Fraesen e

TUNGSTEN CARBIDE TOOLS
Training Manual for Milling
Milling Introduction Definition - Milling 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Technological Principles Terms and Designations Chip Formation Tool life Performance Criteria for Milling Initial Contact of the Tool Cutting Edge Milling Techniques Milling Application Suggestions Operating Methods Machine Tools Tool Maintenance and Care
Introduction Definition - Milling 1. 1.1 2. 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 Technological Principles Definitions on the Tool: Cutting Edges - Surfaces - Angles Terms and designations Cutting speed vc [m/min) Feed per teeth fz (mm/Z) Feed Rate vf (mm/min) Thickness of cut h Chip thickness Approach Angle Axial and radial depths of cut (ap and ae) Conditions for engagement ae/Dc<30 % Conditions for engagement ae/Dc>30 % Cutting arc angle s
2.10.1 Central position of the milling cutter 2.10.2 Offset position of the milling cutter 2.11 Positioning of the milling cutter
3. 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4. 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 5. 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 6.
Chip Formation Process for the chip formation Types of chips Chip shapes Influencing factors on chip formation Tool life Permissible land of wear VBadm. Causes of wear Types of wear Temperature on the tool cutting edge Wear Characteristics Troubleshooting Performance criteria for milling Chip production volume Q Specific chip production volume Qp Theoretical l power requirement PMuse. Power and torque Initial contact of the tool cutting edge
7. 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 8. 8.1 8.1.1 8.2 8.2.1 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6
Milling techniques Indexable insert geometries Tool geometries ISO code milling inserts / Designation code Walter geometries WALTER SELECT for indexable milling inserts Surface Finish in Milling / Quality of surface Finish milling with surface milling cutter Setting of milling tools, examples F2010 and F2140 Setting of milling tools, examples F2010 and F2140 Milling tools - Application suggestions Tool Adaption Modular attachment, NC-Tool system Tooth spacing / Cutting edge spacing Vibration and remedial measures Milling diameter / Position of the milling cutter Up milling - Down milling Selecting the correct milling tool Recommendations for an efficient operation
9. 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.5.1 10. 10.1 11. 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4
Operating methods Surface milling Shell end milling and slot milling Shoulder milling Copying Milling with shank-type cutters Solid carbide cutters Machine-tools Inclination of the spindle Tool maintenance and care Indexable insert Clamping of the indexable insert Contact surfaces Tool maintenance
Introduction Machining by means of chip removal involves the use of a tool, with wedge shaped cutting edge, to produce an accurate size and shape workpiece. The workpiece will be to a defined size, tolerance and quality of surface finish. Many factors other than workpiece and cutting material, influence the profitability and efficiency of the machining process. This metal removal training document is intended to give you a better understanding of the terminology and philisophy in the milling process.
Definition of milling Milling is a metal removal method using a tool with a defined cutting geometry. The tool rotates and generally the workpiece feeds linearly against it. The cutting edge is continuously subjected to interrupted cuts, and varying chip thickness through the cut, producing "C" shaped chips. The milling cutter can have either one or multiple cutting edges (teeth) with each edge removing and amount of material. Each cutting edge produces at least one chip, with a continuously varying thickness, with each rotation. Practically all the shearing work is performed by the major cutting edge. It is responsible for the quality of surface on all cut surfaces. This means on all milling surfaces which are not perpendicular to the main axis. In contrast, the secondary cutting edges determine the quality of surface on the rake surfaces. These are the surfaces which are almost perpendicular to the main axis.
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g0
C-C
a l A-A D A B D-D C a A gP D gr B-B C Corner facet Major cutting edge B
c
Nose chamfer
0 r
F-003
Tool orthogonal rake Radial angle Approach angle
Inclination angle
Clearance angle
p Axial angle
1 Clearance angle on the corner facet
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1.
Technological Principles
Geometric relations on the tool cutting edge: 1.1 Definitions on the tool: cutting edges - surfaces - angles
Cutting edge: The part of the tool where the chip is formed due to the relative movement between the tool and the workpiece is the cutting wedge. The cutting edge is the cutting line of the surface of the wedge. Cutting nose Angle at which a primary cutting edge and a secondary cutting edge, with a common rake face meet. The cutting nose can be rounded or chamfered. Major cutting edge Cutting edge whose cutting wedge points toward the direction of the feed if it is considered in the working level. Secondary cutting edge Cutting edge whose cutting wedge do not point toward the direction of the feed it they are considered in the working level. Surfaces: Rake face Face on whose cutting wedge the chip flows. Clearance surface Surfaces on the cutting wedge which are adjacent to the cutting surfaces produced on the workpiece - primary and secondary clearance surfaces.
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VB =
Flank wear
1 = small clearance angle 2 = large clearance angle
o r p
Tool orthogonal rake Radial angle Axial angle
Approach angle Inclination angle
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Angles: Clearance angle The clearance angle is normally between 6 and 15. Larger clearance angles cause slower wear on the clearance surface, smaller clearance angles increase the resultant cutting force. Clearance angles can be easily defined on ground tools (solid carbide, brazed heli or porcupine cutters) for indexable insert tools they depend upon the insert shape, and insert pocket in the cutter body. Large clearance angles are advantageous for milling soft materials such as aluminium. For harder workpiece materials, smaller clearance angles are preferred. Nose angle The angle between the clearance surface and the rake face. It is advisable to select the largest possible nose angle. It helps the strength and stability of the cutting wedge. It can be further enhanced by additional chamfers on the rake faces and clearance surfaces. Tool orthogonal rake The angle between the rake surface and the reference plane. The tool orthogonal rake can be either positive or negative. Positive tool orthogonal rakes assist chip clearance and reduce the cutting force. They enable a more efficient use of the driving power on the milling machine. Negative tool orthogonal rakes are usually used for milling short-chipping materials. The cutting wedge is thus more stable, the cutting force is however greater. For the clearance angles, the tool orthogonal rakes and the nose angles, the rule is always: total of the angles = 90
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Vsp. Vc
= Chip flow speed = Cutting speed = Shear angle = Tool orthogonal rake = Clearance angle
Vsch. = Shearing speed
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2. 2.1
Terms and designations Cutting speed vc [m/min]
The cutting speed is the linear speed at a specific point on the cutting edge. The cutting speed is an important tool-related parameter. It represents the most important cutting condition and it is essentially determined by the type of workpiece material and of the cutting grade which is used. Dc n - [m/min] Formula: v c = ----------------------------1000 Example: Tool diameter rpm Dc = 125 mm n = 500 rpm 125 500 v c = -------------------------------------1000 vc = 196 m/min Experience shows that an incorrect cutting speed clearly reduces the tool life. Aiming at identical batch sizes it is thus appropriate to reduce the cutting speed in favour of the feed per tooth.
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2.2
Feed per tooth fz [mm/Z]
The feed per tooth fz is the feed distance between two cut surfaces which are produced consecutively, ie the feed for each tooth or each cut. This is a measure of the load on the cutting edge. In fact, this key-parameter determines the total milling efficiency. Although a milling tool has multiple cutting edges, the efficiency limits are defined by the output of each individual tooth. Aiming at a maximum chip removal volume Q, it is necessary to select the largest possible feed. In order to avoid a scraping cut which would reduce the tool life, it is necessary to exceed a certain minimum value. An indication of the average thickness of cut for an indexable insert is used as a starting point.
vf Formula: f z = ------------- [mm/Z] Zn The unit of the feed per tooth is: [mm/Z]
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fz hm
= Feed per tooth = Average thickness of cut (chip thickness) = Cutting arc angle = Feed rate = Average angle between tool entry and exit
m
vf
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2.3
Rate of feed vf [mm/min]
Feed rate vf is the travelling speed of the tool in the feed direction. Feed rate is also called table feed and it is a machine-related parameter. Formula: Example: Feed / tooth Number of theeth rpm fz = 0,15 [mm/Z] Z=6 n = 900 [U/min] vf = 0,15 x 6 x 900 vf = 810 [mm/min] Conventional milling machines -> scope of feeds conditional on the machine Machining centres -> any feed rate can be applied Many chip removal problems, encountered when milling with indexable inserts can be avoided by increasing the feed. In practice the opposite occurs and the feed is wrongly reduced. For milling tools with several rows i e porcupine cutters for slot milling the effective number of teeth must be taken into account. On half effective tooth cutters, 2 teeth are required to make one effective tooth for the purpose of calculating feed rate vf. vf = fz x Z x n [mm/min]
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Shapes of cutting sections
Thicknesses of cut h
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2.4
Thickness of cut h
The thickness of cut h is the thickness of the chip to be removed and it is measured perpendicular to the cutting edge. For tools with straight cutting edge, the formula is as follows: Formula: h = fz x sinc
= (Kappa)
With small approach angles , i.e. 45, the thickness of cut h is reduced by approx. 30 % as compared to = 90. As almost every carbide indexable insert is chamfered, ground or rounded, too small a feed per tooth can lead to unwanted friction, which increases the cutting force. Therefore, the feed for = 45 must be increased by approx. 40% to take into account the degree of bluntness of the cutting edge. The smaller the setting angle of a milling tool, the more the feed per tooth must be increased in order to ensure a sufficient thickness of cut.
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Milling cutter
Workpiece
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2.5
Average chip thickness hm
As the chip thickness h continuously changes during the action of the cutting edge in the workpiece material, it is appropriate to select the average chip thickness hm. It is used to judge the load on the cutting edge and to determine the power requirements for a given milling operation In order to determine this average chip thickness hm, it is necessary to consider the entrance and exit angle of the cut in relation to the length of the arc. The average chip thickness of hm is calculated with the equation: Formula: 114, 7 f z sin a D e c h m = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------s
s = angle of cutting arc [degrees]
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Shapes of cutting sections
Thicknesses of cut h
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2.6
Approach angle
The operating angle - approach angle - influences the chip section, and load on the cutting edge. Changing the approach angle, changes the thickness of cut h and the length of cut b. The setting angle is often determined by the type of machining, i.e. for shoulder milling, the setting angle is 90. The most common angles are between 45 and 90. The approach angle is the angle measured between the main cutting edge and the workpiece contour. With small setting angles, the axial force FA increases. This is beneficial to the machine, as the load on the milling spindle is more critical in the radial direction. The tool life is improved by the possibility of increasing the FZ value, and the risk of breakout on the workpiece is reduced. Higher radial forces FR in the direction of feed puts a bending load on the spindle (approach angle 90 degrees). The advantage of setting angles of 90 lies in the machining of unstable workpieces sensitive to axial forces, because the vibration in the workpiece is reduces to a minimum due to the relatively small axial force FA. Little pressure is applied onto the surface to be machined. With 45 degree approach angle it is possible to increase the table feed, as compared to 90 degrees, without overloading the insert, by increasing the feed / tooth to maintain an acceptable chip thickness. The increased feed rate can then be used to off set the reduced depth of cut. Milling tools with indexable round inserts have, depending upon the depth of cut, all angles from 0- 90. This gives an extremely stable cutting edge allowing a higher table feed thanks to the thinner chips which are generated. Modern indexable insert geometries greatly increased the range of application of milling cutters, they ensure a smooth cut and require less power and stability from the machine-tool than previously expected.
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Plain milling cutter
Shank-type cutter
End mill
ae
ap
ap ae ae
ap
Peripheral surface milling

Shell end mill
Slot milling
End and peripheral surface milling

Side and face milling cutter End mill
ap
ap
ae
ae ap ae
Peripheral and end surface milling

F-009
Slot milling
End milling
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2.7
Axial and radial depths of cut (ap and ae)
To determine the feed per tooth, an indication of the axial and radial depths of cut is very important. The axial depth of cut ap is governed by the indexable insert and the approach angle . For full side and face milling cutters, when slotting, the axial depth of cut is identical to the tool width B. The radial depth of cut ae describes the radial width of engagement of the milling tool. i.e. for milling slots with side and face milling cutters, the radial depth of cut ae equals the depth of the slot to be milled. ae is also a value with a direct influence upon the feed per tooth. For surface milling, the dimension- and position-related relationship between milling tool and workpiece, has a critical influence It is thus necessary to take into account the width of the workpiece or the milling diameter Dc when selecting the tool. A tool diameter Dc about 30 % larger than the workpiece width is considered as ideal. The tool must however be appropriate for the driving power and the stability of the machine. (to remember easily: ap = parallel to the rotation axis)
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2.8
Condition for engagement ae / Dc < 30%
Besides the average thickness of cut hm and the approach angle , it is also necessary to determine the condition for the engagement ae in relation to Dc. Example: 1. Surface milling with a shell end cutter F3038.B.063.Z04.56 radial depth of cut ae = 14 mm tool diameter Dc = 63 mm ae 14 - = 0, 22 = 22% ------- = ----63 Dc 2. Slot-milling with a side and face milling cutter F2253.B.160.Z06.16 radial depth of cut ae = 8 mm tool diameter Dc = 160 mm ae 8 - = 0, 05 = 5% ------- = --------160 Dc
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Engagement conditions ae/Dc < 30% have the greatest influence upon the feed calculation, as the smaller this ratio, the more the feed per tooth must be increased. With engagement conditions ae/Dc < 30 %, the following simplified formula is valid:
Dc 1 Formula: f z = h m ------- ------------- [mm/Z] a e sin
Typical values for hm: hm = 0,15 - 0,25 (steel, cast steel, grey cast iron, nodular graphite cast iron) hm = 0,08 - 0,15 (CrNi steels, titanium alloys) hm = 0,05 - 0,08 (non-ferrous alloys)
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Plain milling cutter
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Calculation of the feed per tooth (approximate version) Different profiling operations are performed with a shoulder milling cutter F3038.B.063.Z04.56 Dc = 80 mm (= 90). The average chip thickness is given by hm = .1 mm. The radial depth of cut ae = 16 mm for the 1st pass and ae = 4 mm for the 2nd pass 1. 1st pass
ae 16 - = 20% ------- = ----80 Dc Find: fz =? given: Dc = 80 mm, ae = 16 mm, hm = 0,1 mm, = 90.
Dc 1 Formula: f z = h m ------- ------------- [mm/Z] a e sin fz = 0,22
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Plain Milling Cutter
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2.
2nd milling pass
ae 4 - = 5% ------- = ----80 Dc given: Dc = 80 mm, ae = 4 mm, hm = 0,1 mm, = 90. Dc 1 Formula: f z = h m ------- ------------- [mm/Z] a e sin find: fz =?
0,45 (to be determined with a

calculator) The same tool has been used for both milling operations but the feed per tooth must be increased, as calculated, due to the smaller engagement conditions. If we do not take this fact into account, the average chip thickness hm diminishes and becomes too small for a roughing operation with indexable inserts. The consequences of a too small feed per tooth (average chip thickness hm) can appear in the form of vibration on the workpiece and tool: of a reduced tool life: poor quality of surface finish and higher specific cutting force.
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Dc f z = h m -----ae
(mm/Z)
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The following tools are mainly used with engagement conditions ae/Dc < 30 % side and face milling cutters shell end cutters copying milling cutters The above listed tools all have a setting angle = 90. The feed-per-tooth formula can thus be further simplified: for sin 90 = 1.
Dc Formula: f z = h m ------ae
[mm/Z]
Note - this formula is valid only for ae/Dc < 30%%!!!
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2.9
Condition for engagement ae/Dc > 30%
For surface milling, engagement conditions of 60 to 70 % would be the ideal solution for efficient chip removal. For slot-milling with porcupine cutters and shoulder milling cutters, 100 % engagement is achieved (ae = Dc ; slot-milling from solid with porcupine cutters etc.). To calculate the exact feed per tooth for engagement conditions ae / Dc > 30 %, it is necessary to use the following formula: hm Dc s Formula: f z = --------------------------------------------------360 a e sin
[mm/Z]
s = angle of the cutting arc (angle between entrance

and exit of cut)
By approximation: fz hm
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2.10
Cutting arc angle s
2.10.1 Central position of the milling cutter ae = 2 arc sin ------- D c
Formula:
2.10.2 Offset position of the milling cutter ae ( Dc 2 ) Formula: s = 90 + arc sin --------------------------------( Dc 2 )
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Cutter position for surface milling
0,05
Dc
0,75
Dc
F-053
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2.11
Positioning of the milling cutter
The positioning of the milling tool relative to the workpiece influences both the tool life of the indexable insert and the operational smoothness. In an ideal case, with a milling cutter sufficiently larger than the workpiece width, the milling cutter should be positioned slightly offset. This is advantageous because the entry and exit of cut are preferred from an insert load and chip formation point of view. A centrally positioned milling cutter can be detrimental to the operation. Radial forces from the entry and exit of cut can lead to vibration in the milling spindle, damaged cutting edges and poor surface finish. Offset positioning of the milling cutter leads to constant direction of the cutting forces. Relation Dc / ae = 4 / 3.
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theoretical thickness of cut
shear plane shearing angle
effective chip thickness
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3. 3.1
Chip formation Process of the chip formation
The entry of the wedge into the workpiece under shear force causes a compression of the workpiece material in front of the cutting face and it then slides as a chip on the cutting face of the tool. The chip formation is often schematically shown as a parallel displacement of thin chip lamellas, assuming an entirely homogeneous workpiece material and the formation of a flowing chip 3.2 Types of chips
We make a distinction between three types of chip regarding their formations: Flowing chip Shearing chip Tearing chip
The formation of the chip depends upon the ductility of the workpiece material, the cutting speed (vc), the thickness of cut (h, hm), and the microgeometry and the macrogeometry of the cutting edge as well as the chip removal temperature.
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Ribbon chips
Snarl chips
Flat helical chips
Oblique helical chips
Long cyl. helical chips
short cyl. helical chips
Spiral helical chips
Spiral chips
Helica chip
Discontinuous chips
GOOD CHIP SHAPES UNFAVOURABLE CHIP SHAPES ACCEPTABLE CHIP SHAPES
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Flowing chip The chipping process, for a flowing chip, is a uniform and uninterrupted separation process. The deviation takes place in one plane . Flowing chips occur in workpiece materials which deform and have a homogeneous structure. High cutting speed and large tool orthogonal rake helps the formation of flowing chips. Shearing chips Shearing chips are formed when the deformation in the shearing level exceeds the ability to deformation of the workpiece material. They are made of entirely detached chip elements which are welded again at the root of the respective chip. Shearing chips are caused when rough machining with an high thickness of cut and a low cutting speed; when machining brittle materials if the deformation in the shearing level causes a brittleness in the structrure, i.e. at the grain boundaries of austenitic steels. Tearing chip Tearing chips are formed when brittle materials showing a low ability to deformation, i..e cast iron, brass etc., are used for chip removal operations. The chips are not detached anymore but torn off from the surface. The separation area is irregular and the surface of the workpiece is often damaged by small breaking-offs.
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Ribbon chips
Snarl chips
Flat helical chips
Oblique helical chips
Long cyl. helical chips
short cyl. helical chips
Spiral helical chips
Spiral chips
Helica chip
Discontinuous chips
GOOD CHIP SHAPES UNFAVOURABLE CHIP SHAPES ACCEPTABLE CHIP SHAPES
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3.3
Chip shapes
Chip shape is the shape of the chip as it leaves the cutting face of the tool at the end of cut. We make a distinction between the following chip shapes:: Ribbon chip Helical chip type A Helical chip Fragmental and discontinuous chip Ribbon chip and Nested chip Are a risk to the security of the machining operation. They can cause damage to the workpiece surface and tool, and can take up a lot of space. They are difficult to transport and can be a cause of accident Helical chip type A They flow as long, uninterrupted, flat, upward-orientated helixes. Helical chips type A are wanted. Broken chips Are required to enable the lubricant or coolant to carry away the chips. ie CNC lathes or for deep hole drilling. When the feed increases, the chip bends more and breaks. If the cutting speed increases, it breaks with more difficulties, tends to become a snarl and ribbon chip. Negative tool orthogonal rakes aggravate a good chip formation. Nested chip Spiral chip Needle chip
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Schematic representation of the chip formation
clearance angle tool orthogonal rake thickness of cut
h1
chip thickness shearing angle shear plane
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3.4
Influencing factors on chip formation
All parameters in the chip removal process have an influence upon the chip formation: Property of the workpiece material Cutting parameters (vc, fz, vf, ae, ap, etc.) Tool angles (setting angle, clearance angle, tool orthogonal rake) Cutting grade Chip removal temperature
The interaction of these influencing factors create the different types and shapes of chips.
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Production costs - Production output

Production costs/piece Production output Cutting speed and feed
M = machine costs T = tool costs F = fixed costs Q = piece / hour P = production costs
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4.
Tool life
The working life of an indexable insert is limited by the wear of the cutting edges. As soon as the cutting edge wear has reached a certain dimension, this is a sign that the tool life has reached a predetermind limit. Perfect performance of the cutting edge is expected for an application within the scope of the tool life. For this purpose, the tool life is measured according to the number of workpieces produced, or in metre's of distance machined. If the tool life is too short, the production process is interrupted for the replacement of the tool, to the detriment of the machining time. If the tool life is too long, the productivity, has been compromised and as a result we obtain a poor utilisation ratio of the available production time. The selection of the correct tool is, together with its correct application, a critical factor to determine the economic balance for the machining operation. The tool wear is the damage on the cutting edge by different wear mechanisms. Their result can be seen (magnifying glass) on the tool cutting edge. All tools wear during the chip removal process. The formation of the chip takes place with a continuous material removal under high pressures and temperatures at the cutting face and at the clearance surface of the cutting edge. The cutting area brings thus ideal conditions for a series of reaction between the workpiece and the cutting material.
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Clearance surface wear in mm
Tool life
Engagement time in min
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4.1
Permissible land wear VBadm
The wear of the clearance surface increases with the engagement duration. After a short engagement duration t, the curve rises in an above-average manner. The cause of this above-average rising curve lies in the growing increase of the wear. It is necessary to determine empirical values defining to which extent the wear can increase before the indexable insert is turned over or replaced.. Generally acceptable values for wear of the clearance surfaces are from VBadm. .2 - .8 mm. The criterion for the tool life must be determined according to the machining operation (roughing, finishing). The wear of the clearance surfaces is generally a reliable value to determine the economic tool life. Reliable lands of wear as limiting factors for the tool life T: finishing VBadm. roughing VBadm. = 0,2 - 0,3 [mm] = 0,4 - 0,8 [mm]
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Abrasion Diffusion and chemical reactions
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4.2
Causes of wear
There are five main wear causes: Abrasive wear This is the most common wear in the field of metal machining. It is a form of wear which appears between two surfaces rubbing against each other. Hard metal particles cause a grinding type process. Most workpiece material have a certain quantity of hard carbides in their structure and for this reason set highest requirements to the cutting edge with regards to hardness and a resistance to wear. The harder the cutting grade, the higher the resistance against abrasive wear. Wear by diffusion This is mainly a chemical reaction between the workpiece and the cutting grade taking place due to simultaneous high temperature and high pressure. The dimension of the wear by diffusion is essentially course by chemical reaction and the hardness does not play any part in this case. The ability of the cutting material to resist this reaction with the workpiece determinds the wear. The wear appears as a crater on the cutting face due to the chip rubbing over the face.
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Adhesion
Oxidation
Stresses due to temperature changes Formation of cracks
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Oxidation wear It comes as a consequence of strong pressure and high temperature, but, as apposed to diffusion, it needs oxygen. The wear appears on the cutting edge at the same level as the depth of cut and causes deep indentations in this area - also called blasting wear. Formation of cracks Appear in a cutting material with low resistance against the high temperatures changes in the cutting area. The temperature and the load changes on the cutting edge can lead to breakage. This type of wear can be accelerated by inconsistent use of cooling lubricant. This type of wear occurs mainly in milling operations where the cutting edge is subjected to extreme temperature change. The edge becomes hot during cut and cool out of cut and lead inevitably to comb shaped cracks. Wear by adhesion It generally occurs at low machining temperatures. This type of wear mostly appears with too low cutting speeds. The cutting material and the workpiece material stick to each other or are welded together instead of sliding on the cutting face at high temperatures. During the machining operation, particles of the chip build up on the cutting edge changing the cutting edge geometry and creating additional friction and leading to poor chip removal. Some workpiece materials, i.e. low-alloyed carbon steels, stainless steel or aluminium, are particularly susceptible to built-up edge. This risk can in most cases be reduced or even totally avioded if the cutting parameters are increased.
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Wear of the clearance surfaces
Crater wear
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4.3
Types of wear
The main types of wear can be classified as follows: Wear of clearance surfaces (flank wear) This type of wear (VB, VBmax), is the most common and it occurs, as its name indicates on the clearance surface of the cutting edge. The principal reason is the abrasive action of hard work piece particles which cause an abrasion in contact with the indexable insert. A balanced wear of the clearance surfaces is often considered as the ideal form of wear for the indexable insert. An unusually high wear of the clearance surfaces causes poor results for finishing operations, due to friction and therefore a higher temperature as the original clearance angle has been artificially reduced. For roughing operations, this often leads to vibration, a greater power requirement and to breakage of the indexable insert. If the wear of the clearance surfaces develops too rapidly, it is necessary to check the cutting speed to make sure that the cutting parameters are not too high for the selected cutting grade. Extreme hardness of the workpiece or a superficial hardening during the machining operation can also be the cause. The best remedy here is a cutting grade with a higher resistance against wear in the upper field of the respective ISO category. Crater wear This type of wear, very similar to the wear of the clearance surfaces, takes place on the cutting face where the chip rubs on the cutting edge. Due to the chip contact, cutting material is continuously removed by the workpiece material, at high temperatures and high pressures, in the area of the crater (cutting face). Crater wear can be considered as a normal wear type as long as it remains within acceptable limits. Excessive crater wear modifies the geometry of the cutting edge and leads to a weakening of the cutting edge. If crater wear develops too rapidly, the cause is usually a too high cutting speed. A more wear resistant cutting grade can bring a solution. A more positive cutting edge geometry can also reduce tendancy to crater wear.
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Plastic deformation
Formation of a built-up edge
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Plastic deformation High temperature and high pressure can lead in some cases to a weakening and a deforming of the cutting material of the indexable insert. This causes either a lowering of the cutting edge in the direction of the machining, or the deformation of the clearance surface. Here, the cutting material must have high temperature hardness, sufficient to resist the plastic deformation. The flattening of the cutting edge leads to increased frictional heat, to larger geometric deviations and to insufficient chip control; this can very rapidly create a critical phase in the machining process. To avoid plastic deformation, a more wear resistant cutting grade better suited to resist this condition thanks to its hardness, should be selected. The reduction of the cutting speed and of the feed can also brings a remedy to this type of wear. Formation of a built-up edge The formation of pressure welded workpiece particles on the cutting edge is often the result of too low temperatures in the cutting area, caused by too low cutting speed. Built-up edge changes the geometry of the cutting edge, reduces the angles of the positive indexable inserts and reduces the clearance angle. Small particles leaving the built-up edge often tear parts of the cutting edge with them and lead to breakage on the cutting edge. Measures against the formation of built-up edges are to increase the cutting speed, to use a more positive geometry and a cutting material with a low affinity to the workpiece material. Special coating methods can also reduce the friction coefficient. This has a positive effect against the formation of built-up edge.
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Formation of comb-shaped cracks
Chipping
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Formation of comb-shaped cracks This is a form of fatigue wear which is due to the stress caused by temperature changes (thermal shock). The risk of the formation of comb-shaped cracks exists particularly for milling (short contact duration between the cutting edge and the workpiece, long cooling down phase). The cracks appear normally perpendicularly, sometimes also parallel to the cutting edge. The cutting edge is strongly impaired causing particles of the cutting material to break off between the cracks - this leads ultimately to the breakage of the indexable insert. Big variations in the thickness of the chip can also lead to comb-shaped fissures. A wrong coolant supply or the use of cooling lubricant as a principle are often the case of the formation of comb-shaped cracks. Often, a tougher grade in the lower field of the respective ISO category can be recommended to prevent comb-shaped cracks. Chipping When small particles leave the cutting edge, it is decisively impaired. The cutting edge is not stable enough (larger chamfer = less positive tool orthogonal rake) to withstand the mechanical stresses of the respective chip removal operation. A tougher grade can bring a solution but the golden rule should be applied, always provide the largest possible stability for the chip removal process.
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Rotation of the milling spindle (0,5 sec) All indications in [C] Workpiece Temperatur Chip Cooling down of the cutting edge Feed out Cut First cut Depth of cut: ap = 2mm Feed: fz= 0,1mm / Zahn Cutting speed: vc = 110m/min Distance thermoelement-cutting edge 2mm Tool Measure of the temperature field with built-in thermoelement for milling with a single-tooth tool
nach H.Opitz und H.Axer
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4.4
Temperature on the tool cutting edge
Due to the transformation of the shearing energy in heat, high temperatures appear in the chip, at the tool cutting edge and on the workpiece. The generated heat must be received and dissipated. The main part of the heat is dissipated through the chip, further parts are dissipated by the tool and the workpiece, and by the cooling lubricant. The heat proportion dissipated by the chip increases with higher cutting speeds. More important than the heat itself, is the temperature generated at the tool cutting edge. It influences the formation of the chip, the machining property of the workpiece as well as the tool wear, and thus, the toollife. The highest temperature in the chip removal process appears on the cutting face of the tool, behind the cutting edge.
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Land wear depending on Q and V

Land wear VB (mm)
Workpiece material: 16 Mn Cr 5
s = 90
ap x fz = 3 * 0,25 mm2
Removed volume / tooth Q (cm3)
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4.5
Wear characteristics
A regular inspection of the wear characteristics is an excellent basis from which to optimise machining parameters. 1. 2. Determine the wear of the clearance surface in relation to the effective engagement time of the cutting edge (VB and VBmax). Increased power consumption indicates changing cutting conditions. This can be a sign that the wear of the cutting edge has increased and that the indexable insert must be turned over. During a nishing operation a deterioration of surface nish can indicate an excessive wear on the insert. A heavy burr, particularly in stainless steel, is a sure sign that the cutting edge is worn. Glowing of the cutting is also a typical sign that wear is weakening the cutting edge. A worn cutting edge causes more friction and develops more heat. Chipping of the edge can be seen with the naked eye. In this case, the whole chip removal process or cutting parameters must be redened. The basis for this redenition is the stability of the system. Visible marks on the chips or a bad formation of the chips are signs of worn cutting edges. The wear-caused geometric deviations of the insert accelerate the aggravation of the chip formation process. Noises are a sure sign of defects within the chip removal process. They are often caused by vibration due to wear-caused geometric changes on the tool.
3. 4. 5. 6.
7.
8.
70
Remedial measures for milling problems

High wear of the clearance surfaces
Problem
Deformation of the cutting edge Formation of a built-up edge
Chipping of the cutting edge
Chip formation, chip jam
Excessive crater wear
Breakage of the insert
Chattering, vibration
+ rise, increase reduce, diminish ~ check, optimise

Frittering of edges on the workpiece Machine overload
Poor surface finish
Remedy / measure
Cutting speed
+ +
+ +
+ ~ ~
Feed per tooth
Carbide toughness
+ + ~ ~ + + ~
+ ~ ~ ~
Carbide wear resistance
Setting angle
+ ~ ~ ~
Tool orthogonal rake
Chamfer of the cutting edge
71
4.6
Troubleshooting
Chipping of the cutting edge under thermal stress Use a tougher cemented carbide Increase the feed per tooth fz Reduce the cutting speed vc Select positive cutting angles
Chipping of the cutting edge under mechanical stress Use a tougher cemented carbide Select negative cutting angles (stabilisation chamfer) Verify the stability of the machine, of the workpiece and the workpiece clamping Reduce the feed per tooth fz Modify the angle for the rst cut (initial contact of the cutting edge)
Breakage of the indexable insert Ensure a free chip clearance Use a tougher cemented carbide grade Check the cutting parameters Modify the angle of the rst cut (initial contact of the cutting edge) Check the stability conditions
72
High wear of the clearance surfaces
Problem
Deformation of the cutting edge Formation of a built-up edge
Chipping of the cutting edge
Chip formation, chip jam
Excessive crater wear
Breakage of the insert
Chattering, vibration
Poor surface finish
Frittering of edges on the workpiece
+ rise, increase reduce, diminish ~ check, optimise

Machine overload
Remedy / measure
Stability
+ ~ ~ ~
+ + + + ~ ~ ~ ~
Axial and radial accuracy
~ ~
Cutting edge wear
Positionin gof cutter (eE; eA) Coolant, chip clearance
+ +
Indexable insert, clamping of cartridges
~ ~ ~
~ ~
Cutting depth
Checking of cutting material
Cutting speed
73
Crater wear - Reduce the cutting speed - Use a tougher cemented carbide Wear of the clearance surfaces - Increase the feed per tooth fz - Use a tougher cemented carbide Formation of a built-up edge - Increase the cutting speed and/or the feed - Check the afnity cutting material - workpiece material - Use a ground (polished) positive indexable insert - Check the possibility for the special coating Vibration (chattering) - Check the clamping stability - Select another cutting edge geometry - Use a milling cutter with irregular pitch - Check the position of the milling cutter with regards to the workpiece Poor quality urface finish on the workpiece Use indexable inserts with a corner facet Use a wiper insert Reduce the feed per tooth fz Check the stability Check the run-out accuracy Possibly too low cutting speed (no formation of owing chips)
74
No.
Workpiece material Designation
Toughness or hardness [N/mm2] 520 620 720 670 770 770 630 730 600 600 940 200 HB 500 160 200
Real tool orthogonal rake o/of degree 8/ - 7 8/ - 7 8/ - 7 8/ - 7 8/ - 7 8/ - 7 8/ - 7 8/ - 7 8/ - 7 8/ - 7 8/ - 7 8 8 20 20
Cutting force exponent 1-mc 0,81 0,87 0,79 0,88 0,86 0,81 0,74 0,80 0,84 0,80 0,82 0,66 0,66 0,66 0,66
Specific cutting force kc1.1 [N/mm2] 1390 1440 1500 1470 1430 1440 1450 1550 1480 1470 1290 760 500 250 300
Specific cutting force kc [N/mm2] for thickness of cut hm [mm] = 0,025 2780 2300 3240 2230 2400 2880 3770 3220 2660 3050 2470 2640 1740 870 1040 0,04 2570 2160 2960 2130 2250 2660 3330 2940 2440 2790 2290 2260 1480 740 890 0,063 2330 2050 2690 2030 2110 2420 2990 2680 2300 2540 2100 1940 1270 630 760 0,1 2150 1940 2430 1940 1970 2230 2640 2450 2140 2320 1940 1660 1090 540 660 0,16 1970 1820 2200 1820 1840 2040 2330 2230 1970 2120 1790 1410 930 460 560 0,25 1800 1720 1970 1730 1740 1870 2080 2040 1840 1930 1650 1210 800 400 480 0,4 1650 1620 1820 1640 1620 1710 1840 1860 1710 1760 1520 1030 680 340 410 0,63 1510 1520 1650 1550 1520 1570 1630 1700 1590 1610 1400 880 580 290 350 1 1390 1440 1500 1470 1430 1440 1450 1550 1480 1470 1290 760 500 250 300
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
St 50.11 St 60.11 St 70.11 CK 45 CK 60 16 Mn Cr 5 18 Cr Ni 6 42 Cr Mo 4 34 Cr Mo 4 50 Cr V 4 55 Ni Cr Mo V 6 (G) GG 26 Brass Ms 58 G-AlMg G-Al Si
75
5. 5.1
Performance criteria for milling Chip production volume Q
The chip production volume Q calculates the volume of material removed per minute in relation to the thickness of cut and of the rate of feed. The dimension of the chip removal rate is included on the performance calculation. ae ap v f Formula: Q = --------------------------------1000
3 [cm /min]
Example: Find: Given: chip production volume Q ae = 80mm, ap = 6mm, vf = 600mm/min, shoulder milling cutter Dc = 80mm ae ap vf 80 6 600 Q = --------------------------------- = --------------------------------1000 1000 Q = 288 cm3/min 3 [cm /min]
76
No.
Workpiece material Designation
Toughness or hardness [N/mm2] 520 620 720 670 770 770 630 730 600 600 940 200 HB 500 160 200
Real tool orthogonal rake o/of degree 8/ - 7 8/ - 7 8/ - 7 8/ - 7 8/ - 7 8/ - 7 8/ - 7 8/ - 7 8/ - 7 8/ - 7 8/ - 7 8 8 20 20
Cutting force exponent 1-mc 0,81 0,87 0,79 0,88 0,86 0,81 0,74 0,80 0,84 0,80 0,82 0,66 0,66 0,66 0,66
Specific cutting force kc1.1 [N/mm2] 1390 1440 1500 1470 1430 1440 1450 1550 1480 1470 1290 760 500 250 300
Specific cutting force kc [N/mm2] for thickness of cut hm [mm] = 0,025 2780 2300 3240 2230 2400 2880 3770 3220 2660 3050 2470 2640 1740 870 1040 0,04 2570 2160 2960 2130 2250 2660 3330 2940 2440 2790 2290 2260 1480 740 890 0,063 2330 2050 2690 2030 2110 2420 2990 2680 2300 2540 2100 1940 1270 630 760 0,1 2150 1940 2430 1940 1970 2230 2640 2450 2140 2320 1940 1660 1090 540 660 0,16 1970 1820 2200 1820 1840 2040 2330 2230 1970 2120 1790 1410 930 460 560 0,25 1800 1720 1970 1730 1740 1870 2080 2040 1840 1930 1650 1210 800 400 480 0,4 1650 1620 1820 1640 1620 1710 1840 1860 1710 1760 1520 1030 680 340 410 0,63 1510 1520 1650 1550 1520 1570 1630 1700 1590 1610 1400 880 580 290 350 1 1390 1440 1500 1470 1430 1440 1450 1550 1480 1470 1290 760 500 250 300
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
St 50.11 St 60.11 St 70.11 CK 45 CK 60 16 Mn Cr 5 18 Cr Ni 6 42 Cr Mo 4 34 Cr Mo 4 50 Cr V 4 55 Ni Cr Mo V 6 (G) GG 26 Brass Ms 58 G-AlMg G-Al Si
77
5.2
Specific chip production volume Qp
The specific chip production volume uses the specific cutting force Kc1.1 of the workpiece material and the relative thickness of cut h or fz.
61200 Formula: Q p = --------------k c1.1
3 [cm /kWmin]
Example: Find: Given: specific chip volume, Qp Kc1.1 = 2245 [N/mm2] for C45 with fz = 0,15 [mm] Kc - Values ISO P = 1700 - 2500 ISO M = 2000 - 3200 ISO K = 1000 - 1500 Qp = 61200 / 2245 Qp = 27 [cm3/kWmin] [cm3/kWmin]
78
Q P PMreq = ------Mutz Qp
[kW]
ap ae vf kc P P = ----------------------------------------------Msupp Mzu 7 6 10
79
5.3
Theoretical power requirement PMutil
In order to determine the operating parameters, it is necessary to check the necessary power PMreq. It is the power which must be available on the spindle. The power PMsupp. supplied to the driving motor must be superior to the effective machine efficiency - usual values 0.75 to 0.9 Example: Find: Given: PMsupp., PMreq. Q Qp Formula: Q - [kW] P Mreq = ------Qp = = 228 27 [cm3/min], = 0,85 [cm3/kWmin].
Exact formula: 6 80 600 2245 P Msupp = -----------------------------------------------------7 6 10 0, 85
PMreq PMreq
= =
228 / 27 8,4 kW
[kW] PMsupp = 12,6 kW
PMsupp =
8,4 / 0,85 = 10 kW
For this case of application, the machine-tool should have a driving power of approx. 14 kW because the wear of the indexable insert increases the demand for power.
80
Torque M [Nm]
2000 1500 Nm 1000
Power P [kW]
200
900 Nm 60 KW
100
30 KW 200 20
100
10
Torque M [Nm]
40 % ED 100 % ED
Power P [kW]
40 % ED 100 % ED
20
10 10 20 100 200 376 1000 2000 6000 10000 20000 100000
Number of revolutions n [min-1]
81
5.4
Power and torque
It is very important to know the relationship between power and torque. The nominal power is available only from a machine-specific number of revolutions. A verification of the torque must be performed in any case. Otherwise the torque diminishes when the number of revolutions increases when it reaches the max. power. It can happen that larger tool diameters get enough motor power at high number of revolutions but that the machine torque with such a number of revolutions is not sufficient to build the torque for the tool (the machine stands still!). The torque can be calculated with the following formula:
Formula: M = 9559
Mnutz ----------------n
[Nm]
82
Power consumption for slot milling

Tool Dc = 32 mm Z fz =2 = 0,2 mm
ae = Dc Workpiece material: 3.4364 T (AIZnMgCu1,5)
83
Torque calculation: Find: Given: Torque M [Nm] required power PMmulti = 8,4 [kW], fz = 0,15 [mm/Z], vc = 180 [m/min], vf = 600 [mm/min], Dc = 80 [mm], Z = 5, ae = 80 [mm], ap = 6 [mm] Calculation of the number of revolutions n = 1000 x 180 / 80 x 1000 v c 1 n = -------------------------- [min ] Dc
1st step:
Formula:
n = 717 [rpm] 2nd step: Calculation of the torque M = 9559 x 8,4 / 717 P Mreq M = 9559 ------------------ [Nm] n
Formula:
M = 112 [Nm]]
84
Torque M[Nm]
2000 1500 Nm 1000
Power P [kW]
200
900 Nm 60 KW
100
30 KW 200 20
100
10
Torque M [Nm]
40 % ED 100 % ED
Power P [kW]
40 % ED 100 % ED
20
10 10 20 100 200 376 1000 2000 6000 10000 20000 100000
Number of revolutions n [min-1]
85
If instead of a milling cutter with Dc = 80 mm we use a milling cutter with Dc = 160 mm, we obtain the following torque. We suppose that the required power is the same, meaning 8.4 kW. The number of revolutions n is less due to the larger tool diameter Dc = 160 mm and due to the same cutting speed, and it is n = 358 min -1. The required torque doubles! M = 9559 x 8,4 / 358 = 224 [Nm]
It is now important to check if for a number of revolutions n = 717 [r.p.m.], the machine generates a torque M = 112 [Nm]. We can see on the power/torque - number of revolutions diagram for the machine-tool used, that the condition for the torque will be fulfilled. Thus, it can be very important to estimate chip removal processes using the torque and also with regards to the achievable power for a given number of revolutions. An overload of the machine can be avoided at a preliminary stage for this can identify a lack of power.
86
S V 0 + + T
U 0 + S V
S-T-U-V contact
F-031
S contact
U contact
V contact
87
6.
Initial contact of the tool cutting edge
The impact point is very important for the stress applied onto the cutting edge of the cutter. The perspective representation of the thickness of cut and of the possible impact points S, T, U, V gives the alternatives given below, taking into account that as a simplification we suppose that the cutter axis and the edge of the workpiece are overlapping. Axial and radial angles 0 Positive axial angle, radial angle 0 Negative axial angle, radial angle 0 Axial angle 0, positive radial angle surface contact S-T-U-V inear contact S-V linear contact T-U linear contact S-T
These types of contacts S-T-U-V are unfavourable because a large part of the thickness of cut is carried out at the first contact and because they cause an high shock stress on the cutting edges. If the radial angle is negative and the axial angle positive, we obtain a V contact. This is advantageous because the chip is well directed (helical chip geometry type A) and the tool nose is protected. If both angles are positive, we obtain a S contact. This means that the tool nose makes the first contact which increases the risk of breakage and therefore, it is not recommended for tougher workpiece materials. For soft workpiece materials which tend to stick, this cutting edge geometry, which has the lowest power requirement, can be advantageous.
88
S V 0 + + T
U 0 + S V
S-T-U-V contact
F-031
S contact
U contact
V contact
89
If both angles are negative, we obtain a U contact. This type of contact guarantees the best cutting edge protection against breakage but it has also the highest power requirement and gives unfavourable chip removal. This geometry is thus only used for short-chipping workpieces (i.e. grey cast iron). The influence of the exit of the cutting edge on the tool life is as important as the entry. At the exit of the cutting edges with approximately maximum thicknesses of cut, combined with unfavourable contact, a premature failure of the tool may happen at a point on the cutting edge which is very exposed.
90
91
7.
Milling techniques
The modern trend in the milling technique clearly leads towards softer cutting tools. The advantage of such tools is that they require less driving power and that they are "kinder" to the machine-tool, ensuring longer life particularly of the spindle. Large clearance angles on the cutting edges, precision-sintered or ground chipbreakers and thus small wedge angles at the cutting edge can only be achieved with durable cemented carbide grades. Our development with regards to indexable inserts as well as coating technology is a continuous process. This process enables us to introduce successfully on the market new tools which met our customers (you) requirements. The first steps for the application of finest-grained grades and of PVD coatings have already been carried out.
92
Comprehensive workpiece material coverage with gemomatry variants
93
7.1
Indexable insert geometry
The following factors are decisive in the selection of the most economic and most secure indexable insert: Workpiece material Required quality of surface finish Surface condition of the workpiece Workpiece clamping Machining operation (milling of pockets, copying, etc.) Tool overhang length Power, torque, number of revolutions characteristic of the machine-tool
The microgeometry of an indexable insert which gives the sharpness or the bluntness, can go from a rounded to a strongly chamfered cutting edge. The configuration of the respective cutting edge requires a minimum thickness of cut (hm). Good chip formation and thus economic tool life and quality of surface finish are only achievable by taking into account the machining in the area of the minimum chip thickness
! If you work below the required thickness of cut, there is an inefficient cutting action with a compression process which dramatically reduces the tool life of the cutting edge
94
95
7.2
Tool geometries
A stable cutting edge is obtained with double negative geometry -ie when the radial and axial angles are negative. This design is useful particularly for oxide ceramic cutting materials due to the low tenacity of the cutting grade. The cutting edge is particularly strong. The draw back of double negative geometries is that the chip is directed towards the workpiece and there is a risk of the chips being drawn under the tool causing bad finish. Furthermore, negative tool systems generate high cutting forces which require rigid machine conditions and high driving power. Breaking-out can occur on the workpiece edges (cast iron). The machining of unstable workpieces is not recommended due to the strong axial cutting forces. Positive milling tools utilise positive indexable inserts throughout. This type of milling tool has a smoother cutting action and more advantageous chip forming properties. The drawback of such a geometry is the weakened cutting edge nose. Larger radii, corner facets and protection chamfers on the indexable inserts prevent cutting edge breakage. The tool geometry most frequently used in insert-type tools today, is the combination of a radial negative angle and an axial positive angle. The smooth cutting action and the chip formation are especially suited to machines with low driving power and poor stability. The golden rule is that for each 1 of positive tool orthogonal rake the required cutting power is reduces by 1 %.
96
ISO designation code for indexable inserts

Example for milling indexable inserts:
A
1
1 1 2
P
2
H
3
W 20 04 60
4 5 6
7
3
T
8
R A 27
9 10
4
Plattenform Shape of inserts

85
Clearance angle
86
Tolerances
Admissible deviation in mm for
Special cutting and fastening features

b
A
82
M O
80
d A 0,025 0,025 0,025 0,025 0,013
m 0,005 0,013 0,025 0,025 0,013 0,005 0,013 0,013 0,080,20

2
s 0,025 0,025 0,025 0,050,13 0,025 0,025 0,025 0,025 0,013 0,025
b
B C D E H K L
55
B C D E F
35
80
T
d
C E G
H
= 70-90
b
R
b
P
55
7
d
C S
J1 0,050,152 K1 0,050,152 L1 0,050,152 M 0,050,15

m 1 2 2
B
= 70-90
b
J
= 70-90
T
= 40-60
b
R S T V W
15
75
20
D V
d
N 0,050,152 0,080,202
C
= 70-90
M N
U
=40-60
b
U 0,050,252 0,130,382 0,050,13 Insert with ground secondary cutting edge According to size (see ISO standards 1832)
F W
= 40-60
b
25 s 30
G N
P
Q
= 40-60
X Special configuration (drawing or descripton necessary).
11
0=other clearance angles
97
A
1
P
2
H
3
W 20 04 60
4
5
T
8
R A 27
9 10
98
ISO designation code for indexable inserts Example for milling inserts:
A
1
5 Length of cutting edge
P
2
H
3
W 20 04 60
4 5 6 7
T
8
R A 27
9 10
6 Thickness of insert
s
7 Corner radius
02 04 08 12 16 24 r = 0,2 r = 0,4 r = 0,8 r = 1,2 r = 1,6 r = 2,4
8 Type of cutting edge
Cutting direction
10
Manufacturers detail
s r
l
E F T S
00 for inch diameter converted into mm. M= for metric diamer Setting angle r A = 45 D = 60 E = 75 F = 85 P = 90 Z = other setting angle Clearance angle of secondary cutting edge A = 3 B = 5 C = 7 D = 15 E = 20 F = 25 G = 30 N = 0 P = 11 Z = other clearance angle
The ISO code comprises 9 symbols. The signg 8 and/or 9 should be only applied, if necessary. The maker can add other signs to be combined with the ISO code by means of a hyphen.(e.g. with reference to the shape of chip breaker) Turning Milling Precision boring
02 03 T3 04 05 06 07 09
l
s = 2,38 s = 3,18 s = 3,97 s = 4,76 s = 5,56 s = 6,35 s = 7,94 s = 9,52
cr
G1 G2 M1 M2 M3 M 20 NF 5 NM 4 NM 5 NM 6 NM 7
NR 5 NR 7 NS 5 NS 6 NS 7 PF 5 PM 2 PM 5 PS 5
A 27 A 51 A 57 D 51 D 55 D 57 F 55 K 88
X5 X 15 X 25
99
A
1
P
2
H
3
W 20 04 60 T
4 5 6 7 8
R A 27
9 10
100
ISO Code indexable inserts / WALTER geometry

Designation for ISO indexable inserts for Milling:
Designation code
Example: ISO-Code + WALTER Geometry: LPGT 150412 R - A27

The first letter describes the chip breaker angle in ascending alphabetical order The second figure describes the cutting edge condition, from heavily chamfered = 1 to sharp = 8 the third figure comprises the manufacturers specification, e.g. clearance.
A 2 7
Chip breaker groove

smaller A = 0 heavily chamfered
Chutting edge
2
Manufacturers specification
vibration
1 absorption,
clearance
among other details
D = 10
5 base
5
base
F = 16
7
8 sharp
K = 25 larger
Current geometry combinations of the WALTER programme: A 27 / A 51 / A 57 D 51 / D 55 / D 57 F 55 K 88 / G 88
101
7.3
ISO Code indexable inserts / WALTER geometry
Designation code
Designation for ISO indexable inserts for Milling: Example: ISO Code + WALTER Geometry: LPGT 150412 R - A27
The first letter describes the chip breaker angle in ascending alphabetical order. The second figure describes the cutting edge condition, from heavily chamfered = 1 to sharp = 8. The third figure comprises the manufacturers specification, e.g. clearance.
A 2 7
Chip breaker groove
smalller A = 0
Cutting edge
Manufacturers specification
1 vibration absorption, among other details 5 clearance
2
D = 10
basis basis
larger F = 16
K = 25
sharp
Current geometry combinations of the WALTER programme: A 27 / A 51 / A 57 D 51 / D 55 / D 57 F 55 K 88 / G 88
102
WALTER SELECT for Milling inserts
WALTER SELECT the fast road to the best insert
With WALTER SELECT the easily understood selection system helps you find the right indexable inserts for your individual machining application. Three faces stand for the different machining conditions:
good machining conditions
moderate machining conditions
unfavourable machining conditions
Taking into account all other criteria required for your machining operation you are systematically led to the optimal insert. It is very simple: Follow the way to the right WALTER indexable insert step by step.
103
7.4
WALTER SELECT for Milling inserts With WALTER SELECT the easily understood selection system helps you find the right indexable inserts for your individual machining application. Three faces stand for the different machining conditions:
104
WALTER SELECT for Milling Inserts
1st step
Group of materials to be machined Unalloyed and alloyed steel high-alloy steel stainless steel, ferritic, martensitic austenitic ferritic-austenitic Malleable cast iron, grey cast iron sheroidal graphite cast iron Aluminium and other non-ferrous metals non-metallic materials Heat-resistand special alloys with a nickel or cobalt basis, titanium and titanium alloys, high-alloy steels with poor cutting qualities Hardened steel, hardened cast iron materials and gravity die cast metals, manganese steel Code
define ethe code of the workpiece material group.
Steel: Stainless steel and Cast Steel: Cast iron:
P M K N S H
NF Metals:
Difficult cutting Materials
Hard Materials:
105
7.4
WALTER SELECT for Milling inserts With WALTER SELECT the easily understood selection system helps you find the right indexable inserts for your individual machining application. Three faces stand for the different machining conditions:
106
2nd step
Projection of tool short
Select the face sybol to suit the existing machining conditions.
Machine stability, clamping system, very workpiece good
good
moderate
extended
3rd step
Define the recommended geometry by means of the workpiece material code and the face symbol which stands for the existion machining parameters.
Workpiece material group
P M K N S H
F 55 F 55 / K 88 F 55 K 88 A 57 / F 55 A 57
A 57 / D 55 D 55 / F 55 A 57 / D 55 F 55 A 57 A 27
A 27 / D 51 A 57 A 27 / D 51
A 57
107
7.4
WALTER SELECT for Milling Inserts With WALTER SELECT the easily understood selection system helps you find the right indexable inserts for your individual machining application. Three faces stand for the different machining conditions:
108
4th step
Workpiece material group
Geometry
The correct cutting material is chosen by means of the parameters defined in terms of workpiece material group, machining conditions and geometry.
A 27 / A 57 D 55 / D 57
WAP 25 WAP 25 WAP 35 WAP 35 WTP 35 WAP 25 WAP 25 WTP 35 WTP 35 WAK 15 WAK 15 WAP 25 WAK 15 WK 10 WAK 10 WTP 35 WAK 15 WK 10 WAK 15 WAK 15 WK 10 WAK 15 WAK 15
WAP 35 WAP 35 WAP 35 WTP 35 WTP 35 WAP 35 WTP 35 WTP 35 WTP 35 WAP 35 WAP 35 WAP 35 WAP 35 WTP 35 WKM WTP 35 WKM WTP 35 WAP 35 WAP 25 WTP 35 WAP 25 WAP 25 WAP 25
WPM WPM WTP 35 WP 40
D 51 F 55 K 88 A 57
M WALTER SELECT Selection System

Under this name we offer a comprehensive selection system based on the following symbols good machining coonditions moderate machining coonditions unfavourable machining coonditions
D 55 / D 57 F 55 K 88 A 57 D 55 / D 57
WP 40
WKM WAP 35 WTP 35 WKM
D 51 F 55 K 88 A 57
WKM WTP 35 WTP 35 WTP 35
D 57 F 55 K 88 A 57
S H
F 55 K 88 A27 / A 57
WTP 35 WTP 35
q q q
Main application Further application
D 55 / D 57 D 51
109
7.4
WALTER SELECT for Milling Inserts With WALTER SELECT the easily understood selection system helps you find the right indexable inserts for your individual machining application. Three faces stand for the different machining conditions:
110
Examples of form errors

Form error (represented as excessive profile cut) 1st class: form error Examples of the type of error Possible reason for the error
Asperity Out-of-roundness
Error in the slides of the machine-tool, flexion of the machine or of the tool, wrong clamping of the tool, distortion on hardening, wear
2nd class: waviness
Waves
Eccentric clamping or form error on a milling cutter, vibrations of the machine or of the tool
3st class:
Striations
Shape of the tool cutting edge, feed or infeed of the tool Chip formation process (torn chip, shearing chip, built-up edge), deformation of the workpiece material, formation of buds during the galvanic treatment
4st class:
Striae Flakes Summits
111
7.5
Surface finish in milling
A high quality of surface finish is often required on the milled surface. To evaluate qualities of surface finish, we generally determine the peak-to-valley height in mm as a measuring unit. For milling operations, additional to the surface roughness (Rmax) a certain waviness appears on the machined surface. In order to improve the surface finish, inserts with corner facets can be used. These corner facets are extended secondary cutting edges which remove the feed lines. The qualities of surface finish achievable with finishing (wiper) inserts or with corner facet widths greater than the feed per revolution, are in the range Rmax = 10 microns. This means that such surface finishes are largely steam-tight.
112
fU is selected to obtain an overlap for each revolution.
The achievable quality of surface finish is in the range Ra < 1,5 m.
fu = 1 [mm/rev.]
i.e. cprmer facet radius R = 600 mm
fU is too high. There is no overlapping.
Profile of a finishing insert (wiper)

fu = 3 [mm/rev.]
Quality of surface finish
113
7.5.1
Finish milling with surface milling cutter
For surface milling, different height positions of the cutting edges can cause a wavy profile on the surface of the workpiece. This can be due to the following reasons: - Rough tolerance range of the indexable insert - Insert seat tolerance (axial run-out) not precise enough - Distorted insert seats i.e. after a collision - Dirty insert seats - Too small corner facet on the indexable insert - Too high spindle inclination For finishing operations, the selected feed per revolution should be less than the corner facet. The following rule is valid: Corner facet = 1.6 mm, feed per rev. = 1.2 mm/rev. In this case, only the most prominent axial corner facet produces the surface because there is an "overlapping". The following rule is valid: The feed per revolution fU = fz x Z [mm/rev.] should be less than the corner facet by about 10% fu < width of the corner facet - 10% [mm/rev.] fz < (width of the corner facet / Z) - 10%
114
Radius insert
B < f/u
B >f/u
Radius insert
Finishing insert (Wiper)
115
Example: Corner facet width = 1,6 mm, Z = 6 fz < (1,6 / 6) - 10% = 0,24 use: fu = fz x Z = 0,2 x 6 fz = 0,2 [mm/tooth] fu = 1,2 [mm/rev.]
For tool diameters greater than 100 mm, and in particular for close pitch milling cutters, as this is often the case for machining cast iron, the limits of the overlap are exceeded with only moderate feeds of about 0.2 mm/tooth. Example: Corner facet width 1,6 mm, fz = 0,2 mm/tooth, Z = 12, Dc = 200 mm fu = fz x Z fu = 0,2 x 12 = 2,4 fu = 2,4 [mm/rev.] Under such conditions we obtain a feed per revolution of 2.4 mm/rev. An overlap is no longer achieved. We can however suggest the following method to obtain a high quality surface finish.
116
Examples of form errors

Form error (represented as excessive profile cut) 1st class: form error Examples for the type of error Examples for the reason at the origin of the error
Asperity Out-of-roundness
Error in the slides of the machine-tool, flexion of the machine or of the tool, wrong clamping of the tool, distortion on hardening, wear
2nd class: waviness
Waves
Eccentric clamping or form error on a milling cutter, vibrations of the machine or of the tool
3st class:
Striations
Shape of the tool cutting edge, feed of infeed of the tool Chip formation process (torn chip, shearing chip, built-up edge), deformation of the workpiece material, formation of buds during the galvanic treatment
4st class:
Striae Flakes Summits
117
Utilisation of a finishing insert (wiper) - Higher feeds per rev. possible - Adjustable tool necessary - Cutting pressure on workpiece surface increases - A low surface roughness Ra is achieved but the visual aspect of the cut surface may not be adequate Utilisation of a tool with a roughing-finishing insert (corner facet width - 4 mm) - Medium to high feeds per rev. possible Adjustable tool necessary (not necessary) - Simplified stock-keeping (roughing and finishing with one single type of indexable insert) - Even surface - Reduction of the maximum depth of cut thanks to corner facet - with Microplan adjustment with small width of the secondary cutting edge under unstable machining conditions - machining centre -
118
Setting of milling tools, examples NOVEX F 2010 and F 2140

Axial Fine Adjustment of Micro Face Milling Cutter
1. Before mounting the cartridge -1- tighten the adjusting screw -2- so that the taper rises above the bottom of slot by about 0.3 - 0.5 mm 2. Then fit the cartridge and fighten the screw -3-. Take care to ensure that the cartridge bears against the fixed stop, i.e. the rear annular groovet -4-. The adjustingscrew should not be stressed. 3. By tightening the adjusting screw -2- in in clockwise direction, the cartridge -1can be adjusted according to the required plane position. After the micro-adjustment, the adjusting screw shold be free from pre-tension. For this purpose, rotate the adjusting screw in counterclockwise direction and re-tighten without pretension. The adjusting length is about 0.2 mm. 4.When resetting, the adjusting screw -2- should be brought back to its original position. After untightening the clamping screw -3-, the cartridge -1- returns to the axial starting position. The Micro Face Milling Cutters F 2010 are available in the diameters from 80 - 315 mm according to the application on machining centres.
1 - cartridge 2 - adjusting screw 3 - clamping screw 4 - annular grove

119
7.6
Setting of Milling Tools, examples F 2010 and F 2140
Milling Cutter NOVEX
F2010
1. Before mounting the cartridge -1- tighten the adjusting screw -2- so that the taper rises above the bottom of slot by about 0.3 - 0.5 mm. 2. Then fit the cartridge and fighten the screw -3-. Take care to ensure that the cartridge bears against the fixed stop,i.e. the rear annular groovet -4-. The adjustingscrew should not be stressed. 3. By tightening the adjusting screw -2- in in clockwise direction, the cartridge -1- can be adjusted according to the required plane position. After the micro-adjustment, the adjusting screw sholdbe free from pre-tension. For this purpose, rotate the adjusting screw in counterclockwise direction and re-tighten without pretension. The adjusting length is about 0.2 mm 4. When resetting, the adjusting screw -2- should be brought back to its original position. After untightening the clamping screw -3-, the cartridge -1- returns to the axial starting position. The Micro Face Milling Cutters F 2010 are available in the diameters from 80 - 315 mm according to the application on machining centres.
120
Setting Instructions for the axial concentricity of NOVEX Cutters F2140

Procedure for setting the axial concentricity of cutter:
1.Fit the insert -1- tighten the clamping screw -2-. 2. Unscrew the adjusting screw -3- by turning in clockwise direction until the insert -1- is free from location. 3.-Slightly tighten the screw -2-. 4.Move the insert by 0.2 - 0.25 mm towards the dial gauge -4- by turning the adjusting screw in anti-clockwise direction. The pre-tension is built up. 5.Then adjust the overall height concentricity by rotating the adjusting screw furter in anti-clockwise direction. 6.After addjusting the axial concentricity tighten the clamping screw -2- with a tightening torque of 5 Nm. 7. Check all cutting edges for concentricity. Fine adjustment by means of the adjusting screw -3, if necessary.
3 1 2 4
adjusting screw (left-hand thread) for insert iindexable insert clamping screw for insert dial gauge
121
7.7 NOVEX
Setting Instructions for the axial concentricity of NOVEX Cutters F 2140
Cutter F2140
1. Fit the insert -1- tighten the clamping screw -2-. 2. Unscrew the adjusting screw -3- by turning in clockwise direction until the insert -1- is free from location. 3. Slightly tighten the screw -2-. 4. Move the insert by 0.2 - 0.25 mm towards the dial gauge -4- by turning the adjusting screw in anti-clockwise direction. The pre-tension is built up. 5. Then adjust the overall height concentricity by rotating the adjusting screw furter in anti-clockwise direction. 6. After addjusting the axial concentricity tighten the clamping screw -2- with a tightening torque of 5 Nm. 7. Check all cutting edges for concentricity. Fine adjustment by means of the adjusting screw -3, if necessary.
122
Shank-type milling cutter attachments
Mounting of cutters
e
d: Weldon e: Whistle notch
a: taper mounting (short or Morse taper) b: cylindrical attachment c: Clarkson
123
8.
Milling tools - Application Suggestions
For the connection between tools and machine spindles, many adaptors are available. 8.1 8.1 Tool Adaption
The reliable attachment of the milling tools into the machine tool is very important when machining operation, particularly with regards to surface finish and safety The Morse taper or short taper adaption allow quick tool changing but it is not suitable for larger diameters (Dc > 160 mm). Usual Adaption: - Morse taper and short taper (MK, SK...) The usual sizes for Morse and short tapers are MT3, MT4, MT5, SK30. SK40. SK50. The short taper adaptors can also differ depending on the machine tool and the groove configuration for the gripper for the automatic tool changing. The most common gripper standards for automatic tool changing are DIN69871A for European machining centres and MAS BT 403 for Japanese ones.. - Cutter spindle The cutter arbor is ejected from the machine spindle by mechanical, pneumatic or hydraulic action or using an automatic gripper system. Centering is achieved by means of a centering arbor, of a cotter or with a centering ring. - Cylindrical attachment (Weldon, Whistle notch) One of the most common cylindrical attachments is the Weldon attachment for shank-type milling cutters. Whistle notch is becoming rarer is being replaced by Weldon or cylindrical attachments.
124
A100M
A100M...RA
AK100M
AK100M...RA
A100M.7...HSK
A500 A102M A103M A101M...RA
A510
A520
Attachments for screwed front pieces
A101M
A102M...RA
Attachments for shrunk-in front pieces

A550 A300M A560 A570
one-piece HSK
A120M
A150M A130M
AK155M A155M A170M
A171M
A201M A200M
A310M
A170HSK A150HSK A120...HSK A155HSK A155HSK A300HSK A171HSK A180HKS
Modular NOVEX NC-Tools
A175 A305
125
8.
Milling tools - Application Suggestions
For the connection between tools and machine spindles, many adaptors are available. 8.1 8.1 Tool Adaption
The reliable attachment of the milling tools into the machine tool is very important when machining operation, particularly with regards to surface finish and safety The Morse taper or short taper adaption allow quick tool changing but it is not suitable for larger diameters (Dc > 160 mm). Usual Adaption: - Morse taper and short taper (MK, SK...) The usual sizes for Morse and short tapers are MT3, MT4, MT5, SK30. SK40. SK50. The short taper adaptors can also differ depending on the machine tool and the groove configuration for the gripper for the automatic tool changing. The most common gripper standards for automatic tool changing are DIN69871A for European machining centres and MAS BT 403 for Japanese ones.. - Cutter spindle The cutter arbor is ejected from the machine spindle by mechanical, pneumatic or hydraulic action or using an automatic gripper system. Centering is achieved by means of a centering arbor, of a cotter or with a centering ring. - Cylindrical attachment (Weldon, Whistle notch) One of the most common cylindrical attachments is the Weldon attachment for shank-type milling cutters. Whistle notch is becoming rarer is being replaced by Weldon or cylindrical attachments.
126
Comparison short taper - HSK (hollow shank/taper)
low positioning accuracy
Large mounting dimensions
Face contact Draw bolt for clamping
Clamping taper
Clamping force
Clamping force Inclined clamping face spindle head
no face contact Opening of the spindle mouth
Inconsistent contact pattern Spindle head with short taper
127
Hollow shank/taper (HSK...) The hollow shank/taper attachment widely extended for metal removal operations. For new high-quality machining centres it has a prominent position thanks to its accuracy, rigidity and suitability for high speeds. The pending ISO standard will also increase the international recognition. Due to the specific design features, more knowledge and more caution are required regarding the stress limits for the application of this modern attachment, in order to ensure a safe application without any problem. Comparison short taper - SK Short taper DIN 69871 Relatively low rigidity Poor axial accuracy Limited radial accuracy Not suitable for high revolutions Large dimensions and stroke lengths Widely used Hollow shank/taper DIN 69893 High static and dynamic stability High axial and radial accuracy Extremely suitable for high revolutions due to inner clamping Small dimensions and stroke lengths
128
129
8.1.1
8.1.1 Modular attachment NC-Tool system
A modular tool system must enable a tool assembly from standard components for different applications. The rigidity of such a system must be comparable to that one-piece tools. An internal cooling lubricant supply to the cutting edge and an easy, reliable assembly and disassembly must be given. WALTER have developed with NC-Tool a system which is well-proven through many years in the field. As a building kit for modular tools, the NOVEX NC-Tool system enables complete machining operations on machine-tools. The different standard modules can be classified into sub-groups of components having the same function. Master and basic attachment Extension and reduction Cutting components Clamping components and chucks
130
Attachment of the modular tool system WALTER NOVEX NC-Tools

Conical centering and high concentric accuracy Reliable torque transmission Internal coolant supply
Face contact
Maximum clamping force
131
A decisive advantage of the NC-Tool system is its simplicity and the speed for assembling and disassembling the components. Apart from the clamping systems, the attachment components are identical: Patented short taper Face contact Driving pins The compatibility of all components is ensured. Characteristics of the WALTER NOVEX system Quick solution for new tools Assembly of modules on stock to obtain new xs dimensions Limited stock inventory due to modular versitility High rigidity thanks to a positive and non-positive clamping Axial and radial connection possibility
132
Pull Stud Ring-shaped stop
Radial support
Axial
Female taper Clamping bolt Clamping jaws
Retaining ring
Male taper
Radial Attachment
Section
Axial Attachment
Almost symmetrically acting driving forces and large contact surfaces between pull stud and clamping jaws.
Contact surfaces
133
Axial attachment: Turning the axial clamping screw with the predefined torque, the axial tightening force causes the elastic deformation of the short taper at the 1st contact area. The system is centered and supported with face contact. Coolant can be supplied from the middle or laterally. Radial attachment: Small tightening torques bring high axial forces and thus a high clamping reliability. The coolant is supplied though a bore in the tightening bolt. The driving forces have an almost symmetric action onto the contact surfaces between tightening bolt and clamping jaws. The components can be changed individually.
134
Z = 2 compl.. P27275-3, WTL71 P28495-1, WTL71 Ck 67, Rm=750 N/mm2 xs = vc = fz = vf = modular attachment ae= ap= Vt = Pc= 160 mm 143 m/min 0,28 mm/tooth 400 mm/min 63 mm 65 mm 1638 cm3/min 80 kW (actual)
F2038M 63 xs = 160mm
Load test WALTER-NCT attachment
135
Example Load test -WALTER NCT attachment Z = 2 compl. P27275-3, WTL71 P28495-1, WTL71 Ck 67, Rm = 750 N/mm2 xs = vc = fz = vf = ae = ap = Vt = Pc = 160 mm 143 m/min 0,28 mm/tooth 400 mm/min 63 mm 65 mm 1638 cm3/min 80 kW (actual)
136
Evenly spaced
Formula: T = D c --Z
Unevenly spaced
A close pitch milling tool enables higher feed rates for the same cutting speed and the same Fz.
137
8.2
Tooth spacing / Cutting edge spacing
The tooth spacing of a milling cutter gives the distance from one tooth to the next. For the cutting edge spacing on an insert-type tool, irregular spacing is preferred (differential division) as the changing frequency of the teeth penetration reduces vibration. Close pitch insert-type-tools should be used only for short-chipping workpiece materials (cast iron) or for finishing. They allow high feed rates per minute despite a small feed per tooth. The close pitch version of a milling cutter gives a multiple-use tools for a medium chip removal volume (mass production - automotive production = high rate of feed). The coarse pitch version with few indexable inserts is appropriate for machining operations with low stability and under difficult conditions, with long overhangs and for unstable machine-tools with a low driving power. This milling cutter type is well proven although it reduces the chip removal volume with a limited table feed due to the smaller number of teeth. This type of cutters has larger flutes, allows high feeds and is specially appropriate for machining long-chipping materials - For milling aluminium, use a coarse pitch tool to cope with the high chip volume - A tool with a narrow spacing is appropriate for short-chipping materials, i.e. cast iron (check the driving power!)
138
139
8.2.1
Vibration and remedial measures
Even spacing on the milling cutter can cause vibration. It can be due to the constant penetration frequency of the cutting edge Uneven spacing was developed from the design principle of the reamer. With an uneven spacing the penetration frequency of the cutting edge is continuously changing and a constant penetration frequency of the cutting edge is avoided. The disadvantage of this solution is the fluctuation of the cutting forces. Regenerative effect Vibration avoidance with an irregular pitch cutter: Cause: overload of the system Remedy: indexable insert with a more positive tool orthogonal rake for a smoother cut The target must be: to use the maximum depth of cut with regards to the highest profitability! Two types of vibrations appear: a)High frequency vibration Reduce the number of revolutions (Warning: fz increases!) b)Low frequency vibrations Increase the number of revolutions (Warning: fz diminishes!)
140
Position of the milling cutter for surface milling
min.
0,05
Dc
0,75
Dc
F-053
141
8.3
Milling diameter / Position of the milling cutter
Large milling cutters do not bring any decisive advantage for the chip removal operation. They are very expensive tools and their use is only pertinent if large workpieces are to be machined. We can say that for surface milling narrow workpieces the milling tool must be selected about 30 % larger than the workpiece. Example: Width of the workpiece to be machined: 120 [mm] Dc = 1,3 x 120 [mm] = 156 [mm] We select a milling cutter with diameter 160 [mm] If several cycles are necessary, the relationship of cutter diameter Dc and milling width ae must be about 4 to 3 in order to prevent the application of the whole cutter diameter at each pass. This is important for a good chip formation and a balanced load on the cutting edge.
142
Up milling (conventional)
Forces on the tool
Down milling (Climb)

Forces on the tool
Area of down milling Exit area
Feed
Penetration area Area of up milling
143
8.4
Up milling / Down milling
With the combination of the rotary motion and of the feed direction, we have the choice between two basic possibilities which have a particularly strong influence upon the chip thickness at the entry and exit areas. 1. Up milling (conventional) The rotation direction of the cutter in the cutting area is opposed to the feed direction of the workpiece. Here, the cutting edge creates the chip itself after an initial sliding and compression. The chip develops from the penetration of the cutting edge with the chip thickness zero up to the maximum chip thickness when the cutting edge exits. 2. Down milling (climb) The rotation direction of the milling cutter in the cutting area is the same as the one of the workpiece feed. The chip thickness is maximum at the penetration of the cutting edge and goes towards chip thickness zero at the exit of the cutting edge. Different cutting force directions appear particularly for machining with side and face cutters or for surface milling when the centre of the milling cutter is outside of the workpiece. For Down milling, the workpiece is pressed against the machine table whereas for Up milling, it is lifted from the table. Down milling is usually preferred. Exceptions: - Older machine with a clearance in the table feed. Here, Up milling stabilises the feed. - Machining of high shoulders. In this case Up milling enhances chip clearance. - For flame cut, forged and cast workpieces. In this case we cut under the harder skin and reduce the load on the cutting edge.
144
Important Considerations - Checklist

Machining type (i.e. shoulder machining) Workpiece material, hardness, quality (i.e. annealed etc.) Machining conditions (stability) Type of cut (i.e. interrupted) Machining reliability (i.e. very high in the aviation industry) Machine-tool (power-torque, mounting system) Cutter type (setting angle, diameter, spacing)) Indexable insert (cutting grade, geometry) Cooling lubricant
145
8.5
Selecting the correct milling tool
Among the most common milling operations we have plane surfaces, shoulders, corners, grooves, slots, pockets, chamfers and profiles. The selection between the different tools is not always very easy as many fields of application of the tools overlap. It is always necessary to compile a checklist with the workpiece quality, the production conditions and the machining reliability.
You always need to ask the following question: What do I expect from my milling operation? Three factors must be taken into account for the selection of the appropriate milling tool. The workpiece, the chip removal operation to be performed (i.e. shoulder milling) and the available machine-tool. Taking into account these three factors, we obtain a defined cutter type. A series of additional definitions is necessary for a further optimisation. Important influencing factors: - Dimension, form and machining scope - Stability of workpiece and clamping - Overhang of the tool to be used - Type, hardness and condition of the workpiece material (i.e. annealed etc.) - Verification of the efficiency of the machine-tool (torque-power-number of rotations diagram)
146
Recommendations for an efficient operation

Check the characteristic line power-torque-number of
rotations of your machine-tool
Check the stability of your machine tool. As small tool overhang as possible (xs) Select the correct type of milling cutter
(setting angle, spacing, diameter)
Select appropriate indexable inserts (cutting grade, geometry) Select the appropriate cutting parameters (cutting speed, feed/
tooth)
Select the correct machining type (down or up milling) Position the milling cutter correctly Use a cooling lubricant only if necessary. Generally it
is better to mill without cooling lubricant
Check regularly the tool wear Take care of the tools and of the machine in accordance
with the maintenance recommendations
147
8.6
Recommendations for an efficient operation
Check the characteristic line power-torque-number of rotations of your machine-tool Check the stability of your machine tool As small tool overhang as possible (xs) Select the correct type of milling cutter (setting angle, spacing, diameter) Select appropriate indexable inserts (cutting grade, geometry) Select the appropriate cutting parameters (cutting speed, feed/tooth) Select the correct machining type (cut-down or cut-up milling) Position the milling cutter correctly Use a cooling lubricant only if necessary. Generally is better to mill without cooling lubricant Check regularly the tool wear Take care of the tools and of the machine in accordance with the maintenance recommendations
148
Surface milling
= 45
F2232
= 42
= 75
= 45
= 88
F2044
F2035
F2233
F2148
= 45
= 75
= 45-90
= 90
F2033
F2147
F2010
F2140
149
9. 9.1
Operating methods Surface milling
For general surface milling operations, a 45 milling cutter is usually the best solution. With NOVEX 3000 with setting angles of 42 to 90, it is here possible to achieve optimum machining with high feeds and close manufacturing tolerances. The setting angle 75 allows economic roughing and finishing operations and leads to advantageous power requirements. For high-performance milling, a setting angle of 45 gives a better stability for the cutting edge. Here, the axial cutting force component equals the radial cutting force component, which is an advantage on radially weak spindles (meaning with large spindle bearing-outs, overhangs). We recommend a maximum depth of cut ap of about 3/4 of the effective cutting edge length Lc. For milling grey cast iron, with a tendency to edge breaking out, we recommend a 45 surface milling cutter. For milling operations on high-performance modern machining centres, it is advantageous to select milling tools with small diameters and to machine the surface in several cuts. High-performance machining centres operate at high revolutions at which the driving power is more efficient, see also power-torque-number of revolutions diagram. For large milling cutter diameters an insufficient force transmission (torque) by the machine-tool often leads to small feeds per tooth and to a small depth of cut. Here also vibration can occur due to the unfavourable relation between spindle bearing and cutter diameter.
150
Slot milling
= 90 = 90 = 90
= 90
F2036
F2038
F2053
F3038
= 90
= 90
= 90
= 90
F2252
F2238
F2243
Solid carbide milling cutter
151
9.2
Shell end milling and slot milling
Shell end mills, also called porcupine cutters, enable the machining of shoulders with large depths of cut, ie the simultaneous machining of bottom faces and side walls in large-sized recesses. These tools are also suited to profiling operations (peripheral milling). Longer cutting edges are usually shaped for better chip clearance. The advantage of such a tool lies in the long cutting length which allows the machining of high shoulders on the workpieces. Slot milling from solid, Dc = ae, is rather an exception as this machining type needs a relatively high power consumption. Slot milling from solid is therefore only advised on powerful machines. With a smaller driving power an side and face cutter with the correct width is the more profitable solution for slot milling from the solid. For slot milling, the chip clearance is as important as the chip removal process itself. Long deep grooves are preferably produced with side and face milling cutters where the indexable inserts in this type of milling cutter can be arranged radially and axially. Note that with side and face cutters, a high chip removal is possible even for relatively small slot sections. For limited engagement conditions (ae/Dc < 30%), caused by large tool diameters and small radial slot milling depths, it is necessary to operate with increased feed per tooth.
152
Slot milling
Possible combinations
Basic body
Clamping screw for inserts

F2238CK.N FS1030 FS243 F2038MC FS1030 FS243 F2038MZ F2238CK.S FS1030 FS243 F2038Z
frontpieces
F2238CE F2238CP F2238CR F2038C...L F2038C...R2 F2038...R6 F2038C...S
153
Short square grooves are preferably machined with porcupine cutters. For roughing-only slot machining, half effective porcupine cutters should be preferred because the full-tooth porcupine cutter requires a double feed for the same stress onto the teeth. The tool range extends from one-piece tools (mounting shank and insert seats are manufactured from one piece) to exchangeable front pieces. Here, Walter uses the philosophy that the combined porcupine cutters with modular structure enables many possible combinations. The front piece is usually the hardest working part and is potentially submitted to insert or tool breakage. Replacement of the front piece is possible without need to replace the whole tool. Front pieces also offer alternative geometries from the range (i.e. radius milling).
154
Shoulder milling
F2242
= 90 = 8945' = 90
brazed Heli milling cutter
F2241
= 90
Solid carbide cutter

= 90
F3042
= 90
F2042
Brazed porcupine cutter
F2140
155
9.3
Shoulder milling
For machining of shoulders an approach angle of 90 is necessary. For surface milling of unstable workpieces the 90 approach angle reduces the axial cutting force components FA and the vibration to a minimum. Some topics to take into account when using shoulder milling cutters: The depth of cut must be max. 3/4 of the cutting edge length when utilising full diameter. For shoulder milling the cutter should have the smallest possible diameter. The diameter must be about 50 % larger than the selected depth of cut ap The selection of too large a milling cutter can cause vibration in the spindle. A further inconvenience the longer engagement of cut. Carbide brazed milling cutters as shank-type versions are best suitable for producing good surfaces with cylindrical milling. The brazed Heli cutters with continuous helix are used only as finishing milling cutters.
156
Copying
F2237
F2231
F2139
Solid carbide milling cutter
F2039
F2234
F2239
157
9.4
Copying
Tools particularly suited to mould and die production and mainly used for machining contours ie to produce surfaces, shoulders and pockets. With regards to machining security extreme stability is essential.
158
159
9.5
Milling with shank-type cutters
Shank-type cutters are tools which can be used in many ways, whether as solid carbide versions or as insert-type tools. Shank-type tools are clamped with clamping chucks or with modular system attachments and they remove material with a relatively long overhang, but consideration must be given to vibration possibilities. Shank-type cutters can be used for slot machining and also for shell end milling. Due to the slenderness ratio of these milling cutters, the achievable depth of slot is limited to 1-2 x Dc. Small insert-type tools have a diameter Dc = 16 mm. High revolutions resulting from high cutting speeds vc and small diameters lead to considerable feed rates which when compared to HSS cutters, guarantee shorter machining times. On some shank-type cutters the cutting edges are arranged in order to overlap for boring in the axial direction.
160
Milling tools - Solid carbide cutters
161
9.5.1
Solid carbide cutters
Solid carbide cutters are produced as shank-type cutters mainly in the range of small diameters up to approx 20 mm. They can have straight or helical flutes, be equipped with corner facet, front radius or centre cut. They have various applications for machining grey cast iron, non-ferrous metals, steel, cast steel, plastics and are used extensively the aircraft and mould and die industries. Their application means low costs per piece and short machining times, high qualities of surface and dimensional accuracy. Solid carbide cutter with brazed carbide cutting edges This particular type is mainly used for tool diameters up to approx 100 mm. The cemented carbide cutting edges are firmly secured to the basic body by brazing. The wedge geometry can be adapted to the material to be machined in an optimum way. A grinding operation ensures a high run-out and concentricity accuracy which leads to high qualities of surface finish. Porcupine cutter: the cutting inserts are arranged along an helix with a gap between each insert. This means it takes two flutes or teeth to give one full tooth, where the inserts overlap (important for the feed calculation) Roughing tool for high chip removal volume. Heli milling cutter: continuous helical cutting edges. Finishing tool for high requirements with regards to the quality of surface
162
163
10.
Machine-tools
Milling is a type of machining in which vibration can occur. The individual teeth of the milling cutter are not permanently engaged and the generated cutting forces have no constant dimension. For this reason a machine-tool with maximum stability is desirable. The workpiece stability and the clamping of the workpiece as well as of the milling cutter are also important. These factors mutually influence each other. Variety, flexibility and an appropriate ratio of dimensions between workpiece, tool and machine-tool are also factors influencing the selection of the machine-tool for a specific operation. Small machine-tools are normally more appropriate for small milling cutters as they usually have a larger range of number of revolutions and subsequent cutting speeds. The driving power of a milling machine normally corresponds to its size. If the correct cutting parameters are used, the tendency to vibrate is reduced which improves the tool life of the cutting edge and the quality of milled surface, and lowers the noise level. It is not always easy to select the perfect alternative among suitable and non-suitable, new and older machine tools. Factors which can be modified are the cutting parameters, meaning the combination of depth of cut, feed per tooth and cutting speed.. Sometimes a change of the feed direction or of the cutter position relative to the workpiece can solve existing problems. Important criteria for a machine-tool are: Power characteristics, number of revolutions of the spindle, rate of feed, number of axes, control, stability and rigidity, spindle inclination, clamping tools and attachments.
164
Section
165
10.1
Spindle inclination
If the spindle of a vertical milling machine is exactly perpendicular to the feed direction, the cutting edges of the cutter still remove material at the rear circular arc of the already machined surface and generate in this way a cross cut. (back cutting) To prevent this phenomenon the milling spindle should have an inclination of 1/3' to 1'. A greater inclination must be avoided because the milled surface would be concave instead of flat.
166
167
11.
Tool maintenance and care
Modern metal removal tools are largely free of maintenance . Apart from of turning over and replacing the indexable inserts, modern milling tools can be reliably used over a long period. It is generally not possible to eliminate presetting of the tool. Thanks to the modular design of modern milling tools the tool changing and standstill of the machine-tool can be reduced to a minimum.
168
Surface contacts
Positioning Lubricating
169
11.1
Indexable insert
The most important criterion is to monitor the wear or to prevent subsequent damage. The cutting edge is the focal point as this is the place where tool and workpiece meet. "The profit depends on the cutting edge". Wear is the most important indicator that we are working with the correct cutting parameters. If you can gain a wide experience in wear analysis, you can organise your production more effectively. 11.2 Clamping of the indexable insert
The prerequisite for reliable clamping is the cleanness of the intermediate supports and of the inserts seats. Dirt particles and remaining chips must be removed from the seat. The insert must be pressed against the insert seat once it is clamped. We must ensure that the insert is not laterally tilted but that it has a correct contact with the seat. Screw-type clamping devices must always be clamped with the suitable clamping force. Excessive clamping force leads to stretching of the screw and damage to the thread which causes premature loosening of the screw. Mounting screws should always be treated with the lubricating agent Molykote before being clamped, in order to prevent any seizure of the screw. Screws should be regularly replaced to avoid endangering of the machining reliability and safety. 11.3 Contact surfaces
Check regularly all contact surfaces. The contact surfaces should be smooth and undamaged so that the tool, the attachment and the spindle form a secure unit. Burr's and other irregularities must be carefully removed.
170
171
11.4
Tool maintenance
The key, the screwdriver and the spare parts appropriate to the tools should always be readily available. The keys enclosed with the tools have been specially developed for their defined application and the designs of the different levers automatically limit the pressure upon the tool. A well-arranged, clean, organised and well-documented tool stock is a cost-saving factor in each production workshop. With a comprehensive view to the variety and frequency of use, you can soon have only the most necessary tools on stock.
172

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TUNGSTEN CARBIDE TOOLS

Training Manual for Milling

a l A-A D A B D-D C a A gP D gr B-B C Corner facet Major cutting edge B

Tool orthogonal rake Radial angle Approach angle

1 Clearance angle on the corner facet

1 = small clearance angle 2 = large clearance angle

Tool orthogonal rake Radial angle Axial angle

Approach angle Inclination angle

Vsch. = Shearing speed

Terms and designations Cutting speed vc [m/min]

Feed per tooth fz [mm/Z]

Rate of feed vf [mm/min]

Shapes of cutting sections

Average chip thickness hm

s = angle of cutting arc [degrees]

Shapes of cutting sections

Plain milling cutter

Peripheral surface milling

End and peripheral surface milling

Peripheral and end surface milling

Axial and radial depths of cut (ap and ae)

Condition for engagement ae / Dc < 30%

Dc 1 Formula: f z = h m ------- ------------- [mm/Z] a e sin

Plain milling cutter

Dc 1 Formula: f z = h m ------- ------------- [mm/Z] a e sin fz = 0,22

Plain Milling Cutter

2nd milling pass

0,45 (to be determined with a

Note - this formula is valid only for ae/Dc < 30%%!!!

Condition for engagement ae/Dc > 30%

s = angle of the cutting arc (angle between entrance

Cutting arc angle s

2.10.1 Central position of the milling cutter ae = 2 arc sin ------- D c

Cutter position for surface milling

Positioning of the milling cutter

theoretical thickness of cut

shear plane shearing angle

effective chip thickness

Chip formation Process of the chip formation

Flat helical chips

Oblique helical chips

Long cyl. helical chips

short cyl. helical chips

Spiral helical chips

GOOD CHIP SHAPES UNFAVOURABLE CHIP SHAPES ACCEPTABLE CHIP SHAPES

Flat helical chips

Oblique helical chips

Long cyl. helical chips

short cyl. helical chips

Spiral helical chips

GOOD CHIP SHAPES UNFAVOURABLE CHIP SHAPES ACCEPTABLE CHIP SHAPES

Schematic representation of the chip formation

clearance angle tool orthogonal rake thickness of cut

chip thickness shearing angle shear plane

Influencing factors on chip formation

Production costs - Production output

Clearance surface wear in mm

Engagement time in min

Permissible land wear VBadm

Abrasion Diffusion and chemical reactions

Stresses due to temperature changes Formation of cracks

Wear of the clearance surfaces

Formation of a built-up edge