows:Bond Order= nb na/2 Where nb = total number of electrons in bonding molecular orbitals And na = total number of electrons in antibonding molecular orbitals Informations conveyed by bond order:1. If bond order is 0 or negative, bond will not be formed. 2. If bond order is positive, bond will be formed. 3. Higher the bond order, greater is the stability, higher is the bond strength and shorter will be the bond length. Hydrogen Bonding- When hydrogen is covalently bonded to a highly electronegative atom like F, O, N, etc, the shared electron pair is shifted toward the highly electronegative atom. As a result, there is fractional positive charge on hydrogen while fractional charge on the electronegative atom. Now, if amother electronegative atom falls in the vicinity of this hydrogen, then a weak electrostatic force of attraction develops between the covalently bonded hydrogen and the other electronegative atom. This electrostatic force of attraction is known as Hydrogen Bond. It is shown by three broken lines. Hydrogen bond(bond energy 1 to 10 Kcal/mol) is a weak force relative to a covalent bond(bond energy 300-400 Kcal/mol) but it affects the physical properties to a great extent. Hydrogen bonding is of 2 types:1. Intermolecular Hydrogen bonding- It is formed between hydrogen atom & an electronegative atom of two different molecules of the same or the different compound. Example-alcohol, water, para-nitro phenol. It causes inter-locking of several molecules resulting in an increase in the boiling point. 13

2. Intramolecular Hydrogen bonding- It is formed between hydrogen atom & an electronegative atom of the same molecule of a compound. Example- ortho-nitro phenol. It causes self-locking of molecule and so the molecule exists as independent unit. Due to this the boiling point dereases.

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