Developments in Petroleum Science, 4 GEOMORPHOLOGY OF OIL AND GAS FIELDS IN SANDSTONE BODIES

FURTHER TITLES IN THIS SERIES

1 A. GENE COLLINS GEOCHEMISTRY O F OILFIELD WATERS 2 W.H. FERTL ABNORMAL FORMATION PRESSURES
3 A.P. SZILAS PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT O F OIL AND GAS

5 T.F. YEN and G.V. CHILINGARIAN OIL SHALE

Developments in Petroleum Science, 4

GEOMORPHOLOGY OF OIL AND GAS FIELDS IN SANDSTONE BODIES

C.E.B. CONYBEARE Australian National University, Canberra (A. C. T. )

ELSEVIER SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY Amsterdam - Oxford - New York 1976

ELSEVIER SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY 3 3 5 Jan van Galenstraat P.O. Box 211, Amsterdam, The Netherlands AMERICAN ELSEVIER PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC. 5 2 Vanderbilt Avenue New York, New York 10017

L i b r a r y 01 C0ngrr.a Calaloging in Publication Data

Conyheare, C E B Geomorphology of o i l and g a s f i e l d s i n sandstone bodies. (Developments i n petroleum s c i e n c e ; 4 ) I n c l u d e s h i b l i o g r a p h i c a l r e f e r e n c e s and indexes. 1. Geornorphology. 2. Rock t r a p s (Hydraulic e n g i n e e r i n g ) 3. Sandstone. 4. Petroleum-Geology. 5. Gas, Natural-Geology. I. T i t l e . 11. S e r i e s . GB406. c63 553' . B 7537974

ISBN O-~!+I&-lJ.398-7

Copyright b 1976 by Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam

of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Jan van Galenstraat 3 3 5 , Amsterdam

A H rights reserved. No part

Printed in The Netherlands

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes t o acknowledge the assistance of Ms P.M. Carle, Ms E.A. Kilner, Mr L. Seeuwen and Mr G.R. Harper in the preparation of the typescript and illustrations. Acknowledgement is also due t o the following organizations, institutions, and publishers from whose publications the quotations and many of the illustrations in this book have been drawn: Geological Society of America, American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists, Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Royal Geological and Mining Society of the Netherlands, Australian Petroleum Exploration Association, Four Corners Geological Society, Delaware Geological Society, Rocky Mountains Association of Geologists, Wyoming Geological Association, Houston Geological Society, Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies, Dallas Geological Society, Tulsa Geological Society, Kansas Geological SocietyUnited States Geological Survey, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office, Mississippi River Commission, Illinois Geological Survey, Indiana Geologcal Survey, Geologische Dienst der Nederlanden, U.S.S.R. Ministry of Oil Industries, University of Texas, Schlumberger Well Services, Nedra Press (U.S.S.R.), John Wiley and Sons, Prentice-H'dl, Princeton University Press, Chapman and Hall, Springer-Verlag, Gulf Publishing Company, Tracer Petroleum and Mining Publications, and Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company. The author also wishes t o acknowledge the facilities offered t o him during visiting appointments a t the University of Calgary and the Colorado School of Mines.

PREFACE
This book is essentially about stratigraphic traps for oil and gas. Many of the examples discussed are geomorphologic features having inherent closures without any secondary structural element; others are primarily geomorphologic features modified by folding or faulting t o produce local closures. The first category comprises traps that are purely stratigraphic, although the accumulation of hydrocarbons may have been assisted by regional or local tilting of the strata, or by deformation caused by compaction of the underlying sediments. The second category, which includes a much larger number of known examples, comprises structural-stratigraphic traps. Many of these traps have proved t o be elusive, particularly those of the first category which commonly defy detection by seismic methods. In some cases, discovery has been accidental, and further exploration t o delineate the accumulation has been empirical. The purport of this book is to briefly present examples illustrating the main geological characteristics of geomorphologic features that have controlled or influenced the accumulation of oil and gas in particular fields, with a view to using such examples as models in the search for new fields in sandstone bodies. Many of the examples presented have been so well documented that they stand as classic examples of stratigraphic fields in which oil and gas accumulations are controlled by geomorphologic features. Others have yet t o be defined unequivocally, but are included as additional references to assist in the interpretation of geophysical and sub-surface geological data. The author is indebted t o the many geologists who have written about the hydrocarbon accumulations and geological features described herein, without whose efforts it would not have been possible to compile this book.
Canberra, A.C.T. C.E.B. CONYBEARE

CONTENTS
Preface . . . . . . Acknowledgements . . Introduction

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V VI 1
13 13 13 17 23 26 . 27 . 28 . 31 . 33 . 36 . 36 . 37 . 39 40 . 41 . 43 . 45 . 47 . 48

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Chapter 1. River channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Geomorphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-log characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ancient sand bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pulaski and Fayettville Channels. Tennessee . . . . . . . . . . . . Bedford Channels. Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anvil Rock Channel. Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carbondale Channel. Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Graham Channels. Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bartlesville Channels. Kansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shinarump Charinels. Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jackpile Channel. New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oil and gas fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Red Earth Oil Field. Alberta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Music Mountain Oil Pool. Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cabin Creek Gas Field. Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gay-Spencer Richardson Trend. Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . Bethel Sandstone Trend. Kentucky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tyler Oil Fields. Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Delaware Extension Oil Field. Oklahoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bush City Oil Field. Kansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Red Fork Sandstone Production. Oklahoma . . . . . . . . . . . . Moomba Gas Field. South Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pickanjinnie Gas Field. Queensland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Moonie Oil Field. Queensland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Athabasca Oil Sands. Alberta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bellshill Lake and Hughenden Oil Fields. Alberta . . . . . . . . . . South Glenrock Oil Field. Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recluse Oil Field. Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Donkey Creek. Rozet. and OConnor Oil Fields. Wyoming . . . . . . . Coyote Creek and Miller Creek Oil Fields. Wyoming . . . . . . . . . Reimers-Lane-Hart Trend. Nebraska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cut Bank Oil Field. Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nahorkatiya Oil Field. Assam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maikop Oil Field. U.S.S.R. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 2 . Distributary and delta-fringe sand . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Geomorphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-log characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . Compaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ancient sand bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appalachian Delta. U.S.A. . . . . . . . .

. 50 . 52 . 54 . 56
60 62 64 66 69 73 . 76 . 79 . 80 . 82 . 84 . 88 . 90

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. . 93 93 . 93 . 103 . . 106 107 . . . 108

VIII Cisco Delta. Texas . . . . . . . . . . Volgograd Delta. U.S.S.R. . . . . . . . . Identification of delta distributary channel sands Oil and gas fields . . . . . . . . . . . . Booch Sandstone Oil Fields. Oklahoma . . . . . South Pine Hollow Gas Fields. Oklahoma Pokrovsk Oil Field. U.S.S.R. . . . . . . . East Tuskegee Oil Field. Oklahoma . . . . . Dale Consolidated Oil Field. Illinois . . . . Bellshill Lake Oil Field. Alberta . . . . . . Belly River Pool. Pembina Oil Field. Alberta . Asiefere and Eriemu Oil Fields. Nigeria . . . . . . . . Wilcox Oil and Gas Fields. Texas Seeligson Oil Field. Texas . . . . . . . . Ostra Oil Field. Venezuela . . . . . . . Main Pass Block 35 Oil Field. Louisiana . . . Chapter 3. Barrier and other offshore bars . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . Geomorphology . . . . . . . . . . E-log characteristics . . . . . . . . . Compaction . . . . . . . . . . . Ancient sand bodies . . . . . . . . . . Oil and gas fields . . . . . . . . . . . Shira Streak Oil Field. Pennsylvania . . . Austin Gas Field. Michigan . . . . . . Sallyards Trend Oil Fields. Kansas . . . . Wakiti Trend. Oklahoma . . . . . . . Olympic Oil Field. Oklahoma . . . . . Matu-Catu Trend. Brazil . . . . . . . Bell Creek Oil Field. Montana . . . . . GasDraw Oil Field. Wyoming . . . . . Garrington and Crossfield Oil Fields. Alberta Bisti Oil Field. New Mexico . . . . . . Salt Creek-Teapot Dome Oil Field. Wyoming BigPiney Gas Field. Wyoming . . . . . Hardin Oil Field. Texas . . . . . . .

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117 118 121 123 124 126 127 129 131 133 134 . 137 . 138

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141 147 147 151 152 153 155 158 159 . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 , . . . . . . . . . . . 176 . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

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Chapter 4 . Regressive marine shoreline sand . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Geomorphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-log characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ancient sand bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oil and gas fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wattenberg Gas Field, Colorado . . . . . . . . Burbank Oil Field. Oklahoma . . . . . . . . Viking Oil and Gas Fieids. Alberta and Saskatchewan . Sabre Oil Field. Colorado . . . . . . . . . .

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183

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. 192 . . 195 . 197 . 199

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Chapter 5 . Transgressive marine shoreline deposits . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Geomorphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. 211
211 211

IX E-log characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Compaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 Ancient sand bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Oil and gas fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Yardarino.- Dongara Gas Field, Western Australia . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Red Oak, Wilberton. and Kinta Gas Fields. Oklahoma . . . . . . . . . 220 Morrow Oil Fields. Oklahoma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Milligan Oil Field. British Columbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Horseshoe Oil Field. New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Carbon Gas Field. Alberta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Chapter 6 . Submarine valleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Geomorphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-log characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ancient sand bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y oakum Channel Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rosedale Channel Oil and gas fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Brentwood. Dutch Slough and Wets Thornton Oil and Gas Fields. California . Marlin Gas Field. Victoria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ventura Oil and Gas Field. California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 7 . Tidal current sand bodies Introduction . . . . . . . . Geomorphology . . . . . . E-log characteristics . . . . . Compaction . . . . . . . Ancient sand bodies . . . . . . Chapter 8. Alluvial fans and sheets . Introduction . . . . . . . . Geomorphology . . . . . . E-log characteristics . . . . . Compaction . . . . . . . Ancient sand bodies . . . . . . Oil and gas fields . . . . . . .

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235 235 240 242 244 247 249 251 252 255 258 261 261 261 266 266 267 273 273 273 277 278 279 282 285 285 285 287 288 290 291 292 294 297 333

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Chapter 9 . Eolian sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Geomorphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-log characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ancient sand bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oil and gas fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . North Sea Gas Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hassi RMel and Houd Berkaoui Gas and Oil Fields. Algeria . . . . . . . References

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Subject Index

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INTRODUCTION

Accumulation of o i l and g a s i n a s a n d s t o n e body depends on s e v e r a l f a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g t h e s t a t e of g e n e r a t i o n and t i m e o f m i g r a t i o n o f hydrocarbons o r t h e i r p r e c u r s o r s , d i r e c t i o n a l v a r i a t i o n s i n p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y , t h e e x i s t e n c e of s t r a t i g r a p h i c o r s t r u c t u r a l c l o s u r e w i t h a s u i t a b l e s e a l , and t h e geometry of t h e s a n d s t o n e body. Many

h o l e s have been d r i l l e d on t h e b a s i s o f g e o p h y s i c a l i n t e q r e t a t i o n s t h a t indicated s t r u c t u r a l closure within a prospective s e c t i o n , only t o find t h e s e c t i o n l a c k i n g i n s u i t a b l e s o u r c e b e d s f o r hydrocarbons, o r w i t h

no impermeable s e a l above t h e p o t e n t i a l s a n d s t o n e r e s e r v o i r .

The

s a n d s t o n e i t s e l f may b e l o c a l l y t i g h t .

Further, the s p a t i a l relation-

s h i p s of d e p o s i t i o n a l t r e n d s and geometry t o permeable zones w i t h i n t h e s a n d s t o n e body a r e commonly unknown.

To c o m p l i c a t e o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of

t h e s i t u a t i o n , t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l t r e n d s and geometry of t h e s a n d s t o n e body i t s e l f may n o t b e known. With t h e s e p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n mind, t h e f o l l o w i n g

comments are o f f e r e d on t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s .

A s h e e t o r b l a n k e t s a n d s t o n e body may b e d e s i g n a t e d as a mappable

s t r a t i g r a p h i c u n i t , s u c h as a member o r f o r m a t i o n , and y e t l a c k c o n t i n u i t y and homogeneity. A t one l o c a l i t y i t may c o n s i s t of a s i n g l e s a n d s t o n e

u n i t , and a t a n o t h e r i t may comprise two o r more s a n d s t o n e beds t h a t have i n d i v i d u a l d e p o s i t i o n a l t r e n d s , s h a p e s , and p e t r o p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

A t a p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n o i l o r gas may b e e n c o u n t e r e d i n Sandstone "A",

where i t o c c u r s below t h e up-dip e d g e , b u t n o t i n a d j a c e n t Sandstone "B" t h a t pinches out elsewhere. This t y p e of s i t u a t i o n i s common i n a l l u v i a l

p o i n t b a r and c h a n n e l - f i l l s a n d s , i n anastomosing d e l t a d i s t r i b u t a r y s a n d s , and i n o f f - l a p o i n g marine s h o r e l i n e s a n d s .

A c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of s a n d body s h a p e s i s p r o p o s e d by P e t t i j o h n , P o t t e r and S i e v e r (1972) a f t e r t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f P o t t e r ( 1 9 6 2 , b ) . They s a y t h a t t h e r e are a t l e a s t f o u r d i f f e r e n t b a s i c r e c u r r i n g s h a p e s t o s a n d b o d i e s , i l l u s t r a t e d b y F i g . 1-1, an d make t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t

on p . 4 4 0 , " E q u i d i m e n s i o n a l s a n d b o d i e s h a v e l e n g t h - w i d t h r a t i o s of

a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1:l an d may c o v e r a few t o t h o u s a n d s of s q u a r e k i l o m e t e r s . T he s e h a v e b e e n c a l l e d s h e e t s an d b l a n k e t s . Elongate sand b o d i e s , on

t h e o t h e r hand, a r e those w i t h long dimension n o t a b l y exceeding width and a r e one of t h r e e t y p e s : Fig. 3). -have p o d s , r i b b o n s and d e n d r o i d s ( P o t t e r , 1 9 6 2 ,

l e n g t h - w i d t h r a t i o s o f three o r less w h e r e r i b b o n s r a t i o s o f t h r e e o r more an d

a r e much more e l o n g a t e w i t h l e n g t h - w i d t h p o s s i b l y as h i g h as 20 t o 1 o r more. shoestring f o r such bodies.

R i c h ( 1 9 2 3 , p. 1 0 3 ) u s e d t h e term

D e n d r o i d s are commonly more s i n u o u s a n d By l a t e r a l m i g r a t i o n ,

have branches, either t r i b u t a r i e s o r d i s t r i b u t a r i e s . c o a l e s c e n t r i b b o n s an d d e n d r o i d s may f o r m more common. 'I

belts,

d e n d r i t i c b e l t s being t h e

Sheets

E Ion gate

F i g . 1-1

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f s a n d body s h a p e s .

( M o d i f i ed by P e t t i j o h n ,

P o t t e r and S i e v e r , 1 9 7 2 , a f t e r P o t t e r , 1 9 6 2 b ) .

3
These d e s i g n a t i o n s are based on t h e geometry of t h e s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s and do n o t have any i m p l i c i t c o n n o t a t i o n as t o o r geomorphology. d e p o s i t i o n a l environment

Also, they can b e misconstrued and m i s a p p l i e d , w i t h sheet o r blanket sandstones.

p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e t o some s o - c a l l e d

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e y s e r v e a u s e f u l purpose i n q u a l i f y i n g and t o some e x t e n t quantifying t h e shapes of sandstone bodies.

S h e e t - l i k e s t r a t i g r a p h i c u n i t s , c o n s i s t i n g e s s e n t i a l l y of s a n d s t o n e , may have o r i g i n a t e d as t r a n s g r e s s i v e o r r e g r e s s i v e s h o r e l i n e s a n d s , as e o l i a n s a n d s , as widespread sand beds w i t h i n c o a l e s c i n g a l l u v i a l f a n s , a s b r a i d e d and l a t e r a l l y m i g r a t i n g e s t u a r i n e d e p o s i t s , a s r i v e r sediments on a broad p l a i n , o r as l a y e r s of sand swept o u t on a b y s s a l p l a i n s of t h e ocean. Apart from t h e s i m i l a r i t y of t h e i r g r o s s dimensions, t h e s e u n i t s are markedly d i f f e r e n t i n t h e i r i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e and s t r a t i g r a p h i c relationships.
A l l are diachronous t o some d e g r e e , a l t h o u g h a l a y e r

of sand swept r a p i d l y on t o an a b y s s a l p l a i n w i l l r e p r e s e n t s o s h o r t
a p e r i o d of t i m e t h a t i t can b e regarded a s a s t r a t i g r a p h i c marker bed. I n t e r n a l l y , a s h e e t - l i k e s t r a t i g r a p h i c u n i t may c o n s i s t of s e v e r a l d i s t i n c t s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s t h a t may b e l o c a l l y connected o r e n t i r e l y s e p a r a t e d by impermeable s h a l e l a y e r s .
These s e p a r a t e b o d i e s may be
A sequence of o f f - l a p p i n g ,

n e a r l y equidimensional o r e l o n g a t e i n shape.

e l o n g a t e s h o r e l i n e sands may have a wide a r e a l d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h i n a comparatively t h i n s t r a t i g r a p h i c i n t e r v a l , and consequently form a s h e e t - l i k e u n i t i n g r o s s dimensions. Within such an i n t e r v a l t h e p r e f e r r e d

o r i e n t a t i o n s of t h e s e e l o n g a t e s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s are p a r a l l e l t o t h e o r i g i n a l c o a s t l i n e ; b u t t h e i n t e r v a l may a l s o i n c l u d e o t h e r e l o n g a t e s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s , o r i e n t e d approximately normal t o t h e c o a s t l i n e , t h a t

were formed as d i s t r i b u t a r y sands f i l l i n g channels c u t i n t o t h e s h o r e l i n e

sands.

I n many cases t h e d i s t r i b u t a r y sands cannot r e a d i l y b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d

from t h e s h o r e l i n e sands w i t h which t h e y are a s s o c i a t e d , although v a r i a t i o n s

ENVIRONM E NTS
C H AN N ELS ALLUVIAL FANS (APEX, MIDDLE 8 BASE OF F A N ) STREAM FLOWS SHEET F LOODS

VlSCOUS FLOWS

4 I
S I E V E DEPOSITS
DEBRIS FLOWS M U D FLOWS CHANNELS ( VAR YI N G SIZES)
4

ALLUVIAL (FLUVIAL)

BRA IDED STREAMS

, , , , x
Q

LONGlTUDlNAl TRANSVERSE C H AN N ELS

MEANDERING STREAMS (ALLUVIAL VALLEY)

MEANDER BELTS

NATURAL LEVEES

POlNT BARS

F LOODBASINS

STREAMS, LAKES 8 SWAMPS

COASTAL DUNES DESERT DUNES

TYPES:
TRANSVERSE

1
1

EOLIAN

DUNES

OTHER DUNES

SElF ( LONGlTUDlN AL ) BARCHAN PARABOLIC D O ME- SH APED

F i g s . 1-2,

1-3 and 1-4 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of d e p o s i t i o n a l environments of sand bodies and t h e i r r e l a t e d geomorphologic f e a t u r e s . 1972, and Bernard and Le Blanc, 1965).
( A f t e r L e Blanc,

DEPOSIT ION A L MODELS

ORAlDtD CHANNtLS I W A I H t l l AND AOANDONfD CMANNfL5

ALLUVIAL
UfN,

FAN

M E A N D E R I N G STREAM

COASTAL DUNES

E N V IRO N M E N T S
~~

CHANNELS MEANDER BELTS UPPER DELTAll PLAIN F LOODB A S I N S NATURAL LEVEES POINT BARS ST REAMS, LAKES & SWAMPS C H A N N EL5 NATURAL LEVEE! DELTAIC LOWER DELTAIC PLAIN

a
0 Z
pi

DlSTR IBUTARY C H A NNELS

cv ,
a
I -

INTERDISTRIBUTARY AREAS

MARSH,

LAKES, TIDAL CHANNEL: & TIDAL FLATS

R I V ER-MOUTH BARS

F RlNGE
?:
L

INNER

1
L

BEACHES & BEACH RIDGES TIDAL FLATS

DISTAL

F i g . 1-3.

For c a p t i o n see p . 4 .

DEPOSITlON A L MODELS

B I RDFOOT - LOBATE
DELTA

MARINE CURRENlS

E S T U A R I N E DE1:A

ESTUARINE DELTA

E N V l RON M E N T S
BACK BAR, BARRIER, BEACH, BARRIER F A C E , SPITS & F L A T S , WASHOVER F A N BEACH & RIDGES TIDAL FLATS T I D A L FLATS TIDAL T I D A L DELTAS SHOALS 8 REEFS

BARRIER ISLANDS

COASTAL PLAIN SUBAERIAL) COASTA L INTERDELTAIC

CHENIER PLAINS

LAGOONS SUBAQUEOUS TIDAL CHANNELS SMALL ESTUAR I E S

INNER
SHALLOW MARINE SHELF (NERITIC) MIDDLE SHOALS 8 BANKS

OUTER

CANYONS

DEEP MARINE

F A N S (DELTAS)

SLOPE 8 ABYSSAL
TRENCHES & TROUGHS

F i g . 1-4.

F o r c a p t i o n see p . 4 .

DEPOSITION A L MODELS

B A R R I E R IS. COMPLEX

CHENIER PLAIN

SHALLOW
MARINE

DEEP
MARINE

10 in grain gradation, which may be reflected in the geophysical log characteristics, and in sedimentary structures and fossil content may be diagnostic. Discrete sandstone bodies may be the products of erosion, such as elongate strike-valley sands deposited along cuestas, or pod-shaped sandstone bodies formed as erosional outliers. Other elongate sandstone bodies, particularly those that are sinuous or branching, some of which are referred to as shoestring sands, owe their configuration entirely to depositional control. Some have been variously interpreted as off-shore bars, barrier

islands, or channel sands depending on the criteria available or current trend of geological thought. Le Blanc (1972), after Bernard and Le Blanc (1965), set up a classification (Figs. 1-2, 1-3 and 1-4) based on depositional environments and geomorphology. Other classifications have been presented by Laporte Le Blanc's

(1968), Selley (1970), Kukal (1971), and Crosby (1972).

classification depends in part on the geometry of large sedimentary accumulations such as deltas, barrier island complexes, and submarine fans, but not on the geometry of individual sandstone bodies. Nevertheless, where the geometry of a sedimentary accumulation is known, the probable geometry and depositional trends of sandstone bodies contained within that accumulation can be inferred. It is important to set up, as early as possible during the course of exploration, a conceptual model of the depositional relationships, bearing in mind that the model may be ephemeral and is certain to be subject to modification. Such a model will serve as a working basis with which to test the viability o f various interpretations as new data come to hand. The usefulness o f such a model has been pointed out by Le Blanc (1972, p. 135) who states, 'The realm of clastic sedimentation can be divided into several conceptual models, each of which is characterized by certain depositional environments, sedimentary processes, sequences,

11

and patterns.'

This type of approach is of particular value in the

interpretation of geomorphic and environmental origins of oil and gas fields in sandstone bodies. Porosity and permeability trends in sandstone bodies are commonly influenced or controlled by depositional trends which in turn reflect geomorphic influences. Where closure in a sandstone body is effected by folding or faulting, the stratigraphic factors may be of minor importance to the distribution of oil and gas. But in the case of a purely stratigraphic

trap, the sedimentologic and geomorphic factors, considered with reference to other factors such as regional tilting of the strata and hydrodynamics of formation fluids, are additional keys to future exploration for similar accumulations of hydrocarbons.

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

13
Chapter 1

R I V E R CHANNELS

Introduction

Geomorphology Channel d e p o s i t s , c o n s i s t i n g of s a n d , s i l t and c l a y , f i l l t h e v a l l e y s c u t by a r i v e r system. The e r o s i o n a l s u r f a c e d i s s e c t e d by such

v a l l e y s may s u b s e q u e n t l y become an unconformity i n t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c sequence. The c h a n n e l d e p o s i t s , which i n c l u d e s e d i m e n t s f i l l i n g

s u b s i d i a r y c h a n n e l s w i t h i n t h e main c h a n n e l , can have a v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l e a e r i a l e x t e n t , as shown by F i g . 1-5, and i n t h e c a s e of a l a r g e r i v e r may range i n t h i c k n e s s t o more t h a n 50 m. Within such d e p o s i t s t h e r e

may be numerous p o t e n t i a l t r a p s f o r o i l and g a s i n s e p a r a t e s a n d s t o n e bodies. The term c h a n n e l sand i m p l i e s a c u t - a n d - f i l l o r i g i n . Channels,

which may have been c u t i n t o o l d e r s t r a t a exposed as a n e r o s i o n a l s u r f a c e , or i n t o penecontemporaneous s e d i m e n t s of t h e same r i v e r system, such as flood p l a i n d e p o s i t s , may s u b s e q u e n t l y b e f i l l e d w i t h sand. The t i m e

l a g between c u t t i n g and f i l l i n g , w i t h i n t h e same r i v e r c o u r s e o r b r a n c h , may be n e g l i g i b l e and t h e two p r o c e s s e s can b e c o n s i d e r e d a s contemporaneous Channel sands are d e p o s i t e d w i t h i n a n a l l u v i a l v a l l e y , o r on t h e upper p a r t of a d e l t a p l a i n . F a r t h e r down a r i v e r system, on t h e lower

d e l t a p l a i n , t h e r i v e r d i s t r i b u t a r i e s form c h a n n e l - l i k e sand b o d i e s by a p r o c e s s of d e p o s i t i o n w i t h i n t h e i r own c o u r s e s , each d i s t r i b u t a r y flowing o u t t o sea w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s of i t s own l e v e e . Distributary sands,

commonly r e f e r r e d t o as ' s h o e s t r i n g sands' can b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d from channel sands by s e v e r a l c r i t e r i a which w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g pages.

14

Fig.

1-5

A l l u v i a l v a l l e y and d e l t a p l a i n of t h e M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r . The a l l u v i a l v a l l e y i s u n d e r l a i n by r i v e r d e p o s i t s commonly

150-200 f e e t (46-61m) t h i c k .

(Redrawn from F i s k , 1947).

I n d i v i d u a l sand b o d i e s , f i l l i n g e r o s i o n a l f e a t u r e s c u t by a r i v e r , may b e e l o n g a t e o r a r c u a t e depending on t h e c o u r s e of t h e r i v e r .

As the

r i v e r c o u r s e undergoes minor changes, t h e s e sand b o d i e s may b e e n t i r e l y o r p a r t l y re-worked, o r may c o a l e s c e w i t h younger sand b o d i e s t o form a

15

Fig. 1-6

G e n e r a l i z e d d i s t r i b u t i o n of meander b e l t s of a l a r g e r i v e r 'A' such a s t h e M i s s i s s i p p i , and a s m a l l r i v e r ' B ' .

f a i r l y s t r a i g h t o r meandering b e l t up t o s e v e r a l m i l e s wide (Fig. 1-6). Such b e l t s have been t r a c e d i n t h e s u b s u r f a c e f o r more t h a n 50 km (Figs 1-34, 1-36, 1-44, 1-50, 1-51). Major changes i n a r i v e r course r e s u l t i n

both l a t e r a l s h i f t s of t h e o l d meander b e l t and i n t h e development of new belts. These may e v e n t u a l l y c o a l e s c e t o form an anastomosing system of I n t h e c a s e of a l a r g e r i v e r such

channel sands w i t h i n a broad v a l l e y .

a s t h e M i s s i s s i p p i (Fig. 1 - 5 ) , such a v a l l e y can b e up t o 150 km i n width and 1,000km i n l e n g t h .

16
I t w i l l b e n o t e d t h a t a d i s t i n c t i o n h a s been made between sand b o d i e s

formed by t h e f i l l i n g of a n e r o s i o n a l c h a n n e l and t h o s e formed by a d e l t a d i s t r i b u t a r y t h a t b u i l d s r a t h e r than c u t s its course. Both sand b o d i e s

may have s u p e r f i c i a l resemblances in t h a t b o t h are narrow, l i n e a r , and d e p o s i t e d by a r i v e r .

On c l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n , t h e assemblage of g r a i n - s i z e

d i s t r i b u t i o n , g r a i n g r a d a t i o n , s e d i m e n t a r y s t r u c t u r e s , and p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n s a f f o r d c r i t e r i a which d i s t i n g u i s h t h e i r o r i g i n s . These

f a c t o r s , which have been d e a l t w i t h i n g r e a t d e t a i l i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e ,

w i l l be discussed later.

But i t i s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t e r o s i o n a l c h a n n e l s
The

are a l s o formed and f i l l e d w i t h s a n d i n s h o r e l i n e environments.

i n - f i l l i n g s a n d b o d i e s are n o t p o i n t b a r d e p o s i t s , a l t h o u g h they may show c e r t a i n s i m i l a r i t i e s such as g r a i n g r a d a t i o n and p l a n a r cross-bedding. The l a t t e r s e d i m e n t a r y f e a t u r e i s common i n e s t u a r i e s where t h e development
of c u t - a n d - f i l l

d e p o s i t s of s a n d i s s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by t i d a l movements.

Channel s a n d s , (sensu s t r i c t o ) , are d e p o s i t e d as a l l u v i a l s e d i m e n t s

i n a river-cut channel.
deposits.

As such, they consist l a r g e l y of point b a r

P o i n t b a r s develop a l o n g t h e i n n e r curve o f a main l o o p o r

meander of a r i v e r .

A s t h e r i v e r c u t s i n t o t h e bank along t h e o u t e r
The

edge of i t s c u r v e , t h e p o i n t b a r grows by a c c r e t i o n ( F i g . 1 - 7 ) .

b a s a l p a r t of t h e p o i n t b a r , c o n s i s t i n g of t h e c o a r s e s t f r a c t i o n s of t h e l o a d s u c h as c o a r s e s a n d , g r i t , and g r a v e l , i s d e p o s i t e d a d j a c e n t t o t h e u n d e r c u t bank i n t h e d e e p e s t p a r t o f t h e r i v e r where t h e c u r r e n t

is strongest.

On t h e more g e n t l y s l o p i n g i n n e r bank of t h e r i v e r , where

s p i l l - o v e r b a r s and l a r g e r i p p l e s of medium t o f i n e s a n d a r e formed, t h e cross-bedded middle p o r t i o n of t h e p o i n t b a r i s d e p o s i t e d . The upper

p o r t i o n of t h e p o i n t b a r i s normally above r i v e r l e v e l and i s formed d u r i n g t i m e s of f l o o d when heavy l o a d s of f i n e s a n d , s i l t and mud a r e d e p o s i t e d i n s h a l l o w e r water where t h e v e l o c i t y i s lower t h a n i n t h e n a i n channel. The uppermost b e d s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y h o r i z o n t a l b u t a l s o show

17
SP

0 FEE1

0 FEET
0 100 m

500

!50

F i g . 1-7

Diagramatic s e c t i o n through a r i v e r p o i n t b a r deposit t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e g r a d a t i o n from c o a r s e s a n d , g r i t , and g r a v e l

(1) a t t h e b a s e , through cross-bedded s a n d s (2) t o h o r i z o n t a l

and r i p p l e d beds of f i n e s a n d and s i l t ( 3 ) . r i v e r i s shown d u r i n g a low water s t a g e .
a t y p i c a l E-log s e l f - p o t e n f i a l
i s a l s o shown.

The s u r f a c e of t h e

The r e l a t i o n s h i p of

curve t o the grain gradation

The arrow p o i n t s t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of growth

of t h e p o i n t b a r .

small-scale cross-bedding,
by

commonly of t h e c l i m b i n g v a r i e t y i l l u s t r a t e d

Conybeare and Crook (1968, p l a t e 17), formed by s m a l l r i p p l e s .

E-log C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s A s a r i v e r moves back and f o r t h a c r o s s i t s meander b e l t i t c u t s i n t o o l d e r p o i n t b a r d e p o s i t s and r e d i s t r i b u t e s t h e s e d i m e n t s . channel may n o t c u t down t o t h e b a s e of t h e o l d . The new

Consequently, w i t h i n

a t h i c k a l l u v i a l s e c t i o n , t h e sequence shown i n F i g . 1-7 could b e

r e p e a t e d i n whole o r i n p a r t s e v e r a l times, b u t always i n t h a t o r d e r . T h i s sequence of g r a i n g r a d a t i o n , from c o a r s e r below t o f i n e r above, i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a l l u v i a l d e p o s i t s and i s commonly r e f l e c t e d i n t h e s e l f - p o t e n t i a l E-log c u r v e as a b e l l - s h a p e , o r i n t h e c a s e of s e v e r a l These s h a p e s ,

superimposed b u t incomplete s e q u e n c e s , a s a block-shape. c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of c u t - a n d - f i l l

s a n d s t o n e c h a n n e l d e p o s i t s , commonly show

a marked d e f l e c t i o n a t t h e b a s e of t h e s a n d s t o n e u n i t , i n d i c a t i n g a n

18
abrupt erosional contact. With upward d e c r e a s i n g g r a i n s i z e t h e

d e f l e c t i o n of t h e s e l f - p o t e n t i a l curve a l s o d e c r e a s e s t o form a b e l l shape. I n t h e c a s e of s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s of uniform g r a i n s i z e , s u c h as

t h o s e d e p o s i t e d by d e l t a d i s t r i b u t a r i e s and t h o s e t h a t have been formed

as p o i n t b a r complexes by s u c c e s s i v e t r u n c a t i o n and d e p o s i t i o n , t h e

s h a p e of t h e s e l f - p o t e n t i a l curve i s c y l i n d r i c a l o r blocky.

Alluvial

s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s f i l l i n g c h a n n e l s a r e commonly of t h e l a t t e r t y p e as shown i n F i g . 1-8.

F i g . 1-8

Diagrammatic E-log s e c t i o n showing an e r o s i o n a l c h a n n e l f i l l e d w i t h a l l u v i a l s a n d s t o n e , o v e r l a i n by a l t e r n a t i n g b e d s of s a n d s t o n e and mudstone. Note t h e b l o c k y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of

of t h e s e l f - p o t e n t i a l c u r v e of t h e v a l l e y - f i l l s a n d s t o n e . ( A f t e r P i r s o n , 1970, c o u r t e s y of Schlumberger Well S e r v i c e s ) .

The s e l f - p o t e n t i a l c u r v e g i v e s an i n d i c a t i o n of p e r m e a b i l i t y which a p a r t from t h e e f f e c t s of c e m e n t a t i o n caused by t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of c a l c i t e , e t c . and d i a g e n e s i s , i s commonly r e l a t e d t o t h e c l a y c o n t e n t

of t h e m a t r i x i n t h e o r i g i n a l s a n d .

In g e n e r a l t h e c o a r s e r t h e s a n d t h e
Secondary cement-

lower t h e c l a y c o n t e n t and h i g h e r t h e P e r m e a b i l i t y .

a t i o n of t h e m a t r i x and s e v e r e compaction of t h e s a n d s t o n e w i l l a l s o a f f e c t t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y and t h e d e g r e e of d e f l e c t i o n of t h e s e l f - p o t e n t i a l

19
curve. Consequently, t h e shape of t h e s e l f - p o t e n t i a l c u r v e , a s a n

i n d i c a t o r of g r a i n - s i z e g r a d a t i o n , must b e used w i t h c a u t i o n . An example of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p commonly o b t a i n i n g between g r a i n - s i z e g r a d a t i o n and t h e shape of t h e s e l f - p o t e n t i a l c u r v e i s shown i n F i g . 1-9 which c o n t r a s t s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s a n d s t o n e s of m a r i n e and a l l u v i a l origins. Lower C r e t a c i o u s v a l l e y - f i l l s a n d s (VF) of t h e Denver B a s i n ,

o v e r l a i n by t h e Huntsman Formation and u n d e r l a i n by t h e "52" Sandstone and S k u l l Creek Formation, have b o t h b l o c k y and b e l l - s h a p e d s e l f - p o t e n t i a l

POROSITY

MEDIAN GRAIN .05SIZE mm. 5 A

4
' I :

:;)VF 1 ; : . .... ... .__ . .. ::;: A J . F : i

;

.I.. .. ... ., . ... _... _

E-LOGS OF CRETACEOUS MARINE (A) AND RIVER (6) SANDS, NEBRASKA

Fig. 1-9 E-log c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e l a t e d t o g r a i n s i z e and p o r o s i t y i n t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s "52" Denver Basin, Nebraska. and v a l l e y - f i l l (VF) s a n d s t o n e s ,

(Redrawn from H a r m s , 1966).

20
curves which r e f l e c t r e s p e c t i v e l y a uniform g r a i n s i z e and a g r a d a t i o n from c o a r s e r below t o f i n e r above. I n t h e example showing a uniform g r a i n

s i z e t h e r e a l s o appears t o b e l i t t l e v a r i a t i o n i n p e r m e a b i l i t y , although p o r o s i t y i n c r e a s e s toward t h e b a s e of t h e sandstone body.

I n t h e example

showing an i n c r e a s e of g r a i n s i z e toward t h e b a s e of t h e u n i t b o t h permeabi l i t y and p o r o s i t y i n c r e a s e , a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e s e l f - p o t e n t i a l curve. c o n t r a s t t h e 52 s a n d s t o n e , which o r i g i n a t e d a s a r e g r e s s i v e marine s h o r e l i n e s a n d , shows a d e c r e a s e of p o r o s i t y , p e r m e a b i l i t y and g r a i n s i z e toward t h e b a s e of t h e sandstone body. I n t h i s example t h e main o i l and gas p r o d u c t i o n comes from t h e valley-fill sandstone u n i t s , b u t some is a l s o o b t a i n e d from t h e marine The main v a l l e y - f i l l u n i t , which i s above 450 k m In

s h o r e l i n e sandstones.

wide and 15 m t h i c k , t r e n d s north-south and h a s been t r a c e d f o r 40 km. Seven f i e l d s have been l o c a t e d along t h i s t r e n d where t h e a x e s of north-west-plunging a n t i c l i n e s c r o s s t h e t r e n d of t h e a n c i e n t v a l l e y .

F i g . 1-10

S e l f - p o t e n t i a l curves of e l e c t r i c l o g s , and g e n e r a l i z e d s e c t i o n s of p o i n t b a r and channel f i l l d e p o s i t s , showing b e l l - s h a p e and cylinder-shape c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e l o g and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o a l l u v i a l and d e l t a i c p o i n t b a r and c h a n n e l - f i l l d e p o s i t s . growth of p o i n t b a r . Arrow i n d i c a t e s d i r e c t i o n of Upper Cretaceous Tuscaloosa
B
C

Sandstone, Wisner F i e l d , Louisiana. Sandstone, S e e l i g s o n F i e l d , Texas.

Oligocene 19B

Lower Cretaceous
D

Blairmore Sandstone, Carbon F i e l d , A l b e r t a . Cretaceous Tuscaloosa 4 Mississippi.

E

- Upper

Sandstone, L i t t l e Creek F i e l d ,

Miocene MI Sandstone, West Lake V e r r e t F

F i e l d , Louisiana.

Miocene S

Sandstone, D e l t a Duck

Club F i e l d , L o u i s i a n a .

21

RIVER
ALLUVIAL AND
c Lu W

DEPOSITS
DISTRIBUTARY

DELTA

SP

LL

-+
POINT BAR DEPOSll

100

ro

CHANNEL

FILL

DEPOSIT

22
Other examples of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of E-log s e l f - p o t e n t i a l curves of r i v e r p o i n t b a r and channel d e p o s i t s a r e shown i n F i g . 1-10.

The upper t h r e e examples are as f o l l o w s :

Sandstone, Wisner F i e l d , L o u i s i a n a ; B F i e l d , Texas; and C Alberta.

Upper Cretaceous Tuscaloosa

Oligocene 19B Sandstone, S e e l i g s o n

Lower Cretaceous Blairmore Sandstone, Carbon F i e l d ,

A l l show t h e t y p i c a l b e l l - s h a p e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a l l u v i a l
These

s a n d s t o n e g r a d i n g from c o a r s e r a t t h e b a s e t o f i n e r a t t h e t o p .

s a n d s t o n e s are i n t e r p r e t e d as having o r i g i n a l l y been p o i n t b a r d e p o s i t s . The lower t h r e e examples have a blocky o r c y l i n d r i c a l shape c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

of sand b o d i e s of uniform g r a i n s i z e , o r of a sequence of s u c c e s s i v e l y

t r u n c a t e d graded b e d s . Tuscaloosa "Q"

They i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g :

Upper Cretaceous

Sandstone, L i t t l e Creek F i e l d , M i s s i s s i p p i ; E - Miocene "M"

Sandstone, West Lake Verret F i e l d , L o u i s i a n a ; and F Delta Duck Club F i e l d , L o u i s i a n a . been d e l t a d i s t r i b u t a r y s a n d s .

Miocene "S"

Sandstone,

These examples a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o have

The paleogeographic d i s t i n c t i o n made between In general, alluvial

t h e upper and lower examples i s somewhat a r b i t r a r y .

sand i n t h e middle t o upper r e a c h e s of a r i v e r system shows d i s t i n c t g r a i n g r a d a t i o n of t h e p o i n t b a r t y p e , whereas sand i n t h e lower r e a c h e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n d e l t a d i s t r i b u t a r i e s , shows much less g r a d a t i o n and c o m o n l y h a s a f a i r l y uniform g r a i n s i z e . K r a f t , S h e r i d a n and Maisano (1971, p. 671-672) show a n o t h e r example of b e l l - s h a p e d s e l f - p o t e n t i a l c u r v e s . These are of meandering r i v e r

channel sands i n t h e Lower Cretaceous Potomac Group i n Delaware ( F i g . 1-11). They s t a t e , " S p o l j a r i c (1967) p r e s e n t e d a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of Potomac channel s a n d s ( F i g . 1 2 ) .
A sand i s o l i t h c o n t o u r map of one of t h e

meandering Potomac sand u n i t s r e v e a l s t h a t t h i s Lower Cretaceous nonmarine sequence might w e l l i n c o r p o r a t e c o n d i t i o n s s u i t a b l e f o r petroleum e n t r a p ment, p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h o s e areas where t h e Potomac Group s a n d s and t h e i r e q u i v a l e n t s are more deeply b u r i e d i n t h e Baltimore Canyon trough. In

23

SP

F i g . 1-11

E-log of s e c t i o n t h r o u g h stream c h a n n e l s a n d s t o n e s ( s t i p p l e d ) and f l o o d p l a i n d e p o s i t s of s i l t s t o n e and mudstone, i n t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s Potomac Group o f Delaware. Note t h e b e l l (Redrawn

s h a p e d E-log c h a r a c t e r of t h e c h a n n e l s a n d s t o n e s .

from K r a f t , S h e r i d a n and Maisano, 1971, a f t e r S p o l j a r i c , 1967).

s i t u a t i o n s s u c h as b r a i d e d stream and f l o o d p l a i n areas where t h e Potomac s a n d s c o m p r i s e up t o 50 p e r c e n t of che t o t a l s e q u e n c e , i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t s e p a r a t e d i s t i n c t t r a p s would h a v e formed. Hosrever, where l a t e r a l f a c i e s

changes o c c u r i n Arundel t y p e p a l u d a l o r backswamp l i t h o l o g i e s , and s a n d s c o n s t i t u t e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 20 p e r c e n t of t h e t o t a l s e c t i o n , a d i s t i n c t s e p a r a t i o n of s a n d b o d i e s i s more l i k e l y , w i t h u p d i p e n t r a p m e n t p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n meandering c h a n n e l sands". Compaction Some of t h e problems i n v o l v i n g d i f f e r e n t i a l compaction and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e g e n e s i s of s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s are i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g s .

24

PEPOSITION

Fig. 1-12

Diagrammatic sections showing A , erosional channel in compacted shale and overlying uncompacted clay; B, channelfill sand and flanking clay undergoing compaction; and C, compacted clay and warped sand body overlain by sediments draped by differential compaction. courtesy of World Oil). (After Pirson, 1970,

1-12 and 1-13.

These problems have been pointed out by Rittenhouse (1961),

Oswaldt and Sens (19631, P i r s o n (19701, and Pettijohn, Potter and Siever (1972). Interpretation o f the original geometry of a sandstone body, in

particular whether it formed a bar-shaped mound or filled an erosional channel, depends on its relationship to the enclosing beds. If some thin

bed or zone within a bed can be chosen as a time-stratigraphic marker, then certain assumptions can be made regarding differential compaction of the

25

Before Compaction

a
~-

Surface of Sediment
~ ~ ~ ~

_ .
~

-. .
~

SIDERITE::

-++-&FIXED

SUBSTRATUM-~+L+&&

After Compaction

Fig. 1-13

Cross-sections showing distortion of a sand body (lower) resulting from compaction of a channel sand (above). (Modified by Pettijohn, Potter and Siever, 1972, after Dupuy, Oswaldt and Sens, 1 9 6 3 ) .

sandstone body and its enclosing strata.

If such a marker is not available,

In all cases, the use of a

then interpretation is likely to be equivocal.

marker implies certain assumptions as to its configuration at the time of deposition. Commonly, it is assumed that a marker was a fairly flat surface, possibly with minor undulations but with very little warping or tilting. These tacit assumptions can in some cases be misleading. In particular, it

is obvious that the choice of a marker either above or below a linear sandstone body can lead to quite different interpretations. In the former case it may be concluded that the sandstone body was originally a channel-

26
- f i l l d e p o s i t , whereas i n t h e l a t t e r c a s e t h e s a n d s t o n e body may r e p r e s e n t

a s a n d "build-up'' s u c h as a b a r o r b a r r i e r i s l a n d ,

The i m p l i c a t i o n of

e i t h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , i n a s s o c i a t i o n with t h e i n f e r r e d paleogeographic trends,

w i l l have a b e a r i n g on t h e d i r e c t i o n i n which a s a n d s t o n e t r e n d i s e x t r a -

polated. Ancient Sand Bodies F l u v i a t i l e s e d i m e n t s a r e known w i t h i n a l l sequences from t h e Precambrian System t o t h e Quaternary System. But o i l and g a s accumul-

a t i o n s i n f l u v i a t i l e s e d i m e n t s are known o n l y i n Devonian and younger r o c k s . Some of t h e known examples of a n c i e n t f l u v i a t i l e s e d i m e n t s have been demonstrated t o b e c h a n n e l s a n d s . The c r i t e r i a f o r such r e c o g n i t i o n a r e

mainly geometry of t h e s a n d s t o n e body, sequences o f g r a i n g r a d a t i o n , and s e d i m e n t a r y s t r u c t u r e s as i n d i c a t e d by d r i l l - h o l e and o u t c r o p d a t a . The

p r e s e n c e of c e r t a i n s h e l l s , commonly f r e s h - w a t e r g a s t r o p o d s and b i v a l v e s , and of abundant c a r b o n i z e d wood fragments i s p r o b a b l y i n d i c a t i v e of a non-marine o r i g i n , a l t h o u g h b o t h can b e t r a n s p o r t e d t o an e s t u a r i n e o r c o a s t a l s a n d environment. P l a n t m a t t e r i s a l s o known t o b e f a i r l y abundant

i n some deep-water d e p o s i t s such as t h e f a n formed by t u r b i d i t y c u r r e n t s sweeping down t h e submarine canyon of t h e Congo R i v e r (Shepard, 1965). Composition and s o r t i n g a r e n o t d e f i n i t i v e of d e p o s i t i o n a l environment, a l t h o u g h i n g e n e r a l , p o o r l y s o r t e d s a n d s t o n e s t h a t are k a o l i n i t i c and q u a r t z o s e , b u t w i t h a f a i r l y l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e of l i t h i c f r a g m e n t s , a r e l i k e l y t o b e of f l u v i a t i l e o r i g i n , formed e i t h e r a s channel sands i n a r i v e r system o r a s b r a i d e d stream d e p o s i t s on a n a l l u v i a l f a n . Fluviatile

s a n d s d e p o s i t e d by d e l t a d i s t r i b u t a r i e s a r e a l s o q u a r t z o s e , b u t g e n e r a l l y f i n e - g r a i n e d , w e l l s o r t e d , and n o t r e a d i l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d by l i t h o l o g y from marine s h o r e l i n e s a n d s . The o l d e s t known f l u v i a t i l e d e p o s i t s , i n c l u d i n g t h e T o r r i d o n i a n

27
Formation of S c o t l a n d , are P r o t e r o z o i c . The o l d e s t known f l u v i a t i l e

d e p o s i t s of t h e Cambrian System are m o l a s s e s e d i m e n t s o f t h e w e s t e r n Siberian Platform. The o l d e s t known c h a n n e l s a n d d e p o s i t s t h a t h a v e been

d e l i n e a t e d f o r d i s t a n c e s o f s e v e r a l m i l e s a r e t h e O r d o v i c i a n P u l a s k i and F a y e t t v i l l e Channels of Tennessee.

P u l a s k i and F a y e t t v i l l e C h a n n e l s , Tennessee The Upper O r d o v i c i a n (Richmondian) Pulaslci Channel a n d F a y e t t v i l l e

7,

1 0
MILES

1 0

ORDOVICIAN PULASKI TENNESSEE

Fig.

CHANNEL

1-14

Map a n d s e c t i o n s of t h e O r d o v i c i a n P u l a s k i and F a y e t t e v i l l e r i v e r c h a n n e l s i n G i l e s and L i n c o l n c o u n t i e s , Tennessee. (Redrawn from Wilson, 1948).

Channel ( F i g . 1-14) i n Tennessee are l o c a l l y exposed by o u t c r o p s .

The

P u l a s k i Channel, e n t r e n c h e d i n Lower O r d o v i c i a n ( T r e n t o n i a n ) l i m e s t o n e , i s up t o 40 m d e e p , h a s a w i d t h i n t h e range 300-750 m, and h a s been t r a c e d i n l e n g t h f o r more t h a n 50 km. The b a s a l p a r t of t h i s c h a n n e l i s f i l l e d

w i t h q u a r t z o s e , c o n g l o m e r a t i c g r i t s t o n e and abundant r u b b l e of l i m e s t o n e c o b b l e s and b o u l d e r s . Above t h e b a s a l s e c t i o n , b u t w i t h i n t h e lower p a r t

of t h e c h a n n e l , t h e f i l l c o n s i s t s of c o a r s e s a n d s t o n e c o n t a i n i n g a f a i r l y h i g h p e r c e n t a g e of well-rounded q u a r t z g r a i n s . Some o u t c r o p s of s a n d s t o n e

a r e up t o 10 m t h i c k and show cross-bedding i n d i c a t i n g a g e n e r a l c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n from s o u t h e a s t t o n o r t h w e s t . The s a n d s t o n e u n i t i s o v e r l a i n

by g r e y i s h g r e e n s h a l e which f i l l s t h e v a l l e y and i s i n t u r n o v e r l a i n by s a n d s t o n e and l i m e s t o n e .

I t i s of i n t e r e s t t o n o t e t h a t t h e d i r e c t i o n of t r a n s p o r t of t h e

s a n d , a s i n d i c a t e d by c r o s s - b e d d i n p , a p p e a r s t o b e a t v a r i a n c e w i t h t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of r e g i o n a l Richmondian geography, a c c o r d i n g t o Wilson 0 9 4 8 , p. 7 4 3 ) who s t a t e s , "These d i r e c t i o n s are upstream w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e d i r e c t i o n t h e e r o d i n g stream flowed; landward w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e i n v a d i n g sea".
H e r e f e r s t o t h e s e s a n d s as e s t u a r i n e and presumably

a t t r i b u t e s t h e d i r e c t i o n of c u r r e n t bedding t o t h e e f f e c t of t i d a l b o r e s . The s h a l e s f i l l i n g t h e upper p a r t of t h e c h a n n e l a r e a l s o c o n s i d e r e d t o have been d e p o s i t e d i n a n e s t u a r i n e environment t o t h e n o r t h w e s t of an encroaching sea.

Bedford Channels, Ohio The Bedford Channels ( F i g . 1-15), which l i e w i t h i n r e d s h a l e s of t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n Bedford Formation i n Ohio, a r e f i l l e d w i t h q u a r t z o s e s a n d s t o n e and form a s i n u o u s p a t t e r n t h a t h a s been t r a c e d f o r 100 km i n a n o r t h - s o u t h direction. The p a t t e r n shows a marked s i m i l a r i t y t o p a t t e r n s of meander

l o o p s of t h e M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r , and i s i n t e r p r e t e d as a d r a i n a g e system

29

CHANNEL

SANDS

A-

MISSISSIPPI

RIVER

6-MISSISSIPPIAN BEDFORD
FORMATION, OHIO

MILES

Fig. 1-15

Channels of t h e M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r n e a r Natchez, Mississippi. Drainage from n o r t h t o s o u t h . (Redrawn

from F i s k , 1 9 4 4 ) .

Channel s a n d s w i t h i n t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n Bedford Formation i n n o r t h e r n Ohio. s c a l e a s (A). Drainage from n o r t h t o s o u t h . Same

(Redrawn from P e p p e r , D e W i t t , and

Demarest, 1 9 5 4 ) .

w i t h i n t h e Bedford D e l t a .

A s l i g h t l y younger system of s a n d s t o n e - f i l l e d

channels c o n s t i t u t e s t h e b a s a l u n i t of t h e o v e r l y i n g M i s s i s s i p p i a n Berea Sandstone. T h i s b a s a l u n i t of s a n d s t o n e o c d u p i e s c h a n n e l s c u t i n t o t h e

Bedford Formation and a l s o l o c a l l y i n t o t h e u n d e r l y i n g Cleveland Member

of t h e Upper Devonian Ohio S h a l e .

Nany o f t h e s e c h a n n e l s communly have a

30
w i d t h i n t h e range 300-600 m , and d e p t h s of up t o 60 m.
O i l and g a s

p r o d u c t i o n h a s been o b t a i n e d from t h e s e younger c h a n n e l s ( F i g . 1-28), i n c l u d i n g t h e Cabin Creek Channel. I n t h e Cabin Creek F i e l d ( F i g . 1-27)

g a s i s o b t a i n e d from f r i a b l e q u a r t z o s e s a n d s t o n e o v e r l a i n by a cap r o c k of s i l i c i f i e d q u a r t z i t i c sandstone. Pepper, D e W i t t and Demarest (1954) are

of t h e o p i n i o n t h a t s i l i c i f i c a t i o n of t h e q u a r t z o s e s a n d s t o n e r e s u l t e d from downward c e m e n t a t i o n of t h e s a n d - f i l l e d c h a n n e l .

COAL N 0 . 7

A
0

' -O
K M

B
1
MILE

L 200

lOOln

PENNSYLVANIAN CHANNEL SAND, ILLINOIS

F i g . 1-16

C r o s s - s e c t i o n of Anvil Rock Sandstone, a Pennsylvanian c h a n n e l s a n d , i n t h e I l l i n o i s Basin. Coal seam Yo. 7

i s t a k e n as a datum.

(Redrawn from P o t t e r , 1963).

R e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of (A) t o show p o s s i b l e concordance of e l e v a t i o n of remnants of r i v e r v a l l e y terraces.

31
Anvil Rock Channel, I l l i n o i s The Pennsylvanian Anvil Rock Sandstone of t h e I l l i n o i s Basin f i l l s channels formed by streams which meandered down a p a l e o s l o p e and c u t i n t o d e l t a i c s h e e t - l i k e sands (Hopkins, 1958; P o t t e r and Simon, 1961). The

s e c t i o n i l l u s t r a t e d by Fig. 1-16 shows one channel t o have a width of more than 5 km and a t h i c k n e s s of n e a r l y 6 0 m.
A s mentioned e a r l i e r , i n t h e s e c t i o n on compaction of channel s a n d s ,

t h e c h o i c e of a datum may i n i t s e l f have i m p l i c i t assumptions a s t o t h e g e n e s i s and o r i g i n a l geometry of a s a n d s t o n e body. In constructing the

shape of a l i n e a r s a n d s t o n e body t h a t may have o r i g i n a t e d a s a c h a n n e l - f i l l s a n d , a datum can b e taken below, a t t h e b a s e , a t t h e t o p , o r above t h e sandstone body.
I f t h e s a n d s t o n e body was, i n f a c t , d e p o s i t e d a s a channel

s a n d , t h e n a datum t a k e n on some s t r a t i g r a p h i c marker below t h e body may n o t be meaningful, a s t h e marker would commonly b e deformed by compaction o c c u r r i n g d u r i n g t h e growth of t h e o v e r l y i n g sand body.

In t h e c a s e of a

sand body d i r e c t l y o v e r l y i n g an unconformity, a marker beldw t h e sand body may have been t i l t e d o r o t h e r w i s e deformed p r i o r t o t h e d e p o s i t i o n of t h e sand. S i m i l a r l y , i f t h e sand body was o r i g i n a l l y a channel s a n d , a datum

taken a t t h e b a s e of t h e body o r channel would obviously r e s u l t i n an erroneous r e c o n s t r u c t i o n .

A datum taken a t t h e t o p of t h e sand body w i l l

g i v e a r e a s o n a b l e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l shape of t h e channel sand a t t h e time i t was i n i t i a l l y b u r i e d , provided t h e s u r f a c e was nearly f l a t . But t h i s may seldom be t h e c a s e .
A datum t a k e n on some

s t r a t i g r a p h i c marker above, b u t c l o s e t o t h e upper s u r f a c e of t h e sand body w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e b e s t r e c o n s t r u c t i o n and may f a c i l i t a t e t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of s t r u c t u r a l l y h i g h p a r t s of t h e sandstone u n i t formed a s e r o s i o n a l remnants of r i v e r v a l l e y t e r r a c e s , and b u r i e d a s sand h i l l s . Provided they

have c l o s u r e , t h e s e "highs" can form r e s e r v o i r s f o r o i l and gas such a s t h e B e l l s h i l l Lake, Hughenden, and A l l i a n c e f i e l d s i n t h e Lower Cretaceous E l l e r s l i e Sandstone of A l b e r t a (Figs. 1-41,

1-42,

1-43).

32

SCALE

0
MILES

Fig. 1-17

Map showing t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n of a channel sand w i t h i n t h e

N o . 5 c o a l seam of t h e Pennsylvanian Carbondale Formation i n

southeastern I l l i n o i s . (1.5m) t h i c k . V a i l , 1965).

Medium c o a l i s more t h a n 5 f e e t

(Wanless, 1970, a f t e r T r e s c o t t , 1964, and

33
Carbondale Channel, I l l i n o i s The Carbondale Channel o f s o u t h e a s t e r n I l l i n o i s i s a n i n t e r e s t i n g example of a n a n c i e n t meandering stream t h a t flowed through a f l a t t e r r a i n

of marsh and swamp.

Within t h e Pennsylvanian Carbondale Formation t h e No. 5

c o a l zone c o n t a i n s a s a n d s t o n e body t h a t o r i g i n a t e d as a c h a n n e l - f i l l sand. Reconstructed i n c o n s i d e r a b l e d e t a i l (Fig. 1-17) from s u b s u r f a c e d a t a , t h e channel a p p e a r s t o have been p a r t of t h e d r a i n a g e system of a f l a t , marshy land t h a t probably formed p a r t of a d e l t a complex. The c h a n n e l , which i s With

shown t o b e approximately 2 k m i n w i d t h , can be t r a c e d f o r 100 km.

r e f e r e n c e t o t h i s channel Wanless (1970, p. 288) s a y s "Because t h e s a n d s t o n e does n o t extend s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l l y h i g h e r t h a n t h e c o a l , i t does n o t seem l i k e l y t h a t t h e c o a l w a s d e p o s i t e d and s w s e q u e n t l y c u t o u t by e r o s i o n , b u t i n s t e a d t h e r i v e r w a s d i s c h a r g i n g through t h e winding channel w h i l e t h e c o a l w a s forming i n t h e a d j a c e n t swamp".
It i s of i n t e r e s t t o n o t e

t h a t t h e t h i c k e r c o a l seams are l o c a t e d i n a 10 which

15 km-wide b e l t along

t h e channel meanders, s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h i s b e l t formed a v a l l e y i n

which v e g e t a t i o n accumulated more r a p i d l y t h a n on t h e a d j a c e n t uplands. F i g . 1-18 i l l u s t r a t e s a n o t h e r example of a Pennsylvanian channel s a n d s t o n e i n t h e I l l i n o i s Basin. This s a n d s t o n e body ranges up t o 25 m

t h i c k and h a s been t r a c e d a l o n g a m e a n d e r i n g c o u r s e f o r more t h a n 30 km. The p a t t e r n of t h e i s o p a c h map i s t y p i c a l of p a t t e r n s r e s u l t i n g from t h e s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n of anastomosing t r i b u t a r i e s d r a i n i n g i n t o t h e main c h a n n e l , and probably i n d i c a t e s a d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n on a f a i r l y f l a t terrain. Another example of a channel c u t i n t o a coal-bearing (Fig. 1-19) i s given by Wier (1953). section

This channel, f i l l e d with cross-

-bedded s a n d s t o n e , is w i t h i n t h e Pennsylvanian P e t e r s b u r g h Formation of t h e I l l i n o i s Basin. The c h a n n e l , which h a s a t h i c k n e s s of up t o 20 m and

a width i n e x c e s s of 2 km, h a s been t r a c e d f o r s e v e r a l k i l o m e t e r s i n a n

34

0
0
F i g . 1-18

w 1-20

0
21-80

0
I
I I

2
I

L
I

6
I

8km
I
I

5miles

I s o p a c h map of a P e n n s y l v a n i a n s a n d s t o n e i n t h e I l l i n o i s B a s i n , showing t h i c k n e s s i n f e e t of a meandering body. (Modified by P e t t i j o h n , P o t t e r and S i e v e r , 1972, a f t e r P o t t e r , 1963).

east-west d i r e c t i o n .

The a t t i t u d e of t h e c r o s s - b e d d i n g i n d i c a t e s t h a t The c h a n n e l i s b e l i e v e d t o have been

t h e c u r r e n t flowed t o t h e w e s t .

formed by a d e l t a d i s t r i b u t a r y t h a t flowed t h r o u g h a low-lying c o a s t a l marsh. The c h a n n e l i s o v e r l a i n by s i l t s t o n e a n d , of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t , This s t r a t i g r a p h i c succession suggests

by l e n t i c u l a r b e d s of l i m e s t o n e .

t h a t t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l environment may h a v e b e e n s i m i l a r t o t h a t s e e n t o d a y i n p a r t s of F l o r i d a , as d e s c r i b e d by Spackman, S c h o l l , and T a f t (1964).

35

FEET

25 m

KM

MILE

SANDSTONE P E N N SYLVAN I A N

CHANNEL

IN COAL

SEAM,

PETE RSBU RGH FORM ATI 0 N, I N D I A NA

Fig. 1-19

Cross-bedded

s a n d s t o n e channel formed i n a washout, i n

Coal V , Pennsylvanian P e t e r s b u r g h Formation, I l l i n o i s B a s i n , P i k e County, I n d i a n a . (Redrawn from Wier, 1953).

u
K M

300

MILLS

too8

CROSS-SECTION
P E N NSYLVAN I A N

OF CHANNEL SANDSTONES,
GR A H A M FO R MAT I0 N,

BRAZOS BASIN,

TEXAS

Fig. 1-20

S t r a t i g r a p h i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s of. unconformable channel s a n d s t o n e s w i t h i n t h e Pennsylvanian Graham Formation, C i s c o Group, Brazos B a s i n , Texas. (Redrawn from Lee, 1938).

36
Graham Channels, Texas Sandstone-filled channels w i t h i n . t h e Graham Formation of t h e Upper

Pennsylvanian Cisco Group i n t h e Brazos Basin, Texas, have been d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l by Lee (1938). The r e l a t i o n s h i p s of i n d i v i d u a l , superimposed

channels i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 1-20 which shows o v e r l y i n g channels c u t t i n g i n t o t h o s e below. and d e p t h s up t o 60 m. well-sorted, I n d i v i d u a l channels have w i d t h s of up t o 15 k m

The s a n d s t o n e s f i l l i n g t h e s e channels a r e q u a r t z o s e , and l o c a l l y c o n t a i n abundant fragments of

cross-bedded,

carbonized p l a n t remains. The c h a n n e l s , thought t o have been c u t by a system of anastomosing d i s t r i b u t a r i e s , l i e w i t h i n beds of l i m e s t o n e and s h a l e d e p o s i t e d i n n e r i t i c t o p a r a l i c environments t h a t probably bordered an e x t e n s i v e and subsiding c o a s t a l plain.

B a r t l e s v i l l e Channels, Kansas L i n e a r s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s w i t h i n t h e Lower Pennsylvanian Cherokee S h a l e of Kansas and Oklahoma have been v a r i o u s l y i n t e r p r e t e d . Rees

(1972, p. 176) s a y s , "Many workers have s t u d i e d t h e " s h o e s t r i n g sands" of s o u t h e a s t e r n Kansas and n o r t h e a s t e r n Oklahoma. They have been

d e s c r i b e d a s o f f - s h o r e b a r s , b a r r i e r - i s l a n d b a r s , beach r i d g e s , channel s a n d s , dune s a n d s , and p o i n t - b a r s a n d s . The wide d i v e r s e n c e of opinion

stems l a r g e l y from d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s p l a c e d on t h e bed geometry." Fig. 1-21 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e t r e n d s of two such o i l - b e a r i n g sandstone bodies i n t h e Chanute F i e l d of Kansas. R e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e o r i g i n a l

geometry, by D i l l a r d , Oak, and B a s s (1941), shows them as o f f s h o r e b a r s

w i t h f l a t b a s e s ; although i t was noted by t h e s e a u t h o r s t h a t t h e c r o s s -

-bedded s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s o v e r l i e a c o a l seam.

Previous s t u d i e s by Lewis

(1929) and l a t e r work by Rees (1972) supported t h e view t h a t t h e B a r t l e s v i l l e " s h o e s t r i n g sands" a r e f l u v i a t i l e i n o r i g i n and t h a t they were

37

Fig. 1-21

Isometric diagram showing interpreted configuration of a shoestring sand body in the Lower Pennsylvanian Bartlesville Sandstone, Chanute Field, Kansas. The grid is k mile

(0.4km) square and the contour interval is 10 feet (3m). (After Dillard, Oak, and Bass, 1941).

deposited by distributaries. These long, narrow sandstone bodies are commonly less than 30 m thick. Shinarump Channels, Utah The Upper Triassic Shinarump Formation (Fig. 1-22) o f Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico comprises fluviatile sandstones and conglomeratic gritstones filling channels eroded in the underlying Lower Triassic Moenkopi Formation. These channels, which form sinuous courses at the base and within the lowermost part of the Upper Triassic Chinle Formation,

38
-..

. >

'.

CHINLE

MOENROPI
1 MILE

o
0 1

FEET

r0

KM

L'oo
TRIASSIC

I,,.
BEDS,
The

SANDSTONE FOUR
F i g . 1-22

CHANNELS

IN

CORNERS AREA, U.S.A.

Diagrammatic c r o s s s e c t i o n showing s a n d s t o n e channels a t t h e b a s e of and w i t h i n t h e Triassic C h i n l e Formation.

b a s a l c h a n n e l s , named t h e Shinarump Formation, c u t i n t o t h e E a r l y T r i a s s i c Moenkopi Formation.

These f o r n a t i o n s crop

o u t i n t h e Four Corners area (Utah, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico) where t h e Shinarump c o n t a i n s uranium-vanadium
mineralization. Contour i n t e r v a l i n f e e t (1' = 0.305m).

(Redrawn from S t o k e s , 1961).

are commonly less t h a n 30 m deep.

The channel s a Q d s t o n e s are thought t o

have been p o i n t b a r s , s p i l l - o v e r b a r s and a s s o c i a t e d sand b o d i e s d e p o s i t e d by a meandering r i v e r t h a t developed a n e x t e n s i v e system i n t h e Four Corners region. Carbonized p l a n t remains and cross-bedding

are common f e a t u r e s

i n t h e s e sandstones.

Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s t h e fa.ct t h a t t h e lower

p a r t s of t h e s e s a n d s t o n e s are mined l o c a l l y f o r uranium-vanadium m i n e r a l s d e p o s i t e d by s o l u t i o n s moving a l o n g t h e more permeable c o u r s e s of t h e channels.

39
J a c k p i l e Channel, New Mexico The J a c k p i l e Sandstone ( F i g . 1-23), which l i e s w i t h i n t h e uppermost p a r t of t h e Upper J u r a s s i c Morrison Formation i n New Mexico, f i l l s a n o r t h e a s t - t r e n d i n g c h a n n e l t h a t i s up t o 20 km w i d e , 60 m d e e p , and more t h a n 50 k m long. The n o r t h e a s t e r n e x t e n s i o n of t h i s c h a n n e l s p l i t s i n t o

t h r e e s e p a r a t e c h a n n e l s c u t by d i s t r i b u t a r i e s which flowed t o t h e n o r t h e a s t . The J a c k p i l e , which a l s o f i l l s t h e s e s u b s i d i a r y c h a n n e l s , v a r i e s i n compo s i t i o n from c a l c i t e - c e m e n t e d f e l d s p a t h i c s a n d s t o n e a t t h e b a s e t o kaol i n i t i c , quartzose sandstone a t t h e top. T h i s v a r i a t i o n i s thought by

Fig. 1-23

G e n e r a l i z e d i s o m e t r i c b l o c k diagram showing t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n
of t h e a l l u v i a l J a c k p i l e Sandstone, t h e uppermost member of t h e Upper J u r a s s i c Morrison Formation, New Mexico.

( A f t e r S c h l e e and Moench, 1961).

40

GRAIN S I Z E
0.2
I

0.4
1

06
I

08

MILLII;O(M E T E R s

n
LL

0
Q

m
I & 150
( 2 READINGS)

W (FEET)

Fig.

1-24

V e r t i c a l g r a d a t i o n i n g r a i n - s i z e w i t h i n t h e a l l u v i a l Upper J u r a s s i c J a c k p i l e S a n d s t o n e , New Mexico. and Moench, 1961). (After Schlee

S c h l e e and Moench (1961) t o b e t h e r e s u l t of w e a t h e r i n g p r i o r t o t h e d e p o s i t i o n of t h e o v e r l y i n g Lower C r e t a c e o u s Dakota s e d i m e n t s . These

c h a n n e l s a n d s t o n e s are m o d e r a t e l y w e l l s o r t e d , cross-bedded, f i n e t o m e d i m - g r a i n e d , and show a n o v e r a l l f i n i n g from bottom t o t o p ( F i g . 1-24) The J a c k p i l e i s an i m p o r t a n t h o s t rock f o r uranium m i n e r a l s mined i n t h e Laguna a r e a , w e s t of Albuquerque, New Mexico.

O i l and Gas F i e l d s

F l u v i a t i l e s a n d s t o n e s have been r e c o r d e d i n a l l Systems from P r o t e r o z o i c t o Quaternary i n c l u s i v e , b u t o i l and gas accumulations a r e n o t known i n f l u v i a t i l e s a n d s t o n e s o l d e r t h a n t h e Devonian. twenty-eight examples g i v e n i n t h i s book a r e as f o l l o w s : The a < e s of

Devonian -2,

H i s s i s s i p p i a n - 3 , Pennsylvanian -5, Permian -1, T r i a s s i c -1, J u r a s s i c -1, Cretaceous - 1 2 , and T e r t i a r y - 3 . Although i t would appear from t h i s l i m i t e d

sampling t h a t t h e C r e t a c e o u s o c c u p i e s a s p e c i a l p l a c e f a v o u r i n g t h e accumulation of hydrocarbons i n r i v e r s e d i m e n t s , i t must b e p o i n t e d o u t

41 t h a t t h e examples g i v e n a r e from t h e A l b e r t a , Powder B i v e r , and Denver b a s i n s where t h e Mesozoic h a s been e x t e n s i v e l y d r i l l e d . There i s no

b a s i s f o r assuming, on a world-wide b a s i s , t h a t f l u v i a t i l e d e p o s i t s w e r e more abundant i n one P e r i o d t h a n i n a n o t h e r .

Red Earth O i l F i e l d , A l b e r t a I n t h e Red E a r t h F i e l d ( F i g . 1-25) of n o r t h e r n A l b e r t a o i l i s produced from t h e b a s a l P a l e o z o i c G r a n i t e Wash which l i e s on t h e eroded Precambrian s u r f a c e . The age of t h e G r a n i t e Wash h a s n o t been determined;

b u t i t i s o v e r l a i n by a n h y d r i t i c and d o l o m i t i c c a r b o n a t e s o f t h e Middle Devonian Muskeg Formation, and i s p r o b a b l y E a r l y Devonian. The G r a n i t e

Wash i s mainly a f i n e t o v e r y c o a r s e , p o o r l y s o r t e d q u a r t z o s e and f e l d s p a t h i c s a n d s t o n e , of sub-rounded t o a n g u l a r g r a i n s , b u t c o n t a i n s t h i n beds of g r e e n i s h s h a l e having a waxy appearance. Lying on t h e basement

topography i t t h i n s o v e r t h e "highs" and t h i c k e n s t o 30 m o f more i n t h e "lows". Maximum t h i c k n e s s of t h e n e t porous s a n d s t o n e is 29 m, and t h e Permeability is

average t h i c k n e s s of t h e n e t producing s a n d s t o n e i s 5m.

good, b e i n g i n t h e range 120-120 m i l l i d a r c y s v e r t i c a l l y , and 300-450 m i l l i d a r c y s h o r i z o n t a l l y . P o r o s i t y averages 14%. The o i l r e c o v e r e d h a s a g r a v i t y of 38OA.P.I., a s u l p h u r c o n t e n t of 0.3%.

a p a r a f f i n b a s e , and

The e s t i m a t e d amount of o i l i n p l a c e w i t h i n

two s e p a r a t e p o o l s i s 110 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s of which o n l y 22 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (3.5 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) a r e l i k e l y t o b e r e c o v e r e d f i e l d ' s n a t u r a l water drive. The t e r m ' g r a n i t e wash' i m p l i e s a sandy s e d i m e n t , probably of q u a r t zose and f e l d s p a t h i c c o m p o s i t i o n , d e r i v e d and t r a n s p o r t e d from g r a n i t i c and g n e i s s i c t e r r a i n . Flawn (1965, p. 885) s a y s , " I f i t i s n o t a t r a n s p o r t e d by means of t h e

sediment and i t i s n o t "washed'', t h e terms w e a t h e r e d g r a n i t e o r a l t e r e d g r a n i t e o r decomposed g r a n i t e are more a c c u r a t e " . F i l l i n g topographic

42

A-

RGE. 8 W. 5 MER
12 1 7

- 3000'

- 3300'

I
0
O

___ 0
PRECAMBRIAN

- 2986

I
MILE

'

KM

STRUCTURAL RED
Fig.

MAP

AND

SECTION,

EARTH

FIELD,

ALBERTA

1-25

S t r u c t u r a l map showing c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e Precambrian s u r f a c e under t h e Red E a r t h Fi.eld, A l b e r t a . f e e t sub-sea l e v e l . S t r u c t u r a l s e c t i o n A-A' Contour i n t e r v a l s i n shows t h e o i l -

b e a r i n g Middle Devonian G r a n i t e Wash draped o v e r a Precambrian topographic 'high'. The o i l - w a t e r c o n t a c t is a t -2986 f e e t (Redrawn and r e i n t e r p r e t e d from
i o ~ c \

(-911 m) sub-sea l e v e l .
miltnn
iQcIc1
3 n

i ~ aslntnV

43
d e p r e s s i o n s , t h e p o o r l y s o r t e d G r a n i t e Wash i n t h e Red E a r t h F i e l d w a s e v i d e n t l y n o t moved v e r y f a r from i t s a r e a of o r i g i n and was a p p a r e n t l y t r a n s p o r t e d by s u r f a c e - w a t e r which r a n o f f t h e s l o p e s and formed a d r a i n a g e system a l o n g v a l l e y s eroded i n t h e Precambrian basement. As

t h e v a l l e y s f i l l e d w i t h g r a n i t i c d e b r i s , t h e basement h i l l s were e v e n t u a l l y b u r i e d by wedges of G r a n i t e Wash swept o u t on a f a i r l y f l a t outwash-plain. On t h i s s u r f a c e t h e e n c r o a c h i n g Muskeg Sea developed a c a r b o n a t e bank f r i n g e d by c o a s t a l sabkhas i n which g y p s i f e r o u s d e p o s i t s were formed. The G r a n i t e Wash o r i g i n a l l y c o n s i s t e d of a l l u v i a l s a n d s and minor muds, much of which were p r o b a b l y f l u v i a t i l e .
L i t t l e is known of t h e

paleogeomorphology of t h i s u n i t , and i t can o n l y b e surmised t h a t channels may e x i s t which could c o n t a i n a c c u m u l a t i o n s of o i l i n s t r u c t u r a l - s t r a t i g r a p h i c s i t u a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g from compaction o v e r basement topography, r e g i o n a l t i l t i n g of t h e s t r a t a , and w a t e r d r i v e .

Music Mountain O i l P o o l , P e n n s y l v a n i a The Music Mountain O i l Pool ( F i g . 1-26) i n McLean County, Pennsylvania
i s i n t h e Upper Devonian S l i v e r v i l l e Sandstone of t h e Canadaway Group.

This s a n d s t o n e i s q u a r t z o s e , medium t o c o a r s e - g r a i n e d , i n p a r t c o n g l o m e r a t i c , and c o n s i s t s of sub-angular t o angul-ar g r a i n s . P o r o s i t y a v e r a g e s 13%, and Angular c l a y s t o n e

p e r m e a b i l i t y r a n g e s up t o s e v e r a l hundred m i l l i d a r c y s .

fragments, resembling f r a g m e n t s of sun-dried c l a y , are c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n the sandstone.

In t h e producing a r e a t h e S l i v e r v i l l e Sandstone forms a c h a n n e l - l i k e

body which t r e n d s n o r t h e a s t - s o u t h w e s t on t h e f l a n k o f an a n t i c l i n e .

This

s a n d s t o n e body, which h a s been t r a c e d f o r more t h a n 6 km, i s 250-300m wide and up t o 25 m t h i c k . The Canadaway Group, of which i t forms a p a r t ,

c o n s i s t s of i n t e r b e d d e d g r e y s h a l e and f i n e t o c o a r s e brownish s a n d s t o n e s . F e t t k e (1941) c o n s i d e r e d t h e group t o be m a r i n e , and i n t e r p r e t e d t h e

44

GEOMETRY OF SLIVERVILLE P E NN S Y L V A N I A
F i g . 1-26.

SANDSTONE,

I s o p a c h map of S l i v e r v i l l e S a n d s t o n e i n t h e Upper Devonian Canadaway Group, Music Mountain O i l P o o l , McLean County, Pennsylvania. Contour i n t e r v a l i n f e e t ( 1 ' = 0.305 m).

(Redrawn from F e t t k e , 1941).

45

S l i v e r v i l l e Sandstone as an o f f s h o r e b a r .

The n a t u r e of t h e sand ( i n p a r t

coarse-grained and p e b b l y , c o n s i s t i n g of sub-angular t o a n g u l a r g r a i n s , and c o n t a i n i n g a n g u l a r c h i p s of c l a y s t o n e resembling f r a g m e n t s of d r i e d mud) i n d i c a t e s a f l u v i a t i l e r a t h e r t h a n a wave-washed environment, and s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e S l i v e r v i l l e sand body w a s p r o b a b l y a d e l t a - d i s t r i b u t a r y sand. The Music Mountain O i l P o o l y i e l d s b o t h o i l and g a s , t h e o i l having a p a r a f f i n b a s e and a waxy c o n t e n t .
I t i s of i n t e r e s t t o n o t e , i n t h i s

r e s p e c t , t h a t Hedberg (1968) concluded t h a t waxy o i l s w e r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y d e r i v e d from s a n d s t o n e - s h a l e sequences of non-marine o r p a r a l i c o r i g i n . The f i e l d h a s a g a s d r i v e , and d u r i n g i t s e a r l y h i s t o r y i n i t i a l producing rates of up t o 500 b a r r e l s of o i l and 15 m i l l i o n c u b i c f e e t of gas p e r day were r e c o r d e d .

Cabin Creek G a s F i e l d , Ohio P r o d u c t i o n of g a s and some l i g h t ( 4 7 O A.P.I.) o i l i n t h e Cabin

Creek Gas F i e l d , Ohio (Fig. 1-27) h a s been o b t a i n e d from t h e E a r l y Mississi p i a n Berea Sandstone. I n t h e f i e l d area t h e Berea o c c u p i e s a b r o a d , T h i s channel

s i n u o u s c h a n n e l c u t i n t o t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n Bedford Formation.

i s 5-6 km w i d e , up t o 15 m deep, and h a s been t r a c e d i n t h e s u b - s u r f a c e

f o r more t h a n 15 km.

I t a p p e a r s t o b e p a r t of a d r a i n a g e system t h a t

t r e n d e d n o r t h - s o u t h f o r more t h a n 80 km. I n t h e lower p a r t of t h e c h a n n e l t h e Berea Sandstone i s l i g h t g r e y , q u a r t z o s e , and c o a r s e t o g r i t t y w i t h well-rounded p e b b l e s . sand g r a i n s are a n g u l a r . The

I n t h e upper p a r t of t h e c h a n n e l t h e s a n d s t o n e This q u a r t z i t i c

i s f i n e r g r a i n e d , h a r d , and well-cemented by q u a r t z .

s a n d s t o n e , which h a s a p o r o s i t y of only 4 % compared w i t h a n a v e r a g e p o r o s i t y of 16% i n t h e lower s a n d s t o n e , forms a cap rock f o r t h e gas c o n t a i n e d i n t h e s a n d s t o n e below.

46

.. . . . . .. .. . .. . . .. .. . .., . . .. . .. . . .. . . . .. .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. .. . . .. . . . .. .. .. . .. L .. . .. : .. . .. .. .. .. . ... .. . . .. .. . . .. . . . .. .. .. . . . . . . . . .
'

--------, -

:i-_.
FEET

10,000

0
1

2000 METRES

ISOPACH A N D S E C T I O N S O F MlSSlSSlPlAN
BEREA S A N D , C A B I N C R E E K GAS FIELD, OHIO
Fig. 1-27. Isopach map of part of the Mississippian.Berea Sand in the Cabin Creek gas field, Ohio, showing thickness in feet of the sandstone body. Sections AB and AC show tightly-cemented

quartz sandstone (stippled) and the basal poorly-cemented, gas-bearing quartz gritstone (solid). De Witt and Demarest, 1954). (Redrawn from Pepper,

47
Gay-Spencer-Richardson Trend, V i r g i n i a

O i l and g a s p r o d u c t i o n h a s been o b t a i n e d from t h e E a r l y M i s s i s s i p p i a n

Berea Sandstone i n t h e Gay-Spencer-Richardson Virginia.

f i e l d s (Fig. 1-28) of w e s t e r n

These f i e l d s merge w i t h one a n o t h e r a l o n g a n o r t h e a s t - s o u t h w e s t The channel i s up t o 5 k m

t r e n d i n g c h a n n e l f i l l e d w i t h Berea Sandstone.

wide and 40 km l o n g i n t h e f i e l d a r e a , and e x t e n d s a f u r t h e r 55 k m t o the northeast. The s a n d s t o n e , which i s s i m i l a r i n composition and t e x t u r e t o

t h e Berea i n t h e Cabin Creek Gas F i e l d of Ohio, i s u n d e r l a i n by g r e y , s i l t y s h a l e and o v e r l a i n by brown s h a l e c o n t a i n i n g abundant c a r b o n i z e d p l a n t matter. The c o n t a c t between t h e o v e r l y i n g s h a l e and t h e Berea i s marked

by an abundance of p y r i t e .

DISTRIBUTION OF OIL AND GAS

PRODUCTION

IN B E R E A SANDSTONE, WEST VIRGINIA

F i g . 1-28.

D i s t r i b u t i o n of o i l and g a s p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e E a r l y M i s s i s s i p p i a n Berea Sandstone, J a c k s o n , Roane, and Calhoun C o u n t i e s , West V i r g i n i a . (Redrawn from d i s t r i b u t i o n of o i l

and g a s w e l l s p l o t t e d by Heck, 1941).

48
G a s h a s been produced a l o n g t h e e n t i r e Gay-Spencer-Richardson

trend

which i s i n t e r s e c t e d by n o r t h - s o u t h t r e n d i n g f o l d s t r u c t u r e s .

Of p a r t i c u l a r

i n t e r e s t i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Berea i n t h i s l o c a l i t y i s n o t w a t e r - b e a r i n g , and c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e o i l a c c u m u l a t i o n s are w i t h i n s y n c l i n e s . Although t h e

s a n d s t o n e i s d r y , t h e e a r l y producing w e l l s showed t h a t p r e s s u r e w i t h i n t h e s a n d s t o n e w a s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e f o r t h e d e p t h of measurement. The o i l was f i r s t o b t a i n e d by g a s d r i v e and some e a r l y w e l l s

had i n i t i a l p r o d u c t i o n rates of up t o 750 b a r r e l s of o i l and 10 m i l l i o n c u b i c f e e t of g a s p e r day.

B e t h e l Sandstone Trend, Kentucky S e v e r a l o i l and g a s f i e l d s i n w e s t e r n Kentucky, i n c l u d i n g t h e Midland, S t . C h a r l e s , B a r n s l e y , Luzerne, Sharon School, and Elk Creek, have produced from t h e Upper M i s s i s s i p p i a n B e t h e l Sandstone. The

B e t h e l f i l l s a c h a n n e l ( F i g . 1-29) c u t i n t o t h e Middle M i s s i s s i p p i a n (Meramecian) l i m e s t o n e s and s h a l e s , and i s o v e r l a i n by Upper M i s s i s s i p p i a n (Chesterian) limestones. The c h a n n e l , which i s 3 km wide, h a s been t r a c e d

i n t h e s u b s u r f a c e f o r a d i s t a n c e of more t h a n 160 k m s o u t h w e s t from where

i t crops out.

Toward t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n l i m i t s t o which i t h a s been t r a c e d

t h e c h a n n e l b r a n c h e s and c o n t a i n s s e v e r a l o i l and g a s a c c u m u l a t i o n s i n structural-stratigraphic t r a p s , i n c l u d i n g Midland Gas F i e l d .

Similar

t y p e s of t r a p s c o n t a i n i n g o i l a r e found i n s a n d s t o n e - f i l l e d d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l s c u t t i n g l i m e s t o n e and s h a l y beds i n a d e l t a i c sequence of t h e Upper Pennsylvanian t o Lower Permian C i s c o Group i n n o r t h - c e n t r a l l e x a s (Galloway and Brown, 1973). Many of t h e s e a r e commercial o i l f i e l d s .

The B e t h e l Sandstone i n t h e Midland f i e l d h a s a g r o s s t h i c k n e s s of up t o 75 m and a maximum producing s e c t i o n of 55 m. The mean p e r m e a b i l i t y

i s 117 m i l l i d a r c y s and t h e mean p o r o s i t y i s 13%. The Midland f i e l d i s

e s t i m a t e d t o have o r i g i n a l l y c o n t a i n e d 163,000 m i l l i o n c u b i c f e e t (4,560 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) o f r e c o v e r a b l e g a s a v e r a g i n g 98% methane, and s e v e r a l

49

LIMESTONE
Figure 4 A

SHALE
P i c Bethel erosion channel

LIMESTONE

SHALE

SANDSTONE

CALCAREOUS SANDSTONE AND/ORSHALE

Figure 4 8

Chonnel o t t e r Bethel deporitmn ond bockfill

LIMESTONE

SHALE

SANDSTONE

Fig. 1-29.

Schematic block diagrams showing the stratigraphic relationships of the channel-forming Upper Mississippian Bethel Sandstone to the overlying Upper Mississippian (Chesterian) and underlying Middle Mississippian (Xeramecian) sediments, Kentucky. (After Reynolds and Vincent, 1972).

50
t e n s of m i l l i o n s of b a r r e l s of heavy ( 2 4 0 A . P . I . ) oil. The volume of gas-

-producing s a n d s t o n e i s e s t i m a t e d t o b e 542,000 a c r e - f e e t .

T y l e r O i l Fields,Mont*
O i l i s produced from t h r e e s a n d s t o n e members i n t h e lower u n i t of

t h e Lower Pennsylvanian T y l e r Formation of c e n t r a l Montana.

These sand-

s t o n e members f i l l c h a n n e l s w i t h i n a b r o a d , meandering v a l l e y ( F i g . 1-30)

M O N T A N A

AREA

OF

.A..

\I

'

W Y O M I N G

LOWER TYLER DISTRIBUTION

F i g . 1-30.

D i s t r i b u t i o n of channel s a n d s t o n e members i n t h e lower u n i t of t h e Lower P e n n s y l v a n i a n T y l e r Formation, Montana. K r a n z l e r , 1966). (After

51
t r e n d i n g f o r more t h a n 500 km e a s t w a r d a c r o s s c e n t r a l Xontana i n t o North Dakota. T h i s v a l l e y c u t s i n t o l i m e s t o n e and s h a l e members of t h e :+ississThe lower two s a n d s t o n e members l i e

i p p i a n Heath Formation ( F i g . 1-31).

on t h e e r o s i o n a l s u r f a c e ; t h e upper s a n d s t o n e member, c a l l e d t h e Stensvad

Sand, occupies a s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l l y h i g h e r p o s i t i o n w i t h i n t h e v a l l e y - f i l l sediments of t h e Lower T y l e r . The p o s t - M i s s i s s i p p i a n v a l l e y , i n which t h e Lower T y l e r sediments

sw
A

KEG COULEE

IVANHOE

STENSVAD

NE

DATUM

TOP

OF

TYLER

4
I

A'

UPPER

TYLER

SCALES

IH FEET

PAL EOS JRUC TURAL GROSS SECTION KEG COULEE- MANHOE -SJENSVAD

Fig. 1-31.

S e c t i o n of e r o s i o n a l v a l l e y i n M i s s i s s i p p i a n Heath Formation, through t h e Keg Coulee, Ivanhoe and Stensvad f i e l d s , showing s t r a t i g r a p h i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f o i l - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e members w i t h i n t h e lower u n i t of t h e Lower Pennsylvanian T y l e r Formation, Montana. ( A f t e r K r a n z l e r , 1966).

52
l i e , h a s a d e p t h of up t o 100 m and a w i d t h of up t o 15 km.
It i s f i l l e d

mainly w i t h s i l t s and g r e y s h a l e s ( c o n t a i n i n g abundant carbonaceous p l a n t remains) d e p o s i t e d a s f l o o d p l a i n and backswamp muds. The s a n d s t o n e

members, which are f i n e - g r a i n e d a t t h e t o p , g r a d i n g downward t o g r i t and conglomerate a t t h e b a s e , a r e 10-45 m t h i c k . Qil h a s been t r a p p e d w i t h i n t h e s e s a n d s t o n e members a t c e r t a i n l o c a l i t i e s where l o c a l f o l d i n g of t h e s t r a t a h a s formed s t r u c t u r a l c l o s u r e s , and a p p a r e n t l y where t h e s a n d s t o n e i s i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e Heath Limestone which may b e t h e source-rock. L o c a l v a r i a t i o n s o f p e r m e a b i l i t y and

l e n t i c u l a r i t y of t h e s a n d s t o n e members, s t r u c t u r a l c o n t r o l , and p r o x i m i t y t o l i m e s t o n e beds (through which t h e o i l h a s m i g r a t e d , and i n which i t may a l s o have been g e n e r a t e d ) are k e y . f a c t o r s c o n t r o l l i n g t h e o i l a c c u m u l a t i o n s . E i g h t f i e l d s producing from t h e s e s a n d s t o n e members of t h e Lower T y l e r c o n t a i n e s t i m a t e d t o t a l c u m u l a t i v e r e s e r v e s of 70 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (11 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) of r e c o v e r a b l e o i l .

Delaware E x t e n s i o n O i l F i e l d , Oklahoma
O i l p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e Delaware E x t e n s i o n F i e l d , Oklahoma,

( F i g . 1-32)

i s o b t a i n e d from t h e B a r t l e s v i l l e Sandstone i n t h e middle p a r t of t h e Lower

t o Middle Pennsylvanian Cherokee Formation, a s h a l y sequence.

In the f i e l d

a r e a t h e B a r t l e s v i l l e forms a l i n e a r s a n d s t o n e body 600 - 1800 m wide, and up t o 20 m t h i c k .

I t h a s been t r a c e d f o r more t h a n 10 km and i s i n t e r p r e t e d

by L e w i s (1929) as a c h a n n e l d e p o s i t having a n o r t h w e s t e r l y provenance. D i l l a r d , Oak and Bass (1941), on t h e o t h e r hand, i n t e r p r e t e d t h e B a r t l e s v i l l e Sandstone o f t h e Chanute O i l F i e l d , Kansas, as an o f f s h o r e b a r . They n o t e d ,

however, t h a t t h e B a r t l e s v i l l e was n o t only cross-bedded, b u t was immedi a t e l y u n d e r l a i n by a c o a l seam.

I n a p a r a l i c environment e i t h e r i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n could b e c o r r e c t , a l t h o u g h a cross-bedded s a n d s t o n e o v e r l y i n g c o a l i s p r o b a b l y of f l u v i a t i l e o r i g i n .

L e w i s (1929, p. 364) s t a t e s ,

53

PENNSYLVANIAN DELAWARE

BARTLESVILLE EXTENTION OIL

SANDSTONE FIELD

Fig. 1-32.

Map showing t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n and s u b s u r f a c e s t r u c t u r e of t h e oil-bearing, lower Pennsylvanian B a r t l e s v i l l e s a n d s t o n e , The

Delaware E x t e n s i o n F i e l d , Nowata County, Oklahoma.

s a n d s t o n e i s i n t e r p r e t e d as a c h a n n e l sand d e p o s i t e d by a r i v e r f l o w i n g i n a s o u t h e a s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n i n d i c a t e d by t h e arrow. (Redrawn from L e w i s , 1929).

Conditions of t h e sand i n t h e Delaware E x t e n s i o n p o o l i n d i c a t e a c o n d i t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h e northwest-southwest s h o e s t r i n g - s a n d p o o l s of e a s t e r n Kansas

The c o r r e c t n e s s of t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s f u r t h e r s u p p o r t e d by t h e e r r a t i c d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s a n d s t o n e , t y p i c a l of r i v e r d e p o s i t s , which was noted by Lewis (p. 3 6 4 ) who s a y s , In s e v e r a l p l a c e s , w e l l s w i t h t h i c k sand and r i c h p r o d u c t i o n o f f s e t l o c a t i o n s i n which no sand w a s found. The Delaware E x t e n s i o n F i e l d y i e l d s o i l from a c o m p a r a t i v e l y s h a l l o w depth.
A t t h e e a s t e r n end of t h e f i e l d t h e t o p of t h e producing B a r t l e s v i l l e

Sandstone i s 30 m below sea l e v e l and 240 m below t h e s u r f a c e , and a t t h e w e s t e r n end t h e s a n d s t o n e i s 335 m below t h e s u r f a c e . I n i t i a l production

from some wells was a t rates exceeding 1,000 b a r r e l s a d a y , t h e b e s t

54
p r o d u c t i o n b e i n g o b t a i n e d from f r i a b l e s a n d s t o n e l e n s e s o r s t r i n g e r s a l o n g t h e t r e n d of t h e main s a n d s t o n e body.

A s n o t e d by Lewis (1929), poor

p r o d u c t i o n , o r no p r o d u c t i o n was i n some c a s e s found i n w e l l s a d j a c e n t t o t h o s e w i t h good p r o d u c t i o n from t h e f r i a b l e s a n d s t o n e l e n s e s . The

explanation probably lies i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t t h e productive l e n s e s and s t r i n g e r s were d e p o s i t e d a s l o c a l s t r e a m c h a n n e l f i l l i n g s of permeable s a n d , whereas t h e l a t e r a l l y a d j a c e n t beds were r i v e r f l o o d p l a i n d e p o s i t s of r e l a t i v e l y impermeable s i l t s . The B a r t l e s v i l l e Sand-

s t o n e i n t h e area of t h e Delaware E x t e n s i o n F i e l d i s a westward e x t e n s i o n of o i l - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e s t h a t a r e t h o u g h t t o have been marine offshore sands.

Bush C i t y O i l F i e l d , Kansas S t r a t i g r a p h i c a l l y h i g h e r t h a n t h e B a r t l e s v i l l e Sandstone, w i t h i n t h e uppermost s h a l y s e c t i o n of t h e Lower t o Middle P e n n s y l v a n i a n Cherokee Formation, a s i n u o u s s a n d s t o n e body known as t h e S q u i r r e l s a n d s t o n e i s t h e o i l p r o d u c e r i n t h e Bush C i t y F i e l d , Kansas ( F i g . 1-33). This

s a n d s t o n e body, which i s i n t e r p r e t e d as a c h a n n e l - f i l l s a n d , h a s a t h i c k n e s s of up t o 15 m , a w i d t h of up t o 300 m , and h a s been found t o b e o i l - b e a r i n g f o r 24 km a l o n g i t s c o u r s e . The c h a n n e l - - f i l l s e d i m e n t ,

which shows a f i n i n g upward i n mean g r a i n s i z e , c o n s i s t s of 5-6 m of fine-grained, micaceous, o i l - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e o v e r l a i n by up t o 10 m of

a l t e r n a t i n g beds of sandy s h a l e and s h a l y s a n d s t o n e c o n t a i n i n g s t r i n g e r s of carbonaceous matter. The producing s a n d s t o n e , composed of s u b - a n g u l a r g r a i n s , h a s a p o r o s i t y of 17-22% and a p e r m e a b i l i t y of up t o 60 m i l l i d a r c y s . Initial

o i l p r o d u c t i o n from i n d i v i d u a l w e l l s h a s ranged up t o 800 b a r r e l s a day, b u t averaged 60 b a r r e l s a day. h a s a g r a v i t y of 35O A . P . I . The o i l , i n i t i a l l y produced by g a s - d r i v e ,

Although t h e most p r o d u c t i v e wells have

some s t r u c t u r a l c o n t r o l , t h e f i e l d i s e s s e n t i a l l y s t r a t i g r a p h i c , b e i n g

55

500

1000 Feet

PENNSYLVANIAN BUSH CITY OIL FIELD, KANSAS

Fig. 1-33. Map and s e c t i o n s o f t h e Bush C i t y o i l f i e l d , Anderson County, Kansas. The o i l - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e forms a s i n u o u s

body, and i s t h o u g h t t o b e a n a l l u v i a l c h a n n e l f i l l i n g . (Redrawn from C h a r l e s , 1941).

t e r m i n a t e d up-dip by an i n c r e a s e i n t h e c l a y and s i l t c o n t e n t of t h e s a n d s t o n e , w i t h consequent d e c r e a s e i n p o r o s i t y . The b e s t w e l l s a r e

s i t u a t e d a t t h e j u n c t i o n s of t h e s a n d s t o n e body and t h e c r e s t s o f low a n t i c l i n e s having c l o s u r e s of 3-12 m. Regional d i p t o t h e southwest i s

approximately 4m/km, and t h e d e p t h t o t h e producing s a n d s t o n e i s commonly i n t h e range 200-300 m.

I t i s of i n t e r e s t t o n o t e t h a t t h e g r a v i t y o f

56
t h e o i l a t t h e down-dip end of t h e f i e l d i n c r e a s e s a b r u p t l y t o 14O A . P . I . , and t h a t beyond t h e down-dip l i m i t t h e s a n d s t o n e c o n t a i n s n e i t h e r o i l n o r water. Secondary r e c o v e r y mechods by means o f g a s d r i v e have i n c r e a s e d

t h e p o t e n t i a l of producing w e l l s , b u t u l t i m a t e recovery of o i l from t h e f i e l d w i l l p r o b a b l y n o t exceed 6 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s ( l e s s t h a n 1 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) of o i l .

Red Fork Sandstone P r o d u c t i o n , Oklahoma S e v e r a l f i e l d s from t h e Middle i n n o r t h e r n and n o r t h e a s t e r n Oklahoma produce o i l and g a s from t h e Middle Pennsylvanian (Desmoinesian) Red Fork Sandstone. These f i e l d s i n c l u d e t h e South Ceres P o o l , Wakita

Trend, Cheyenne Valley F i e l d , and S h o e s t r i n g F i e l d . The Red Fork Sandstone i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same age as t h e B a r t l e s v i l l e Sandstone i n t h e Cherokee Formation.
I t comprises l i n e a r

s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s ranging i n t h i c k n e s s t o 20 m , i n w i d t h t o 3 km, and i n l e n g t h t o 50 km. The s a n d s t o n e i s q u a r t z o s e , g e n e r a l l y f i n e t o v e r y

f i n e - g r a i n e d b u t l o c a l l y shorrinz sone d e g r e e of c o a r s e n i n q toward t h e base.

E a r l y w r i t e r s , i n c l u d i n g Wright (1941), r e g a r d e d t h e Red Fork Sandstone a s having been a s h o r e l i n e s a n d formed w i t h i n t h e Cherokee Sea.
Later w r i t e r s , i n c l u d i n g Withrow (1968) and Lyons and Dobrin (1972),

r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e Red Fork i n c l u d e d s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s Eormed as r i v e r c h a n n e l s a n d s , such a s t h e producing s a n d s of t h e South Ceres P o o l , Cheyence V a l l e y , and S h o e s t r i n g f i e l d s . The Wakita Trend (Fig. 3-14)

i s d e s c r i b e d by Withrow (1968) as an o f f - s h o r e b a r and i s i n c l u d e d under

t h a t c a t e g o r y i n t h i s book. The South Ceres P o o l ( F i g . 1-34) i s a remarkable horseshoe-shaped channel up t o 2 km w i d e , t h a t c o n t a i n s o i l and g a s throughout a l e n g t h of 40 km. The s a n d s t o n e , which i s commonly up t o 10 m t h i c k , h a s an

57

-1

' i

SOUTH CERES POOL AREA

Noblm Co., Oklohomo

/SOfACH
c.1. - 20'
Rl.tyoni 7f

Fig. 1-34.

Isopach map of the Middle Pennsylvanian Red Fork Sandstone, South Ceres Pool, Oklahoma, showing the sandstone distribution within a narrow channel.
(6.1 m ) .

Contour interval is 20 feet

(After Lyons and

Dobrin, 1972).

58
a v e r a g e p o r o s i t y o f 20% and a n a v e r a g e p e r m e a b i l i t y of 100 m i l l i d a r c y s . Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e down-dip l i m b o f t h e w e s t y i e l d s 42O A.P.I. o i l , and t h e up-dip limb y i e l d s mainly gas. Depths The

t o t h e p r o d u c i n g s a n d s t o n e a r e i n t h e r a n g e 1,300 .- 1,350 m .

A'

I
Fig.

0 FEET

50 m

1-35.

I s o p a c h and s e c t i o n o f t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a n Red F o r k S a n d s t o n e i n t h e Cheyenne V a l l e y o i l f i e l d , Major C o u n t y , Oklahoma, showing a r i v e r s a n d f i l l i n g a c h a n n e l on t h e e r o d e d s u r f a c e of t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n . (Redrawn f r o m Withrow, 1968).

59
producing mechanism i s water d r i v e . I n d i v i d u a l o i l w e l l s , each d r a i n i n g

approximately 15 a c r e s , may u l t i m a t e l y y i e l d 75,000 b a r r e l s a c c o r d i n g t o Lyons and Dobrin (1972). Maximum p r o d u c t i o n from t h e f i e l d i s n o t l i k e l y

t o b e much i n e x c e s s of 10 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s ( 1 . 6 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) . The Cheyenne V a l l e y F i e l d (Fig. 1-35) i s l o c a t e d w i t h i n a l i n e a r

sandstone body of t h e Red Fork Sandstone t h a t t r e n d s g e n e r a l l y e a s t - w e s t , s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l l y h i g h e r and normal t o t h e s o u t h - t r e n d i n g w e s t e r n e x t e n s i o n (Oakdale F i e l d ) of t h e Wakita Trend of s h o r e l i n e s a n d s .
It i s

p e r t i n e n t t o n o t e t h a t Withrow (1968) i n t e r p r e t e d t h e upper p a r t of t h e producing Red Fork Sandstone i n t h e Oakdale F i e l d a s an o f f - s h o r e b a r , and t h e lower p a r t a s a r i v e r channel sand. The Cheyenne V a l l e y F i e l d i s s i t u a t e d where t h e l i n e a r t r e n d of t h e Red Fork Sandstone bends l o c a l l y t o t h e s o u t h , i n which d i r e c t i o n t h e s t r a t a d i p 10 m p e r k i l o m e t r e . Average d e p t h t o t h e producing s a n d s t o n e The f i e l d i s

is 2,G75 m , and t h e a v e r a g e t h i c k n e s s exceeds 10 m .

e s t i m a t e d t o c o n t a i n 6.5 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (1 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) of recoverable o i l . The S h o e s t r i n g O i l F i e l d (Fig. 1-36) i n n o r t h e a s t e r n Oklahoma y i e l d s o i l from a l i n e a r , n o r t h e r l y - t r e n d i n g Sandstone. s a n d s t o n e body of t h e Red Forks

T h i s s a n d s t o n e body was c o n s i d e r e d by Wright (1941) t o b e a

s h o r e l i n e s a n d , b u t i t s c o n f i g u r a t i o n s u g g e s t s t h a t i t w a s a r i v e r channel sand.

The producing s a n d s t o n e i s g e n e r a l l y f i n e g r a i n e d , i n p a r t s i l t y ,

v a r y i n g from poorly-cemented t o well-cemented by c a l c i t e , and c o n s i s t s of sub-angular g r a i n s mainly of q u a r t z and c h e r c . The lower p a r t of t h e P r o d u c t i o n of

s a n d s t o n e body i s g e n e r a l l y more permeable and less s i l t y .

40'

A.P.I.

o i l i s o b t a i n e d by pumping, a s s i s t e d by a weak g a s and w a t e r

drive.

Average y i e l d s amounted t o only 10-15 b a r r e l s a day from each w e l l

d r a i n i n ? 15 a c r e s .

60

DISTRIBUTION OF OIL PRODUCTION IN RED FORK SANDSTONE, OKLAHOMA

F i g . 1-36.

Map s h o w i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o i l p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a n Red F o r k S a n d s t o n e , Red F o r k S h o e s t r i n g O i l F i e l d , Pawnee C r e e k and T u l s a C o u n t i e s , Oklahoma. (Drawn f r o m

d i s t r i b u t i o n of producing w e l l s p l o t t e d by Wri ght , 1941).

MoombaGas F i e l d , S o u t h A u s t r a l i a Gas and c o n d e n s a t e p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e Moomba F i e l d ( F i g . 1-37) o f t h e

Cooper B a s i n , S o u t h A u s t r a l i a i s o b t a i n e d f r o m s a n d s t o n e b e d s w i t h i n t h e M i d d l e t o Upper P e r m i a n ( K u n g u r i a n ) T o o l a c h e e F o r m a t i o n w h i c h i s d e s i g n a t e d as t h e u p p e r u n i t o f t h e G i d g e a l p a Group. o t h e r sandstones i n the Gidgealpa. P r o d u c t i o n i s a l s o o b t a i n e d from

The c o n t r o l f o r g a s a c c u m u l a t i o n i s

- 6000 -

.--

) YMOOMBA
p
MILES

- 8000~

OLDER PALEOZOIC MILES

0

UPPER

PERMIAN

IKM

10000 -

w
K M

IFo

, 0

K M

F i g . 1-37.

S t r u c t u r a l map of t h e Gidgealpa and Noomba gas-condensate f i e l d s , South A u s t r a l i a . S e c t i o n A-B shows t h e Upper

Permian g r o s s s a n d s t o n e i n t e r v a l draped over e r o s i o n a l f e a t u r e s u n d e r l a i n by o l d e r P a l e o z o i c r o c k s . from Greer, 1965, and M a r t i n , 1967). (Redrawn

e s s e n t i a l l y s t r u c t u r a l , t h e Upper Permian and ovei-lying Mesozoic b e d s having been f o l d e d o v e r f a u l t e d basement b l o c k s . Local v a r i a t i o n s i n

p e r m e a b i l i t y , depending on d e p o s i t i o n a l t r e n d s w i t h i n t h e s a n d s t o n e s , a r e a l s o important f a c t o r s . The Toolachee d i r e c t l y o v e r l i e s a major unconformity t h a t t r u n c a t e s o l d e r Permian b e d s , and c o n s e q u e n t l y h a s a w i d e r d i s t r i b u t i o n t h a n t h e u n d e r l y i n g s a n d s t o n e s of t h e Gidgealpa. Greer (1965) c o n s i d e r e d t h e

Gidgealpa s a n d s t o n e s were e v i d e n t l y d e p o s i t e d i n a h i g h energy environment. The f l u v i a t i l e n a t u r e of t h e s e s a n d s t o n e s was r e c o g n i z e d by Martin (1967) and Kapel (1972) who c o n s i d e r e d t h e Toolachee Formation t o b e r i v e r , l a c u s t r i n e , and swamp d e p o s i t s . The Toolachee s a n d s t o n e i s g r e y , medium t o c o a r s e - g r a i n e d , conglome r a t i c , q u a r t z o s e , and cross-bedded. Rock f r a g m e n t s , i n c l u d i n g v o l c a n i c s ,

62
a r e common, and t h e m a t r i x c o n s i s t s l a r g e l y of k a o l i n and i l l i t e . Inter-

bedded w i t h t h e s a n d s t o n e a r e t h i n ' b e d s of d a r k g r e y , micaceous, carbonace o u s s h a l e , and c o a l . The Toolachee h a s a t h i c k n e s s of 20-40 m and t h e n e t P o r o s i t y i s 10-20% and t h e

producing s a n d s t o n e i s up t o 26 m t h i c k . p e r m e a b i l i t y i s good.

The approximate d e p t h of t h e p r o d u c i n g zone i n t h e Moomba F i e l d i s

2,135 m.

A t t h i s d e p t h t h e p r e s s u r e i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3,000 p . s . i . ,

i n d i c a t i n g normal h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e f o r a s e c t i o n s a t u r a t e d w i t h w a t e r i n t h e upper s a l i n i t y range (55,000 p.p.m.) f o r sea water. Initially,

w e l l s flowed g a s a t rates of up t o 15 m i l l i o n c u b i c f e e t a day through a h a l f i n c h choke. The g a s , c o n s i s t i n g of 77% methane w i t h a n u n u s u a l l y

h i g h c o n t e n t (20%) of carbon d i o x i d e , y i e l d s up t o 50 b a r r e l s of c o n d e n s a t e per million cubic f e e t . Proven r e s e r v e s of r e c o v e r a b l e g a s from t h e Moomba

and a d j a c e n t G i d g e a l p a , T i r r a w a r r a , and Moorari f i e l d s amount to 2,000,000 m i l l i o n ( 2 t r i l l i o n ) c u b i c f e e t (56,000 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) .

P i c k a n j i n n i e G a s F i e l d , Queensland Gas and c o n d e n s a t e p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e P i c k a n j i n n i e F i e l d ( F i g . 1-38) of t h e S u r a t B a s i n , Queensland i s o b t a i n e d from t h e Upper T r i a s s i c Showgrounds Sandstone and Moolyember Sandstone, and a l s o from t h e Lower J u r a s s i c P r e c i p i c e Sandstone. More t h a n h a l f of t h e p r o d u c t i o n comes from t h e

Showgrounds which i s d e s c r i b e d by Gray (1969) as l i g h t g r e y , medium t o v e r y coarse-grained, of q u a r t z . p o o r l y s o r t e d and composed mainly o f s u b - a n g u l a r g r a i n s

P o r o s i t y a v e r a g e s 16% and h o r i z o n t a l p e r m e a b i l i t y i s i n t h e

range of 200

2,000 m i l l i d a r c y s .

The s a n d s t o n e , which h a s a maximum

t h i c k n e s s 6 m i n t h e P i c k a j i n n i e F i e l d , t h i c k e n s t o 15 m a l o n g t h e e a s t e r n f l a n k of t h e Roma S h e l f , a c c o r d i n g t o Swindon (1968). The e l e c t r i c l o g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e Showgrounds Sandstone and P r e c i p i c e Sandstone i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e lower p a r t s of t h e s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s

63
PlCKANJlNNlE

NO. 1

SP

- 0

-200'

- O

2
KM

100 m

MILES

P I C K A N J IN N I E

GAS

FIELD, Q U E E N S L A N D

Fig. 1-38.

P i c k a n j i n n i e g a s f i e l d n e a r Roma, S u r a t B a s i n , Queensland, showing a s t r u c t u r a l - s t r a t i g r a p h i c t r a p formed by t h e

pinch-out edge of t h e g a s - b e a r i n g Upper T r i a s s i c Showgrounds Sandstone (1) where i t c r o s s e s a n o s e i n d i c a t e d by s t r u c t u r e c o n t o u r s of a marker w i t h i n t h e Upper T r i a s s i c Moolayember Sandstone ( 2 ) . The Moolayember i s o v e r l a i n by t h e gas-bearing (Redrawn from

Lower J u r a s s i c P r e c i p i c e Sandstone ( 3 ) . Swindon, 1968).

a r e more permeable and p r o b a b l y c o a r s e r .

This a c c o r d s w i t h t h e i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n t h a t b o t h t h e Showgrounds and P r e c i p i c e are of f l u v i a t i l e o r i g i n . The i n t e r v e n i n g Moolayember i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e l a c u s t r i n e . Lying uncon-

formably on t h e Lower T r i a s s i c Rewan Formation, t h e Showgrounds forms a southeast-trending drainage pattern. Entrapment of g a s h a s r e s u l t e d from

t h e c o i n c i d e n c e of a pinch-out edge of t h e s a n d s t o n e c r o s s i n g a s t r u c t u r a l

64
nose draped o v e r a b u r i e d h i l l on t h e eroded s u r f a c e of t h e igneous-metamorphic basement. The f i e l d i s c o n s e q u e n t l y l i m i t e d t o t h e east by a

s t r a t i g r a p h i c p e r m e a b i l i t y b a r r i e r , and i n o t h e r d i r e c t i o n s by s t r u c t u r a l closure. The P i c k a n j i n n i e F i e l d c o n t a i n s proven p r o d u c i b l e r e s e r v e s of g a s amounting t o more t h a n 25,000 m i l l i o n c u b i c f e e t , of which approximately 15,000 m i l l i o n a r e w i t h i n t h e Showgrounds. The g a s , which c o n s i s t s of

96% methane, w a s i n i t i a l l y c o n t a i n e d a t a p r e s s u r e of about 1,900 p . s . i . a t an approximate d e p t h of 1,500 m. The f i e l d h a s a s t r o n g water d r i v e ,

t h e water h a v i n g a s a l i n i t y of l e s s t h a n 5,000 p.7.m. which p l a c e s i t i n t h e comparatively f r e s h t o brackish

water range.

Moonie O i l F i e l d , Queensland The Moonie F i e l d ( F i g . 1-39) i s s i t u a t e d on t h e s o u t h e a s t e r n f l a n k of t h e S u r a t B a s i n , Queensland, and produces 4 5 O A.P.I. J u r a s s i c P r e c i p i c e Sandstone. o i l from t h e Lower

I n t h e f i e l d area, t h e P r e c i p i c e comprises

a lower s a n d s t o n e u n i t t h a t l i e s unconformably on Permian and T r i a s s i c

r o c k s , and an upper s a n d s t o n e u n i t s e p a r a t e d from t h e lower by a s i l t y section.
A t Xoonie t h e P r e c i p i c e h a s a g r o s s t h i c k n e s s of a p p r o x i m a t e l y

75 m , and i s o v e r l a i n by s i l t s t o n e and mudstone of t h e Lower J u r a s s i c

Evergreen Formation. Both t h e upper and lower s a n d s t o n e u n i t s o f t h e P r e c i p i c e a r e o i l -bearing. The upper u n i t i s l i g h t g r e y , f i n e t o medium-grained, poorly The

s o r t e d , q u a r t z o s e t o l i t h i c , and h a s a w h i t e , k a o l i n i t i c m a t r i x . lower u n i t i s l i g h t g r e y , medium t o v e r y c o a r s e - g r a i n e d ,

i n p a r t cong-

l o m e r a t i c , p o o r l y s o r t e d , q u a r t z o s e t o l i t h i c , and poorly-cemented t o friable. P o r o s i t y i s i n t h e range 13-25%. P e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e upper

s a n d s t o n e u n i t a v e r a g e s 300 m i l l i d a r c y s , and t h a t of t h e lower u n i t ranges from s e v e r a l hundred t o 2,000 m i l l i d a r c y s . I n t h e Moonie F i e l d t h e s e

65

I
E
Lo

66
s a n d s t o n e u n i t s a r e s e p a r a t e d by 100 f e e t o f l i g h t grey s h a l e and s i l t s t o n e c o n t a i n i n g t h i n s a n d s t o n e l a y e r s and c o a l y laminae. This intervening u n i t

i s c o n s i d e r e d t o have been deposited a s r i v e r f l o o d p l a i n and l a c u s t r i n e

sediments.

Both s a n d s t o n e u n i t s are cross-bedded and of f l u v i a t i l e o r i g i n .

I n g e n e r a l , t h e y e x h i b i t g r a i n g r a d a t i o n from c o a r s e r below t o f i n e r above, a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c commonly found i n r i v e r sand d e p o s i t s . This f e a t u r e i s

r e f l e c t e d i n t h e blocky t o b e l l - s h a p e d s e l f - p o t e n t i a l c u r v e s o f t h e E-logs shown i n F i g . 1-39.

O i l accumulation i n t h e Moonie F i e l d h a s r e s u l t e d from a s t r u c t u r a l -

s t r a t i g r a p h i c s i t u a t i o n where permeable zones w i t h i n t h e P r e c i p i c e Sandstone o v e r l i e a basement ' h i g h ' of b l o c k f a u l t e d and t r u n c a t e d Permian and T r i a s s i c beds. The s t r u c t u r e w i t h i n t h e P r e c i p i c e i s a n o r t h e a s t - t r e n d i n g The volume of o i l i n t h e

c l o s e d dome, s i x m i l e s l o n g and two m i l e s wide.

r e s e r v o i r i s e s t i m a t e d t o b e about 125 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s ( 1 9 . 9 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) , b u t u l t i m a t e recovery w i l l p r o b a b l y n o t exceed 35 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (5.6 m i l l i o n cubic metres). w a t e r (approximately 2,500 p . p . m . ) , The o i l i s u n d e r l a i n by f a i r l y f r e s h i n d i c a t i n g a hydrodynamic c o n d i t i o n .

P r o d u c t i o n problems have a r i s e n as t h e r e s u l t of i n v a s i o n of t h e o i l - b e a r i n g zone by w a t e r .

Athabasca O i l Sands, A l b e r t a The Athabasca O i l Sands ( F i g . 1-40) c o n s i s t of t a r r y o i l - s a t u r a t e d s a n d s o f t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s McMurray Formation i n n o r t h e r n A l b e r t a . These uncemented t o poorly-cemented s a n d s , which o v e r l i e Devonian limes t o n e s , have a v e r y g e n t l e r e g i o n a l d i p t o t h e w e s t and c o n s e q u e n t l y crop o u t , o r a r e c l o s e t o t h e s u r f a c e , o v e r a wide a r e a . I n p l a c e s t h e sands

can b e mined i n open c u t s , a method c u r r e n t l y b e i n g employed; e l s e w h e r e t h e overburden is t o o t h i c k and o i l p r o d u c t i o n w i l l depend on s u b - s u r f a c e methods s u c h as f i r e - f l o o d i n g o r steam i n j e c t i o n and t h e use of s o l v e n t s .

0'

0'

100'

100'

200'

300' X

LEGEND

B u r r o w s ....

]-I.

M I c r o - c r 0 s 1-1 o m no e

ail

H Ig h

- a ng I e

c ros I - s t r J t I f I c a t I on

-b

Tor S a n d s . .

l i g . 1-40.

200'

300'

G e n e r a l i z e d s e c t i o n through t h e Athabasca

Sands of t h e

Lower C r e t a c e o u s McT4urray Formation, A l b e r t a , showing t h e o i l - s a t u r a t e d b a s a l r i v e r s a n d s and g r i t s , and o v e r l y i n g f l u v i a l beds of t h e YuYurray Delta. ( A f t e r C a r r i g y , 1971).

68 The o i l - b e a r i n g s a n d s a r e q u a r t z o s e and of f l u v i a t i l e and l a c u s t r i n e origin. The lowermost s a n d s have a t h i c k n e s s of 10-13 m. These c o n s i s t

of r i v e r d e p o s i t s , are c o a r s e t o v e r y c o a r s e , and commonly have l e n s e s of c o a r s e g r i t s t o n e and f i n e conglomerate composed of poorly-rounded pebbles. Cross-bedding of t h e t y p e found i n p o i n t b a r s i s v e r y common.

These s a n d s a r e o v e r l a i n by a s e c t i o n , 30-45 m t h i c k , of s a n d s and s i l t s c o n t a i n i n g v a r i a b l e amounts of t a r r y o i l .

O i l saturation i s controlled

by t h e o r i g i n a l p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e s a n d s , t h e h i g h e r v a l u e s i n o i l c o n t e n t b e i n g found i n t h e c l e a n , w e l l - s o r t e d f l u v i a t i l e s a n d s . Maximum o i l c o n t e n t amounts t o 18-20% by weight of t h e s a t u r a t e d s a n d . The Neocomian HcMurray Formation i s o v e r l a i n by marine beds of t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s (Albian) C l e a r w a t e r Formation, t h e b a s a l u n i t of which i s t h e Wabiskaw Member. T h i s u n i t i s r e f e r r e d t o i n F i g . 1-40 a s a b a r r i e r C e r t a i n l y i t i s a t r a n s g r e s s i v e marine

b a r s a n d , which i t may b e i n p a r t . sand.

The McMurray, which h a s a h i g h e r sand c o n t e n t i n t h e lower p a r t of The f o r m a t i o n w a s d e p o s i t e d by

t h e s e c t i o n , h a s a t h i c k n e s s of 50-100 m.

a r i v e r system t h a t d r a i n e d an a r e a of t h e Precambrian S h i e l d t o t h e e a s t , and flowed n o r t h w e s t e r l y t o t h e C l e a r w a t e r Sea. Subsequent t r a n s g r e s s i o n

of t h e sea r e s u l t e d i n b u r i a l of PlcXurray s e d i m e n t s by t h e C l e a r w a t e r s a n d s and muds. Regional d i p of t h e McMurray Formation, amounting t o l e s s t h a n 2m/km, may have p e r n i t t e d t h e up-dip m i g r a t i o n of o i l t o i t s p r e s e n t l o c a t i o n , and c o n s t i t u t e s t h e o n l y b a s i s f o r a s t r u c t u r a l element t o t h i s v a s t accumulation of o i l . The r e s e r v o i r , and t h e mechanisms c o n t r o l l i n g t h e l o c a l concentXuch h a s been w r i t t e n by many

r a t i o n s of o i l are e n t i r e l y s t r a t i g r a p h i c .

writers (Convbeare, 1966) about t h e p o s s i b l e o r i g i n s of t h e o i l , and t h i s

problem h a s n o t been e x p l a i n e d t o t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n of a l l . The q u e s t i o n

may b e of academic i n t e r e s t o n l y , b u t t h e problems concerning p r o d u c t i o n from l e n t i c u l a r beds of v a r i a b l e p e r m e a b i l i t y and o i l s a t u r a t i o n a r e of

69
consequence t o t h e f u t u r e a p p l i c a t i o n of s u b - s u r f a c e p r o d u c t i o n methods. These problems may b e s o l v e d as d r i l l i n g p r o c e e d s and s u b s u r f a c e d e t a i l s a r e e v a l u a t e d and i n t e r p r e t e d t o show t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f p e r m e a b i l i t y t r e n d s t o d e p o s i t i o n a l t r e n d s w i t h i n t h e p a t t e r n of t h e b a s a l IlcMurray d r a i n a g e system.

In t h e a r e a n o r t h of F o r t Mclurray t h e Athabasca O i l Sands a r e

e s t i m a t e d t o c o n t a i n more t h a n 300,000 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (57,700 m i l l i o n cubic m e t r e s ) o f o i l . S i m i l a r a c c u m u l a t i o n s i n o t h e r areas of n o r t h e r n The t o t a l p o t e n t i a l

Alberta contain a d d i t i o n a l p o t e n t i a l reserves.

r e s e r v e s of o i l i n p l a c e p r o b a b l y amount t o 500,000

600,000 m i l l i o n

b a r r e l s , b u t how much of t h i s o i l can u l t i m a t e l y b e produced as a v i a b l e economic o p e r a t i o n i s open t o q u e s t i o n . The economic l i m i t may prove t o

be l e s s t h a n 200,000 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (31,800 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) . The o i l which o c c u p i e s up t o 90 p e r c e n t of p o r e s p a c e i n t h e water-wet q u a r t z s a n d , can b e s e p a r a t e d by t r e a t m e n t w i t h steam and h o t w a t e r .

I t h a s a g r a v i t y o f 10 d e g r e e s A . P . I . ,

a riaphthene b a s e , and a r e l a t i v e l y

high c o n t e n t o f s u l p h u r , n i t r o g e n and t r a c e elements.

B e l l s h i l l Lake and Hughenden O i l F i e l d s , A l b e r t a

O i l p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e B e l l s h i l l Lake and Hughenden f i e l d s of east-

c e n t r a l .4lberta i s o b t a i n e d from s t r a t i g r a p h i c t r a p s i n t h e Lower Cretaceous (2eocomian) E l l e r s l i e Sandstone. This s a n d s t o n e was d e p o s i t e d as a r i v e r

sand i n a broad v a l l e y ( F i g . 1-41) c u t i n t o t h e r e g i o n a l l y t i l t e d Devonian c a r b o n a t e s and s h a l e s . The v a l l e y , which i s 15-65 km wide and more t h a n

150 k m l o n g , t e r m i n a t e s i n t h e a r e a of t h e E l l e r s l i e d e l t a and t r e n d s eastward t o a d r a i n a g e s o u r c e on t h e Precambrian S h i e l d . Heavy m i n e r a l

c o n t e n t of t h e E l l e r s l i e Sandstone i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s a n d s were d e r i v e d from g r a n i t i c Precambrian rocks.

O i l a c c u m u l a t i o n s i n t h e E l l e r s l i e Sandstone are c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n

70

EDMONTON

SANDSTONE,

ALBER

RHINE

DELTA,
0

NETHERLAN IDS

20KM

- O

20 Miles

F i g . 1-41.

Upper-Map showing t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s E l l e r s l i e Sandstone ( s t i p p l e d ) f i l l i n g a broad v a l l e y i n Devonian c a r b o n a t e s and s h a l e s ( h a t c h u r e d ) , e a s t - c e n t r a l Alberta. L o c a t i o n s of t h e B e l l s h i l l Lake F i e l d (1) and The c o n f i g u r a t i o n and s c a l e

Hughenden F i e l d (2) a r e shown.

of t h e areas of a l l u v i a l and d e l t a i c s e d i m e n t s are remarkably

s i m i l a r t o t h o s e of t h e Rhine and Waal R i v e r s shown below.

Lower-Map showing t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of f l u v i a l s a n d s and s i l t s d e p o s i t e d i n t h e lower r e a c h e s of t h e Rhine and Waal R i v e r s , the Netherlands. These s e d i m e n t s f i l l a broad v a l l e y i n (Redrawn from Geol-

Pleistocene deposits (hatchured).

o g i c a l Map of t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , compiled by Geologische D i e n s t , 1951).

71
topographic e l e v a t i o n s ( i . e . b u r i e d s a n d s t o n e h i l l s ) t h a t h a v e s t r u c t u r a l closure. These e l e v a t i o n s were o r i g i n a l l y r e f e r r e d t o as s a n d b a r s , n o t

only because of t h e i r geometry b u t b e c a u s e t h e y are f l a n k e d by s h a l e s and a t h i n l i m e s t o n e bed c o n t a i n i n g forams and o s t r a c o d s . Subsequent work

(Conybeare, 1964, 1972, and M a r t i n , 1966) i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e e l e v a t i o n s

are s t r u c t u r a l l y h i g h p o r t i o n s of eroded r i v e r t e r r a c e s ( F i g . 1-42) and

t h a t t h e r i v e r v a l l e y w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y i n u n d a t e d by an e s t u a r y t h a t produced

SOUTH 7-36-39-13-4

NORTH ALLIANCE FIELD BELLSHILL LAKE FIELD

1 3 -28-42-12-4

____--NISKU

WAEAMUN

IRETON
100 m

F i g . 1-42.

S t r u c t u r a l s e c t i o n trending north-south across t h e B e l l s h i l l Lake and A l l i a n c e F i e l d s of e a s t - c e n t r a l A l b e r t a , showing t h e o i l and gas-bearing Lower C r e t a c e o u s E l l e r s l i e Sandstone o v e r l y i n g the eroded s u r f a c e of t h e Devonian Wabamun and Nisku c a r b o n a t e s . McLennan 6-32, The i n s e t shown t h e E-log of R i c h f i e l d , The

a w e l l i n t h e B e l l s h i l l Lake F i e l d .

o i l - w a t e r c o n t a c t i s shown a t -715 f e e t (-218 m) below a

sea l e v e l datum.

(E-log redrawn from Rudolph, 1960).

12
a brackish-water, c o a s t a l marsh environment i n which muddy s e d i m e n t s w e r e

d e p o s i t e d t o f o r m a r e l a t i v e l y impermeable s e a l o v e r t h e E l l e r s l i e s a n d s . The geometry and s i z e o f t h i s Neocomian r i v e r v a l l e y is s t r i k i n g l y similar t o t h a t of t h e p r e s e n t v a l l e y of t h e Rhine R i v e r i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s ( F i g . 1-41). The E l l e r s l i e S a n d s t o n e , which r a n g e s i n t h i c k n e s s t o 75 m i s commonly medium t o c o a r s e - g r a i n e d , f a i r l y well s o r t e d , and q u a r t z o s e . Cross-bedding, Grain

of t h e p l a n a r t y p e found i n r i v e r p o i n t b a r d e p o s i t s , i s common. g r a d a t i o n , from c o a r s e r below t o f i n e r above i n

repeated, truncated

sequences w i t h i n t h e E l l e r s l i e Sandstone i n t e r v a l i s a l s o e v i d e n t . P o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y are g e n e r a l l y good, a l t h o u g h l o c a l l y a f f e c t e d by c a l c i t e c e m e n t a t i o n . Rudolph (1959) s t a t e s t h a t i n t h e B e l l s h i l l Lake

F i e l d t h e a v e r a g e p o r o s i t y exceeds 26%, and t h e a v e r a g e p e r m e a b i l i t y i s 630 m i l l i d a r c y s . L o c a l l y , t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y r a n g e s up t o 7,000 m i l l i d a r c y s .

I n t h e B e l l s h i l l Lake F i e l d t h e o i l column h a s a maximum t h i c k n e s s of 16 m and an a v e r a g e t h i c k n e s s of 10 m. Flow r a t e s from i n d i v i d u a l w e l l s

were i n i t i a l l y i n t h e range 100-200 b a r r e l s of o i l p e r d a y , b u t p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s were s u b s e q u e n t l y c u t back t o 25 b a r r e l s p e r day.

g r a v i t y of 28O A . P . I . The o i l has a

E s t i m a t e d o i l i n p l a c e amounts t o 180 m i l l i o n

b a r r e l s , b u t w a t e r d r i v e problems have caused d i f f i c u l t i e s i n p r o d u c t i o n and t h e u l t i m a t e y i e l d w i l l probably b e l e s s t h a n 35 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s

(5.5 m i l l i o n cubic metres).

The Hughenden Z i e l d ( F i g . 1-43) c o n t a i n s 15 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s of o i l , b u t a c c o r d i n g t o Suey (1960) o n l y 1.5 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s w i l l u l t i m a t e l y b e recovered. The maximun t h i c k n e s s of t h e o i l - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e i s 11 m , and Allowable p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e heavy o i l , which was i n i t i a l l y a t t h e r a t e of 30

t h e a v e r a g e t h i c k n e s s i s 7 m.

h a s a n a v e r a g e g r a v i t y of 1 7 O A . P . I . , b a r r e l s p e r day.

73
R.8

R.7

W.4 M

Miles

0 5 K M

CRETACEOUS HUGHENDEN
Fig. 1-43.

E L L ERSL I E OIL FIELD.

SANDSTONE ALBERTA

Map and s t r u c t u r a l s e c t i o n of t h e Hughenden F i e l d , eastc e n t r a l A l b e r t a , showing t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n ( s t i p p l e d ) of t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s E l l e r s l i e S a n d s t o n e o c c u p y i n g a U-shaped l o o p i n a r i v e r v a l l e y w i t h i n t h e e r o d e d c a r b o n a t e s and s h a l e s of t h e Devonian Nisku and I r e t o n F o r m a t i o n s . R e g i o n a l d i p t o t h e s o u t h w e s t i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e arrow. The f i e l d area l i e s w i t h i n Township 4 0 , Range 7 , West of t h e 4 t h M e r i d i a n , as shown i n A , a n d o c c u p i e s a s t r u c t u r a l l y high part. (Redrawn from M a r t i n , 1 9 6 6 ) .

South Glenrock O i l F i e l d , Wyoming I n t h e South G l e n r o c k F i e l d ( F i g . 1-44) s i t u a t e d on t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n f l a n k of t h e Powder R i v e r B a s i n , Wyoming, p a r t of t h e o i l p r o d u c t i o n comes

74

SOUTH GLENROGK OIL FIELD

Iwpach Contour 1nt.rvd

c5=3
Oullinc T w o B u r i e d Slreom Chonneli

- 10'
- 500'

S l r u c l u r i Conlour Interval

ISOPACH LOWER MUDDY SHOWING TWO BURIED STREAM CHANNELS

F i g . 1-44.

I s o p a c h map of Lower C r e t a c e o u s Muddy S a n d s t o n e , South Glenrock F i e l d , Wyoming, showing a meandering b e l t comprising two channels. Contour i n t e r v a l i s 10 f e e t ( 3 m). ( A f t e r Curry

and C u r r y , 1972).

from c h a n n e l s a n d s t o n e s a t t h e b a s e of t h e Lower Cretaceous Muddy Formation. These c h a n n e l s , which a r e c u t i n t o t h e eroded s u r f a c e of t h e marine Lower Cretaceous S k u l l Creek Formation, f o r m a b e l t up t o 3 kn wide and more than

2 km l o n g .

75
The s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s f i l l i n g t h e s e c h a n n e l s are up t o 20 m t h i c k and c o n s i s t mainly of f a i r l y well-rounded, and c h e r t i n a m a t r i x of s i l t and c l a y . commonly abundant. above, p o r o s i t y w e l l - s o r t e d g r a i n s of q u a r t z Carbonized p l a n t remains are

G r a i n g r a d a t i o n v a r i e s from c o a r s e r below t o f i n e r

a v e r a g e s 14%, and p e r m e a b i l i t y a v e r a g e s 82 m i l l i d a r c y s .

The o i l , produced from d e p t h s i n t h e range 1,700 g r a v i t y of 370 A.P.I.

1,800 m , h a s a

Following d i s c o v e r y of t h e f i e l d i n 1950 t h e estThis

imated r e c o v e r a b l e r e s e r v e s of o i l amounted t o 50 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s .

estimate w a s b a s e d on r e c o v e r y from t h r e e p r o d u c i n g h o r i z o n s i n c l u d i n g ,
from o l d e r t o younger, d i s t r i b u t a r y and s h o r e l i n e s a n d s of t h e Dakota

O L -

MILES MEANDERING CHANNEL

KM

OF

SANDSTONE, MUDDY SOUTH WYOMING

FORMATION FIELD

GLENROCK

F i g . 1-45.

Map of South Glenrock o i l f i e l d on t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n f l a n k

o f t h e Powder R i v e r B a s i n , e a s t - c e n t r a l Wyoming.

The

s t i p p l e d area ahows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of a c l e a n , permeable s a n d s t o n e i n t h e lower p a r t of t h e Lower Cretaceous Muddy Formation. portation. The arrow i n d i c a t e s d i r e c t i o n of sediment t r a n s (Redrawn from Curry and C u r r y , 1954).

76
Formation, b a s a l r i v e r s a n d s of t h e Muddy Formation, and younger Muddy s h o r e l i n e sands. L a t e r estimates of Curry and Curry (1972) i n d i c a t e t h a t

t h e u l t i m a t e r e c o v e r y , by means of water f l o o d , may b e 75 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (12 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) . The f i e l d h a s r e s u l t e d from a combination of

s t r a t i g r a p h i c and s t r u c t u r a l f a c t o r s , t h e o i l accumulation b e i n g s i t u a t e d i n a t r a p where t h e c h a n n e l i s i n t e r s e c t e d by t h e a x i s of a s t r u c t u r a l f o l d o r n o s e ( F i g . 1-45).

It i s of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t t o n o t e t h a t t h e o i l - w a t e r c o n t a c t i n

t h e producing Dakota s a n d s t o n e , a l o n g t h e s o u t h s i d e of t h e f i e l d , h a s 225 m of t i l t downdip t o t h e e a s t a l o n g t h e c r e s t of t h e s t r u c t u r a l nose. T h i s i n d i c a t e s a hydrodynamic c o n d i t i o n w i t h a v e r y marked p o t e n t i o m e t r i c gradient.

Recluse O i l F i e l d , Wyoming The Recluse F i e l d (Figs.l-46 and 1 - 4 7 ) i s s i t u a t e d on t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n

O i l i s o b t a i n e d from t h e Recluse

f l a n k of t h e Powder R i v e r B a s i n , Wyoming.

Sandstone a t t h e b a s e of t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s Muddy Formation a t a d e p t h of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2,300 m. T h i s s a n d s t o n e , which a l s o y i e l d s oil i n t h e

nearby East Sandbar, H i l i g h t , and K i t t y f i e l d s , i s i n t e r p r e t e d by Woncik (1972) a s a m a r i n e s h o r e l i n e s a n d , p o s s i b l y a b a r r i e r i s l a n d . On t h e o t h e r

h a n d , . F o r g o t s o n and S t a r k (1972) i n t e r p r e t t h e s a n d s t o n e body as a channel- f i l l sand. I n f a c t , t h e s a n d s t o n e body comprises two u n i t s , each w i t h a The body t r e n d s n o r t h w e s t

d i f f e r e n t o i l - w a t e r c o n t a c t i n t h e Recluse F i e l d . f o r more t h a n 24 k m and i s up t o 5 km wide. dimensions of roughly 12 km by 3 km.

The o i l f i e l d i t s e l f h a s

The s a n d s t o n e , which h a s a maximum t h i c k n e s s of 15 m and a n a v e r a g e o i l - b e a r i n g s e c t i o n of 8 m , i s q u a r t z o s e , h a s a n a v e r a g e p o r o s i t y of 19% and an a v e r a g e p e r m e a b i l i t y of 300 m i l l i d a r c y s . a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2,150 p . s . i . , depth. Reservoir pressure i s

which i s c o m p a r a t i v e l y low f o r t h a t p a r t i c u l a r

77

T
57 N

56

Fig. 1-46.

I s o p a c h map of Lower Cretaceous Muddy S a n d s t o n e , Recluse F i e l d , Wyoming. Woncik, 1972). Contour i n t e r v a l i s 10 f e e t ( 3 m). (After

The o i l , which i s produced a t an a l l o w a b l e r a t e of 300 b a r r e l s p e r d a y , h a s a g r a v i t y of 42O A.P.I. million barrels. Cumulative p r o d u c t i o n t o 1973 was 1 7

T o t a l o i l i n p l a c e i s e s t i m a t e d t o b e 150 m i l l i o n

b a r r e l s , of which 20-40% (5-10 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) may u l t i m a t e l y b e

78
LOWtR MUDDY l Y P f LOG
58 1

.
I

MOWRY

1
57 N

7500'

1
56 N

ISOLITH LWR. MUDDY SS.

(SHOWING LOWER MUDDY PRODUCllON)

00 - 3 0 '
I> 30'

0< 8 0 ' T O T A L

MUDDY

THICKNfSS

F i g . 1-47.

I s o l i t h of t h e Upper Recluse Sandstone and R e c l u s e Sandstone which c o n s t i t u t e t h e lower p a r t of t h e Muddy Formation, showing a l i n e a r p a t t e r n where t h e Recluse F i e l d i s more t h a n

30 f e e t (9 m) t h i c k .

( A f t e r S t o n e , 1972).

r e c o v e r e d e c o n o m i c a l l y , depending on t h e r e s e r v o i r r e s p o n s e t o p r e s s u r e maintenance. The r e c o v e r y mechanism i s g a s - s o l u t i o n d r i v e , t h e down-dip

p o r t i o n s of t h e s a n d s t o n e body b e i n g o n l y p a r t l y s a t u r a t e d w i t h water. The f i e l d i s p u r e l y s t r a t i g r a p h i c , t h e o i l b e i n g t r a p p e d by up-dip p e r m e a b i l i t y b a r r i e r s caused by p i n c h i n g o u t of t h e s a n d s t o n e . The o n l y

s t r u c t u r a l element i s a r e g i o n a l s o u t h w e s t d i p , a l t h o u g h Stone (1972) s a y s t h a t i n some Lower Muddy o i l f i e l d s entrapment i s p r o v i d e d by a combination of s a n d s t o n e pinch-out and s t r u c t u r a l n o s i n g where a s t r u c t u r e i n t e r s e c t s t h e t r e n d of a d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l (Fig. 1-38).

79 Donkey Creek, R o z e t , and O'Connor O i l F i e l d s , Wyoming On t h e e a s t e r n f l a n k o f t h e Powder R i v e r B a s i n , Wyoming, s e v e r a l f i e l d s produce o i l from t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s Newcastle Sandstone (Fig. 1 - 4 8 ) . Stapp (1967) r e c o r d s t h a t t h e Newcastle, which h a s an a v e r a g e t h i c k n e s s of

9 m was d e p o s i t e d i n a d e n d r i t i c r i v e r system t h a t d r a i n e d northward.

This r i v e r s y s t e m w a s developed penecontemporaneously w i t h t h a t which d e p o s i t e d t h e b a s a l s a n d s of t h e Muddy Formation i n t h e South Glenrock F i e l d ( F i g . 1 - 4 4 ) t o t h e s o u t h , as evidenced by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e channels of t h i s system are a l s o c u t i n t o t h e e r o d e d s u r f a c e of t h e marine Lower Cretaceous S k u l l Creek Formation, as i s t h e s i t u a t i o n i n t h e South Glenrock Field. The s t r a t i g r a p h i c sequence on t h e e a s t e r n f l a n k of t h e b a s i n i s

s i m i l a r t o t h a t of t h e South Glenrock F i e l d area on t h e s o u t h e r n f l a n k . R e s e r v o i r s i n Lower Cretaceous beds have been formed n o t o n l y i n t h e

- cr
lo
MILES
D e n d r i t i c d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s Newcastle Sandstone i n p a r t of t h e Powder R i v e r B a s i n , Wyoming.

Fig. 1-48.

Areas

where o i l i s produced from t h e Newcastle a r e shown i n b l a c k . Arrows i n d i c a t e northward d i r e c t i o n s of sediment t r a n s p o r t i n t h e Newcastle r i v e r system. (Redrawn from S t a p p , 1967).

80 Newcastle b u t a l s o i n t h e u n d e r l y i n g marginal-marine ( d i s t r i b u t a r y and

s h o r e l i n e s a n d s ) F a l l R i v e r Sandstone and i n t h e o v e r l y i n g t r a n s g r e s s i v e marine Dynneson Sandstone.

O i l a c c u m u l a t i o n s i n t h e Newcastle a r e

c o n f i n e d w i t h i n more permeable zones of s a n d s t o n e beds where t h e y a r e bounded by up-dip e d g e s , and c o n s e q u e n t l y are p u r e l y s t r a t i g r a p h i c t r a p s . Stapp (1967, p . 2055) c o n c l u d e s , O i l accumulation i s p r e s e n t i n t h e up-dip edges of t h e o f f s h o r e , b l a n k e t - t y p e s a n d s t o n e of t h e Dynneson, t h e c h a n n e l s a n d s t o n e of t h e Newcastle, and t h e complex marginal-marine s a n d s t o n e of t h e F a l l R i v e r . P r o s p e c t i n g f o r such s t r a t i g r a p h i c t r a p s

r e q u i r e s an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p a l e o d e p o s i t i o n a l environments of t h e rocks.

Coyote Creek and Miller Creek O i l F i e l d s , Wyoming The Coyote Creek F i e l d and Miller Creek F i e l d ( F i g . 1-49) a r e a l s o s i t u a t e d on t h e e a s t e r n f l a n k of t h e Powder River Basin, Wyoming, approxi m a t e l y 15 km s o u t h e a s t and n o r t h e a s t r e s p e c t i v e l y from t h e Rozet F i e l d . The producing zone i s t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s F a l l S i v e r Sandstone which l i e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 60 m below t h e Newcastle Sandstone. Stapp (1967) s a y s t h a t

t h e F a l l R i v e r comprises t h r e e s e p a r a t e s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s which l o c a l l y merge, as i n p a r t s of t h e Coyote Creek F i e l d , t o form a s i n g l e porous u n i t approximately 25 m t h i c k . t h i c k n e s s up t o 50 m . Elsewhere, t h e F a l l R i v e r r a n g e s i n

Stapp d e s c r i b e s t h e s e s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s as having

been d e p o s i t e d i n a marginal-marine environment, t h e lower two b o d i e s b e i n g s h o r e l i n e s a n d s d e p o s i t e d by a r e g r e s s i n g s e a . The upper sand i s

i n t e r p r e t e d a s t h e b a s a l u n i t of a marine t r a n s g r e s s i v e sequence r e f e r r e d t o as t h e S k u l l Creek Formation. Berg (1968), on t h o o t h e r hand, s t a t e s

t h a t t h e F a l l R i v e r Sandstone b o d i e s were, i n p a r t a t l e a s t , d e p o s i t e d as d e l t a d i s t r i b u t a r y p o i n t b a r s f l a n k e d 3 y muddy sediments w i t h i n t h e same channel.

H e s a y s , p . 2116, Because t h e F a l l R i v e r i s l a r g e l y of marine

and d e l t a i c o r i g i n , t h e r e s e r v o i r s a n d s t o n e was b e l i e v e d t o have been

81
N

/ CHANNEL FILL /
A
/

OIL-WATER CONTAC

ISOPACH OF POROUS SANDSTONE I N POINT BARS OF FALL RIVER SANDSTONE, WYOMING

F i g . 1-49. Isopach of n e t porous s a n d s t o n e i n t h e o i l - p r o d u c i n g Lower C r e t a c e o u s F a l l R i v e r S a n d s t o n e , Coyote Creek F i e l d (A) and Miller Creek F i e l d ( B ) , Crook and Weston C o u n t i e s , Wyoming, showing o i l accumulation i n r i v e r p o i n t b a r s . (Redrawn from Berg, 1968, and T r u c h o t , 1963).

d e p o s i t e d i n a l i t t o r a l environment, p e r h a p s as a series of b a r r i e r - b a r sands f l a n k e d by l a g o o n a l c l a y s . R e c e n t l y , however, a f l u v i a l o r i g i n h a s

been proposed f o r t h e s e s a n d s t o n e b e d s a t t h e West Moorcroft f i e l d ( M e t t l e r , 1966) and a t Coyote Creek f i e l d (Bolyard and McGregor, 1966,
p . 2236)."

Bolyard and

McGregor i n t e r p r e t e d t h e F a l l R i v e r Sandstone

bodies as point--bar channel deposits associated with a d e l t a f r o n t . They s a y , p. 2238, "The l i t h o l o g y , cross-bedding, c l a y g a l l s , and o t h e r

82 f e a t u r e s a r e v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h o s e of t h i c k , m a s s i v e , c h a n n e l - f i l l i n g s a n d s t o n e beds observed i n o u t c r o p .
I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o reconstruct a

p a t t e r n of convincing f a c i e s r e l a t i o n s t h a t would b e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h e i t h e r the offshore-bar, barrier-island, o r beach-deposit interpretations".

I n t h e Coyote and Miller Creek f i e l d s t h e F a l l R i v e r Sandstone i s

l i g h t g r e y t o w h i t i s h , q u a r t z o s e , f i n e t o medium-grained,

and w e l l s o r t e d . The n e t pay

Carbonized p l a n t m a t t e r i s p r e s e n t throughout t h e i n t e r v a l .

comprises 10-15 m having a p o r o s i t y of 15-18% and a p e r m e a b i l i t y t h a t a v e r a g e s 200 m i l l i d a r c y s b u t r a n g e s up t o 1,000 m i l l i d a r c y s . Both f i e l d s

are i n t e r p r e t e d by Berg (1968) as p o i n t b a r segments of a r i v e r meander

b e l t t h a t t r e n d s i n a n o r t h - s o u t h d i r e c t i o n f o r more t h a n 50 km. t r e n d c o n t a i n s several o t h e r o i l f i e l d s of s i m i l a r o r i g i n . The Coyote Creek and M i l l e r Creek f i e l d s have e s t i m a t e d p r o d u c i b l e r e s e r v e s of 20 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (3.2 m i l l i o n c u b i c metres) of 41' and 5 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s of 33'
A.P.I. A.P.I.

This

oil

o i l respectively.

U l t i m a t e recoveries The

are a l s o e s t i m a t e d t o be i n t h e r a n g e 150-250 b a r r e l s p e r a c r e - f o o t .

r e c o v e r y mechanism i s an a c t i v e water d r i v e i n t h e Coyote Creek F i e l d and

a combined water and g a s - s o l u t i o n d r i v e i n t h e Miller Creek F i e l d .

The

. a r e a s of t h e Coyote Creek and Miller Creek f i e l d s are a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2,000 and 1,000 acres r e s p e c t i v e l y .

Reimers-Lane-Hart

Trend, Nebraska

I n t h e Denver Basin of w e s t e r n Nebraska t h e R e i m e r s , F a r o , D a l t o n , Lane, Deep Creek and H a r t O i l f i e l d s form a n o r t h - s o u t h t r e n d (Fig. 1-50) w i t h i n a Lower C r e t a c e o u s l i n e a r s a n d s t o n e body. T h i s body f i l l s a channel

c u t i n t o t h e "J" Member which i s o v e r l a i n by t h e Lower Cretaceous Huntsman S h a l e and u n d e r l a i n by t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s S k u l l Creek Formation, b o t h of which are marine. The c h a n n e l i s a l s o l o c a l l y c u t i n t o t h e S k u l l Creek.

It h a s an a v e r a g e w i d t h of 450 m, a d e p t h of 15-20 m, and a l e n g t h of more

t h a n 30

Icm.

83

T1 6

0 1 1
A

FIkt-DS IN CRETACEOUS RIVER DEPOSITS, NEBRASKA

A'

F i g . 1-50.

Map a n d s e c t i o n s h o w i n g o i l a c c u m u l a t i o n s i n r i v e r d e p o s i t s f i l l i n g a v a l l e y i n t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s "J" s a n d s t o n e , Denver B a s i n , N e b r a s k a . regional dip. Arrow i n d i c a t e s t h e d i r e c t i o n of

(Redrawn from Harms, 1966).

84
The c h a n n e l - f i l l s a n d s t o n e i s predominantly l i g h t g r e y , q u a r t z o s e , f i n e t o medium-grained, and cross-bedded. C l a y s t o n e c h i p s , probably

d e r i v e d from t h e e r o s i o n of d r i e d and c r a c k e d mud on t h e r i v e r b a n k s , a r e f a i r l y common w i t h i n t h e s a n d s t o n e . Some t h i n beds of l a y e r e d

s a n d s t o n e and d a r k g r e y s i l t s t o n e show slump s t r u c t u r e s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e formed i n t h e s i l t y , upper l a y e r s of p o i n t b a r d e p o s i t s . are a l s o common, a s a r e c a r b o n i z e d p l a n t remains. Scour s t r u c t u r e s

In general, the

s a n d s t o n e body a p p e a r s t o have been d e p o s i t e d by a r i v e r , p o s s i b l y a d i s t r i b u t a r y f l o w i n g on a c o a s t a l p l a i n .

O i l h a s accumulated i n more permeable p a r t s o f t h e s a n d s t o n e body

where i t i s g e n t l y f o l d e d by northwest-plunging a n t i c l i n e s t h a t c r o s s t h e t r e n d of t h e c h a n n e l .
I n t h e s e producing s e c t i o n s t h e s a n d s t o n e commonly

h a s p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y i n t h e r a n g e s 15-25% and 100 darcys respectively.

1,000 m i l l i -

The o i l - w a t e r c o n t a c t s i n a l l f i e l d s a l o n g t h e sandS a l i n i t y of t h e

s t o n e body are h o r i z o n t a l b u t a t v a r i o u s e l e v a t i o n s .

f o r m a t i o n w a t e r v a r i e s from 90,000 t o 110,000 ppm a c c o r d i n g t o Harms (1966) I n d i v i d u a l wells have a n a v e r a g e p r o d u c t i o n r a t e of 25,000 b a r r e l s of o i l p e r y e a r , and t h e e s t i m a t e d c u m u l a t i v e p r o d u c t i o n t h a t w i l l u l t i m a t e l y b e o b t a i n e d from a l l f i e l d s a l o n g t h e t r e n d i s l e s s t h a n 10 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s

(1.6 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) .

Cut Bank O i l F i e l d , Montana I n n o r t h w e s t e r n Montana o i l p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e Cut Bank F i e l d , s i t u a t e d on t h e w e s t f l a n k of t h e Sweetgrass Arch, i s o b t a i n e d from t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s Cut Bank Sandstone. T h i s s a n d s t o n e , which f i l l s c h a n n e l s

c u t i n t o s h a l e s and s i l t y marine beds of t h e Upper J u r a s s i c S w i f t Formation and Rierdon Formation, i s t h e b a s a l member of t h e Kootenai Formation and

i s o v e r l a i n by s e v e r a l hundred f e e t of non-marine,
and s i l t y s a n d s t o n e s .

v a r i c o l o r e d mudstones

The c h a n n e l s form a meandering p a t t e r n t h a t t r e n d s

85

R6
-O

R5
5 KM
0

R4W

5 Miles

B
YELLOW O W L I

B'
HARWOOD I

RIERDON

Fig. 1-51.

D i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s Cut Bank Sandstone where

i t i s more t h a n 50 f e e t (15 m) t h i c k i n t h e Cut Bank o i l

f i e l d a r e a , Montana.

I n s e t shows t h e l o c a t i o n .

The arrow

i n d i c a t e s d i r e c t i o n of flow.

(Redrawn f r o m S h e l t o n , 1967).

86
north-south. Drainage w a s t o t h e n o r t h and i n d i v i d u a l c h a n n e l s b i f u r c a t e The l i m i t s of t h e Cut Bank Sandstone a r e b r o a d l y

i n that direction.

d e f i n e d by a d e p o s i t i o n a l edge f l a n k i n g t h e up-dip boundary of t h e o i l f i e l d and by o u t c r o p s 50 km westward. Northward, t h e p a t t e r n of c h a n n e l s The Cut Bank d r a i n a g e system,

e x t e n d s f o r more t h a n 80 km i n t o A l b e r t a .

comprising a number of s e p a r a t e c h a n n e l s , w a s formed on a b r o a d and f a i r l y f l a t coastal plain. The p a t t e r n of c h a n n e l s w i t h i n t h e Cut Bank F i e l d

( F i g . 1-51) can b e d e f i n e d by a n i s o p a c h map of t h e Cut Bank Sandstone showing t h i c k n e s s s s exceeding 15 m ( S h e l t o n , 1967). These meandering

c h a n n e l s commonly have a w i d t h of 450-1,200 m and a t h i c k n e s s o f up t o 25 m. Where t h e Cut Bank Sandstone c r o p s o u t , 50 km southwest of t h e f i e l d , i t h a s a t h i c k n e s s of up t o 70 m . The s a n d s t o n e i s composed mainly of g r a i n s of q u a r t z and d a r k g r e y chert. Within i n d i v i d u a l l a y e r s t h e g r a i n s are f a i r l y w e l l s o r t e d , b u t

g r a i n s i z e g r a d a t i o n i s w e l l d e f i n e d w i t h i n sequences of l a y e r s , r a n g i n g from c o a r s e below t o f i n e above. L o c a l l y , t h e c o a r s e - g r a i n e d l a y e r s are Cross-bedding i s a

c o n g l o m e r a t i c , t h e maximum p e b b l e s i z e b e i n g 15 mm.

common f e a t u r e ; o t h e r s e d i m e n t a r y s t r u c t u r e s i n c l u d e burrows ( ? > , c l a y s t o n e c h i p s ( p r o b a b l y fragments of d r i e d mud), and d e f o r m a t i o n p r o b a b l y caused bv slumping of t h e u n c o n s o l i d a t e d sediment i n a h y d r o p l a s t i c s t a t e (Conybeare and Crook, 1968).

A s h a l e b e d , l o c a l l y p r e s e n t w i t h i n t h e upper p a r t o f t h e

Cut Bank S a n d s t o n e , c o n t a i n s f r e s h - w a t e r o s t r a c o d s and gastropods. P o r o s i t y of t h e s a n d s t o n e s i s i n t h e r a n g e s 12-19%, p e r m e a b i l i t y The b e s t v a l u e s

r a n g e s up t o 300 m i l l i d a r c y s and a v e r a g e s 100 m i l l i d a r c y s .

f o r p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y are found i n t h e medium-grained s a n d s t o n e , whereas p o o r e r v a l u e s are found i n b o t h t h e f i n e - g r a i n e d and c o n g l o m e r a t i c sandstones.

O i l p r o d u c t i o n ( F i g . 1-52) i s more p r o l i f i c i n t h e t h i c k e r p a r t s of

t h e s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s w i t h i n t h e c h a n n e l s , b u t i s n o t p r e c i s e l y confined

0 0
KM

MILES

I/
I N I T I A L DAILY P R O D U C T I O N IN BARRELS, CUT B A N K S A N D S T O N E S ,
F i g . 1-52.

MONTANA

I n i t i a l d a i l y p r o d u c t i o n ( f i r s t 10 d a y a v e r a g e ) of o i l w e l l s p r o d u c i n g from t h e Cut Bank S a n d s t o n e . P r o d u c t i o n exceeded 100 b a r r e l s a day. Locally, the i n i t i a l (Redrawn from B l i x t , 1941).

to these locations.

R a t e s of p r o d u c t i o n depends on v a r i a t i o n s of p o r o s i t y

and p e r m e a b i l i t y w i t h i n t h e f i e l d area where t h e o i l a n d g a s i s t r a p p e d a g a i n s t t h e up-dip edge o f t h e Cut Bank S a n d s t o n e . The main p r o d u c i n g z o n e ,

c o m p r i s i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 m of n e t s a n d s t o n e , i s i n t h e l o w e r p a r t o f t h e Cut Bank a t a d e p t h o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 900 m .

A.P.I.

The o i l h a s a g r a v i t y of 3 8 O

P r o d u c t i o n i s a s s i s t e d by g a s s o l u t i o n and a gas-cap d r i v e .

I n i t i a l d a i l y p r o d u c t i o n p e r w e l l d u r i n g t h e f i r s t 10 day p e r i o d a v e r a g e d

56 b a r r e l s .
F a i r l y f r e s h w a t e r , h a v i n g a s a l i n i t y of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10,000 ppm, u n d e r l i e s t h e o i l , i n d i c a t i n g movement of s u r f a c e water i n t o t h e Cut Bank

88

Sandstone.

T h i s hydrodynamic s i t u a t i o n may have caused some s l i g h t d e g r e e The Cut Bank F i e l d may u l t i m a t e l y

of t i l t i n g of t h e o i l - w a t e r c o n t a c t .

y i e l d more t h a n 30 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s ( 4 . 8 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) of o i l and

80,000 m i l l i o n c u b i c f e e t (2,200 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) of g a s .

Nahorkatiya O i l F i e l d , A s s a m
O i l p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e Nahorkatiya F i e l d of A s s a m i s o b t a i n e d from

s a n d s t o n e s w i t h i n a 300 m i n t e r v a l i n t h e upper p a r t of t h e Oligocene Barail

Series.

These s a n d s t o n e s o r i g i n a t e d as r i v e r c h a n n e l s a n d s ( F i g . 1-53)

d e p o s i t e d on a f a i r l y f l a t f l o o d p l a i n of s i l t and c l a y i n t h e upper r e a c h e s
of a d e l t a .

I n d i v i d u a l c h a n n e l s , which range i n t h i c k n e s s t o 30 m and i n

w i d t h t o more t h a n 450 m , are i n t e r b e d d e d w i t h t h i n beds of c o a l and l i g n i t e formed i n backswamp areas of a r i v e r f l o o d p l a i n .

More t h a n 50

0
i-

-~

I
~ ~ ~~

_1

Km

E-LOG

SECTION

OF

CHANNEL

SANDS

NAHORKATIYA

FIELD

ASSAM

F i g . 1-53.

E-log s e c t i o n showing o i l - b e a r i n g r i v e r channel s a n d s i n t h e Oligocene B a r a i l S e r i e s , Nahorkatiya F i e l d , A s s a m . from Azad, B h a t t a c h a r y y a , D a t t a , and S t e v e n s , 1971). (Redrawn

89

ro

E-LOG

O F

CHANNEL FIELD,

SANDS, ASSAM.

NAHORKATIYA

Fig. 1-54.

E-log of a composite c h a n n e l sand i n t h e Oligocene Barail S e r i e s , Nahorkatiya O i l f i e l d , A s s a m . Three s e p a r a t e c h a n n e l s

are superimposed, each g r a d i n g upward from c o a r s e sand t o s i l t .

Note t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c b e l l - s h a p e of t h e l o g of each channel. (Redrawn from Azad, B h a t t a c h a r y y a , Datta, and S t e v e n s , 1971).

s e p a r a t e c h a n n e l s have been r e c o g n i z e d i n t h e Nahorkatiya F i e l d .

A t some

l o c a t i o n s , two o r more c h a n n e l s are superimposed ( F i g . 1-54) t o form s a n d s t o n e u n i t s more t h a n 50 m t h i c k . The e l e c t r i c l o g c h a r a c t e r of many

of t h e s e c h a n n e l s a n d s shows t h e t y p i c a l b e l l - s h a p e i n d i c a t i n g g r a i n grada t i o n from c o a r s e r below t o f i n e r above.

O i l accumulation i s c o n t r o l l e d by a combination of s t r a t i g r a p h i c

and s t r u c t u r a l f a c t o r s . basement r i d g e .

R e g i o n a l l y , t h e Barail S e r i e s d i p s away from a

T h i s s t r u c t u r a l element h a s p r o b a b l y been i m p o r t a n t i n

c o n t r o l l i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n of m i g r a t i o n and e x t e n t o f t h e area u n d e r l a i n by accumulations of o i l . L o c a l l y , t h e o i l h a s accumulated i n t r a p s con-

t r o l l e d by f a u l t i n g and p i n c h i n g o u t of t h e c h a n n e l s a n d s . which i s waxy and h a s a g r a v i t y of 3 3 O A.P.I.

The o i l ,

i n a l l the separate reservoirs,

90

i s t h o u g h t t o have o r i g i n a t e d i n marine s h a l e s and l i m e s t o n e s o f t h e underl y i n g Eocene sequence.

Maikop O i l F i e l d , U.S.S.R. The Maikop F i e l d ( F i g . 1-55) i n t h e Black Sea rea, U . S . S . R . , o i l from meandering T e r t i a r y c h a n n e l s a n d s . produces

These s h o e s t r i n g s a n d b o d i e s

meander a t v a r i o u s l e v e l s w i t h i n a c l a y - f i l l e d v a l l e y c u t i n t o C r e t a c e o u s marly l i m e s t o n e . The main producing sand body, which i s s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l l y

It i s g e n e r a l l y

t h e h i g h e s t , i s 150-300 m wide and more t h a n 8 km l o n g .

c o n f i n e d t o t h e v a l l e y , b u t i n p l a c e s meanders o u t of t h e v a l l e y on t o t h e surrounding flood p l a i n . The s a n d s , which a r e e n c o u n t e r e d a t v e r y s h a l l o w

--

SANDS

TERTIARY RIVER CHANNEL MAIKOP OIL FIELD U.S.S.R.

F i g . 1-55. Map and s e c t i o n s o f b u r i e d stream-channel sands i n a clayf i l l e d T e r t i a r y v a l l e y , Maikop o i l f i e l d , Black Sea a r e a ,

U.S.S.R.

(Redrawn from Prokopov and Maksimov, 1937).

91

depths of a few hundred metres, have good porosity and permeability.

They

are commonly medium to coarse-grained, but locally include grit and gravel. Entrapment of oil has resulted from a combination of stratigraphic and structural factors by which closure results from the coincidence of meander belts and a monocline dipping northward from the Caucasus Mountains. Initial rates of production from some wells have ranged up to 7,000 barrels
of oil per day, and the amount of oil that can ultimately be recovered from

the field is estimated to exceed 15 million barrels ( 2 . 4 million cubic metres).

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

93

Chapter

DISTRIBUTARY AND DELTA-FRINGE SAND

Introduction

Geomorphology Patterns of deltas are ephemeral. They change continuously in

response to, (a) shifts in the courses of distributaries, (b) to fluctuations in the load of sediments transported to the delta and seashore, (c) to variations in rates of compaction causing uneven subsidence in different parts of the delta, (d) to the effects of storms and tidal changes and, (e) to the bathymetry of the continental shelf on which the delta is building outward. The dendritic pattern of the classic birdsfoot delta of the present-day Mississippi River has been formed as a result of the shallowness of the continental shelf and the comparative slight variations in tidal levels. By contrast, the Niger River cuspate-arcuate

delta (Fig. 1 - 3 ) , currently building outward on a very narrow continental shelf subject to large tidal variations with strong current and wave action, has smooth, curved shoreline of delta-fringe sands. Viewed in three dimensions, an ever-changing delta pattern is only the surface or geographic expression of a prograding lobe of sediment, of irregular outline and variable thickness, that is building seaward in response to fluctuations in the rate of sedimentation. A s a river periodically changes course and discharges its load of sediment in other parts of the delta, it successively builds a sequence of lobes. These lobes not only prograde seaward, but merge laterally to fbrm piles of sediment which themselves may merge with piles from adjacent rivers to constitute the paralic facies of a sedimentary basin. From a paleogeomorphic point of view, the

94

d e n d r i t i c and anastomosing p a t t e r n of d i s t r i b u t a r i e s i n t h e M i s s i s s i p p i River d e l t a complex (Fig. 2-1)

i s t h r e e dimensional.

The p a t t e r n extends

downward i n t o Recent and T e r t i a r y s e c t i o n s u n d e r l y i n g t h e present-day d e l t a , s u b s t a n t i a t i n g t h e view t h a t d e p o s i t i o n a l p a t t e r n s and sedimentolo g i c a l p r o c e s s e s observed today i n t h e M i s s i s s i p p i D e l t a a r e r e p e t i t i o n s

of t h o s e marking t h e g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y of t h e u n d e r l y i n g T e r t i a r y . Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i n t h e f i e l d of petroleum e x p l o r a t i o n a r e t h e

three-dimensional p a t t e r n s of modern d i s t r i b u t a r y and d e l t a - f r i n g e sand b o d i e s , t h e geometry of t h e s e b o d i e s , and t h e i r i n t e r n a l f e a t u r e s such a s sedimentary s t r u c t u r e s , g r a i n g r a d a t i o n , and l i t h o l o g i c v a r i a t i o n s .

The

s p a t i a l a s s o c i a t i o n s of t h e s e b o d i e s w i t h a d j a c e n t b e d s , and t h e n a t u r e

of t h e s e b e d s , a r e e s s e n t i a l t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e o r i g i n s of t h e
sandstone bodies.

KM

MILES

DI ST R I BUTA RY C HA N NE LS, M I S S ISS I PP I DE LTA

Fig. 2-1. P a t t e r n of a c t i v e and abandoned d i s t r i b u t a r y channels of The M i s s i s s i p p i d e l t a . (Redrawn from Kolb and van Lopik,

1966).

95
I n t h e lower r e a c h e s of a d e l t a b o r d e r i n g t h e s h o r e , where t h e s u r f a c e of t h e s u b s i d i n g landmass h a s a n e l e v a t i o n of less t h a n one metre above sea l e v e l , t h e main d i s t r i b u t a r i e s f l o w through areas of marsh. The c h a n n e l s ,

bounded by l e v e e s , are commonly h i g h e r t h a n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g marshlands which r e c e i v e s mud and s i l t d u r i n g t i m e s of f l o o d when t h e d i s t r i b u t a r i e s overflow t h e i r banks. Sands are c o n f i n e d t o c h a n n e l s i n which t h e y are

t r a n s p o r t e d t o t h e d i s t r i b u t a r y mouths where t h e y are d e p o s i t e d and subsequ e n t l y swept by ocean c u r r e n t s t o form d i s t r i b u t a r y mouth b a r s ( F i g . 2-2). A s t h e d i s t r i b u t a r y c o n t i n u e s t o grow seaward i t c o n t i n u o u s l y o v e r - r i d e s t h e sand b a r s a t i t s mouth t o form a p r o g r a d i n g , l i n e a r sand body r e f e r r e d t o by F i s k (1961) as a b a r - f i n g e r . The upper and c e n t r a l p a r t o f such a

sand body, b e i n g c o n f i n e d t o t h e c h a n n e l , i s f l u v i a l and may show i n t e r n a l f e a t u r e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h i s o r i g i n . The lower and l a t e r a l l y more

e x t e n s i v e p a r t of t h e s a n d body may show i n t e r n a l f e a t u r e s , such as g r a i n g r a d a t i o n from c o a r s e r above t o f i n e r below (Fig. Z-ZC),

of a s h o r e l i n e sand.

characteristic

T h i s a p p a r e n t anomaly i n t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l environment

of t h e s a n d s t o n e body p e r t a i n s o n l y t o t h a t p a r t of t h e d i s t r i b u t a r y sand body t h a t h a s been b u i l t o u t i n t o t h e sea. The r e m i n d e r o f t h e body, which

i n many examples p r o b a b l y r e p r e s e n t s t h e l o n g e r p o r t i o n of t h e d i s t r i b u t a r y ,
i s e n t i r e l y of f l u v i a l o r i g i n .

These r e l a t i o n s h i p s i l l u s t r a t e some of t h e

d i f f i c u l t i e s e n c o u n t e r e d i n r e c o g n i z i n g t h e o r i g i n of a s a n d s t o n e body i n t h e subsurf ace. The p r o g r a d a t i o n a l sequence o f d e l t a d i s t r i b u t a r i e s , c h a r a c t e r i z e d by g r a i n g r a d a t i o n from c o a r s e r above t o f i n e r below, i s s e e n n o t o n l y i n b a r - f i n g e r s a n d s b u i l d i n g o u t t o sea on a s h a l l o w sea f l o o r , b u t a l s o i n t h e seaward e x t e n s i o n of c o a s t a l sand b o d i e s such as b a r r i e r b a r s . Upstream,

t h e b a r - f i n g e r s merge i n t o s a n d b o d i e s d e p o s i t e d i n d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l s where t h e f l u v i a l sequence i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by g r a i n g r a d a t i o n from c o a r s e r below t o f i n e r above, p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e sand i s n o t uniform i n g r a i n s i z e .

96

PRODE LTA

c 9 9
I -

PRODELTA

GEOMETRY AND GRAIN FINGER

GRADATION OF BA. R SAND

F i g . 2-2.

P l a n v i e w o f a b a r - f i n g e r s a n d body formed a t t h e mouth of Southwest P a s s , a main d i s t r i b u t a r y i n t h e b i r d f o o t d e l t a of t h e M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r , showing t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n

of s a n d s i n t h e d i s t r i b u t a r y mouth b a r , and of s a n d s and

silts i n t h e d i s t a l b a r over-riding

the prodelta silts

and c l a y s .

(Redrawn from Coleman and G a g l i a n o , 1965).

97

Another p o s s i b l e f a c t o r i n t h e development of b a r - f i n g e r s h a s been p o i n t e d o u t by Moore (1970).

H e s a y s t h a t t h e l i n e a r b o d i e s of f i n e - g r a i n e d

sand i n t h e M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r d i s t r i b u t a r i e s , termed b a r - f i n g e r s ,

are formed

n o t only by t h e seaward growth of p r o g r a d i n g d i s t r i b u t a r y - m o u t h b a r s , b u t a l s o by t h e i n t r u s i o n of a s a l t w a t e r wedges i n t o t h e d i s t r i b u t a r y channel d u r i n g p e r i o d s of less t h a n maximum d i s c h a r g e . A wedge c a u s e s r e d u c t i o n i n

t h e bottom-carrying power of t h e d i s t r i b u t a r y and r e s u l t s i n d e p o s i t i o n of a sand s i l l (Fig. 2-3) t h a t m i g r a t e s w i t h t h e ebb and f l o w of t h e wedge a l o n g

t h e lower c o u r s e of t h e d i s t r i b u t a r y . The geometry of b a r - f i n g e r s a n d b o d i e s h a s been d e s c r i b e d by F i s k (1961) and Gould (1970). Each b a r - f i n g e r i s a p r o g r a d i n g , l i n e a r body
A t any

formed by a c c r e t i o n of d i s t r i b u t a r y - m o u t h sand b a r s ( F i g . 2 - 4 ) .

p o i n t i n t i m e , t h e sand b a r forms a n a r c u a t e body of sand t h a t h a s a w i d t h , normal t o t h e c o u r s e of t h e d i s t r i b u t a r y , of 5-8 km. Deposited i n s h a l l o w

C r o s s - s e c t i o n of a b a r - f i n g e r s a n d a t t h e mouth of a d e l t a d i s t r i b u t a r y , showing t h e channel f l a n k e d by l e v e e s and u n d e r l a i n by s a n d s d e p o s i t e d as a d i s t r i b u t a r y mouth b a r , and by satid and s i l t d e p o s i t e d as a d i s t a l b a r o v e r r i d i n g p r o d e l t a s i l t s and c l a y s . (Redrawn from F i s k , 1961).
No scale.

E-log c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a p r o g r a d a t i o n a l sequence from c o a r s e r - g r a i n e d above t o f i n e r - g r a i n e d below, s u c h as t h e sequence shown i n t h e b a r f i n g e r sand body i l l u s t r a t e d by A and B. 1969). (Redrawn from F i s h e r , 1969 and F i s h e r

e t aZ.,

98 S E C T I O N A L O N G D E L T A DlSTRtBUTARY

'

-0

, I

SEA LEVEL

_____
~~~~~~

RIVER LEVEL
~

'
I
50 "

+ . -

F R E S H WATER

IOG'

0
L -

~ _ _ _
M I IE L

25
4

0
L-

25
K M

F i g . 2-3.

Diagrammatic s e c t i o n a l o n g t h e c h a n n e l of a d e l t a d i s t r i b u t a r y , showing t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s of a s a n d s i l l and wedge of s a l t water w i t h i n t h e f r e s h - w a t e r channel. 1970).

A

(Redrawn from Moore,

L J

MILES

2
KM

A'
0
FEET

400
0
MILES

1 0 1 0
KM

0
BAR - FINGER SAND,

MISSISSIPPI

DELTA.

F i g . 2-4.

P l a n and s e c t i o n a l views i l l u s t r a t i n g p r o g r a d a t i o n d u r i n g t h e y e a r s 1764 t o 1959, of t h e b a r - f i n g e r s a n d body forming Southwest Pass, M i s s i s s i p p i River. S e c t i o n A-A' shows t h e

t r a c e s of t i m e p l a n e s w i t h i n t h e b a r - f i n g e r sand body (1) which o v e r l i e s d e l t a - f r o n t s i l t s ( 2 ) and p r o d e l t a c l a y s ( 3 ) . (Redrawn from Gould, 1970, a f t e r F i s k , 1961).

99
water a t t h e mouth of a d i s t r i b u t a r y , t h e sand g r a d e s seaward t o s i l t and clay. P r o g r a d i n g seaward, t h e b a r - f i n g e r grows as a d i a c h r o n o u s sand body, ( o r t h e i r t r a c e s s e e n i n s e c t i o n s having a n en echeZon and B a r - f i n g e r sand b o d i e s can b e

time-planes

d i a g o n a l arrangement w i t h i n t h e sand body. up t o 75 m t h i c k and 30 km l o n g .

L a t e r a l and v e r t i c a l growth o f t h e d e l t a sand b o d i e s

complex r e s u l t s i n t h e ever-changing p a t t e r n o f b a r - f i n g e r

-22

HIGH TIDE

1
Km

2
I

MOUTH

OF

PO RIVER

AT

PlLA

F i g . 2-5.

Arcuate sand b a r s ( s t i p p l e d ) formed a t t h e mouth of t h e Po R i v e r a t P i l a , and a s e c t i o n through s t a t i o n s 3 t o 2 2 showing t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e wave-built b a r s and u n d e r l y i n g wedge

of s a n d .

(Redrawn from Melson, 1970).

100

F i g . 2-6.

S t a g e s i n development of a b i r d f o o t d e l t a and d e p o s i t i o n of a d e l t a i c s e q u e n c e , showing growing p a t t e r n o f b i f u r c a t i n g d i s t r i b u t a r i e s , and s t r a t i g r a p h i c sequence through a s e c t i o n at various stages. ( A f t e r L e Blanc, 1972, and F i s k , 1961).

101

0
20
40

b0

80

F i g . 2-6.

(Continued).

102

0 10

40
b0

80

20 40
bO

80

Fig. 2-6.

(Continued)

103
b u i l d i n g up through t h e s e c t i o n t o form a complex of anastomosing s h o e s t r i n g -sand b o d i e s s e p a r a t e d by l e n t i c u l a r l a y e r s of s i l t and c l a y . Another modern example of d i s t r i b u t a r y - m o u t h sand b a r s h a s been d e s c r i b e d by Nelson (1970). T h i s i s t h e complex o f sand b a r s a t t h e mouth These b a r s form a r c u a t e i s l a n d s

of t h e Po R i v e r a t P i l a , I t a l y ( F i g . 2-5).

on t h e seaward p e r i p h e r y of a p r o g r a d i n g wedge of sand which i s up t o 15 m t h i c k and 3 km wide.

L e Blanc (1972), b a s e d on s t u d i e s of t h e M i s s i s s i p p i d e l t a b a r - f i n g e r

s a n d s , ( F i s k , 1961) i l l u s t r a t e d t h e growth of a d e l t a complex i n F i g . 2 - 6 . These diagrams show t h e s t a g e s of development of a b i r d f o o t d e l t a i n a d e l t a complex comprising b i f u r c a t i n g d i s t r i b u t a r i e s s e p a r a t e d by swamp. As

l o b e s of t h e d e l t a p r o g r a d e and s h i f t l a t e r a l l y , t h e sand b o d i e s d e p o s i t e d i n o l d e r d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l s are b u r i e d t o form a system of anastomosing shoestring-sands i n t h e subsurface.

L e Blanc (1972) f u r t h e r p o i n t s o u t ( F i g . 2-7) t h a t such l o b e s c o a l e s c e ,

by l a t e r a l s h i f t i n g r e s u l t i n g from changes i n t h e c o u r s e s o f i t h e d i s t r i b u t a r i e s , t o form a d e l t a p l a i n t h a t may have a w i d t h exceeding 160 km.

In

t h e s u b s u r f a c e a b u r i e d d e l t a p l a i n i s u n d e r l a i n by a s t r a t i g r a p h i c complex of s i l t s and c l a y s i n t e r b e d d e d w i t h sand b o d i e s formed as d i s t r i b u t a r y channel s a n d s , b a r - f i n g e r s a n d s , beach b a r s , and b a r r i e r i s l a n d s . d e p o s i t i o n a l t r e n d s of t h e c h a n n e l s and b a r - f i n g e r s t o t h o s e of t h e s h o r e l i n e b a r s and b a r r i e r i s l a n d s .

In general,

are a p p r o x i m a t e l y normal

E-log C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

The c o a s t a l f r i n g e of e a c h d e l t a l o b e i n c l u d e s b a r - f i n g e r sands which prograde seaward. P r o g r a d a t i o n r e s u l t s i n t h e sand o v e r - r i d i n g p r o d e l t a

s i l t and c l a y , t h e r e s u l t i n g g r a i n g r a d a t i o n b e i n g r e f l e c t e d i n a serrate,

funnel-shaped s e l f - p o t e n t i a l c u r v e on t h e E-log.

T h i s shape i n d i c a t e s ,

(a) a g r a d a t i o n a l c o n t a c t , sand l e n s e s b e i n g i n t e r b e d d e d w i t h l a y e r s of

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Ili i

F i g . 2-7.

S t a g e s i n development of a d e l t a - p l a i n complex and s t r a t i g r a p h i c s e q u e n c e r e s u l t i n g from t h e c o a l e s c e n c e of s e p a r a t e d e l t a lobes. ( A f t e r Le B l a n c , 1972).

105

STACE I

106
s i l t and c l a y and, (b) a g e n e r a l t h i c k e n i n g upward of t h e sand l a y e r s ,

commonly w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n g r a i n s i z e .

I n t h e lower p a r t of t h e b a r -

- f i n g e r sequence, i n t e r b e d d e d l a y e r s o f s a n d , s i l t , and c l a y are d e p o s i t e d

as t h e r e s u l t of f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e r i v e r f l o o d c y c l e s .

During f l o o d

s t a g e s s a n d i s d e p o s i t e d seaward from t h e d i s t r i b u t a r y mouth, whereas d u r i n g low-water s t a g e s t h e sediment d e p o s i t e d c o n s i s t s mainly of s i l t o r clay.

A s t h e d i s t r i b u t a r y advances, and t h e b a r - f i n g e r p r o g r a d e s seaward,

t h e sediment d e p o s i t e d a t any l o c a t i o n w i t h i n t h e lower r e a c h e s of a d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y sandy. The r e s u l t is t h a t a

s e c t i o n through a d i s t r i b u t a r y channel n e a r i t s mouth shows an o v e r a l l upward i n c r e a s e i n g r a i n s i z e . D i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l sand b o d i e s may o v e r - r i d e o r c u t through d e l t a --marine f r i n g e s a n d s , and l o c a l l y can b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h e l a t t e r by t h e i r bell-shaped o r c y l i n d r i c a l s e l f - p o t e n t i a l curves.

In t h e upper

r e a c h e s of a d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l t h e c u r v e t e n d s t o b e b e l l - s h a p e d , i n d i c a t i n g g r a i n g r a d a t i o n from f i n e r above t o c o a r s e r below. In the

lower r e a c h e s , s u b s i d e n c e of t h e d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l s a n d body, and f a i r l y uniform rates of flow and s e d i m e n t a t i o n , can r e s u l t i n a t h i c k sand body
of uniform g r a i n s i z e .

T h i s t y p e of sand body i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a

c y l i n d r i c a l s e l f - p o t e n t i a l curve.

A s e r r a t e d c u r v e i n d i c a t e s i n t e r b e d s of

s i l t and c l a y d e p o s i t e d d u r i n g p e r i o d i c d e c r e a s e s i n t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e

distributary.

Compaction
P r o g r a d i n g b a r - f i n g e r s a n d b o d i e s are over-ridden by d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l s as t h e s h o r e - l i n e r e t r e a t s . These c h a n n e l s , which commonly are

o n l y one t h i r d t o one f i f t h as wide as t h e seaward-trending b a r - f i n g e r sand b o d i e s , converge landward t o form l a r g e r c h a n n e l s . b o d i e s , merge l a t e r a l l y a t the s u r f a c e . The b a r - f i n g e r s a n d

Compaction of t h e s u r r o u n d i n g muds

and s i l t s , may c a u s e them t o merge o r l o c a l l y come i n t o c o n t a c t i n t h e

107
subsurface. I n consequence, where viewed i n t h r e e dimensions, t h e s e b a r -

- f i n g e r sand b o d i e s may have a n e n eckeZon arrangement i n s e c t i o n s b o t h normal and p a r a l l e l t o t h e g e n e r a l d e p o s i t i o n a l t r e n d . T h i s arrangement

f a c i l i t a t e s t h e movement o f f l u i d s through t h e sand b o d i e s d u r i n g compaction. The movement i s g e n e r a l l y l a t e r a l and upward i n t h e s t r a t a , a l o n g more permeable zones t h a t t r e n d up t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l s l o p e toward t h e margin of the sedimentary p i l e .
It may b e i n f e r r e d t h a t f l u i d s e x p e l l e d from

compacting muds w i l l move i n t o b a r - f i n g e r sand b o d i e s and m i g r a t e upward a l o n g t h e b u r i e d d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l sand b o d i e s . I n f a c t , t h e movement

of f o r m a t i o n f l u i d s t h r o u g h t h e s a n d b o d i e s may b e i n h i b i t e d by penecontemporaneous slumping of l a r g e b l o c k s of s e d i m e n t , forming f a u l t s which r e s t r i c t t h e movement of f l u i d s and r e s u l t i n above-normal f l u i d p r e s s u r e s i n i s o l a t e d b o d i e s of s a n d , L o c a l warping of d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l and b a r - f i n g e r sand b o d i e s , caused by compaction o r t e c t o n i c d e f o r m a t i o n , may r e s u l t i n numerous c l o s u r e s which can become m u l t i p l e s t r a t i g r a p h i c o r s t r a t i g r a p h i c - s t r u c t u r a l t r a p s f o r o i l and g a s . Many s u c h m u l t i p l e pay-zones are known i n T e r t i a r y beds Other examples

of t h e Gulf Coast area of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s (Hartman, 1972).

a r e found i n o i l f i e l d s i n t h e Booch Sandstone of t h e Pennsylvanian NcAlester Formation (Busch, 1971).

Ancient Sand Bodies

Ancient examples of d e l t a d i s t r i b u t a r y and d e l t a - f r i n g e sand b o d i e s o c c u r i n many p a r t s of t h e world and are known from b o t h o u t c r o p and subsurface data. Most examples a r e w i t h i n F l i s s i s s i p p i a n , P e n n s y l v a n i a n , S e l l e y (1970) d e s c r i b e s some of t h e

C r e t a c e o u s , and T e r t i a r y sequences.

f e a t u r e s of t h e s e s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s known from o u t c r o p s of C a r b o n i f e r o u s r o c k s i n n o r t h e r n England. S e l l e y p o i n t s o u t (p. 77) t h a t , "In s e a r c h i n g

f o r a n c i e n t d e l t a s , t h e r e f o r e , w e must look f o r t h i c k c l a s t i c sequences

108
showing r e p e a t e d c y c l e s of upward-coarsening g r a i n s i z e . Each c y c l e should

b e g i n , a t t h e b a s e , w i t h a marine s h a l e which p a s s e s up through s i l t s i n t o c o a r s e r f r e s h - w a t e r channel s a n d s a t t h e t o p . I n plan t h e channels should

show a r a d i a t i n g s h o e s t r i n g p a t t e r n and b e c u t i n t o f r e s h w a t e r s h a l e s and coals." Coal seams a r e a l s o commonly p r e s e n t j u s t above t h e d i s t r i b u t a r y

c h a n n e l s a n d b o d i e s ( F i g . 2-22).

Appalachian Delta, U.S.A.

I n t h e n o r t h e r n Appalachian r e g i o n , Middle Pennsylvanian s a n d s t o n e

b o d i e s were d e p o s i t e d as d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l s , b a r - f i n g e r s , and o t h e r delta-fringe sands. P r o g r a d a t i o n , l a t e r a l s h i f t i n g and c o a l e s c e n c e of The

d e l t a l o b e s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d by Fern (1970) i n F i g s . 2-8 ( a ) and ( b ) .

a s s o c i a t i o n of c a r b o n a t e and non-barbonate r o c k s shown i s n o t t y p i c a l of modern d e l t a s b u t i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of Pennsylvanian d e l t a s i n t h e Appala c h i a n s o f t h e e a s t e r n U.S.A., and Brown, 1973). These s c h e m a t i c diagrams show t h e development of o l d e r and younger d e l t a l o b e s formed i n r e s p o n s e t o m a j o r s h i f t i n g of t h e main r i v e r c h a n n e l and i t s d i s t r i b u t a r i e s . Subsidence of abandoned d e l t a l o b e s , r e s u l t i n g and a l s o i n n o r t h - c e n t r a l Texas (Galloway

from n e a r - s u r f a c e compaction of muds and s i l t s , c a u s e s t r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e

sea and t h e development of a drowned c o a s t a l topography.

L o c a l winnowing

of t h e s e d i m e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r i n g p e r i o d s when p a r t s of t h e c o a s t remain r e l a t i v e l y s t a t i c , forms s h o r e l i n e s a n d s such as beaches and b a r s which t r a n s g r e s s o v e r t h e s i n k i n g landmass. I n such a s i t u a t i o n , m a r i n e

d e l t a - f r i n g e sand b o d i e s o v e r l i e non-marine d e l t a - f r i n g e c h a n n e l s a n d s . Subsequent s h i f t s of t h e r i v e r system may r e s u l t i n new d e l t a l o b e s b u i l d i n g o u t o v e r p a r t s of o l d e r l o b e s . o r three t i m e s . I n t h i s way, t h e c y c l e may b e r e p e a t e d two

F u r t h e r r e p e t i t i o n s are u n l i k e l y b e c a u s e p r o g r a d a t i o n

r e s u l t s i n t h e o r i g i n a l d e p o s i t i o n a l s i t e b e i n g b u r i e d d e e p e r and removed farther inland.

109
MARGINAL PLAIN DELTA PLAIN

A*

Sand

Silt and Clay

Clay with roots

Peat

Limey clay and marl

Vertical exoggeration ontheorder of 1000 X ACTIVELY PROGRADING DELTA WEDGE

ABANDONED WEDGE
I

Sand =Silt

and Clay R C l a y with roots

Peat

Limey clay and marl

Vertical exaggeration on the order of I000 X .

F i g . 2-8 ( a ) and (b)

S c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m showing r e c o n s t r u c t e d and g e n e r a l i z e d p l a n and s e c t i o n a l views A-A1 a n d B-B1

of a M i d d l e P e n n s y l v a l i a n

prograding d e l t a i n the n o r t h e r n Appalachian region. Ferm, 1 9 7 0 ) .

(After

110
Cisco Delta, Texas Within t h e Upper PennsylvaniAn t o Lower Permian Cisco Group of north- c e n t r a l Texas, anastomosing s h o e s t r i n g sands form a c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l p a t t e r n shown i n F i g s . 2-9 and 2-10. These s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s , which o r i g i n a t e d a s

c h a n n e l - f i l l sands i n t h e Cisco D e l t a , form contemporaneous s e t s , each s e t occurring a t a d i f f e r e n t s t r a t i g r a p h i c horizon. I n d i v i d u a l sandstone b o d i e s

tend t o o f f s e t one a n o t h e r i n a d j a c e n t h o r i z o n s , a r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t has been n o t e d a l s o i n Oligocene c h a n n e l - f i l l sands of t h e S e e l i g s o n F i e l d , Texas (Nanz, 1954). This arrangement i s probably t h e r e s u l t of contemp-

oraneous d e p o s i t i o n of sands w i t h i n t h e channels confined by t h e topographi c a l l y h i g h e r l e v e e s , and compaction of t h e s i l t s and c l a y d e p o s i t e d i n t h e t o p o g r a p h i c a l l y low backswamps between t h e d i s t r i b u t a r i e s . Younger

c h a n n e l s , which subsequently form a d j a c e n t and s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l l y h i g h e r

t.

500

VERTICAL

A R R A N G E M E N T OF S A N D S T O N E ClSCO GROUP,

CHANNELS, TEXAS

PENNSYLVANIAN

F i g . 2-9.

Cross s e c t i o n , normal t o t h e p a l e o s l o p e , o f s a n d s t o n e - f i l l e d channels i n t h e Upper Pensylvanian Cisco Group, c e n t r a l Texas. (Redrawn from Brown, 1969).

1 1 1

QUARTZOSE

S A N D TRENDS

IN PENNSYLVANIAN

LIMESTONE SECTION,

TEXAS

F i g . 2-10.

T o t a l s a n d i s o l i t h exceeding a t h i c k n e s s of 40 f e e t , showing t r e n d s of q u a r t z o s e s a n d s w i t h i n t h e Upper Pennsylvanian Lower Permian Cisco Group ( C r y s t a l F a l l s and Saddle Creek l i m e s t o n e s e c t i o n ) i n c e n t r a l Texas. Galloway, 1969). (Redrawn from

s e t s , t e n d t o f o l l o w t h e t o p o g r a p h i c d e p r e s s i o n s between t h e o l d e r

channels. The C i s c o Delta h a s been d e s c r i b e d i n c o n s i d e r a b l e d e t a i l by Galloway and Brown (1973). They s a y , p. 1187, "The Cisco f l u v i a l - d e l t a i c system

i s updip from a s s o c i a t e d s h e l f e d g e s and c o n s i s t s o f s a n d s t o n e and mud-

s t o n e i n t e r b e d d e d w i t h s u b o r d i n a t e amounts of l i m e s t o n e and c o a l .

Facies

composition of t h e system i s s i m i l a r t o , and i t s areal e x t e n t c o i n c i d e n t w i t h , t h e C i s c o Group as d e f i n e d a t t h e o u t c r o p . Components of b o t h f l u v i a l

and d e l t a i c systems are c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s system and cannot b e

112
a r e a l l y s e g r e g a t e d a t t h e system l e v e l . F a c i e s of t h e d e l t a system i n c l u d e

d i s t r i b u t a r y - m o u t h b a r s a n d s t o n e , delta-margin s a n d s t o n e , d e l t a - p l a i n mud and s i l t s t o n e , and p r o d e l t a and i n t e r d i s t r i b u t a r y mudstone. Fluvial facies

i n c l u d e c h a n n e l s a n d s t o n e , c r e v a s s e s p l a y s a n d s t o n e and s i l t s t o n e , overbank mudstone, and l a c u s t r i n e d e p o s i t s " . They s a y f u r t h e r , p . 1189, "The Cisco

f l u v i a l d e l t a i c system e x t e n d s 50-70 m i westward from t h e o u t c r o p b e l t i n t o t h e s u b s u r f a c e , where i t g r a d e s i n t o l i m e s t o n e f a c i e s of t h e S y l v e s t e r s h e l f - e d g e bank system". Several structural-stratigraphic t r a p s f o r o i l have been found i n

c h a n n e l - f i l l s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s of t h e C i s c o Group, i n c l u d i n g t h e M o r r i s , Buie-Blaco, Cook Ranch and Bluff Creek f i e l d s .

Volgograd Delta, U.S.S.R. P a r t of a Lower C a r b o n i f e r o u s system of d e l t a d i s t r i b u t a r i e s , s i t u a t e d n o r t h o f Volgograd ( S t a l i n g r a d ) U.S.S.R.,

i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 2-11.

The

p a t t e r n shown i s t h e g r o s s d i s t r i b u t i o n of d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l - f i l l sands

O
0 I

L 50KM
VOLGOGRAD

50
MILES

F i g . 2-11.

Lower C a r b o n i f e r o u s p a l e o d e l t a , n e a r Volgograd ( S t a l i n g r a d ) ,

U.S.S.R.

(Redrawn from X a r k o v s k i i , 1967).

113 within a p a r t i c u l a r s t r a i t g r a p h i c i n t e r v a l .
It c o n s e q u e n t l y r e p r e s e n t s

t h e s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n o f s u c c e s s i v e d i s t r i b u t a r y s y s t e m s t h a t grew southward w i t h i n t h e t i m e s p a n r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c i n t e r v a l . I n d i v i d u a l l y , t h e s e c h a n n e l - f i l l s a n d s have a w i d t h of 3-8 km and c o l l e c t i v e l y t h e y have been t r a c e d f o r 163 km. Smaller sandstone bodies The p a t t e r n o f d i s t -

a r e commonly 10-20 m t h i c k , b u t range up t o 45 m.

r i b u t a r i e s i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t of t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n Bedford Formation (Fig. 1-15) i n Ohio, and o f t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a n Booch Sandstone i n (Fig. 2-15) i n Oklahoma.

I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of Delta D i s t r i b u t a r y Channel Sands P r e v i o u s examples i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e b r a n c h i n g and anastomosing geog r a p h i c p a t t e r n o f s h o e s t r i n g s a n d s , and t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s of i n d i v i d u a l s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s , c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s h q e s t r i n g sands o r i g i n a t e d a s d e l t a d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l - f i l l s a n d s .

Where o n l y

one s a n d s t o n e body i s known, i t s p o s s i b l e d e p o s i t i o n a l environment and p a l e o g e o g r a p h i c s e t t i n g may b e d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e . I n such c a s e s ,

d i f f e r e n c e s of o p i n i o n may a r i s e as t o t h e o r i g i n o f t h e s a n d s t o n e body and i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c h i s t o r y of t h e r e g i o n ,

A c a s e i n p o i n t i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 2-12,

an i s o p a c h map showing

t h r e e p a r a l l e l t r e n d s i n t h e Upper M i s s i s s i p p i a n P a l e s t i n e Sandstone of Illinois. The P a l e s t i n e Sandstone, which r a n g e s i n t h i c k n e s s t o 30 m,

i s an upper u n i t of t h e C h e s t e r S e r i e s wnich i n c l u d e s t h i r t e e n major

s a n d s t o n e u n i t s ( s e e F i g . 2-20) I l l i n o i s Basin. c o n s t i t u t i n g 25% of t h e s e c t i o n i n t h e

A g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a l l t h e s e s a n d s t o n e u n i t s i s

t h a t t h e y have s h a r p e r o s i o n a l c o n t a c t s w i t h t h e u n d e r l y i n g b e d s , a f e a t u r e r e f l e c t e d i n t h e blocky t o b e l l - s h a p e d s e l f - p o t e n t i a l curve of t h e i r E-logs. Locallj-, t h e s e s a n d s t o n e u n i t s are u n d e r l a i n by e r o s i o n a l The s a n d s t o n e s are f i n e t o v e r y f i n e - g r a i n e d ,

c h a n n e l s up t o 15 m i n d e p t h .

114

1 0

-0
KM

1 0

MILES

F i g . 2-12.

Isopach map showing t r e n d s i n t h e Upper M i s s i s s i p p i a n P a l e s t i n e Sandstone, I l l i n o i s . Arrow i n d i c a t e s mean

d i r e c t i o n of c r o s s - b e d d i n g , i n d i c a t i n g southward t r a n s p o r t of sand. (Redrawn from P o t t e r

e t al., 1958, F i g . 1 3 ) .

and are composed a l m o s t e n t i r e l y of moderately well-rounded q u a r t z g r a i n s , w i t h g e n e r a l l y less t h a n 1%f e l d s p a r . Cross bedding i s p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l

developed i n t h e t h i c k e r p a r t s of t h e s a n d s t o n e u n i t s which a l s o c o n t a i n r i p p l e marks and p l a n t remains. P o t t e r , e t al. (1958) s a y t h a t a l t h o u g h marine f o s s i l s a r e n o t common w i t h i n t h e b a s i n , t h e y have been found i n some p a r t s of t h e b a s i n i n n e a r l y e v e r y s a n d s t o n e u n i t of t h e C h e s t e r . Could t h e y have been re-worked from Some s a n d s t o n e u n i t s c o n t a i n On t h e o t h e r

penecontemporaneous a d j a c e n t marine b e d s ?

c a l c a r e o u s zones t h a t l o c a l l y g r a d e i n t o sandy l i m e s t o n e .

hand, P o t t e r , e t aZ. (1958, p . 1016) s a y t h a t , '*Thin c o a l beds a r e associ a t e d with t h e Chester sandstones a t e i g h t horizons". The o r i g i n of t h e s e l i n e a r s a n d s t o n e u n i t s i s p r o b l e m a t i c a l .
Off

(1963) w a s of t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e y may have been t i d a l c u r r e n t r i d g e s .

A l t e r n a t i v e l y , they may have been d e p o s i t e d i n d i s t r i b u t a r i e s on a d e l t a

115
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a r e l a t i v e s c a r c i t y of non-carbonate mud and by t h e formation of c a l c a r e o u s b e d s . This s e d i m e n t o l o g i c and l i t h o l i g i c assoc-

i a t i o n i s n o t common t o d a y , b u t i s t y p i c a l of Pennsylvanian d e l t a s i n t h e Appalachian r e g i o n . Many of t h e C h e s t e r s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s form good r e s e r v o i r s f o r o i l . With r e f e r e n c e t o t h e l a t e r a l v a r i a t i o n of s a n d s i n t h e Upper M i s s i s s i p p i a n of s o u t h e r n I l l i n o i s , Levorsen (1967, p. 289) s t a t e s , "These M i s s i s s i p p i a n rocks a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s a n d p a t c h e s , l e n s e s , b a r s , c h a n n e l s , and f a c i e s changes, and i n a d d i t i o n t h e y are t r u n c a t e d toward t h e n o r t h by o v e r l a p p i n g Pennsylvanian f o r m a t i o n s , which c o n t a i n l e n t i c u l a r s a n d s . g r e a t many o i l p o o l s are found i n t h e s e M i s s i s s i p p i a n and P e n s y l v a n i a n s a n d s ; most of them are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f o l d i n g , b u t many are l i m i t e d on one o r more s i d e s by t h e edges of p e r m e a b i l i t y " . The l a t e r a l v a r i a t i o n s
A

of t h e s e s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s have been p o i n t e d o u t by Swann and A t h e r t o n (1948). One of t h e many Pennsylvanian c h a n n e l - f i l l s a n d s t o n e s of t h e I l l i n o i s Basin i s shown i n F i g . 2-13. This sandstone u n i t has a thickness

of 5-25 m , a w i d t h of 3-8 km, and t r e n d s i n a meandering c o u r s e t o t h e s o u t h e a s t , t h e d i r e c t i o n of flow of t h e a n c i e n t r i v e r system. The sand-

s t o n e l i e s a d j a c e n t t o and s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l l y between t h e Summun and H a r r i s b u r g c o a l seams, a r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t s u g g e s t s a marshy environment. The meandering p a t t e r n of t h e s a n d s t o n e body, and a l s o i t s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h c o a l s e a m s , p o i n t s t o i t s o r i g i n i n t h e c h a n n e l system of a r i v e r flowing through a low-lying t e r r a i n t h a t w a s p r o b a b l y t h e c o a s t a l p l a i n of a d e l t a .

An i n t e r e s t i n g example of d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l s a n d s , mapped i n
o u t c r o p as d i s c r e t e s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s , b u t shown by e x t r a p o l a t i o n t o b e p a r t s of a b r a n c h i n g d i s t r i b u t a r y s y s t e m , i s shown i n Fig. 2-14. These s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s are w i t h i n t h e n e a r l y f l a t - l y i n g Upper Cretaceous

116

MEANDERING PENNSYLVANIAN SANDSTONE CHANNEL,

Fig. 2-13.

I LLlNOlS

Meandering Pennsylvanian s a n d s t o n e channel between t h e Summun and H a r r i s b u r g c o a l seams i n e a s t - c e n t r a l I l l i n o i s .

The s a n d s t o n e body o u t l i n e d ranges i n t h i c k n e s s from 20

t o 80 f e e t (6-24 m). t o t h e south-east.

D i r e c t i o n of sediment t r a n s p o r t i s (Redrawn from P o t t e r , 1962).

Bearpaw Shale of c e n t r a l Montana.

Although on a much smaller s c a l e , t h e

p a t t e r n of Bearpaw d i s t r i b u t a r i e s resembles t h a t of t h e Lower Carboni f e r o u s Volgograd d e l t a i n t h e U.S.S.R., Booch Sandstone of Oklahoma. and a l s o t h e d e l t a i c Pennsylvanian

These Bearpaw s h o e s t r i n g sands have a I n d i v i d u a l l y , they They c o n s i s t of

t h i c k n e s s of up t o 20 m, and a w i d t h of up t o 2km. have been t r a c e d i n o u t c r o p f o r s e v e r a l k i l o m e t r e s . l i g h t grey, f i n e t o coarse-grained,

cross-bedded l i t h i c s a n d s t o n e s

c o n t a i n i n g c l a y s t o n e (mud) b a l l s and abundant carbonized p l a n t remains. O v e r l a i n and u n d e r l a i n by s i l t s t o n e s and s h a l e s , they are c o n s i d e r e d t o

117
R 21 E R22E

0
1

MILES

5
I

F i g . 2-14.

D i s t r i b u t i o n of s h o e s t r i n g s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s formed a s c h a n n e l s i n t h e n e a r l y f l a t - l y i n g Upper Cretaceous Bearpaw S h a l e , c e n t r a l Montana. ( A f t e r Wulf, 1964).

b e d i s t r i b u t a r i e s formed on p a r t of a Bearpaw delta-complex t h a t prograded e a s t w a r d . The area shown i n F i g . 2-14 o v e r l i e s t h e Lake Basin o i l and g a s f i e l d , a s t r u c t u r a l dome.

I n t h e s u b s u r f a c e , t h e p a t t e r n of Bearpaw

s h o e s t r i n g s a n d s now c r o p p i n g o u t could form p o t e n t i a l s t r u c t u r a l - s t r a t i g r a p h i c t r a p s f o r hydrocarbons.

O i l and Gas F i e l d s -

The f o l l o w i n g examples of o i l and gas f i e l d s i n d i s t r i b u t a r y and d e l t a - f r i n g e sand b o d i e s range i n age from Late P a l e o z o i c t o Middle Cenozoic. Of t h e s e , f o u r are P e n n y s l v a n i a n , two are M i s s i s s i p p i a n ,

118
t h r e e a r e C r e t a c e o u s , and f o u r are T e r t i a r y . t h e U.S.A., t h e U.S.S.E. E i g h t examples a r e i n

two i n Canada, and one e a c h i n Venezuela, N i g e r i a , and T h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n i s n o t p r e s e n t e d as b e i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

of t h e world o r of Xorth America, as i t i s o b v i o u s l y b i a s e d by a v e r y l i m i t e d sampling.

Booch Sandstone O i l F i e l d s , Oklahoma The E a r l y P e n n s y l v a n i a n Booch Sandstone of t h e 14cAlester Formation i n Oklahoma ( F i g . 2-15) forms a b r a n c h i n g s y s t e m of d i s t r i b u t a r y shoeFlowing t o t h e

- s t r i n g s a n d s t h a t cover an a r e a a t l e a s t 112 km wide.

s o u t h , t h i s d i s t r i b u t a r y s y s t e m comprised a c e n t r a l main c h a n n e l , i n which s a n d b o d i e s more t h a n 60 m t h i c k w e r e d e p o s i t e d , and a l s o secondary c h a n n e l s which commonly c o n t a i n e d sand b o d i e s less t h a n 30 m t h i c k . F i g . 2-15 shows t h e g e n e r a l i z e d p a t t e r n formed by t h e composite d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s e sand b o d i e s .

In t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n p a r t of t h e a r e a , t h e

upper s a n d s t o n e member of t h e Booch Sandstone i s t h e predominant u n i t , whereas i n t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n p a r t t h e Booch Sandstone i s r e p r e s e n t e d by

members lower i n t h e sequence.

Busch (1971) s a y s t h a t t h e Booch d i s t -

r i b u t a r i e s were formed on a l a r g e delta-complex t h a t covered an area of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5120 s q . km w i t h i n t h e Arkoma Basin. t o n o t e t h a t t h e present-day

It i s i n t e r e s t i n g

c o n f i g u r a t i o n of composite c h a n n e l s w i t h i n

t h e d e l t a of t h e Rio Grande R i v e r , Texas, i s comparable i n s i z e and s h a p e t o t h a t of t h e Booch Sandstone ( F i g . 2-15). The Booch Sandstone

i s commonly v e r y f i n e - g r a i n e d and l i t h i c , w i t h a f a i r l y h i g h (ave. 15%)

c o n t e n t of c l a y . P e r m e a b i l i t y improves where, l o c a l l y , t h e s a n d s t o n e i s

medium t o c o a r s e - g r a i n e d . There a r e numerous o i l f i e l d s producing from t h e Booch Sandstone, most of which are n o t i n t h e t h i c k e r main c h a n n e l b u t i n t h e t h i n n e r distributaries. Many of t h e s e a r e p u r e l y s t r a t i g r a p h i c t r a p s , t h e

119

OIL FIELDS IN PENNSYLVANIAN BOOCH SANDSTONE OKLAHOM

RIO GRANDE DELTA, TEXAS

F i g . 2-15.

Upper

Map showing composite d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e Booch Sandstone member i n t h e Pennsylvanian McAlester Formation, Seminole d i s t r i c t , Oklahoma. Numerous o i l

f i e l d s , where p r o d u c t i o n i s o b t a i n e d from t h e Booch,

are shown i n b l a c k .

(Redrawn from Dicky and Rohn,

1958, a f t e r Br;sch, 1953; Busch, 1971).

Lower - Map showing present-day d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l s on t h e This d e l t a

d e l t a of t h e Rio Grande R i v e r , Texas.

h a s grown a c r o s s t h e lagoon where i t s e x t e n s i o n i s c u r r e n t l y l i m i t e d by wave and c u r r e n t a c t i o n t h a t forms t h e b a r r i e r i s l a n d . C o n t i n u a l l y changing c o u r s e ,

t h e d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l s b u i l d up a complex p a t t e r n of s i n u o u s s h o e s t r i n g s a n d s .

Same s c a l e as above.

120

1 4

23
0

.
26

121
o i l b e i n g c o n f i n e d by p e r m e a b i l i t y b a r r i e r s where t h e s a n d s t o n e p i n c h e s out and i s f l a n k e d by s h a l e s and s i l t s t o n e s which o r i g i n a t e d as sediments d e p o s i t e d i n a backswamp environment between t h e d i s t r i b u t a r i e s . Others

have a s t r u c t u r a l i n f l u e n c e where westward-plunging n o s e s i n t e r s e c t more permeable s a n d s t o n e zones w i t h i n t h e d i s t r i b u t a r y t r e n d s . The Hawkins O i l F i e l d , l o c a t e d a t t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n e x t r e m i t y of t h e Booch d e l t a ( s e e i n s e t i n F i g . 2-15), shown i n Fig. 2-16. produces from thP Booch Sandstone

T h i s f i g u r e i s an i s o p a c h map of a member comprising

d i s t r i b u t a r y s a n d b o d i e s s i t u a t e d i n t h e middle of t h e Booch s t r a t i g r a p h i c interval. 'This o i l - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e member w a s d e p o s i t e d i n a main n o r t h and

-south t r e n d i n g d i s t r i b u t a r y channel t h a t branched t o t h e s o u t h - e a s t south-west.

The maximum t h i c k n e s s of s a n d s t o n e i n t h e main c h a n n e l i s

10 m.

-1itrapment of o i l h a s r e s u l t e d from t h e c o i n c i d e n c e of t h e s e

s h o e s t r i n g s a n d s and a s t r u c t u r a l "high" t h a t h a s r e s u l t e d from compaction. Busch (1971) shows t h a t r a t e s of p r o d u c t i o n c o i n c i d e w i t h t r e n d s of maximum s a n d s t o n e t h i c k n e s s , t h e o i l y i e l d b e i n g g r e a t e r where t h e s a n d s t o n e i s thicker.

South P i n e Hollow Gas F i e l d , Oklahoma I n t h e South P i n e Hollow Gas F i e l d ( F i g . 2-17) of Oklahoma t h e

producing u n i t i s t h e E a r l y Pennsylvanian Lower H a r t s h o r n e Sandstone. This s a n d s t o n e , which i s t h e b a s a l u n i t of t h e Desmoinesian S t a g e , i s

F i g . 2-16.

I s o p a c h map of t h e o i l - b e a r i n g middle member of t h e Booch Sandstone i n t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a n McAlester Formation, Oklahoma. The a r e a shown c o v e r s t h e Hawkins O i l F i e l d . i n s q u a r e m i l e s (1 m i l e = 1 . 6 km). S c a l e of g r i d

Contours show i n t e r v a l s of

5 f e e t (1.5 m).

( A f t e r Busch, 1971).

122

ISOPACH OF N E T SANDSTONE, LOWER HARTSHORNE SANDSTONE, OKLAHOMA

F i g . 2-17. Isopach of n e t s a n d s t o n e , Pennsylvanian Lower H a r t s h o r n e S a n d s t o n e , South P i n e Hollow Gas F i e l d , P i t t s b u r g County, Oklahoma.
This l i n e a r s a n d s t o n e body i s i n t e r p r e t e d as

f i l l i n g a d i s t r i b u t a r y channel.

(Redrawn from McDaniel,

1968).

u n d e r l a i n by t h e Atokan Formation and o v e r l i a n by t h e H c A l e s t e r Formation which i n c l u d e s t h e Booch Sandstone. The H a r t s h o r n e Sandstone i s a l i n e a r s a n d s t o n e body which i s i n t e r p r e t e d as having been a d e l t a d i s t r i b u t a r y sand. h a s been t r a c e d f o r more t h a n 25 km. This s a n d s t o n e body

It h a s a f a i r l y c o n s t a n t w i d t h

of about 2-3 km, and a g r o s s t h i c k n e s s which r a n g e s i n e x c e s s of 60 m. The n e t s a n d s t o n e t h i c k n e s s i s approximately h a l f t h e g r o s s t h i c k n e s s a t any p a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n , and h a s a maximum of 40 m. P e r m e a b i l i t y and

p o r o s i t y i n c r e a s e toward t h e t h i c k e r p a r t s of t h e s a n d s t o n e body.
O f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s a n d s t o n e body l i e s

i n a s t r u c t u r a l l y low f e a t u r e , and t h a t t h e gas accumulation i s c o n t r o l l e d e n t i r e l y by s t r a t i g r a p h i c p a r a m e t e r s i n c l u d i n g v a r i a t i o n s i n

123
p o r o s i t y , p e r m e a b i l i t y , and n e t s a n d s t o n e t h i c k n e s s . Recoverable

r e s e r v e s i n t h e South P i n e Hollow G a s F i e l d a r e e s t i m a t e d t o be i n e x c e s s of 100,000 m i l l i o n c u b i c f e e t (2,800 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) .

Pokrovsk O i l F i e l d , U . S . S . R . I n t h e Pokrovsk F i e l d ( F i g . 2-18) of s o u t h - c e n t r a l U . S . S . R . , oil

i s produced from a s i n u o u s s a n d s t o n e body e n c l o s e d w i t h i n a c l a y s t o n e bed o v e r l a i n and u n d e r l a i n by C a r b o n i f e r o u s l i m e s t o n e . The s a n d s t o n e

body, which h a s been t r a c e d by d r i l l i n g f o r n e a r l y 15 krn a l o n g i t s l e n g t h , h a s a w i d t h of up t o 2 kn and a maxirr.um t h i c k n e s s of 10 m.

CARBONIFEROUS POKROVSK OIL FIELD, U S S R

Fig. 2-18.

Map and s e c t i o n s of t h e Pokrovsk o i l f i e l d i n t h e Russian P l a t f o r m , U.S.S.R. The o i l - b e a r i n g sandstone, considered t o

have been d e p o s i t e d by a r i v e r f l o w i n g i n t h e d i r e c t i o n i n d i c a t e d by t h e a r r o w , forms a s i n u o u s body w i t h i n a c l a y s t o n e bed t h a t l i e s between l a y e r s of Lower C a r b o n i f e r o u s limestone. (Redrawn from Markovskii, 1965).

124 The s a n d s t o n e i s c o n s i d e r e d t o have been a c h a n n e l - f i l l sand d e p o s i t e d by a d i s t r i b u t a r y f l o w i n g o v e r a f l a t c o a s t a l p l a i n d u r i n g a p e r i o d of l i m i t e d emergence of t h e l a n d preceded and f o l l o w e d by t h e development of c a r b o n a t e s h o a l s . t o medium-grained, and w e l l s o r t e d . The s a n d s t o n e i s q u a r t z o s e , f i n e The mean p o r o s i t y i s 20% and t h e

p e r m e a b i l i t y , which i s g e n e r a l l y good, i n c r e a s e s i n t h e c e n t r a l p a r t s of t h e body where t h e s a n d s t o n e i s t h i c k e r and c o a r s e r . The p a t t e r n of

h o l e s s u g g e s t s t h a t o i l accumulation i n t h e f i e l d i s c o n t r o l l e d e s s e n t i a l l y by s t r a t i g r a p h i c f e a t u r e s r e l a t e d t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s a n d s t o n e body, and t h a t e x p l o r a t i o n proceeded on a h i t - o r - m i s s basis.

E a s t Tuskegee O i l F i e l d , Oklahoma The Misener Sandstone i s one of t h e main producing members i n t h e E a s t Tuskegee F i e l d of Oklahoma, y i e l d i n g o i l h a v i n g a g r a v i t y of 39O
A.P.I.

T h i s s a n d s t o n e unconformably o v e r l i e s t h e O r d o v i c i a n and i s

conformably o v e r l a i n by t h e E a r l y H i s s i s s i p p i a n Chattanooga S h a l e which i s a very widespread, diachronous u n i t . The uppermost p a r t of t h e Misener

Sandstone i s composed mainly of a n g u l a r t o rounded g r a i n s of q u a r t z , and c o n t a i n s conodonts and p h o s p h a t i c g a s t r d i t h s (Borden and B r a n t , 1941). The lower p a r t i s c o a r s e - g r a i n e d , abundant g r a i n s of c h e r t . The o r i g i n of t h e H i s e n e r Sandstone h a s been t h e s u g j e c t of controversy. White (1928) was of t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e s a n d s t o n e was e o l i a n , commonly g r i t t y , and q u a r t z o s e w i t h

whereas Borden and B r a n t (1941) concluded t h a t t h e s a n d s t o n e was d e p o s i t e d n e a r s h o r e i n a marine environment. The s t r a t i g r a p h i c p o s i t i o n o f t h e

s a n d s t o n e , l y i n g d i r e c t l y on an unconformity, and t h e c o a r s e n a t u r e of t h e lower s e c t i o n s u g g e s t a f l u v i a l o r i g i n f o r t h e lowermost p a r t . t h e Misener was d e p o s i t e d t h e l a n d must have been v e r y f l a t and n e a r s e a l e v e l t o a l l o w e x t e n s i v e t r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e s e a i n Chattanooga When

125
time. It i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h e n , t h a t t h e upper p a r t of t h e Misener

should c o n t a i n a marine f a u n a .

The p a t t e r n of d i s t r i b u t i o n and t h i c k nay r e p r e s e n t a composite

n e s s of t h e M i s e n e r , as shown i n F i g . 2-19,

p i c t u r e of a d i s t r i b u t a r y s a n d body t h a t h a s been re-worked i n t h e upper p a r t by a t r a n s g r e s s i n g s e a , p o s s i b l y i n an e s t u a r i n e environment.

GEOMETRY OF MISENER SANDSTONE, EAST TUSKEGEE

OIL FIELD, O K L A H O M A

Fig. 2-19.

I s o p a c h map of M i s s i s s i p p i a n Misener Sandstone, E a s t Tuskegee

O i l Fi.eld, Creek County, Oklahoma.

(Redrawn from Borden and

Brant, 1941).

126 Dale C o n s o l i d a t e d O i l F i e l d , I l l i n o i s

In t h e Dale C o n s o l i d a t e d F i e l d of I l l i n o i s , o i l p r o d u c t i o n i s
o b t a i n e d from t h e Upper M i s s i s s i p p i a n Hardinsburg Sandstone, one of s e v e r a l hydrocarbon-bearing s a n d s t o n e u n i t s i n t h e C h e s t e r S e r i e s ( s e e F i g . 2-12). F i g . 2-20 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e s h a r p e r o s i o n a l c o n t a c t of t h e

Hardinsburg Sandstone w i t h t h e u n d e r l y i n g b e d s , and t h e upward d e c r e a s e

of mean g r a i n s i z e i n t h e upper p a r t of t h e Hardinsburg.

These c h a r a c t -

e r i s t i c s a r e t y p i a a l of s a n d s t o n e u n i t s i n t h e C h e s t e r and are i n d i c a t i v e of t h e i r o r i g i n a s c h a n n e l - f i l l s a n d s . The u s e of a c l o s e l y u n d e r l y i n g

l i m e s t o n e marker as a datum r e s t o r e s t h e o r i g i n a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e c h a n n e l and s u g g e s t s t h a t when t h e c h a n n e l w a s i n i t i a l l y f i l l e d w i t h c o a r s e r s a n d , c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e b l o c k y s e l f - p o t e n t i a l E-log c u r v e , t h e l i m e s t o n e marker and o t h e r beds u n d e r l y i n g t h e e r o s i o n a l channel had
a low r e g i o n a l d i p .

MILE KM 1

1
I

F i g . 2-20.

S t r a t i g r a p h i c s e c t i o n of c h a n n e l f i l l e d w i t h Upper M i s s i s s i p p i a n Hardinsburg Sandstone, Dale C o n s o l i d a t e d o i l f i e l d , Hamilton County, I l l i n o i s . Potter Datum i s a l i m e s t o n e bed. (Redrawn from

e t aZ., 1958).

127 The Hardinsburg Sandstone and o t h e r s a n d s t o n e u n i t s of t h e C h e s t e r a r e c o n s i d e r e d by P o t t e r e t aZ. (1958) t o have been d e r i v e d from pre-

- e x i s t i n g s e d i m e n t s , as they are q u a r t z a r e n i t e s composed almost e n t i r e l y

of moderately well-rounded g r a i n s .

I n d i c a t i v e of t h e i r o r i g i n as

c h a n n e l - f i l l s a n d s , t h e s e s a n d s t o n e u n i t s commonly show f l u v i a l - t y p e cross-bedding. Also i n d i c a t i v e of t h e i r d e p o s i t i o n a l environment i s

t h e i r s t r a t i g r a p h i c r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h i n c o a l seams, which s u g g e s t t h a t t h e c h a n n e l s meandered o v e r a marshy d e l t a i c p l a i n .

B e l l s h i l l Lake O i l F i e l d , A l b e r t a The B e l l s h i l l Lake F i e l d of e a s t - c e n t r a l A l b e r t a produces o i l from t h e E l l e r s l i e S a n d s t o n e , t h e b a s a l u n i t of t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s B l a i r more Group. ( F i g s . 1-41, The E l l e r s l i e , which f i l l s a b r o a d , e a s t - w e s t trending valley

1-42) on t h e eroded s u r f a c e of t h e Devonian c a r b o n a t e s , i s Fluvial-

composed of q u a r t z o s e s a n d s t o n e d e r i v e d from Precambrian r o c k s .

t y p e cross-bedding i s a common f e a t u r e , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e E l l e r s l i e was d e p o s i t e d by a r i v e r . P a l e o g e o g r a p h i c r e c o n s t r u c t i o n (Conybeare, 1972)

s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s r i v e r flowed e a s t w a r d from t h e Precambrian S h i e l d t o a Lower C r e t a c e o u s sea t r a n s g r e s s i n g southward. Transgression subsequently

r e s u l t e d i n drowning t h e E l l e r s l i e r i v e r s y s t e m , t h e s a n d s of which are o v e r l a i n by e s t u a r i n e , c o a s t a l marsh, and b r a c k i s h t o f r e s h - w a t e r l a c u s t r i n e sediments. F i g . 2-21 i l l u s t r a t e s a p o r t i o n of a s h a l l o w stream c h a n n e l t h a t meandered on a c o a s t a l p l a i n o v e r l y i n g t h e E l l e r s l i e r i v e r s a n d a t B e l l s h i l l Lake O i l F i e l d .

In t h i s c a s e , hydrocarbon accumulation i n

t h e meandering sand body i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o p r o d u c t i o n from t h e E l l e r s l i e , b u t where s u c h an a r c u a t e body i s t h i c k e r and convex up-dip,

i t may form an e x c e l l e n t s t r a t i g r a p h i c t r a p .

A s i m i l a r example

(Fig. 1-43) i s i l l u s t r a t e d by M a r t i n (1966) who s t a t e s t h a t i n t h e

128

El

u
0
!

KM

I
I

MILE

IOOFEET

ISOPACH M A P O F MANNVILLE SANDSTONE BELLSHILL LAKE FIELD, ALBERTA.

'A,

F i g . 2-21.

Upper - I s o p a c h map o f a t h i n s a n d s t o n e 'A'

i n t h e lower p a r t

of the B l a i n o r e G r o u p , B e l l s h i l l L a k e F i e l d , A l b e r t a .
T h i s s a n d s t o n e w a s d e p o s i t e d as a stream meander on a coastal plain.

Lower - E l e c t r i c l o g s h o w i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of s a n d s t o n e 'A' t o t h e o i l - p r o d u c i n g b a s a l q u a r t z s a n d s t o n e (B) of t h e

E l l e r s l i e F o r m a t i o n i n t h e B e l l s h i l l Lake F i e l d .

Hughenden F i e l d , w h i c h a l s o p r o d u c e s from t h e E l l e r s l i e , o i l i s t r a p p e d w i t h i n t h e E l l e r s l i e a g a i n s t a c l a y - f i l l e d meander t h a t i n t e r s e c t s t h e regional strike. Both e x a m p l e s r e q u i r e a c l o s u r e formed by t h e c o i n IS

c i d e n c e of a m e a n d e r l o o p and r e g i o n a l d i p : b u t i n F i q . 2 2 1 % h e t r a p

129 a s a n d - f i l l e d l o o p , whereas i n M a r t i n ' s example t h e t r a p i s w i t h i n a s a n d - f i l l e d l o o p of t h e E l l e r s l i e where i t i s l o c a l l y s e a l e d by a younger clay-filled loop. Other examples o f a s i m i l a r n a t u r e a r e i l l u s t r a t e d by

Conybeare (1972), Swindon (1968), Berg (1968) and Truchot (1963). The E l l e r s l i e Sandstone i s cross-bedded, - g r a i n e d and up t o 75 m t h i c k . quartzose, f i n e t o coarse-

It h a s v a r i a b l e p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y ,

i n p a r t determined by l o c a l c e m e n t a t i o n w i t h c a l c i t e and c l a y m i n e r a l s . In t h e B e l l s h i l l Lake F i e l d t h e p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y a r e commonly i n t h e range 25-28% and 1,000-1,500 m i l l i d a r c y s r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e l a t t e r ranging up t o 6,000 b u t a v e r a g i n g 600 m i l l i d a r c y s . P r o d u c t i o n problems

d e r i v e mainly from a n e f f e c t i v e water d r i v e t h a t i n v a d e s t h e o i l - b e a r i n g zone. The o i l has a g r a v i t y of 280 A . P . I . and a g a s c o n t e n t of approx-

i m a t e l y 150 c u b i c f e e t p e r b a r r e l of oil. (approximately 20 c u b i c metres of g a s p e r c u b i c metre of o i l ) . The e s t i m a t e d o i l i n p l a c e i s approx-

i m a t e l y 180 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (28.6 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) , b u t water d r i v e problems p r e c l u d e t h e p r o d u c t i o n of v e r y l i t t l e more t h a n 36 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (5.7 m i l l i o n cubic metres).

B e l l y R i v e r P o o l , Pembina O i l F i e l d , A l b e r t a

I n t h e Pembina F i e l d of w e s t - c e n t r a l A l b e r t a , t h e main o i l p r o d u c t i o n comes from t h e Upper C r e t a c e o u s Cardium S a n d s t o n e , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 300 m below t h e b a s a l s a n d s t o n e number of t h e Upper Cretaceous B e l l y River Formation. A d d i t i o n a l p r o d u c t i o n i s o b t a i n e d from t h e B e l l y River P o o l Overlying a t h i c k

which y i e l d s o i l from t h i s b a s a l s a n d s t o n e member.

sequence of marine s h a l e s of t h e Upper Cretaceous Lea Park Formation, t h e b a s a l member of t h e B e l l y R i v e r i s found throughout a wide a r e a . diachxonous and c o n s i s t s of two o r more g e n e t i c u n i t s .
It i s

One of t h e s e u n i t s

i s a marine s h o r e l i n e s a n d , a n o t h e r i s a sand t h a t f i l l s c h a n n e l s c u t

i n t o t h e marine sand by d i s t r i b u t a r i e s of t h e e a s t w a r d p r o g r a d i n g B e l l y

130

CRETACEOUS

BELLY ALBERTA

RIVER

SANDSTONE,

PEMSINA

OIL FIELD,

BUCK CREEK

14-30

A1

F i g . 2-22.

Map and s t r a t i g r a p h i c s e c t i o n A - A 1 showing d e p o s i t i o n a l t r e n d s of t h e b a s a l s a n d s t o n e s of t h e Upper Cretaceous B e l l y R i v e r Formation, Pembina F i e l d , A l b e r t a . The map shows r i v e r

d i s t r i b u t a r y sands (stippled) c u t t i n g across a marine s h o r e l i n e sand ( h a t c h u r e d ) . The s t i p p l e d and h a t c h u r e d a r e a s a l s o

i n d i c a t e where t h e s a n d s t o n e s are more t h a n 30 f e e t t h i c k . The arrow shows t h e approximate d i r e c t i o n of r e g i o n a l d i p . The s e c t i o n shows c o a r s e t o medium sand (1) f i l l i n g t h e lower p a r t of a c h a n n e l o v e r l a i n by f i n e sand ( 2 ) .
i s i n t u r n o v e r l a i n by s i l t s and a c o a l seam.

T h i s f i n e sand ( A f t e r Conybeare,

1944, 1972).

131
River d e l t a . The marine sand i s g e n e r a l l y f i n e - g r a i n e d , w i t h poor

p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y , whereas t h e c h a n n e l s a n d s are c o a r s e r and more permeable. The B e l l y R i v e r P o o l i s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n one of t h e s e

channels ( F i g . 2-22). The producing s a n d s t o n e i s l i t h i c , c o n s i s t i n g of g r a i n s of q u a r t z , q u a r t z i t e , c h e r t , f e l d s p a r , a r g i l l i t e , and v o l c a n i c r o c k s d e r i v e d from a western source. The s a n d s t o n e g r a d e s from c o a r s e t o medium a t t h e Mudstone, c o n t a i n i n g a t h i n c o a l seam, o v e r l i e s

base t o f i n e a t t h e top. the sandstone.

Within t h e c h a n n e l , which i s about 2 k m i n width, t h e The maximum t h i c k n e s s of t h e

maximum t h i c k n e s s of s a n d s t o n e i s 20 m . o i l - b e a r i n g zone i s 10 m. but variable.

P o r o s i t y a v e r a g e s 18% and p e r m e a b i l i t y i s f a i r

The p o o l i s p u r e l y s t r a t i g r a p h i c , o i l b e i n g c o n t a i n e d

w i t h i n t h e t h i c k e r and c o a r s e r p a r t s of t h e s a n d s t o n e where i t i s t r a p p e d by p e r m e a b i l i t y b a r r i e r s on t h e f l a n k s of t h e c h a n n e l . The B e l l y R i v e r Pool i s e s t i m a t e d t o c o n t a i n more t h a n 30 m i l l i o n

( 4 . 8 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) of 36O A . P . I .

o i l , but recoverable reserves

a r e estimated a t only 2 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (0.2 m i l l i o n cubic metres).

Gas s o l u t i o n d r i v e i s t h e main producing mechanism, t h e i n i t i a l gas c o n t e n t

of t h e o i l amounting t o 350 c u b i c f e e t p e r b a r r e l of o i l (approximately 50 c u b i c metres of g a s p e r c u b i c metre of o i l ) . a r e 25-30 b a r r e l s a day p e r well. Allowable p r o d u c t i o n rates

A f i e s e r e and Eriemu O i l F i e l d s , N i g e r i a The o i l - p r o d u c i n g s a n d s t o n e s i n t h e A f i e s e r e and Eriemu O i l F i e l d s (Fig. 2-23) of t h e Niger Delta, N i g e r i a , o r i g i n a t e d a s a L a t e Cretaceous

t o P a l e o c e n e complex of b a r r i e r b a r and d e l t a d i s t r i b u t a r y sands.

t h i s p a r a l i c environment, t h e complex of s a n d b o d i e s developed i n a

In

c y c l i c a l sequence of o f f - l a p p i n g s e d i m e n t a r y b e d s , g r a d i n g upward from marine c l a y s t o f l u v i o m a r i n e , i n t e r l a m i n a t e d s i l t s and s a n d s o v e r l a i n

132

F i g . 2-23.

S t r u c t u r a l s e c t i o n a c r o s s t h e A f i e s e r e and Eriemu o i l f i e l d s i n t h e Niger Delta, N i g e r i a , showing s e p a r a t e r e s e r v o i r s i n

a b a m i e r b a r and c h a n n e l f i l l complex of Late Cretaceous

and Paleocene s a n d s t o n e s .

( A f t e r Weber, 1 9 7 1 ) .

by b a r r i e r b a r and d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l - f i l l s a n d s .

Each c y c l e , ranging

i n t h i c k n e s s from 15 t o 100 metres, i s t e r m i n a t e d by a marine t r a n s g r e s s i o n which e r o d e d p a r t of t h e o f f - l a p s e q u e n c e , l e a v i n g a t h i n l a y e r of f o s s i l i f e r o u s and g l a u c o n i t i c c o a r s e sand.

These t r a n s g r e s s i o n s a r e probably

l o c a l , i n r e s p o n s e t o l a t e r a l s h i f t s i n t h e main r i v e r c o u r s e which would have p e r i o d i c a l l y swung back and f o r t h a c r o s s t h e d e l t a f r o n t , b u i l d i n g a n o f f - l a p sequence wherever i t e n t e r e d t h e sea.

133
I n d i v i d u a l b a r r i e r b a r s i n t h e A f i e s e r e and Eriumu f i e l d s have a l e n g t h of up t o 20 km, a w i d t h of s e v e r a l k i l o m e t e r s , a t h i c k n e s s of up t o 1 2 m . sand. They c o n s i s t g e n e r a l l y of f i n e - g r a i n e d , v a r i a b l y - s o r t e d t h e s e b a r s a r e c u t by c h a n n e l s f i l l e d w i t h S e p a r a t e d by i n t e r v a l s of mudstone,

A s shown i n F i g . 2-23,

sand which i s somewhat c o a r s e r .

laminated sandy s i l t , and l i g n i t e , t h e s e b a r r i e r b a r and c h a n n e l sand b o d i e s form s e v e r a l i n d i v i d u a l t r a p s f o r o i l . The a c c u m u l a t i o n s are e s s e n t i a l l y s t r a t i g r a p h i c , b u t l o c a l i z e d by g e n t l y , e l o n g a t e d domes termed ' r o l l o v e r ' s t r u c t u r e s (Weber, 1971). These s t r u c c u r e s a r e

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h growth f a u l t s b e l i e v e d t o have been caused by g r a v i t a t i o n a l s l i d i n g and r o t a t i o n of u n c o n s o l i d a t e d b l o c k s of s e d i m e n t , d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d of f o r m a t i o n of t h e d e l t a .

Wilcox O i l and Gas F i e l d s , Texas

In t h e Texas Gul f Coast a r e a of t h e U . S . A . ,

s e v e r a l o i l and gas

f i e l d s are o r o d u c i n g from m u l t i p l e pay zones i n t h e lower p a r t o f t h e Early Eocene Wilcox Group. The Lower Wilcox, comprising up t o 1,500 m of

s a n d s t o n e , s i l t s t o n e , and carbonaceous mudstone, was d e p o s i t e d as a d e l t a i c complex ( F i g . 2-24), t h e shape and dimensions of which a r e s i m i l a r S h e l t o n (1973), s t a t e s t h a t t h i s

t o t h e present-day M i s s i s s i p p i d e l t a .

complex, known as t h e Rockdale d e l t a s y s t e m , c o n s t i t u t e s 80% v o l u m e t r i c a l l y

o f t h e known d e p o s i t s of t h e Lower Wilcox.

The Rockdale system i s

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s o u t h e r l y - t r e n d i n g l o b e s ( F i s h e r and McGowan, 1969) c o n s i s t i n g mainly o f s a n d s t o n e . Total n e t sandstone thickness within

t h e Rockdale r a n g e s from 750 m t o less t h a n 30 m a t t h e s o u t h e r n pinch-out (seaward) edge. The Wilcox s a n d s t o n e s are q u a r t z o s e and g e n e r a l l y f i n e t o medium-grained. They have an a v e r a g e p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y of 20% and 100 S m a l l - s c a l e cross-bedding i s common, and

millidarcys respectively.

c a r b o n i z e d p l a n t f r a g m e n t s are l o c a l l y abundant.

134

w
MILES
100 w

100

KM

EARLY E O C E N E D E P O S I T I O N A L S Y S T E M
Fig. 2-24. G e n e r a l i z e d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e Lower Wilcox Group ( E a r l y Eocene) d e p o s i t i o n a l system, Texas. and McGowen, 1 9 6 9 ) . (Redrawn from F i s h e r

I n t e r f i n g e r i n g of p r o - d e l t a muds w i t h b a r r i e r - b a r s a n d s , d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l - f i l l s a n d s , and l i t t o r a l s a n d s h a s p r o v i d e d numerous s e p a r a t e r e s e r v o i r s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e of t h e A f i e s e r e and Eriemu f i e l d s of N i g e r i a (Fig. 2-23). F i s h e r and McGowan (1969) s t a t e t h a t l a r g e r f i e l d s i n t h i s

c a t e g o r y i n c l u d e F a l l C i t y , S h e r i d a n , Columbus, Lake Creek, New U l m , and Quicksand Creek. Most f i e l d s i n t h e Lower Wilcox are e s s e n t i a l l y s t r a t i -

g r a p h i c , b u t l o c a l growth f a u l t s and d i a p i r i c s t r u c t u r e s , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i c k e r p a r t s of t h e d e l t a l o b e s , c o i n c i d e w i t h s t r a t i g r a p h i c t r e n d s t o form t r a p s .

S e e l i g s o n O i l F i e l d , Texas One of t h e main o i l - b e a r i n g zones i n t h e S e e l i g s o n F i e l d of Texas S i t u a t e d i n t h e Frio-Vicksburg

is t h e Oligocene Zone 19-b Sandstone.

135 trelid of o i l f i e l d s , Zone 19-b forms an i r r e g u l a r , e a s t e r l y - t r e n d i n g b e l t of s a n d s t o n e t h a t h a s been t r a c e d a l o n g i t s l e n g t h f o r 11 km, and

i s known t o have a w i d t h of 3-8 km.

The geometry of t h i s s a n d s t o n e

b e l t , which t r e n d s i n a d i r e c t i o n approximately normal t o t h e r e g i o n a l d e p o s i t i o n a l s t r i k e of a d j a c e n t marine s a n d s t o n e beds i n t h e Oligocene sequence, s u g g e s t s t h a t i t w a s formed by a b r a n c h i n g r i v e r system on a delta plain.

In t h e S e e l i g s o n F i e l d a r e a t h r e e s u b s i d i a r y c h a n n e l s , 1,000-

2,000 m w i d e , b r a n c h from t h e main channel which h a s a w i d t h of 2,0002,000 m. An i s o p a c h nap of Zone 19-b ( F i g . 2-25 shows t h e main body of

t h e c h a n n e l - f i l l s a n d s t o n e t o have a maximum t h i c k n e s s of more t h a n 20 m ; t h e s u b s i d i a r y c h a n n e l s have a t h i c k n e s s i n t h e range 6-12 m. The s a n d s t o n e i s predominantly l i t h i c . I t c o n t a i n s fragments of

rock and f e l d s p a r , b u t i n c l u d e s up t o 50% q u a r t z , and 5-20% i n t e r s t i t i a l

s i l t and c l a y .

Commonly w e l l - s o r t e d ,

and f i n e t o medium-grained,

the

s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s i n Zone 19-b show d i s t i n c t g r a i n g r a d a t i o n from c o a r s e r below t o f i n e r above, a f e a t u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of r i v e r d e p o s i t s . Sedi-

mentary s t r u c t u r e s commonly p r e s e n t i n c l u d e medium-scale cross-bedding and c l a y s t o n e fragments p r o b a b l y d e r i v e d from t h e e r o s i o n of mud-cracked c l a y a l o n g t h e r i v e r banks. V a r i a b l e p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y s u g g e s t

t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l composition of t h e s a n d s t o n e v a r i e d from c l e a n sand t o s i l t y and muddy sand. Local cementation by c a l c i t e and i l l i t e h a s a l s o

d e c r e a s e d p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y .
O i l entrapment i n Zone 19-h h a s r e s u l t e d from t h e c o i n c i d e n c e of

permeable zones w i t h i n t h e d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l s and t h r e e g e n t l e domal s t r u c t u r e s on t h e downthrow s i d e of a major normal f a u l t . Although t h e

Zone 19-b Sandstone h a s been a major c o n t r i b u t o r t o o i l p r o d u c t i o n , s e v e r a l o t h e r zones i n t h e S e e l i g s o n F i e l d a r e p r o d u c t i v e . (1973, p. 30) s a y s , Shelton

at

S e e l i g s o n F i e l d more t h a n 40 s a n d s , a l l of

v h i c h a r e i r r e g u l a r l y developed, have combined w i t h t h e s t r u c t u r a l

136

OLIGOCENE S AN DS TONE

196

a'

SEELIGSON OIL

U O

I Mile

1 0 -

KM

F i g . 2-25.

Isopach map and f e n c e diagram of t h e Oligocene 19B s a n d s t o n e , S e e l i g s o n F i e l d , Gulf Coast a r e a , Texas. This s a n d s t o n e body (Redrawn from

is i n t e r p r e t e d a s a branching r i v e r d e p o s i t .

Nanz, 1954).

137
p a t t e r n t o account f o r more t h a n 140 i n d i v i d u a l r e s e r v o i r s . u n i t s are p r e s e n t i n a 1,500-foot These sand

s e c t i o n of Oligocene (or Hiocene)

F r i o s t r a t a , which are c o n s i d e r e d non-marine i n o r i g i n " .

Ostra O i l F i e l d , Venezuela

In t h e Ostra F i e l d , Venezuela ( F i g . 2-26), o i l i s produced from

l e n t i c u l a r s a n d s t o n e beds of t h e Oligocene O f i c i n a Formation. These

s a n d s t o n e b e d s are n o t only markedly l e n t i c u l a r , b u t a l s o r e l a t i v e l y t h i n , commonly h a v i n g a t h i c k n e s s of n o t more t h a n 1 2 m , b u t l o c a l l y ranging up t o 60 m. They o v e r l i e non-marine b e d s of t h e Oligocene

Mercure Formation and are c o n s i d e r e d t o b e d e l t a d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l l - f i l l s a n d s and f r i n g i n g s h o r e l i n e s a n d d e p o s i t s .

Young (1971, p . 250)

s a y s , "The s a n d s t o n e s a r e p a r t of a c y c l i c s e r i e s of s i l t s t o n e s , l i g n i t e s , s a n d s t o n e s , s h a l e s and c l a y s t o n e d e p o s i t e d i n d e l t a i c and p a r a l i c environments through r e p r e a t e d a l t e r n a t i o n of lagoonal-swamp, brackish-water shallow-wa t e r marine c o n d i t i o n s ' I . The s a n d s t o n e l e n s e s a r e s e p a r a t e d by s h a l e beds t h a t form an e f f e c t and

DATUM

krn

L50m

CHANNEL

SANDS,

OSTRA

FIELD,

VENEZUELA.

F i g . 2-26.

S e c t i o n through o i l - b e a r i n g

c h a n n e l s a n d s of t h e Oligocene (Redrawn from

O f i c i n a Formation, Ostra F i e l d , Venezuela. Young, 1971).

138
i v e seal f o r o i l . Although warped by compaction, t h e r e i s o n l y s l i g h t

f o l d i n g of t h e s a n d s t o n e l e n s e s , and t h e o i l accumulations are i n s t r u c t u r a l - s t r a t i g r a p h i c t r a p s c o n t r o l l e d by f a u l t s and pinch-out edges of t h e sandstone bodies. The d e p o s i t i o n a l o r i g i n s and s t r u c t u r a l - s t r a t i g r a p h i c s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e found

s i t u a t i o n s of t h e o i l - b e a r i n g

i n t h e Eocene beds of t h e X g e r d e l t a , N i g e r i a , and i n t h e Oligocene beds of t h e Frio-Vicksburg t r e n d i n t h e Gulf Coast a r e a of t h e U . S . A .

:.lain P a s s Block 35 O i l F i e l d , L o u i s i a n a
O i l p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e Main Pass Block 35 F i e l d ( F i g . 2-27)

of t h e

? I i s s i s s i p p i d e l t a , L o u i s i a n a , comes from t h e Miocene "GZ"

Sandstone v h i c h This

was d e p o s i t e d a s a c h a n n e l - f i l l s a n d i n a d e l t a d i s t r i b u t a r y .

s a n d s t o n e i s q u a r t z o s e , b u t up t o 20% of i t s volume c o n s i s t s of f r a g m e n t s

ttt I

CHANNEL

SAND,

BLOCK

35

FIELD

LOUISIANA

F i g . 2-27.

Isopach map showing n e t f e e t ( 1 ' Miocene "G2"

0.305 m) of s a n d s t o n e i n t h e

channel s a n d s t o n e , and t h e w e l l s producing from

t h i s s a n d s t o n e , Maln P a s s Block 35 F i e l d , M i s s i s s i p p i d e l t a , Louisiana. (Redrawn from Nartman, 1 9 7 2 ) .

139
of rock and f e l d s p a r . I t i s g e n e r a l l y c l e a n , w e l l s o r t e d , and f i n e - g r a i n e d .

Average p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y a r e 34% and 3,000 m i l l i d a r c y s i n t h e t h i c k e r and c o a r s e r p a r t s of t h e s a n d s t o n e body, b u t d e c r e a s e t o 26% and 75 m i l l i d a r c y s i n t h e t h i n n e r p a r t s , f l a n k i n g n a t u r a l l e v e e and b a c k s l o p e d e p o s i t s , of v e r y f i n e - g r a i n e d s a n d s t o n e and s i l t s t o n e . The main channel-

- f i l l sand body, which h a s a w i d t h of 600-900 m and a maximum t h i c k n e s s of more than 25 m , h a s been t r a c e d by d r i l l i n g f o r more than 5 km i n t h e f i e l d area. Entrapment of o i l w i t h i n t h e "G2" Sandstone r e s u l t s from a combination o i l b e i n g t r a p p e d where t h e l i n e a r

of s t r a t i g r a p h i c and s t r u c t u r a l f a c t o r s ;
s a n d s t o n e body c r o s s e s a f a u l t e d dome.

Hartman (1972) s a y s t h a t t h e "G2"

Sandstone, which i s t h e l a r g e s t s i n g l e r e s e r v o i r i n t h e Main P a s s Block 35 F i e l d , i s a c l a s s i c example of o i l p r o d u c t i o n from a s t r e a m channel.

U l t i m a t e p r o d u c t i o n from t h e Block 35 F i e l d , i n which o i l i s o b t a i n e d from

23 i n d i v i d u a l Miocene s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s , i s e s t i m a t e d t o b e 100 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (15.9 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) , of which more t h a n 1 2 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s

(1.9 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) w i l l come from tile "G2" Sandstone.

i s a s s i s t e d by a s t r o n g w a t e r d r i v e .

Production

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

141 Chapter 3

BARRIEA

A;W OTHER OFFSHORE BARS

Introduction ___-

Geomorphology B a r r i e r and o t h e r o f f s h o r e b a r s are l i n e a r s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s which commonly have a t h i c k n e s s i n t h e range 5-15 m. Barrier b a r s a r e exposed

above s e a l e v e l a s b a r r i e r i s l a n d s t h a t commonly form a c h a i n t r e n d i n g f o r many miles along t h e main c o a s t l i n e , s e p a r a t i n g l a s o o n s and c o a s t a l bays from t h e open s e a ( F i g s 3-1, 3--2). These i s l a n d s a r e commonly a m i l e o r O t h e r o f f s h o r e b a r s may develop w i t h i n

more wide and s e v e r a l m i l e s l o n g .

t h e o u t e r p a r t of a bay where t h e seaward edge of a s h a l l o w - w a t e r s h o a l s l o p e s downward i n t o d e e p e r w a t e r , o r o f f a headland t o form a s p i t . The seaward c o a s t of a b a r r i e r i s l a n d forms a n e a r l y s t r a i g h t t o g e n t l y curved f l a t beach washed by waves and c u r r e n t s t h a t winnow t h e sand and t r a n s p o r t i t b o t h seaward and along t h e c o a s t . The l a z o o n a l

c o a s t of a b a r r i e r i s l a n d i s i r r e g u l a r , w i t h numerous s m a l l embayments and c o a s t a l f l a t s of s i l t y sand and marsh. O t h e r i s l a n d s t h a t rise from

o f f s h o r e b a r s w i t h i n a b a y , o r t h a t forni s p i t s , commonly show t h e same shoreline characteristics. The a r e a exposed as i s l a n d s r e p r e s e n t s l e s s t h a n h a l f t h e a r e a of most sand b o d i e s , t h e seaward and landward o u t l i n e s of which are e q u a l l y i r r e g u l a r as i n d i c a t e d by i s o p a c h maps of b o t h r e c e n t ( F i g . 3-5) and a n c i e n t ( F i g s . 3-10, 3-14, 3-15,

3-18) b a r r i e r b a r s .

Continuously s h i f t i n g ,

although n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a t a c o n s t a n t r a t e , t h e s e i s l a n d s t e n d t o m i g r a t e p a r a l l e l t o t h e main c o a s t l i n e , i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e long-shore c u r r e n t (Fig. 3-3). The u p c u r r e n t end of each i s l a n d i s c o n s e q u e n t l y e r o d e d ,

t h e sand b e i n g t r a n s p o r t e d along t h e o u t e r c o a s t and d e p o s i t e d on t h e

142

2 0 0

I
PADRE , ISLAND, A BARRIER I S L A N D
GULF
F i g . 3-1.

OF MEXICO
Padre I s l a n d , a b a r r i e r i s l a n d o f f t h e c o a s t of Texas, Gulf of Mexico. mainland. Laguna Nadre l i e s between t h e b a r r i e r i s l a n d and t h e (Redrawn from Rusnak, 1960).

L.

MILFS

OFFSHORE
F i g . 3-2.

BARS,

LONG

ISLAND,

NEW

YORK

O f f s h o r e b a r s , Long I s l a n d , New York, showing t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n and g e o g r a p h i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . shore current directions. Arrows show t h e long-

(Lledrawn from Bass, 1934).

143

MAINLAND

1959 SHORELI

1890 SHORELINE

4 KM

MIGRATION OF TlMBALlER ISLAND, GULF OF MEXICO.

F i g . 3-3. Shoreward and westward m i g r a t i o n of T i m b a l i e r I s l a n d , L o u i s i a n a , d u r i n g t h e y e a r s 1890-1959, w e s t e r l y movement of c o a s t a l c u r r e n t s .

i n response t o north'(Redrawn from Otvos,

1970).

seaward e x t e n s i o n of' beaches and a t t h e down-current where i t may form a s p i t .

end of t h e i s l a n d

Wave a c t i o n moves t h e sand up t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l

s l o p e t o t h e beaches, except during periods of e x c e p t i o n a l l y high t i d e s and heavy s t o r m s when beaches a r e e r o d e d and massive q u a n t i t i e s of sand a r e transported along t h e coast. Some sand i s swept i n l a n d o v e r t h e

i s l a n d d u r i n g s t o r m s , and some i s moved i n l a n d a s sand dunes. Unequal r a t e s of e r o s i o n and d e p o s i t i o n , and v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e

rates of flow i n t i d a l c h a n n e l s between a d j a c e n t i s l a n d s , r e s u l t s i n

merging o r f u r t h e r s e p a r a t i o n of t h e i s l a n d s , a l t h o u g h t h e scb-sea d i s t r i b u t i o n of sand may form a s i n g l e sand body.

I n some c a s e s , an

i s l a n d may s h i f t back t o a l o c a t i o n i t p r e v i o u s l y o c c u p i e d , s o t h a t a h o l e d r i l l e d through i t w i l l show two sand u n i t s s e p a r a t e d by s i l t stone or shale. These sand u n i t s a r e commonly n o t completely s e p a r a t e d ,

b u t merge l a t e r a l l y a c r o s s o r a l o n g s t r i k e when viewed i n t h r e e dimensions ( F i g s . 3-5,

3-1 8, 3-23).

144
A t y p i c a l c r o s s s e c t i o n of a s i m p l e b a r r i e r b a r i s shown i n

Fig. 3 - 4 ) .

The s u r f a c e exposed above s e a l e v e l , forming a b a r r i e r The seaward

i s l a n d , h a s an i r r e g u l a r topography formed by s a n d dunes.

s l o p e i s a smooth, g e n t l y u n d u l a t i n g time-plane on which t h e sand g r a d e s i z e ranges from c o a r s e r on t n e b e a c h , where t h e energy l e v e l caused by waves and c u r r e n t s i s h i g h e r , t o f i n e r in d e e p e r w a t e r where t h e f i n e sand g r a d e s i n t o s i l t and c l a y . s l o p e , o l d e r time-planes Sub-parallel t o t h e seaward

l i e w i t h i n t h e sand body.

The t r a c e s of

such time-plane w i t h t h e p l a n e of a s e c t i o n c u t a c r o s s a b a r r i e r b a r a r e shown by t h e d o t t e d l i n e s i n F i g . 3-4. Although n o t u s u a l l y

v i s i b l e , and commonly d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e c t by g e o p h y s i c a l methods i n a f a i r l y homogeneous sand body, i t i s p o s s i b l e f o r p a r t of t h e a r e a of a time-plane t o b e a u s e f u l t i m e - s t r a t i g r a p h i c m a r k e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y where i t can b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d by some s e d i m e n t o l o g i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o r f o s s i l content. The c o i n c i d e n c e of any time-plane and i t s contemporary

d e p o s i t i o n a l s l o p e c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s t h e manner i n which t r a n s p o r t e d sand a c c r e t e s t o t h e o f f s h o r e e x t e n s i o n o f beaches t o form a sequence of seaward-prograding l a y e r s .

A s a consequence of t h e g r a d a t i o n of s e d i n e n t

on t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l s l o p e , from c o u r s e r s a n d on t h e beach t o f i n e r s a n d

CROSS
Fig. 3 - 4 .

SECTION OF BARRIER

ISLAND

Cross s e c t i o n of a t y p i c a l b a r r i e r i s l a n d o f f t h e c o a s t of t h e Gulf of Mexico. (Redrawn from Bernard

et a l . , 1962

145
s i l t , and mud i n p r o g r e s s i v e l y deeper w a t e r , sand s i z e g r a d a t i o n w i t h i n

t h e sand body d e c r e a s e s f r o t o p t o bottom, t h e r e v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o channel-fill r i v e r sands. Sands of b a r r i e r b a r s and o t h e r o f f s h o r e b a r s have a t e r r i g e n o u s o r i g i n , having been t r a n s p o r t e d a l o n g d i s t r i b u t a r i e s t o b a r - f i n g e r r sand b o d i e s t h e n swept a l o n g t h e c o a s t by c u r r e n t s and wave a c t i o n .
A t Grand I s l e , L o u i s i a n a ( F i g . 3 - 5 ) t h e sand i s f i n e - g r a i n e d ,

locally

s i l t y , and h a s a composition of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 80% q u a r t z and 20% f e l d s p a r . L o c a l l y , l e n t i c u l a r l a y e r s o f g r i t o r pebbly sand may b e p r e s e n t w i t h i n a

\ 1

ISOLITH

OF

SAND

t
1

3
SEA LEVEL

0-

SAND A S A N ~ ~

so'--

Fig. 3-5.

E a s t e r n end of Grand I s l e , L o u i s i a n a , showing c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e i s l a n d , l a t e r a l e x t e n t of t h e upper Sand A ( i s o l i t h c o n t o u r s i n f e e t ) , and a c r o s s - s e c t i o n of t h e b a r r i e r i s l a n d complex. (Redrawn from C o n a t s e r , 1971).

146
b a r r i e r b a r , having formed where some t o p o g r a p h i c f e a t u r e a l o n g a beach c a u s e s t h e sand t o b e winnowed more v i g o r o u s l y . Cross-bedding i s a l s o

an i n t e r n a l f e a t u r e , b u t i n most c a s e s i s o f t h e low-angle t y p e ( l e s s

0 ' ) than 1

i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e h i g h e r a n g l e of f l u y i a t i l e cross-bedding.

I n b a r r i e r and o t h e r b a r s t h e cross-bedding commonly r e f l e c t s changes i n t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l s l o p e of a n u n d u l a t i n g b e a c h , b u t may a l s o r e s u l t from c u r r e n t a c t i o n caused by t i d a l movements through channels between bars. I n such c h a n n e l s , a high-angle t y p e of cross-bedding,
similar to

t h a t observed i n r i v e r p o i n t b a r s , may be developed.

In f a c t , the

r e l a t i o n s h i p s of cross-bedding t o t h e geometry of a b a r r i e r b a r t h a t i s p r o g r a d i n g i n t o a m i g r a t i n g t i d a l channel a r e n o t f u l l y understood. G r a i n o r i e n t a t i o n w i t h i n t h e i n t e r t i d a l beach u n i t i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y more-or-less normal t o t h e c o a s t l i n e , t h e l o n g axes of t h e

s a n d g r a i n s b e i n g a l i g n e d p a r a l l e l t o t h e predominant d i r e c t i o n of swash movement caused by waves and t i d e s moving up and down t h e mean beach s l o p e . T h i s f a c i e s of a modern beach i s probably seldom p r e s e r v e d i n t h e g e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d , a l t h o u g h a n e x c e p t i o n i s n o t e d by S h e l t o n (1970, p . 1105) who s a y s , "Grain o r i e n t a t i o n i s normal t o t h e s a n d s t o n e t r e n d of t h e l o v e r most u n i t of t h e Eagle Sandstone a t B i l l i n g s , Montana. Grain imbrication

i n t h a t b a r r i e r - b a r s a n d s t o n e s u g g e s t s t h a t oncoming s u r f was t h e most i m p o r t a n t d e p o s i t i n g c u r r e n t d u r i n g l o c a l westward a c c r e t i o n ' . . Within t h a t

p a r t of t h e sand body formed i n d e e p e r w a t e r , where t h e predominant c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n i s a l o n g t h e c o a s t , g r a i n o r i e n t a t i o n t e n d s t o be p a r a l l e l t o t h e c o a s t and c o n s e q u e n t l y t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t r e n d of t h e sand body. T h i s deeper-water f a c i e s , d e p o s i t e d s e v e r a l hundred m e t r e s seaward fro.1 t h e b e a c h , i s commonly p r e s e r v e d i n t h e g e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d .

An i m ? o r t a n t

c o r o l l a r y i s t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between g r a i n o r i e n t a t i o n and geometry of a marine s a n d s t o n e body can b e a n i m p o r t a n t key t o e x p l o r a t i o n , f o r s a n d s t o n e t r e n d s , a l t h o u g h i t must b e u s e 5 i i t h sone r e s e r v a t i o n .

147
E-log C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Within a p r o g r a d i n g b a r r i e r b a r o r o t h e r o f f s h o r e b a r , t h e g r a i n g r a d a t i o n from c o a r s e r above t o f i n e r below i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e E-log s e l f - p o t e n t i a l c u r v e which t e n d s t o b e funnel-shaped.
A s previous-

l y d i s c u s s e d , t h i s s h a p e i s t h e r e v e r s e of t h a t r i v e r s a n d s i n which t h e g r a i n g r a d a t i o n i s from c o a r s e r below t o f i n e r above. The s e l f - p o t e n t i a l

c h a r a c t e r i s i n d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e sand g r a i n s i z e , b u t d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e p e t r o p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of t h e m a t r i x i n t h e sand.

In s a n d s t h a t

have n o t been e x t e n s i v e l y a l t e r e d by d i a g e n e s i s and c e m e n t a t i o n , t h e r e i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p between g r a i n s i z e and s i l t y c l a y c o n t e n t , t h e c o a r s e r sand being c l e a n e r t h a n t h e f i n e r s a n d , and c o n s e q u e n t l y more permeable. T y p i c a l b a r r i e r b a r E-log c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , as s e e n i n a marine t r a n s g r e s s i v e sequence, are i l l u s t r a t e d by P i r s o n (1970), and by Corlybeare and J e s s o p (1972) i n F i g . 3-6. The unnel-shaped s e l f - p o t e n t i a l c u r v e The lower s a n d s of t h e Miocene b a r r i e r

of t h e Eocene s a n d s i s w e l l marked.

b a r complex show t h e same c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , b u t t h e upper s a n d s t e n d t o b e blocky, p o s s i b l y r e f l e c t i n g a f a i r l y uniform g r a i n s i z e and l i t t l e v a r i a t i o n i n the s i l t y clay content.

A 1.ower C r e t a c e o u s complex of s t a c k e d s a n d s t o n e

b o d i e s , showing a s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p of E-log c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o t h e Miocene b a r s , i s a l s o i n t e r p r e t e d a s a sequence of o f f - l a p p i n g marine s a n d s , probably formed a s b a r r i e r b a r s . These s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s a r e q u a r t z o s e and

A t t h e l o c a t i o n shown they are

have good p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y .

s e p a r a t e d by s i l t y mudstone, b u t i t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t a t o t h e r l o c a t i o n s t h e y merge i n v a r i o u s ways, a s shown i n F i g . 3-5

Compact i o n Compaction of t h e muddy s e d i m e n t s f l a n k i n g and i n t e r f i n g e r i n g w i t h 'a b a r r i e r b a r complex may c a u s e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n r e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e p a l e o g e o n o r p h i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s of t h e v a r i o u s s a n d b o d i e s w i t h i n t h e

148
M A G O B U IS N o 1
S P

4000

B' REFLECT OR

___

LOWER CRETACEOUS
( UNIT 2 )

I
I

M I O C E N E B A R R I E R BAR SANDS, TEXAS

sPI

]EOCENE B A R R I E R B A R SANOS, TEXAS

RELATIVE GRAIN SIZE

4 500

0
0
0 . . .

1
E-LOG C H A R A C T E R OF BARRIER BAR SANDS
F i g . 3-6.

E-logs of T e r t i a r y b a r r i e r b a r s i n Texas, and a Lower C r e t a c e o u s s a n d s t o n e i n Papua, showing t h e s i m i l a r i t y of c o n f i g u r a t i o n and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e s e l f - p o t a n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o grain gradation. J e s s o p , 1972). ( A f t e r Conybeare and

complex.

F i g s . 3-7 and 3-8 i l l u s t r a t e an example i n a Lower Cretaceous

complex of marine s h o r e l i n e s a n d s ( F i g . 3 - 6 ) p e n e t r a t e d by Magobu I s l a n d No.

1 Well i n Papua.

An i s o t i m e map of t h e i n t e r v a l between t h e e r o s i o n a l s u r -

f a c e of t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s (B r e f l e c t o r ) and t h e t o p of t h e sand body complex ( B ' r e f l e c t o r ) i s shown i n F i g . 3-8. This map i n d i c a t e s a l i n e a r ,

northeast-trending

s a n d s t o n e u n i t a t t h e Magobu l o c a t i o n , and s u g g e s t s

t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a t h i c k e r sand development a l o n g a p a r a l l e l t r e n d t o t h e n o r t h w e s t ( F i g . 3-7). But what i s n o t known i s t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c

149

sw

M A G O B U IS N o 1

Y'
NE

MILES
0

10

D IAG R A M M A T 1C STRUCTURAL S E CTlON

DRAPING OF B' S E I S M I C REFLECTOR OVER BARRIER BARS
F i g . 3-7. D i a g r a m m a t i c s t r u c t u r a l s e c t i o n Y-Y' showing t h e i n f e r r e d

r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e B' s e i s m i c r e f l e c t o r t o t h e u p p e r c o n f i g u r a t i o n of a Lower C r e t a c e o u s s a n d s t o n e (Unit 2 ) i n t h e F l y River Area, P a p u a . ( A f t e r Conybeare and J e s s o p , 1972).

r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e s a n d body o r b o d i e s i n t h e n o r t h w e s t t r e n d t o t h o s e

a t Magobu.

C o n s e q u e n t l y , any p a l e o g e o m o r p h i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s q u e s t i o n a b l e .

F i g . 3-7 i s b a s e d on two i n f e r e n c e s : f i r s t l y , t h a t t h e e r o s i o n a l s u r f a c e of t h e Upper C r e t a c e o u s , w h i c h i s o v e r l a i n b y s h a l l o w - w a t e r m a r i n e l i m e s t o n e , is f a i r l y f l a t and g e n t l y d i p p i n g ; and s e c o n d l y , t h a t e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same complex o f s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s a t Magohu i s p r e s e n t i n t h e n o r t h w e s t trend. An a l t e r n a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n c o u l d show t h e s t r u c t u r a l r e l a t i o n -

s h i p between t h e B and B' r e f l e c t o r s t o b e a s i n d i c a t e d , h u t w i t h onl y t h e uppermost Magobu s a n d body p r e s e n t i n t h e n o r t h w e s t t r e n d . Another i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n c o u l d show t h e B ' r e f l e c t o r t o f o l l o w a n e r o s i o n a l d e p r e s s i o n

150

SEISMIC INTERVAL B-8'

CONTOUR I N T E R V h L 50MS

ISOTIME MAP

Fig. 3-8.

Isotime map of the interval between the seismic reflectors

B and B', showing the line of section Y-Y' (Fig. 3-7) and
the topography of sandstone Unit 2. Jessop, 1972) (After Conybeare and

.
Other

over the northwest'trend, with only the lowermost sand body present.

interpretations showing faulting, or inferring mis-correlations in plotting the B' reflector, may be valid. Parallel trends of sandstone bodies, formed as off-lapping barrier bar and other sand body complexes, can contain excellent traps for oil and gas, particularly where they are intersected by anticlines, domes, and faults. Such traps are essentially stratigraphic and geomorphic, with

structural modifications. Their discovery may, in some cases, hinge largely

on interpretation of the compactional effects within and flanking a known

or inferred bar complex.

151
Apcient Sand Bodies
~~ ~~~~~

Numerous examples of a n c i e n t b a r r i e r b a r s and o t h e r b a r s are known, many of which a r e recorded i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e , and some of which a r e d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n on o i l and g a s f i e l s . Only a

s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e of known examples a r e so w e l l exposed i n o u t c r o p s t h a t they can be s e e n as a c o n t i n o u s s e c t i o n measuring s e v e r a l k i l o m e t r e s a c r o s s t h e t r e n d of t h e b a r .

One such example i s t h e lower u n i t of t h e

Upper Cretaceous Eagle Sandstone (Fig. 3-9)

t h a t c r o p s o u t as rim-rock

i n t h e e s c a r p e n t a t B i l l i n g s , Montana, and h a s been d e s c r i b e d by S h e l t o n (1965). The lower u n i t of t h e Eagle i s a w e l l - s o r t e d , l i t h i c and

g l a u c o n i t i c marine s a n d s t o n e t h a t shows a n upward g r a d a t i o n i n g r a i n s i z e from v e r y f i n e t o f i n e . The u n i t t r e n d s north-northwest, h a s a known

l e n g t h of 65 km, a w i d t h of 30-50 km, and a maximum t h i c k n e s s of 30 m.

In t h e upper p a r t of t h e u n i t low-angle

( l e s s than

loo)

cross-bedding

is a common f e a t u r e .

T h i s cross-bedding c o u l d have been formed by

c o n t i n u a l changes i n t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l s l o p e s of a sand body, probably

TOP

LOWER

SANDSTONE

UNIT

I;

40m

i['
LL

CLAY STONE, SILTSTO N E I KM

40 - O MILE

UPPER
F i g . 3-9.

CRETACEOUS

EAGLE

SANDSTONE,

MONTANA

S e c t i o n of t h e Upper Cretaceous Eagle Sandstone t h a t forms rim-rock i n t h e escarpment a t B i l l i n g s , Montana. from S h e l t o n , 1965). (Redrawn

i n a p a r t of t h e body d e p o s i t e d i n water too deep f o r i t t o b e exposed a t l o w t i d e , and which i s c o n s e q u e n t l y p r e s e r v e d i n t h e g e o l o g i c a l record. feature. I n F i g . 3-9 t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n s of bedding p l a n e s w i t h t h e f a c e of t h e o u t c r o p are shown as broken l i n e s . They have t h e same

I n t h e lower p a r t of t h e s e c t i o n b i o t u r b a t i o n is a common

r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e gemorphology of t h e b a r r i e r b a r as i s shown i n Fig. 3-4, and i n d i c a t e p r o g r a d a t i o n i n a d i r e c t i o n toward t h e c o a s t T h i s geographic

l i n e , a s i n f e r r e d from p a l e o g e o g r a p h i c r e c o n s t r u c t i o n .

r e l a t i o n s h i p s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e b a r r i e r b a r w a s s i t u a t e d on a s h a l l o w c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l f , more than 80 km from t h e s h o r e toward which i t was building. I n s u c h a g e o g r a p h i c s i t u a t i o n t h e b a r , which e x t e r n a l l y

and i n t e r n a l l y h a s t h e f e a t u r e s of a b a r r i e r b a r , may i n f a c t n o t have formed a b a r r i e r .

O i l and Gas F i e l d s O i l and g a s f i e l d s i n b a r r i e r and o t h e r o f f s h o r e b a r s are

w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e where t h e y have o f t e n been r e c o r d e d since the early 1920's.

I n f a c t , many of t h e e a r l i e r recorded sand

b o d i e s , r e f e r r e d t o as b a r s , have s u b s e q u e n t l y been found t o b e d i s t r i b u t a r y channel s a n d s . Lacking t h e c r i t e r i a t o a d e q u t e l y i n t e r p r e t t h e l e n t i c u l a r and l i n e a r s a n d s t o n e

o r i g i n of c e r t a i n hydrocarbon-bearing,

b o d i e s , g e o l o g i s t s commonly r e f e r r e d t o t h e n as b a r s .

In some c a s e s t h e

term b a r w a s p r o b a b l y used o n l y t o d e s c r i b e t h e morphology o f t h e sands t o n e body, w i t h no i m p l i c a t i o n as t o i t s o r i g i n .

In o t h e r c a s e s t h e

c o n n o t a t i o n of o r i g i n a s a b a r r i e r o r o t h e r o f f s h o r e b a r was i m p l i c i t . Not u n t i l t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s were g e o l o g i s t s , i n g e n e r a l , d e s c r i b i n g such s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s i n more p r e c i s e geomorphologic t e r m s . Even s o , geolo-

g i s t s w e r e n o t always i n a c c o r d as t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e d a t a ,

153

and even in the early 1970's these differences were apparent.

For

example, with reference to the Recluse Field in Wyoming, where production is obtained from the Recluse Sandstone at the base of the Lower Cretaceous Muddy Formation, Woncik (1972) interpreted the producing sandstone as a marine shoreline sand that may have formed a barrier island, whereas Forgotson and Stark (1972) interpreted the sandstone body as a channelfill sand. Interpretations of the genesis and geomorphology of a sandstone body can be critical in cases where further exploration and acquisition of petroleum leases depends upon, or is influenced by the possible o r probably trends of a prospective sandstone body. Eighteen examples of oil and gas accumulations in barrier bars and other offshore bars are given in the following pages. With the They

exception of one example in Brazil, they are all in North America.

range in age from Devonian to Tertiary, but do not include examples from the Triassic or Jurassic. More than half are from the Cretaceous. A s with the examples given of oil and gas accumulations in river distributary and other channel-fill sand bodies, the number o f examples of accumulations in bars is too small for their age and geographic distributions to be significant. The distributions given relate in large measure to be gecgaphic density of drilling. Many more cases could be cited of accumulations in Eocene to Miocene bsrs trending parallel to the coast in the Gulf Coast region of the U.S.A. and Mexico, and it does appear that in North America the majority of examples are Cretaceous to Tertiary.

Shira Streak Oil Field, Pennsylvania The Shira Streak Oil Field (Fig. 3-10) of Pennnsylvania produces from the Shira Sandstone in the upper part of the Third Sandstone interval of the Upper Devonian Venango Group. The Shira, which is over-

lain and underlain by dark grey shales, is quartzose, meduim to coarse

154

O
MILES

2
I

GEOMETRY OF S H l R A

SANDSTONE,

P E N N S Y LVA N I A
Fig. 3-10. Isopach map of Shira Sandstone in the Upper Devonian Venango Group, Shira Streak Oil Field, Pennsylvania. feet ( 1 '
=

Contours in

0.305 m ) .

(Redrawn from Sherrill, Dickey, and

Matteson, 1 9 4 1 ) .

grained, with local lenses of grit containing pebbles of quartz up to an inch in diameter. Ranging up to 5m in thickness, the sandstone forms a

thin lenticular body more than 2Okm in length and up to 5km in width. Sherrill, Dickey, and Matteson ( 1 9 4 1 ) state that at the time of deposition of the Shira Sandstone a continental environment was situated to the southeast, and a marine environment to the northwest. They suggest that the sandstone was possibly formed as an offshore bar. If
so,

it must have been in very shallow water, possibly in part exposed

155

as a beach subject to scouring and winnowing action by waves and currents The coarseness of the sand, and the presence of pebbles, suggests that if it had been an offshore bar, it would also have been near shore. The Shira Streak Field, which yields oil having a gravity of 4 5 ' A.P.I., is essentially a stratigraphic trap. Other accumulations

within the Shira, yielding mainly gas, are located further up-dip where a low, southeast-plunging fold crosses the trend of the sandstone body. The Third Sandstone interval (Fig. 3-11) comprises two main sandstone bodies, the upper one being the Shira. Several oil and gas Initially, some

accumulations are known within the Third Sandstone.

wells flowed oil at rates up to 3,000 barrels a day from the more permeable zones within the pebbly, coarse sandstone zones, and early production from many well approached 100 barrels a day. Flows of wet

gas at rates of 3-4 million cubic feet a day are also recorded. Most of these accumulations have long since ceased to be of any economic significance. Sherrill, Dickey, and Matteson (1941, p. 509) state, "The

productive sands of this district lie at shallow depths than 1,000 feet.

generally less

The pools discussed were discovered during the period

extending from 1859 to about 1900. They were found through random drilling, prospecting near oil seeps, or through following trends. Many of them have been partly or entirely abandoned one or more times and then reclaimed through drilling between old locations, de-watering, air or gas drive, or other methods". Austin Gas Field, Michigan The Austin Field, Michigan (Fig. 3-12), produces gas from the Michigan Stray Sand of the Mississippian Michigan Formation. The Michigan Stray rests unconformably on the eroded surface of older Mississippian rocks and occurs intermittently, as discrete sandstone bodies, over a distance of 50-65 km. Ball, Weaver, and Crider (1941)

156

O
0
KM

d
5 MILES

GEOMETRY OF THIRD

SANDSTONE,

PE N N S Y L V A N I A
F i g . 3-11. Isopach map of T h i r d Sandstone i n t e r v a l , Upper Devonian Venango Group, Pennsylvania. Contour i n t e r v a l i n f e e t

(1' = 0.305 m).

I l a t t e s o n , 1941).

(Redrawn from S h e r r i l l , Dickey, and

i n t e r p e t t h e s e s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s a s o f f s h o r e b a r s , and show them t o b e b u i l t up on e r o s i o n a l r i d g e s t h a t more-or-less a pre-Mississippian a n t i c l i n a l trend. o v e r l i e and follow

They show f u r t h e r a remarkable

c o i n c i d e n c e between t h e s t r u c t u r a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n and t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e s a n d s t o n e body i n t h e A u s t i n F i e l d , t h e body b e i n g t h i c k e s t where i t i s h i g h e s t .

In view of t h e f a c t t h a t no datum i s i n d i c a t e d on

157

L-

M I L E

GEOMETRY

OF M I C H I G A N

STRAY

SAND,

AUSTIN

FIELD,

MICHIGAN

F i g . 3-12.

Isopach map of t h e Michigan S t r a y Sand i n t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n Michigan Formation, A u s t i n Gas F i e l d , Michigan. i n t e r v a l i n f e e t (1' - 0.305 m). and C r i d e r , 1941). Contour

(Redrawn from B a l l , Weaver,

t h e s t r u c t u r e c o n t o u r map, t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e o r i g i n a l shape
of t h e sand body i s s u s p e c t .

These d i s c r e t e sand b o d i e s were d e p o s i t e d

on an unconformity, and o v e r l a i n by d o l o m i t i c and g y p s i f e r o u s muds t h a t probably i n d i c a t e l i t t o r a l and e v a p o r i t i c c o n d i t i o n s f l u c t u a t i n g from very s h a l l o w w a t e r t o c o a s t a l mud f l a t s . Deposited by a t r a n s g r e s s i v e s e a ,

t h e s e sand b o d i e s may have accumulated i n e r o s i o n a l d e p r e s s i o n s , r a t h e r than as sand b a r s buil-up from t h e s e a f l o o r .

Such an a l t e r n a t i v e i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n can b e d e r i v e d , u s i n g t h e same s u b - s u r f a c e d a t a , a s d i s c u s s e d i n an e a r l i e r s e c t i o n on compaction of s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s ( F i g s . 1-12, 1-13),

The s a n d s t o n e body comprising t h e A u s t i n F i e l d i s approxim i n l e n g t h and up t o 2 km i n w i d t h . mately 8 k The s a n d s t o n e h a s a

maximum t h i c k n e s s of 10-12 m and i s s a i d by B a l l , Weaver, and C r i d e r

158 (1941) to be more permeable where it is thicker.

The Austin Field is

one of several gas fields within the Michigan Stray Sand which originally contained an estimated 150,000 million cubic feet (4,203 million cubic metres) of gas. Sallyards Trend Oil Fields, Kansas In Butler and Greenwood Counties, Kansas, a number of oil fields form a northeast-trending chain known as the Sallyards Trend (Fig. 3-13).
A shorter chain of oil fields, the Teeter Trend, lies nearly parallel to

the Sallyards along the border between Chase and Greenwood Counties. Three other trends, from south to north respectively, known as the Haver-

Fig. 3-13.

Geographical distribution of oil fields in shoestring sandstone trends within the lower part of the Pennsylvanian Cherokee Formation, Kansas.
36 square miles (92 s q . km).

Small squares are townships of (After Hilpman, 1958).

159
h i l l , Quincy, and Lamont Trends, c u t more-or-less d i f f e r e n t h o r i z o n s , a c r o s s t h e S a l l y a r d s Trend.
a t r i g h t a n g l e , and a t

A l l of t h e o i l f i e l d s

a l o n g t h e s e t r e n d s are i n s h o e s t r i n g s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s w i t h i n t h e lower p a r t o f t h e Lower t o Middle Pennsylvanian Cherokee Formation. These s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s form e l o n g a t e l e n s e s 15-30 m t h i c k , up t o 10 km l o n g , and commonly more t h a n 2 km wide. Arranged i n a l i n e a r

p a t t e r n l i k e a s t r i n g of b e a d s , t h e y form t r e n d s up t o 100 km l o n g , and a r e i n t e r p r e t e d by Bass (1936) and Hilpman (1958) a s o f f s h o r e b a r s . The

s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s a r e c o m p l e t e l y surrounded by s h a l e c o n t a i n i n g a f a i r l y high organic content. I n t h e upper p a r t of t h e Cherokee Formation t h i s s h o e s t r i n g sand-

o r g a n i c - r i c h s h a l e c o n t a i n s c o a l beds and o i l - b e a r i n g

s t o n e b o d i e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e Bush C i t y O i l F i e l d (Fig. 1-33), which are i n t e r p r e t e d as d i $ t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l - f i l l s a n d s . The s a n d s t o n e s i n t h e S a l l y a r d s and a s s o c i a t e d t r e n d s are q u a r t z o s e , p o o r l y cemented, and f i n e - g r a i n e d . permeability. They have f a i r t o good

Cumulative p r o d u c t i o n t o 1970 amounted t o 250 m i l l i o n

b a r r e l s (39.8 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) .

Wakita Trend, Oklahoma The Wakita Trend of t h e Anadarko B a s i n , Oklahoma h a s s e v e r a l s e p a r a t e o i l and gas a c c u m u l a t i o n s i n t h e Pennsylvanian Red Fork Sandstone ( F i g . 3-14). The Red Fork comprises a complex o f s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s

forming an a r c u a t e t r e n d , i n t e r p r e t e d as a seuqence of p a r a l l e l o f f s h o r e b a r s , i n t e r s e c t e d by two main s i n u o u s t r e n d s i n t e r p r e t e d as younger d i s t r i b u t a r y channel-fill sands. The Wakita Trend, which h a s a l e n g t h

of more t h a n 50 km, and a w i d t h of 2-3 km, w a s formed d u r i n g a l a t e

phase of t h e o f f s h o r e b a r d e p o s i t i o n .

The t r e n d , c o n s i s t i n g o f t h r e e

b a r s t h a t are wider a t t h e base than at t h e t o p , is terminated f a i r l y a b r u p t l y on b o t h s i d e s by t h i n n i n g o f t h e s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s and i n t e r -

160

ISOPACH OF WAKITA TREND,

RED FORK SANDSTONE,

OKLAHOMA.

Fig. 3-14.

Isopach of the Wakita trend, Pennsylvanian Red Fork Sandstone, Grant and Alfalfa Counties, Oklahoma, showing east-west trending composite offshore bars. (Redrawn from Withrow, 1968).

fingering with shale.

The sandstone bodies comprising the Wakita Trend

have a maximum composite thickness of 15 m and consist of fine to very fine-grained quartzose sandstone that is generally micaceous and locally argillaceous. Cementation by calcite and silica has reduced porosity

and permeability which average 15% and 2 millidarcys respectively.

161 During the first decade of production, since discovery of the Wakita Trend in 1953, not much more than 500,000 barrels of oil were produced, mainly from the western half of the trend. Gas is also

produced, mainly from the eastern half of the trend. Producible reserves have been estimated to be in excess of 65,000 million cubic feet (1,800 million cubic metres). Withrow (1968) points out that although the Wakita

Trend has yielded the poorest reservoirs, other Red Fork reservoirs in the Anadarko Basin are much more profitable; and that additional accumulations may be found on the basis of interpretations of the depositional environments and trends of the Red Fork Sandstone. Olympic Oil Field, Oklahoma_ Production in the Olympic Oil Field, Oklahoma, is obtained from the Pennsylvanian Olympic Sandstone (Fig. 3-15) which is developed as a linear trend more than 10 km in length and up to 2 km in width. The

Olympic is a composite unit, up to 20 m thick, comprising two or more overlapping sandstone bodies that are interpreted as marine offshore bars. The sandstone is quartzose, well-sorted and fine-grained. Thin

layers of sandy shale, and carbonaceous fragments are locally present. Average porosity and permeability are 20% and 35 millidarcys respectively. The Olympic dips to the northwest and is locally folded into gentle noses. Entrapment of oil is essentially stratigraphic, but with Production of greenish-black, 3 4 O A.P.I. oil Recovery to date has

some structural control.

is obtained from a shallow depth of about 550 m.

amounted to more than 12 million barrels (19 million cubic metres). Mata-Catu Trend, Brazil In the Salvador area of the Reconcavo Basin, Brazil (Fig. 3-16), oil is produced from several reservoirs in the A Sandstone of the Lower Cretaceous Itaparica Formation. This sandstone unit forms two narrow

162

1
J

GEOMETRY OF PRODUCING OLYMPIC OIL

F i g . 3-15.

SANDSTONE,

FIELD,

OKLAHOMA

I s o p a c h map of t h e P e n n s y l v a n i a n Olympic Sandstone, Olympic

O i l F i e l d , Okfuskee County, Oklahoma.

(Redrawn from D i l l a r d ,

1941).

p a r a l l e l t r e n d s and a b r a o d e r , less w e l l - d e f i n e d t r e n d s u b - p a r a l l e l t o t h e o t h e r two. m The l o n g e s t t r e n d , t h e Mata-Catu, h a s a l e n g t h of 40 k The s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s comprising t h i s t r e n d have

and a w i d t h of 3-5 km.

a maximum composite t h i c k n e s s of 45 m. The "A" u n i t i s a w h i t e t o l i g h t g r e y , predominantly q u a r t z o s e , very f i n e t o very coarse-grained sandstone t h a t l o c a l l y contains g r i t - s i z e g r a i n s and s m a l l p e b b l e s . Other c o n s t i t u e n t s i n c l u d e g r a i n s of b l a c k

163
\ \

20
KILOMETERS
Sandstone, S a l v a d o r area, B r a z i l . Arrow (Redrawn

OIL FIELDS IN CRETACEOUS

'?I" SANDSTONE, BRAZIL

Fig. 3-16. D i s t r i b u t i o n o f o i l f i e l d s i n l i n e a r t r e n d s o f t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s "A"

i n d i c a t e s i n f e r r e d d i r e c t i o n of sand t r a n s p o r t . from Bauer, 1967).

c h e r t , f e l d s p a r , f l a k e s of mica, and heavy m i n e r a l s . c o n s i s t s of c l a y m i n e r a l s and carbonaceous m a t t e r .

The s a n d s t o n e m a t r i x Grain g r a d a t i o n , where

i t h a s been n o t e d , i s from f i n e r below t o c o a r s e r above, a common

r e l a t i o n s h i p i n p r o g r a d i n g sand b a r s .

T h i s s a n d s t o n e u n i t i s commonly Minor

thick-bedded and m a s s i v e , w i t h s i l t y and carbonaceous l a m i n a t i o n s . f e a t u r e s i n c l u d e low-angle cross-bedding,

w i t h s c o u r and slump s t r u c t u r e s .

The s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s comprising t h i s u n i t , which o v e r l i e s s h a l e s c o n t a i n i n g f r e s h - w a t e r o s t r a c o d s , a r e c o n s i d e r e d by Bauer (1967) t o b e bar-shaped l e n s e s o f s a n d d e p o s i t e d by c u r r e n t s and shaped by wave a c t i o n .

H e was

164
o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e s e s a n d l e n s e s formed on s h e l v e s a n d s h o a l s i n s h a l l o w w a t e r , b u t a t some d i s t a n c e from s h o r e , i n a l a c u s t r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t . The o i l r e s e r v o i r s have good p o r o s i t y , i n t h e 'range 12-20%, and e x c e l l e n t p e r m e a b i l i t y , commonly 200-1,300 m i l l i d a r c y s b u t r a n g i n g up t o
Oil,

4,000 m i l l i d a r c y s i n some medium-grained and w e l l s o r t e d s a n d s t o n e s .

h a v i n g a g r a v i t y o f 40A.P.I.,

has accumulated i n s t r u c t u r a l l y h i g h p a r t s

( a c c e n t u a t e d by compaction) of t h e s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s where t h e y o v e r l i e u p - t h r u s t b l o c k s o f basement r o c k s .

It i s t h o u g h t b y Bauer (1967) t h a t

basement s t r u c t u r e i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e p a l e o t o p o g r a p h y , and t h a t t h e s a n d b a r s were d e v e l o p e d on t h e h i g h e r areas. On t h e b a s i s o f t h i s i n t e r p r e t -

a t i o n , h e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s e a r c h f o r new f i e l d s w i l l b e a s s i s t e d by a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p a l e o s t r u c t u r a l a n d r e l a t e d paleogeomorphic f e a t u r e s w i t h i n t h e Reconcavo B a s i n .

B e l l Creek O i l F i e l d , Montana The g e o g r a p h i c and paleogeomorphic r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e B e l l Creek and R e c l u s e o i l f i e l d s , Powder R i v e r B a s i n , Montana and Wyoming, are shown i n F i g . 3-17, a f t e r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f F o r g o t s o n and S t a r k (1972).,

T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n d i f f e r s from t h a t of Woncik (1972) who c o n s i d e r e d t h e p r o d u c i n g s a n d s t o n e of t h e R e c l u s e O i l F i e l d ( F i g . 1-46) shoreline sand, possibly a b a r r i e r island. t o be a marine

The p r o d u c i n g zone i n b o t h The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p l a c e d

f i e l d s is t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s Muddy S a n d s t o n e .

on t h e i r paleogeomorphic r e l a t i o n s h i p , by F o r g o t s o n and S t a r k , i s t h a t t h e o i l - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e body i n t h e B e l l ' C r e e k f i e l d ( F i g . 3-18) b a r complex.

is a barrier

T h i s complex i s l o c a t e d n e a r t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of n o r t h e a s t -

- t r e n d i n g l i t t o r a l m a r i n e b a r s and a s o u t h e a s t - t r e n d i n g d e l t a s y s t e m . The s a n d s t o n e body i n t h e R e c l u s e f i e l d i s i n t e r p r e t e d a s p a r t of a d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l - f i l l sand w i t h i n t h e d e l t a system. The Muddy S a n d s t o n e i n t h e B e l l Creek O i l F i e l d i s a c o m p o s i t e

165

I N MILES

Fig. 3-17.

R e s i d u a l isopach v a l u e s i n f e e t (1' = 305 m) of t h e Lower Cretaceous Muddy Sandstone, Powder River Basin, Montana and Wyoming. R e s i d u a l v a l u e s o b t a i n e d by removal of 3d-degree

polynomial v a l u e s of r e g i o n a l s u r f a c e , shown by t h i n c o n t o u r s , from isopach v a l u e s . 1972). ( A f t e r Forgotson and S t a r k ,

b a r complex formed by merging, l i n e a r sandstone l e n s e s , t h e Muddy h a s a cumulative maximum t h i c k n e s s of 10 m, and an average t h i c k n e s s of 6 m. Four u n i t s have been d e s c r i b e d : (a) an upper, massive u n i t of fine-grained

s a n d s t o n e , (b) an u n d e r l y i n g , s l i g h t l y c o a r s e r and s t r o n g l y laminated s a n d s t o n e , showing s m a l l - s c a l e c r o s s bedding, (c) a massive, v e r y f i n e -gpained, s l i g h t l y laminated sandstone w i t h minor b i o t u r b a t i o n , and (d)

a t h i n b a s a l u n i t of i n t e r l a m i n a t e d s h a l e and s i l t s t o n e w i t h e x t e n s i v e

166

MUDDY

SANDSTONE, BELL CREEK MONTANA.

FIELD,

Fig. 3-18.

Isopach showing gross thickness in feet (1'

0.305 m) of

Lower Cretaceous Muddy Sandstone, Bell Creek Field, Montana. Lines of sections a-a' and b-b' are approximate. Sections

show lenticularity of oil-producing sandstone bodies. (Redrawn from McGregor and Biggs, 1968, and Berg and Davis,
1968).

bioturbation.

The sandstone is quartzose (ave. 86% quartz), well sorted,

The average grain size increases with

and fine to very-fine-grained.

increasing quartz content. Porosity and permeability are exceptionally good, ranging up to 30% and 3,500 millidarcys respectively.

167
5
0;03m.m

0'

4 670'
0

_1

lm

lo'

4 680'

I.
A
2 0'

BELL CREEK FIELD, MONTANA.

30'

\,
B

GALVESTON ISLAND, TEXAS

Fig. 3-19.
A - c o r e from t h e o i l - p r o d u c i n g Lower C r e t a c e o u s Wuddy

Sandstone i n Well No. 6-14,

B e l l Creek F i e l d , Montana.

B - c o r e No. R 3963 from Recent sediments on G a l v e s t o n

I s l a n d , Texas, a t y p i c a l b a r r i e r i s l a n d . D a v i e s , E t h r i d g e , and Berg, 1971).

(Redrawn from

D a v i e s , E t h r i d g e , and Berg (1971) made a comparison of t e x t u r e s and s t r u c t u r e s i n c o r e s (Fig. 3-19) from t h e Muddy Sandstone i n t h e B e l l

Creek O i l F i e l d and from Galveston I s l a n d , Texas, a t y p i c a l b a r r i e r i s l a n d . The l e n g t h s of t h e Muddy and Galveston c o r e s are a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 m and 9 m

168 respectively. The G a l v e s t o n I s l a n d c o r e shows an uppermost u n i t of e o l i a n

s a n d , w i t h o c c a s i o n a l p l a n t r o o t s , o v e r l y i n g a u n i t of sand c o n t a i n i n g i n t e r v a l s showing low-angle cross-bedding o f t h e t y p e found w i t h i n beach deposits. T h i s t y p e of cross-bedding r e f l e c t s v a r i a t i o n s i n d e p o s i t i o n a l The cross-bedded u n i t o v e r l i e s a homogeneous t o

s l o p e s of t h e beach.

f a i n t l y l a m i n a t e d u n i t o f sand d e p o s i t e d as t h e seaward e x t e n s i o n of an i n t e r t i d a l beach.

The lowermost u n i t i s of e x t e n s i v e l y b i o t u r b a t e d c l a y e y

s i l t interbedded with very fine-grained sand.

G r a i n s i z e d e c r e a s e s from

a f i n e s a n d i n t h e uppermost u n i t t o a v e r y f i n e sand i n t h e lowermost unit. T h i s g r a d a t i o n i s t y p i c a l of b a r r i e r i s l a n d and o t h e r o f f - l a p p i n g

s h o r e l i n e sand d e p o s i t s . The B e l l Creek F i e l d c o r e shows t h e same sequence i n l i t h o l o g y , w i t h minor v a r i a t i o n s . The uppermost u n i t i s o f v e r y f i n e - g r a i n e d The i n t e r -

homogeneous s a n d c o n t a i n i n g t r a c e s o f p l a n t r o o t s t r u c t u r e s .

t i d a l beach u n i t c o n t a i n s some organism burrows; and t h e o u t e r beach s u r f a c e u n i t c o n t a i n s some rounded i n c l u s i o n of c l a y s t o n e , p o s s i b l y formed from mudcrack fragments washed t o sea from a beach. The lowermost u n i t

c o n s i s t s e n t i r e l y of e x t e n s i v e l y b i o t u r b a t e d c l a y s t o n e and s i l t s t o n e laminae showing some v e r y f i n e c r o s s - l a m i n a t i o n s . t h e f i n e sand r a n g e , 0 . 2 5 Grain s i z e i s w i t h i n

0.12 nun, w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of t h e lowermost

u n i t which i s o f s i l t , 0.06

0 . 0 3 mm.
It i s a s t r a t i g r a p h i c

The B e l l Creek F i e l d was d i s c o v e r e d i n 1967.

t r a p i n which t h e f o u r s e p a r a t e a c c u m u l a t i o n s of o i l have d i f f e r e n t o i l -water c o n t a c t s . The o i l , pumped from a d e p t h o f a b o u t 1,400 m , i s s u l p h u r During t h e p e r i o d of peak p r o d u c t i o n

- f r e e and h a s a g r a v i t y of 34O A.P.I.

t h e f i e l d y i e l d e d 65,000 b a r r e l s a day from w e l l s having an a v e r a g e d a i l y p r o d u c t i o n of 500 b a r r e l s . Cumulative p r o d u c t i o n t o 1973 amounted t o 45

I t i s e s t i m a t e d (McGregor

m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (7.2 million cubic metres).

and Biggs, 1968) t h a t t h e r e s e r v e s o f p r o d u c i b l e o i l amount t o 200 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (31.8 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) .

169

Gas D r a w O i l F i e l d , Wyoming The G a s D r a w O i l F i e l d (Fig. 3-20) i n t h e Powder R i v e r B a s i n , Wyoming, produces o i l from t h e 'Gas D r a w Sandstone i n t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s Muddy Formation. The Gas D r a w o v e r l i e s t h e o i l - p r o d u c i n g s a n d s t o n e i n t h e

B e l l Creek F i e l d (50 km n o r t h e a s t ) , and forms a composite l i n e a r s a n d s t o n e

body more t h a n 40 km l o n g , 2-3 km wide, and up t o 10 m t h i c k .

The main

o i l accumulation o f t h e f i e l d e x t e n d s a l o n g t h e c e n t r a l p a r t of t h i s trer.d f o r a d i s t a n c e o f 20 km. The Gas D r a w , c o n s i s t i n g of v e r y f i n e t o f i n e - g r a i n e d q u a r t z o s e s a n d s t o n e , i s t h o u g h t by Stone (1972) t o have o r i g i n a t e d a s a sequence of o f f s h o r e b a r s and b e a c h e s a l o n g t h e same s h o r e l i n e t r e n d as t h e B e l l Creek Sandstone i n t h e upper p a r t of t h e Muddy Formation. In t h i s

c o n t e x t i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h e funnel-shaped c h a r a c t e r of t h e E-log of b o t h t h e G a s D r a w and B e l l Creek s a n d s t o n e s (Fig. 3-21). As i n

t h e B e l l Creek F i e l d , t h e producing s a n d s t o n e of t h e Gas Draw F i e l d h a s e x c e l l e n t r e s e r v o i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n c l u d i n g good p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y . The B e l l Creek, U t e , and K i t t y f i e l d s a l s o o b t a i n p a r t of t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n from t h e Gas D r a w Sandstone.

G a r r i n g t o n and C r o s s f i e l d O i l F i e l d s , A l b e r t a The G a r r i n g t o n and C r o s s f i e l d f i e l d s i n A l b e r t a (Fig. 3-22) produce o i l from t h e Upper C r e t a c e o u s Cardium S a n d s t s n e .

In t h i s area t h e Cardium

i s d e f i n e d by two p a r a l l e l , ribbon-shaped s a n d s t o n e t r e n d s about 15 km

apart.

The younger t r e n d , l y i n g f a r t h e r t o t h e n o r t h e a s t , i s t h e producing

It h a s been t r a c e d i n a n o r t h w e s t

s a n d s t o n e of t h e G a r r i n g t o n F i e l d . d i r e c t i o n f o r more t h a n 100 km.

The C r o s s f i e l d t r e n d e x t e n d s f o r more t h a n

115 km.

Both of t h e s e s a n d s t o n e t r e n d s a r e 2-5 km wide and range i n They w e r e formed as o f f s h o r e b a r s , p o s s i b l y as

t h i c k n e s s up t o 6 m.

b a r r i e r b a r s , d u r i n g a p e r i o d of marine r e g r e s s i o n i n t h e e a r l y L a t e

+--

. -

'5
h d

TYPE LOG GAS DRAW SANDSTONE

7200'

MUDDY

SANDSTONE ISOLIT'H GAS DRAW ZONE

C.I. 10'
51

T 50 N

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'

y @

llllr!

i __

. I _ _

I
A

7 -60'

TOTAL MUDDY

UNDIFFERENTIATED UPPER MUDDY SANDSTONES

Fig. 3-20.

I s o l i t h of t h e Lower Cretaceous Gas Draw Sandstone showing a l i n e a r p a t t e r n where t h e thickness ranges i n excess of 30 f e e t (9 m ) .
1972).

Contour i n t e r v a l i s 10 f e e t (3 m ) .

(After Stone,

171

TYPE MUDDY LOG

I

SPRINGEN RCH.

U P P E R RECLUSE

OAKOTA SILT

7400'
OAKOTA

Fig. 3-21.

Type E-log from t h e G a s D r a w o i l f i e l d , Powder R i v e r Basin, Wyoming. ( A f t e r S t o n e , 1972).

Cretaceous.

S u b s e q u e n t l y , t h e y were b u r i e d by d a r k s i l t s and muds o f

t h e Colorado Group when t h e s e a a g a i n t r a n s g r e s s e d westward. The Cardium Sandstone i s l i t h i c , b e i n g composed o f g r a i n s of c h e r t , q u a r t z , q u a r t z i t e , s i l i c i f i e d a r g i l l i t e , and o t h e r r o c k fragments. In g e n e r a l , t h e s a n d s t o n e i s f i n e - g r a i n e d , sub-rounded. the grains being angular t o

In t h e upper p a r t o f t h e s e c t i o n t h e s a n d s t o n e i s l o c a l l y

g r i t t y t o p e b b l y , t h e l a r g e r g r a i n s and p e b b l e s b e i n g w e l l rounded and c o n s i s t i n g of l i g h t g r e y and b l a c k c h e r t y r o c k . The cement i n t h e m a t r i x

i s l a r g e l y s i d e r i t e , i l l i t e and c h l o r i t e .

D i a g e n e s i s and compaction have

r e d u c e d . p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y which have mean v a l u e s of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10% and 35 m i l l i d a r c i e s r e s p e c t i v e l y .

172

ISOPACH M A P CARDIUM BARRIER

1
O J
KM

-0
MILES

1 0

CAL(

F i g . 3-22.

I s o p a c h map of b a r r i e r b a r s of t h e Upper C r e t a c e o u s Cardium Formation, G a r r i n g t o n (A) and C r o s s f i e l d (B) o i l f i e l d s , Alberta. Isopach i n t e r v a l i s 10 f e e t ( 3 m).

(Redrawn from Berven, 1966).

The o i l a c c u m u l a t i o n s a r e i n p u r e l y s t r a t i g r a p h i c t r a p s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e up-dip l i m i t e s of pinch-out edges on t h e f l a n k s of t h e s a n d s t o n e

b o d i e s , and by t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of zones of v a r i a b l e p o r o s i t y and permeability along t h e trends. t o t h e west-southwest. Regional d i p of t h e s t r a t a i s about 10 m/km

The n e t p r o d u c i n g s a n d s t o n e i n b o t h f i e l d s h a s a zone i s n e c e s s a r y .

r a n g e of o n l y 1-2 m , and f r a c t u r i n g of t h e o i l - b e a r i n g

The i n i t i a l r e s e r v o i r d r i v e was by s o l u t i o n g a s , b u t secondary recovery methods i n v o l v e t h e u s e of w a t e r f l o o d i n g . I n t h e G a r r i n g t o n F i e l d t h e r e a r e two producing s a n d s t o n e u n i t s , e a c h h a v i n g a n a v e r a g e t h i c k n e s s of a b o u t 3m. The upper s a n d s t o n e body

173
i s ribbon-shaped and h a s s i m i l a r dimensions t o t h e s a n d s t o n e body i n t h e

Crossfield Field.

The lower body h a s t h e same t r e n d , b u t i s much more Most w e l l s produce

i r r e g u l a r i n s h a p e , r a n g i n g i n w i d t h up t o 10 km.

from e i t h e r one s a n d s t o n e o r t h e o t h e r , b u t some produce from b o t h where the u n i t s overlap.

is sulphur-free,

The p a r a f f i n - b a s e o i l h a s a g r a v i t y of 370 A . P . I .

and

O r i g i n a l o i l i n p l a c e i n b o t h s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s amounted

to 190 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (20.2 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) , o f which i t i s

e s t i m a t e d ( T y r e l l , 1966) t h a t 40 m i l l i o n ( 6 . 4 m i l l i o n c u b i c metres) can ultimately be recovered. J a v e r i (1966) estimates t h a t t h e C r o s s f i e l d

had an o r i g i n a l o i l c o n t e n t of 160 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s ( 2 5 . 4 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) of which 16 m i l l i o n ( 2 . 5 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) may b e r e c o v e r e d , The d a i l y p r o d u c t i o n r a t e p e r w e l l i s t h e range 20-40 b a r r e l s .

Fig. 3-23.

F a c i e s map of B i s t i o i l f i e l d , San J u a n B a s i n , New Mexico, showing b a r r i e r b a r complex comprising t h e Marye,

Carson, and Huerfano o i l - b e a r i n g sand b a r s of t h e Upper

Cretaceous G a l l u p Formation. ( A f t e r S a b i n s , 1963).

174

t 1
T26,

ISOPACH MAP OF

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Feet 1

I
E-LOG CHARACTERISTICS
P i g . 3-24.

OF BlSTl

FIELD

SANDS

'

&Om

Isopach map of a producing b a r r i e r b a r , B i s t i o i l f i e l d , San J u a n B a s i n , New Mexico. 0.305 m). Contour i n v e r v a l i n f e e t (1' =

The s p o n t a n e o u s - p o t e n t i a l c u r v e s show a f u n n e l (Redrawn from

s h a p e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of b a r r i e r - b a r s a n d s . S a b i n s , 1963).

B i s t i O i l F i e l d , New Mexico

The B i s t i O i l F i e l d i n New Mexico ( F i g s . 3-23 and 3 - 2 4 ) h a s been d e s c r i b e d by S a b i n s (1963) who s t a t e s t h a t p r o d u c t i o n i s o b t a i n e d from t h r e e o v e r l a p p i n g s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s d e s i g n a t e d t h e Marye, Carson, and Huerfano members o f t h e Upper C r e t a c e o u s G a l l u p Formation. These l i n e a r

s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s a r e i n t e r p r e t e d by S a b i n s as sand b a r s t h a t formed a b a r r i e r - b a r complex.

H e r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e l i n e a r i t y of t h e s e s a n d s t o n e

b o d i e s c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e topography o f t h e upper s u r f a c e of t h e underl y i n g Gallup Sandstone, b u t t h a t t h e b o d i e s are n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b e t t e r developed i n t h e t o p o g r a p h i c d e p r e s s i o n s , some t h i c k e r p a r t s of t h e

175
bodies overlying escarpments. S a b i n s s t a t e s , p. 224, "In summary, t h e

d e p o s i t i o n a l topography of t h e upper s u r f a c e of t h e Main G a l l u p Sand resembles l o n g s h o r e b a r and t r o u g h topography w i t h some seaward-facing depositional escarpments. T h i s topography w a s formed d u r i n g t h e f i n a l

d e p o s i t i o n of Main Gallup Sand and w a s t h e s u r f a c e upon which t h e B i s t i b a r complex was d e p o s i t e d " . S a b i n s i n t e r p r e t s t h e Main G a l l u p Sandstone

u n d e r l y i n g t h e Marye, Carson, and t h e Huerfano s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s as a reg r e s s i v e marine s h e e t - s a n d on t h e s u r f a c e of which sand b a r s and a s s o c i a t e d f a c i e s ( F i g . 3-23) were developed. McCubbin (1969) on t h e o t h e r hand, i n t e r p r e t s t h e upper s u r f a c e of t h e Main G a l l u p Sandstone a s an e r o s i o n a l s u r f a c e on which l i n e a r s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s w e r e d e p o s i t e d i n marine s t r j k e v a l l e y s f l a n k i n g c u e s t a s d u r i n g t h e t r a n s g r e s s i o n of t h e N i o b r a r a sea. McCubbin's s t u d y d i d n o t

s p e c i f i c a l l y d e a l w i t h t h e B i s t i F i e l d , b u t w i t h t h e n e a r b y Horseshoe, Many Rocks, Mesa, South Waterflow, Cha Cha, and Totah f i e l d s which are producing from t h e same s t r a t i g r a p h i c h o r i z o n . McCubbin s t a t e s , p. 2116,

"Most p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s of t h e s e o i l f i e l d s l e d t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t t h e r e s e r v o i r s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s were d e p o s i t e d as " o f f s h o r e b a r s " o r "marine b a r s " contemporaneously w i t h t h e beach and nearshore-marine s a n d s t o n e s of t h e G a l l u p , and t h a t t h e i r l o c a t i o n and t r e n d are r e l a t e d t o t h e maximum e x t e n t of t h e G a l l u p r e g r e s s i o n @bight S a b i n s , 1963; Tomkins, 1957). and Budd, 1959;

P e n t t i l a (1964) r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e

s a n d s t o n e beds i n t h e n o r t h w e s t e r n p a r t of t h e b a s i n o v e r l i e an unconf o r m i t y which s e p a r a t e s them from t h e o l d e r Gallup Sandstone, and t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s i s r e l a t e d t o e r o s i o n a l l o w s on t h e unconformity". I f McCubbin's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n can b e a p p l i e d a l s o

t o t h e B i s t i F i e l d , t h e n t h e Marye, Carson, and Huerfano s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s a r e b a s a l members of t h e Upper C r e t a c e o u s N i o b r a r a Formation, and as s t r i k e - v a l l e y s a n d s f l a n k i n g c u e s t a s s h o u l d b e a s s i g n e d t o Chapter 5 on

176
t r a n s g r e s s i v e marine s h o r e l i n e sand b o d i e s . c h a p t e r , because: (a) t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e i r o r i g i n does n o t y e t seem t o have been s a t i s f a c t o r i l y r e s o l v e d , (b) t h e y were a p p a r e n t l y formed i n a n e a r s h o r e marine environment, and (c) t h e i r funnel-shaped E-log c h a r a c t e r ( F i g . 3-24) s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e y w e r e sand b a r s
The producing s a n d s t o n e s of t h e B i s t i f i e l d form a l i n e a r t r e n d

They are p l a c e d i n t h i s

more t h a n 55 km l o n g , 3-5 km wide and up t o 2 0 m t h i c k .

The s a n d s t o n e s

are q u a r t z o s e , g l a u c o n i t i c , and c o n s i s t of f i n e t o medium, sub-rounded grains. G r a i n g r a d a t i o n i s from f i n e r below t o c o a r s e r above, a The funnel-shaped

r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of b a r r i e r b a r s . E-logs (Fig. 3-24) reflect t h i s gradation.

Porosity is i n t h e range

10-20% b u t i s commonly 12-55%.

Permeability i n t h e coarser sandstones

r a n g e s up t o 400 m i l l i d a r c y s , b u t t h e a v e r a g e s a n d s t o n e s a r e w i t h i n t h e r a n g e 50-175 m i l l i d a r c y s . The B i s t i F i e l d i s a s t r a t i g r a p h i c t r a p , t h e r e b e i n g no s t r u c t u r a l i n f l u e n c e by n o s e s o r c l o s u r e s e i t h e r above o r below t h e producing sandstone units i n the field.
Well completions normally r e q u i r e f r a c t u r i n g

of t h e s a n d s t o n e t o y i e l d an a v e r a g e p r o d u c t i o n of more t h a n 900 b a r r e l s p e r w e l l p e r month. solution drive. The primary producing mechanism i s by means of g a s

I t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t u l t i m a t e r e c o v e r y from t h e f i e l d

w i l l amount t o 50 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (8 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) .

S a l t Creek

Teapot Dome O i l F i e l d , Wyoming

The S a l t Creek F i e l d (Fig. 3-25) and t h e a d j a c e n t Teapot Dome t o t h e s o u t h are p r o l i f i c o i l f i e l d s producing mainly from t h e Second Sands t o n e member of t h e Upper C r e t a c e o u s F r o n t i e r Formation. The Second

177

?
O
KM

o ;
10 U MILES

CASPER

OIL FIELDS IN OFFSHORE BAR, FRONTIER FORMATION, WYOMING

Fig. 3-25. Salt Creek oil field within a structural nose along the trend of the Second Sandstone, an offshore bar in the Upper Cretaceous Frontier Formation. Haun, 1966). (Redrawn from Barlow and

Sandstone lies about 60 m stratigraphically below the First Sandstone, at depths of 400-900 m. The Second Sandstone is interpreted by Barlow and H a m (1966) as a marine offshore bar fringing a deltaic lobe that prograded eastward. The sandstone body trends north-northwest for more than 100 km. It

178
a v e r a g e s a b o u t 1 5 km i n w i d t h , and i s up t o 30 m t h i c k . The t r e n d

c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e a x i s of an u n d u l a t i n g a n t i c l i n e a l o n g which s e p a r a t e c l o s u r e s , s u c h as t h e Teapot Dome, have developed. q u a r t z o s e , w e l l s o r t e d , v e r y f i n e t o medium-grained -bedded.

It h a s an a v e r a g e p o r o s i t y of 20%.

The s a n d s t o n e i s and l o c a l l y c r o s s -

G l a u c o n i t e i s a common

c o n s t i t u e n t , and i n p l a c e s t h e s a n d s t o n e c o n t a i n s carbonaceous f r a g m e n t s . The g r a i n s , which are sub-rounded t o s u b - a n g u l a r , s i z e from f i n e r below t o c o a r s e r above. t h e funnel-shaped show a g r a d a t i o n i n

This gradation i s r e f l e c t e d i n Locally, the

E-log c h a r a c t e r o f t h e Second Sandstone.

s a n d s t o n e body c o n t a i n s l e n s e s o f p e b b l e s , and w i t h i n t h e uppermost p a r t t h e r e i s a w i d e s p r e a d p e b b l e bed.

A s i m i l a r p e b b l e b e d , which r e p r e s e n t s

a period of scouring of t h e offshore b a r s , is present a t the top of t h e

o i l - p r o d u c i n g Cardium Sandstone ( F i g . 3-22) Bech (1929) shows d i f f e r e n t o i l - w a t e r Creek

of A l b e r t a . contacts within the Salt

Teapot Dome s t r u c t u r e .

These a r e p o s s i b l y t h e r e s u l t of f a u l t i n g , surface. The s a l i n i t y r a n g e o f t h e p.p.m.,

w e l l below the

r a t h e r than t i l t i n g of the oil-water

w a t e z i n t h e Second Sandstone i s 8,000-15,000 a v e r a g e sea water r a n g e o f 30,000 p.p.m.,

which s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e h a s

been some d i l u t i o n of t h e c o n n a t e water w i t h m e t e o r i c w a t e r , and t h a t c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e r e may b e some movement of w a t e r w i t h i n t h e s a n d s t o n e body. Lack o f e a r l y p r e s s u r e d a t a , however, p r e c l u d e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y

o f making a s a t i s f a c t o r y hydrodynamic a n a l y s i s . Barlow and Haun (1966, p. 2195) summarize t h e f i e l d as f o l l o w s , " S a l t Creek f i e l d commonly h a s been s e l e c t e d as a n o u t s t a n d i n g example o f an a n t i c l i n a l a c c u m u l a t i o n .
It h a s been c i t e d a s an example of d i f f e r -

e n t i a l e n t r a p m e n t by Gussow (1954) and as an t i l t e d oil-water

example of f i e l d s w i t h The writers have

c o n t a c t s by Levorsen (1954, p. 295)*.

a t t e m p t e d t o show t h a t t h e major a c c u m u l a t i o n , i n t h e second F r o n t i e r Footnote: p. 151 of t h e 2nd E d i t i o n (1967)

179
s a n d s t o n e , i s w i t h i n a sand b a r t h a t w a s d e p o s i t e d a t t h e seaward margin o f a l o b a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of c o a r s e , t e r r i g e n o u s c l a s t i c s ( a d e l t a ? ) , which were d e r i v e d from a l a n d a r e a on t h e w e s t and n o r t h w e s t . The b a r

w a s s u b j e c t e d t o s t r o n g wave and c u r r e n t a c t i o n which produced r e l a t i v e l y

high p o r o s i t y through s o r t i n g p r o c e s s e s .

The b a r became a s t r a t i g r a p h i c

t r a p d u r i n g t h e e a r l y s t a g e s of sediment compaction and accumulated petroleum d e r i v e d from t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s o u r c e beds i n t h e F r o n t i e r . During

Laramide f o l d i n g , t h e o i l m i g r a t e d t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y i t s p r e s e n t s t r u c t u r a l position. Subsequent hydrodynamic g r a d i e n t s may have modified s l i g h t l y

t h e s t r u c t u r a l p o s i t i o n of t h e o i l " . The S a l t Creek

Teapot Dome F i e l d h a s y i e l d e d up 'to 1966, a t o t a l

of 420 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (66.8 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) of o i l having a g r a v i t y range of 33O-380 A . P . I . I n i t i a l l y , p r o d u c t i o n was p a r t l y a s s i s t e d by

g a s - s o l u t i o n d r i v e , and t h e a v e r a g e d a i l y p r o d u c t i o n from e a r l y w e l l s d r i l l e d d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1917-1921 was 670 b a r r e l s p e r w e l l .

B i g Piney Gas F i e l d , Wyoming

The Big Piney F i e l d of t h e Green R i v e r B a s i n , Wyoming, produces g a s from l e n t i c u l a r s a n d s t o n e u n i t s i n t h e Paleocene Almy Formation. t h e s e u n i t s , t h e "La" Sandstone member (Fig. 3-26) One of

i s a major p r o d u c e r .

This s a n d s t o n e u n i t comprises two s e p a r a t e s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s w i t h a s l i g h t

en echelon alignment i n p l a n view.

Both b o d i e s t r e n d s n o r t h , a r e l i n e a r , They p i n c h o u t f a i r l y These s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s

l e n t i c u l a r , and r a n g e s i n t h i c k n e s s up t o 40 m.

a b r u p t l y t o t h e w e s t and become s i l t y t o t h e e a s t .

are i n t e r p r e t e d as o f f s h o r e b a r s .

Other a s s o c i a t e d s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s are

interpreted as estuarine or deltaic i n origin. The Big Piney f i e l d w a s d i s c o v e r e d i n 1938. blew i n w h i l e b e i n g cored a t a d e p t h of about 300 m. One of t h e e a r l y w e l l s Gas flowed a t t h e

180

KM

6
MILES

GEOMETRY

OF "La" GAS

SAND,

BIG

PI N E Y
F i g . 3-26.

FIELD, W Y O M I N G

Isopach map of t h e "La" Sandstone i n t h e Paleocene Almy Formation, Big Piney Gas F i e l d , Green River Basin, Wyoming. Contour i n t e r v a l i n f e e t (1' = 0.305 m). Krueger, 1968). (Redrawn from

r a t e of 70 m i l l i o n c u b i c f e e t a day f o r 10 days b e f o r e b e i n g brought under control. thick. The producing sandstone a t t h i s l o c a t i o n i s approximately 30 m Within t h e f i e l d , 20 s e p a r a t e and l e n t i c u l a r sandstone bodies

w i t h i n t h e Almy Formation, of which t h e "La" member i s one, c o n t a i n gas and minor q u a n t i t i e s of o i l . These hydrocarbon accumulations a r e e s s e n t i a l l y

s t r a t i g r a p h i c , t h e gas and o i l b e i n g confined by p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y

181
b a r r i e r s on t h e f l a n k s o f t h e s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s . Within t h e p r o d u c i n g zones

t h e p o r o s i t y i s commonly 26-28% and t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y 50-200 m i l l i d a r c y s . The g a s , which i s s u l p h u r - f r e e , e t h a n e , and 3% propane. c o n t a i n s 89-99% methane, up t o 6%

Cumulative p r o d u c t i o n t o 1966, from Almy Formation

s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s i n t h e P i n e y and a d j a c e n t L a Barge f i e l d s , amounted t o

650,000 m i l l i o n c u b i c f e e t (18,200 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) .
Hardin O i l F i e l d , Texas The Hardin O i l F i e l d , Texas, h a s n i n e p r o d u c i n g s a n d s t o n e u n i t s w i t h i n t h e Upper Eocene Yegua Formation. One o f t h e s e , i n t h e Eponides

FEET
KM

I
d

L50 FEET

F i g . 3-27.

I s o p a c h and s e c t i o n C-D o f t h e Davis S a n d s t o n e , Upper Eocene Yegua F o r m a t i o n , Hardin o i l f i e l d , Texas. i n f e e t (1' = 0.305 m). Isopach i n t e r v a l

(Redrawn from Casey and C a n t r e l l , 1941).

182 y e g u a e n s i s zone o f t h e Tegua, i s t h e Davis Sandstone ( F i g . 3-27) which y i e l d s g a s , d i s t i l l a t e , and o i l . The Davis i s a l i n e a r and l e n t i c u l a r body

having a l e n g t h of 3 . 3 km, a w i d t h i n t h e r a n g e 150-350 m, and a maximum t h i c k n e s s of 15 m.

In g e n e r a l , i t forms a massive s a n d s t o n e body and

shows no s t r a t i f i c a t i o n e x c e p t i n t h e s h a l y z o n e s , a l o n g t h e f l a n k s of t h e body, where i t e x h i b i t s some cross-bedding. The s a n d s t o n e i s mediumThe g r a i n s are The

-grained and c o n s i s t s of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 98% q u a r t z . sub-angular t o angular.

Carbonized p l a n t f r a g m e n t s are common.

s a n d s t o n e body i s i n t e r p r e t e d as a marine o f f s h o r e b a r d e p o s i t e d i n a r e g r e s s i n g sea. The E-log c h a r a c t e r s of the Yegua s a n d s t o n e u n i t s are

d i s t i n c t l y funnel-shaped, which s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e u n i t s o r i g i n a t e d as sand b a r s . The E-log c h a r a c t e r of t h e Davis Sandstone i s l e s s w e l l

d e f i n e d , p o s s i b l y b e c a u s e i t i s f a i r l y uniform i n g r a i n s i z e . The s a n d s t o n e h a s e x c e l l e n t p e t r o p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , t h e a v e r a g e p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y b e i n g 2 7 % and 2,200 m i l l i d a r c y s r e s p e c t i v e l y . The p r e s e n c e o f b r a c k i s h water, h a v i n g a s a l i n i t y of 12,000 p a r t s p e r m i l l i o n , s u g g e s t s some d e g r e e of d i l u t i o n of t h e c o n n a t e water by m e t e o r i c water. Consequently, t h e r e i s a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t a hydrodynamic The Davis Sandstone, e n c o u n t e r e d a t a distillate,

condition exists i n , t h e field.

d e p t h of about 2,285 m below t h e s u r f a c e , y i e l d s g a s , 550 A . P . I . and 3 7 O A.P.I. oil.

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Chapter 4

REGRESSIVE MARINE SHORELINE SAND

Introduction

Geomorphology R e g r e s s i v e marine s h o r e l i n e sand b o d i e s c o n s i s t of s t r a t i f o r m and l e n t i c u l a r b o d i e s of sand d e p o s i t e d as beaches o r o f f - s h o r e s a n d s d u r i n g a p e r i o d of r e g r e s s i o n of t h e sea. along t h e coast. These s a n d b o d i e s a r e l i n e a r and t r e n d

They commonly e x h i b i t a p a r a l l e l arrangement i n p l a n The l a t t e r view i s

view and an en echeZon arrangement i n s e c t i o n a l view.

n o t always e v i d e n t w i t h o u t v e r t i c a l e x a g g e r a t i o n of t h e s e c t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y where i n t e r n a l s t r a t i g r a p h i c markers cannot c l e a r l y b e d e f i n e d .

A sand-

s t o n e u n i t t h a t a p p e a r s t o have a s h e e t - l i k e d i s t r i b u t i o n , and which h a s been r e f e r r e d t o as a ' b l a n k e t s a n d ' , may i n f a c t comprise a sequence of s e p a r a t e , o f f - l a p p i n g s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e a diachronous u n i t . Other s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s , such as beach r i d g e s , may b e c l e a r l y s e p a r a t e d by shale or siltstone. I n c l u d e d i n t h e c a t e g o r y of s h o r e l i n e sand b o d i e s

d e p o s i t e d by a r e g r e s s i n g s e a are some d e l t a - f r o n t sand b o d i e s such a s bar-finger s a n d s , and a l s o some i n t e r - d e l t a i c sand b o d i e s such a s b a r r i e r iklta-front sand b o d i e s a r e n o t

i s l a n d s a n d s and o t h e r o f f s h o r e b a r s .

d e a l t w i t h i n t h i s c h a p t e r because t h e y are e s s e n t i a l l y t h e p r o g r a d i n g seaward e x t e n s i o n s of d e l t a d i s t r i b u t a r y sand b o d i e s ( F i g s . 2-2 and 2-4) t h a t t r e n d , i n g e n e r a l , normal t o t h e c o a s t l i n e . Some b a r r i e r and o t h e r

o f f s h o r e b a r s c o u l d p r o p e r l y b e i n c l u d e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r , b u t because t h e y can a l s o form i n marine t r a n s g r e s s i v e s i t u a t i o n s ( F i g . 3-9) i n c l u d e d i n a separate c h a p t e r . R e g r e s s i v e and t r a n s g r e s s i v e s i t u a t i o n s can a r i s e where t h e they a r e

184
landmass a d j a c e n t t o t h e sea i s f l a t and low. n a t u r e of t h e t e r r a i n , low-relief e x t e n t by e r o s i o n a l p r o c e s s e s . Depending on t h e g e o l o g i c a l

topography may b e developed t o a l a r g e

Very f l a t c o a s t a l areas a d j o i n i n g t h e

l o w - r e l i e f topography a r e formed e s s e n t i a l l y by p r o g r a d i n g d e p o s i t i o n a l processes. Vast a r e a s o f c o a s t a l f l a t - l a n d s c a n , subsequent t o t h e i r

f o r m a t i o n by s e d i m e n t s a c c r e t i n g t o t h e c o a s t d u r i n g a p e r i o d of marine r e g r e s s i o n , b e s u b s e q u e n t l y i n u n d a t e d and p a r t l y re-worked d u r i n g a p e r i o d of marine t r a n s g r e s s i o n . P r o g r a d a t i o n , and t h e consequent seaward e x t e n s i o n of f l a t c o a s t a l p l a i n s , can b e r a p i d in s i t u a t i o n s where t h e d e l t a s of l a r g e r i v e r systems

are growing o u t on a s h a l l o w c o n t i n e n t a l p l a t f o r m .

In t h i s situation,

beach r i d g e s , b a r r i e r b a r s , and o t h e r o f f s h o r e sand b o d i e s can b e s e e n a s t o p o g r a p h i c f e a t u r e s , commonly a s v e g e t a t i o n - c o v e r e d , r i d g e s , f o r many k i l o m e t e r s i n l a n d . low-lying sandy

Subsequent drowning of t h e c o a s t a l

topography, d u r i n g a p e r i o d of marine t r a n s g r e s s i o n , may bury t h e s e f e a t u r e s i n mud and p r e s e r v e them i n t h e g e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d . 4lthough

world-wide rises of sea l e v e l are known t o c o i n c i d e w i t h p e r i o d s d u r i n g which t h e i c e c a p s w e r e m e l t i n g , and may a l s o r e f l e c t major t e c t o n i c movements, t r a n s g r e s s i o n s do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y imply an a b s o l u t e r i s e of

sea l e v e l .

L o c a l marine t r a n s g r e s s i o n s commonly o c c u r i n a r e a s of l a r g e

d e l t a s where p r o g r a d a t i o n i s no l o n g e r t a k i n g p l a c e because t h e r i v e r s y s t e m h a s changed i t s c o u r s e and is n o t s u p p l y i n g sediment t o t h a t p a r t

of t h e c o a s t .

In t h i s s i t u a t i o n t h e c o a s t l i n e c e a s e s t o m i g r a t e seaward

by t h e a c c r e t i o n of s e d i m e n t , b u t t h e d e l t a sediments b e n e a t h t h e c o a s t a l p l a i n c o n t i n u e t o compact. A s much of t h e swampy s u r f a c e of t h e d e l t a i s

less t h a n one meter above sea l e v e l , t h e s u r f a c e s i n k s b e n e a t h t h e s e a .

Drowning of t h e s e f l a t c o a s t a l p l a i n s can t a k e p l a c e o v e r a p e r i o d of a few y e a r s , a l t h o u g h t h e advance of t h e sea may n o t b e a t a c o n s t a n t rate. During p e r i o d s of slow advance, c o n d i t i o n s approximating a s t i l h s t a n d may

185
b e reached d u r i n g which s h o r e l i n e b o d i e s of s i l t y sand may b e formed by winnowing o f t h e s e d i m e n t s by waves and c u r r e n t s . C o n t i n u a l p r o g r a d a t i o n of a d e l t a f r o n t , compaction of sedimentary l a y e r s , l o c a l re-working o f s u r f i c i a l s e d i m e n t s , and widespread d e p o s i t i o n
of muds d u r i n g t r a n s i t o r y p e r i o d s of marine t r a n s g r e s s i o n are p r o c e s s e s

t h a t d e t e r m i n e t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c n a t u r e and e x t e r n a l geometry of s a n d s t o n e bodies. These b o d i e s and t h e i r e n c l o s i n g b e d s form a s i n k i n g p i l e of

sediments t h a t w i l l e v e n t u a l l y c o n s t i t u t e p a r t of a s e d i m e n t a r y b a s i n . D e p o s i t i o n a l f e a t u r e s observed i n modern s e d i m e n t s are formed by s e d i mentary p r o c e s s e s t h a t were o p e r a t i v e i n t h e p a s t . Although t h e t h r e e -

-dimensional c o n f i g u r a t i o n of a delta-complex changes c o n t i n u o u s l y , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s e d i m e n t a r y f a c i e s and geomorphic f e a t u r e s s e e n on t h e s u r f a c e o f a modern d e l t a can b e matched by t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of l i t h o f a c i e s and s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s w i t h i n p a r t i c u l a r s t r a t i g r a p h i c i n t e r v a l s i n the subsurface beneath t h e d e l t a . Recent h i s t o r y o f s e d i m e n t a t i o n i s t h u s

s e e n t o be a r e c a p i t u l a t i o n of t h e p a s t . The geography of modern d e l t a s i s c o n t r o l l e d o r i n f l u e n c e d by many f a c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g t h e n a t u r e and mass of sediment d i s c h a r g e d , p a t t e r n of sediment d i s t r i b u t i o n by d i s t r i b u t a r i e s , bathymetry of t h e c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l f on which t h e d e l t a i s b u i l d i n g o u t , and t h e s t r e n g t h of wave and current action. Three examples are shown by F i g s . 4-1,
4 - 2 , and 4 - 3 .

The Irrawaddy R i v e r of Burma (Fig. 4-1)

i s p r o g r a d i n g r a p i d l y on

t o a b r o a d , s h a l l o w c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l f u n d e r l y i n g t h e Andaman Sea. e n t i r e d e l t a c o v e r s an area of n e a r l y 50,000 s q . km.

The

In t h e southern

p a r t of t h e d e l t a t h e a n n u a l sediment d i s c h a r g e i s s t a t e d by F i s h e r e t al.

(1969) t o b e about 300 m i l l i o n t o n s of mud, s i l t , and f i n e - g r a i n e d sand.

Along t h e c o a s t , a c c r e t i o n a r y s a n d b a r s have been formed by t h e winnowing a c t i o n o f waves and c u r r e n t s on t h e s i l t y s a n d s . C o n t i n u a l growth, a t

r a t e s v a r y i n g from one l o c a t i o n t o a n o t h e r depending on s h i f t s of t h e

186

D I S T R I B U T A R I E S A N D SAND IRRAWADDY DELTA

BARS,

F i g . 4-1.

P a t t e r n of main d i s t r i b u t a r i e s , t i d a l c h a n n e l s , and a c c r e t i o n a r y sand b a r s i n t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t of t h e Holocene d e l t a of t h e Irrawaddy R i v e r , Burma. (Redrawn from F i s h e r

e t aZ. 1969).

d i s t r i b u t a r i e s and changes i n t h e i r volume of d i s c h a r g e , h a s r e s u l t e d i n t h e abandonment of o l d e r a c c r e t i o n a r y b a r s . These g r a d u a l l y r e t r e a t f a r t h e r

i n l m d where t h e y form l i n e a r t r e n d s o u t l i n i n g t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g s h o r e l i n e s . Later p e r i o d s of r e g i o n a l o r l o c a l marine t r a n s g r e s s i o n s may b u r y t h e s e i n l a n d sand b o d i e s w i t h mud, t h u s p r e s e r v i n g them i n t h e g e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d . Subsequent growth of t h e s e d i m e n t a r y p i l e r e s u l t s i n t h e b u r i a l of sand b o d i e s t o d e p t h s of hundreds o r thousands of metres where hydrocarbon g e n e r a t i o n , f l u i d movements, and penecontemporaneous deformation by compaction, slumping, and growth s t r u c t u r e s combine t o c o n c e n t r a t e o i l and g a s w i t h i n some of t h e sand o r s a n d s t o n e u n i t s . Regions where t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l environments are of t h i s n a t u r e ,

187
and where t h e y have been s i m i l a r i n t h e g e o l o g i c a l p a s t , are a t t r a c t i v e a r e a s i n which t o e x p l o r e f o r o i l and gas. Such r e g i o n s a r e l i k e l y t o

have a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h o r g a n i c c o n t e n t n o t o n l y i n t h e present-day muds b u t a l s o i n t h e s u b s u r f a c e mudstones o r s h a l e s . D e p o s i t i o n a l environments

t h a t have n o t been t e c t o n i c a l l y d i s t u b e d o r s u b j e c t e d t o e x t e n s i v e p e r i o d s of e r o s i o n a r e less l i k e l y t o have l o s t an a p p r e c i a b l e volume of hydrocarbons. Furthermore, t h e broad and s h a l l o w c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l v e s on

which such d e l t a i c systems grow are amenable t o d r i l l i n g .

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e d e l t a of t h e Irrawaddy R i v e r , t h e Nile d e l t a
(Fig. 4-2) i n t h e United Arab R e p u b l i c h a s marked d i f f e r e n c e s i n geometry, These d i f f e r e n c e s are t h e r e s u l t

and p r o b a b l y a l s o i n i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e .

Fig. 4-2.

P a t t e r n of t h e main d i s t r i b u t a r i e s and c o a s t a l s a n d s t h a t form b a r r i e r - s t r a n d p l a i n s i n t h e Holocene d e l t a of t h e N i l e R i v e r , United Arab R e p u b l i c . (Redrawn from F i s h e r

e t al.,

1969).

188 of s e v e r a l f a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o r a t e s of sediment d i s c h a r g e , c l i m a t e , and t h e bathymetry o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n Sea east of A l e x a n d r i a . The two main

d i s t r i b u t a r i e s of t h e N i l e R i v e r , shows i n F i g . 4-2 are t h e w e s t e r n R o s e t t a b r a n c h and t h e e a s t e r n D a n i e t t a branch. The t o t a l annual d i s c h a r g e of

sediment from t h e s e d i s t r i b u t a r i e s i s s t a t e d by F i s h e r e t aZ. (1969) t o b e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 60 m i l l i o n t o n s , o r one f i f t h of t h e d i s c h a r g e from t h e Irrawaddy R i v e r . However, much of t h e f i n e - g r a i n e d sediment c a r r i e d by

t h e N i l e R i v e r d u r i n g p e r i o d s of f l o o d n e v e r r e a c h e s t h e s e a , b u t i s d e p o s i t e d on t h e f l o o d p l a i n when t h e r i v e r l e v e l f a l l s . The lower r a t e

of d i s c h a r g e i n t o t h e sea i s r e f l e c t e d n o t o n l y i n s i z e , t h e Nile d e l t a c o v e r i n g 15,000 s q . km. which i s l e s s t h a n one t h i r d t h e area of t h e Irrawaddy d e l t a , b u t a l s o i n t h e g r e a t e r development of o f f s h o r e b a r s . In

p a r t i c u l a r , b a r r i e r b a r s have formed a c r o s s l a r g e l a g o o n s , a l m o s t completely c u t t i n g them o f f and c o n s e q u e n t l y r a i s i n g t h e s a l i n i t y s o t h a t t h e y a r e surrounded by c o a s t a l s a l t marsh and e v a p o r i t e mud f l a t s . t h e d e l t a forms an e x t e n s i v e f l o o d p l a i n . E x t e r n a l l y , t h e N i l e d e l t a c o n t r a s t s markedly n o t o n l y w i t h t h e Irrawaddy d e l t a , b u t a l s o w i t h t h e c l a s s i c M i s s i s s i p p i d e l t a . In the Farther inland

M i s s i s s i p p i d e l t a t h e predominant s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s are d i s t r i b u t a r y and b a r - f i n g e r s a n d s ; b a r r i e r b a r s are o n l y developed away from t h e d e l t a f r o n t where sands are t r a n s p o r t e d a l o n g t h e c o a s t by c u r r e n t s . In the

Irrawaddy d e l t a t h e r a p i d r a t e of sediment d i s c h a r g e l a r g e l y p r e c l u d e s any s i g n i f i c a n t development of b a r r i e r b a r s ; whereas i n t h e N i l e d e l t a t h e y a r e a major f e a t u r e . I n t e r n a l l y , t h e M i s s i s s i p p i d e l t a shows sedimentary

f a c i e s and geomorphologic f e a t u r e s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e p r e s e n t i n t h e surface. The same r e l a t i o n s h i p p r o b a b l y o b t a i n s i n t h e Irrawaddy d e l t a , I f s o , b u r i e d b a r r i e r b a r s and

and may a l s o o b t a i n i n t h e N i l e d e l t a .

o t h e r o f f s h o r e sand b o d i e s s h o u l d prove t o b e p r o s p e c t i v e t a r g e t s f o r petroleum exploration.

189

0
KM

25

DISTRIBUTARIES A N D BARRIER BARS, PO DELTA

F i g . 4-3. P a t t e r n of d i s t r i b u t a r i e s and b a r r i e r b a r s i n t h e Holocene d e l t a of t h e Po R i v e r , Gulf of Venice, I t a l y . from F i s h e r (Redrawn

e t a Z . , 1969).

The Po R i v e r ( F i g . 4-3) d e l t a i n t o t h e A d r i a t i c Sea, 500 s q u a r e k i l o m e t e r s .

of n o r t h e r n I t a l y i s r a p i d l y b u i l d i n g a The area of t h i s d e l t a i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y

Although v e r y much smaller t h a n t h e N i l e d e l t a ,

i t h a s a comparable r a t e of sediment d i s c h a r g e i n t o t h e sea, s t a t e d by

F i s h e r e t aZ.

(1969) t o be 70 m i l l i o n t o n s p e r y e a r .

Most of t h i s

sediment l o a d i s c a r r i e d by t h e two main d i s t r i b u t a r i e s , t h e Po d i Goro t o t h e s o u t h , and t h e Po d e l l e T o l l e t o t h e n o r t h . Locally, t h i s load

of sediment i s s u f f i c i e n t t o b u i l d t h e c o a s t l i n e seaward a t r a t e s of up t o 60 m p e r y e a r . During t h e P l e i s t o c e n e and Holocene t h i s r a u i d r a t e

of p r o g r a d a t i o n h a s been m a i n t a i n e d , and sand b o d i e s formed as r e g r e s s i v e marine s h o r e l i n e s a n d s are now b u r i e d a t d e p t h s of up t o 450 m. In the

s u b s u r f a c e t h e s e b o d i e s form l e n s e s , some of which a r e s t r a t i g r a p h i c t r a p s from which low p r e s s u r e g a s p r o d u c t i o n i s o b t a i n e d . Between t h e main and Shoreline

s u b s i d i a r y d i s t r i b u t a r i e s a r e bays and marshy c o a s t a l p l a i n s .

190
s a n d s , o f f s h o r e s a n d s , and b a r r i e r b a r s have formed a l o n g t h e c o a s t .
Where t h e seaward m i g r a t i o n of a d e l t a s h o r e l i n e c o a s t is f a i r l y

r a p i d , t h e sediment d e p o s i t e d i s commonly s i l t and mud w i t h some f i n e sand. The r a t e of s e d i m e n t a t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o t h e p r o x i m i t y of t h e s h o r e l i n e t o t h e mouth of t h e r i v e r d i s t r i b u t a r y d i s c h a r g i n g sediment i n t o t h e sea, and

a l s o t o t h e mass of sediment d i s c h a r g e d .

The l a t t e r f a c t o r depends on t h e

sediment l o a d c a r r i e d by t h e d i s t r i b u t a r y t o i t s mouth, and o b v i o u s l y i s r e l a t e d t o s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n s c o n t r o l l i n g p e r i o d s of f l o o d o r low w a t e r . The former f a c t o r depends on changes i n t h e c o u r s e of t h e r i v e r d i s t r i b u t a r y itself. I n t i m e s o f f l o o d a d i s t r i b u t a r y may b u r s t through i t s l e v e e s and Such a change of c o u r s e may a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y

abandon i t s o l d c h a n n e l .

c u t o f f t h e s o u r c e of sediment s u p p l y t o a p a r t i c u l a r p a r t of t h e c o a s t . S u b s e q u e n t l y , a d i s t r i b u t a r y may a g a i n change c o u r s e t o debouch i t s l o a d n e a r t h e mouth of i t s o l d e r , abandoned c h a n n e l . This c y c l i c , although

commonly i r r e g u l a r , v a r i a t i o n i n t h e r a t e of s e d i m e n t a t i o n a l o n g a s h o r e l i n e may r e s u l t i n t h e a l t e r n a t e development of mud f l a t s and beach r i d g e s of sand t o form a p r o g r a d i n g sequence of c h e n i e r s . During p e r i o d s when t h e r a t e of s e d i m e n t a t i o n i s h i g h , t h e sediment a c c r e t i n g t o t h e c o a s t i s predominantly f i n e - g r a i n e d , r a p i d seaward growth o f c o a s t a l mud f l a t s . resulting i n the

During p e r i o d s when t h e r a t e

of s e d i m e n t a t i o n i s v e r y much l o w e r , t h e sediment a l o n g t h e s h o r e l i n e i s winnowed by wave and c u r r e n t a c t i o n . The mud i s swept away and t h e With t i m e , wind a c t i o n

r e s i d u a l sand c o n t e n t remains t o form a beach.

may c a r r y some of t h e beach sand landward t o b u i l d dunes t h a t form a b a r r i e r between t h e sea and t h e now land-locked c o a s t a l mud f l a t s and cheniers. The development of a beach r i d g e depends on t h e p e r i o d i c i t y of Sooner o r l a t e r t h e r a t e of s e d i m e n t a t i o n

sedimentary a c c r e t i o n t o t h e coast.

i n c r e a s e s beyond t h e c a p a c i t y of winnowing a c t i o n t o s o r t o u t and c o n c e n t r a t e t h e s a n d , so t h a t mud a c c r e t e s on t h e seaward s i d e of t h e sandy beach which

191

SILT

AND

10 FEET
2

000
500 rn

CROSS

S E C T I O N OF CHENIER LOUISIANA

ON

PECAN

ISLAND,

F i g . 4-4.

Cross s e c t i o n of a c h e n i e r on Pecan I s l a n d , Gulf Coast of L o u i s i a n a , showing d r i l l h o l e l o c a t i o n s . Gould and Morgan, 1 9 6 2 ) . (Redrawn from

i n t u r n becomes land-locked as a low, sandy r i d g e l y i n g between mud f l a t s . These r i d g e s , o r c h e n i e r s ( F i g . 4 - 4 ) , are named a f t e r t h e French woru c h h e , meaning o a k , b e c a u s e t r e e s c a l l e d s c r u b oaks comnonly grow on t h e s e ridges i n Louisiana. C h e n i e r s have a p a r a l l e l , g e n t l y a r c u a t e alignment r e f l e c t i n g t h e m i g r a t o r y h i s t o r y of t h e s h o r e l i n e . several kilometres. Individually they can be traced f o r

The s u r f i c i a l w i d t h of an i n d i v i d u a l c h e n i e r may be Thickness

less t h a n 300 m, b u t i t s s u b s u r f a c e w i d t h may b e up t o 1,500 m. commonly r a n g e s up t o 5 m.

Viewed i n t h r e e dimensions, w i t h o u t v e r t i c a l I n t e r n a l l y , they c o n s i s t of

e x a g g e r a t i o n , c h e n i e r s a r e ribbon-shaped. fine-grained,

s h e l l y s a n d w i t h a v a r i a b l e c o n t e n t of s i l t and mud.

In

t h e s u b s u r f a c e , a n c i e n t c h e n i e r s are i l l u s i v e s t r a t i g r a p h i c t a r g e t s f o r p e t r o l e u m e x p l o r a t i o n , and because of t h e i r t h i n n e s s a r e n o t e s p e c i a l l y attractive. N e v e r t h e l e s s , where found t o c o n t a i n economically v i a b l e

i E

accumulations o f o i l o r g a s

s h o u l d b e k e p t i n mind t h a t o t h e r p a r a l l e l -

192 - t r e n d i n g c h e n i e r s p r o b a b l y e x i s t n e a r b y , and t h a t some of t h e s e may form hydrocarbon r e s e r v o i r s .

E-log C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s R e g r e s s i v e marine s h o r e l i n e sand b o d i e s , b a r r i e r b a r s , and o t h e r o f f s h o r e b a r s t h a t are p r o g r a d i n g seaward, o r landward ( F i g . 3-9) in

p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n s , t e n d t o have an i n t e r n a l g r a i n g r a d a t i o n from f i n e r below t o c o a r s e r above. T h i s g r a d a t i o n , which i s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e i n t r o -

d u c t i o n t o Chapter 3 on b a r r i e r and o t h e r o f f s h o r e b a r s , i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e funnel-shaped c h a r a c t e r of t h e E-log s e l f - p o t e n t i a l c u r v e . The

s i m i l a r i t y of t h i s c h a r a c t e r i n l i n e a r s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s of d i f f e r e n t a g e s , and from w i d e l y s e p a r a t e d l o c a l i t i e s , i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 4-5. sandstone u n i t designated 'A' The

c o n s t i t u t e s an o f f - l a p p i n g sequence of

s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s i n t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s Viking Formation of t h e Joarcam

O i l Field, Alberta.

The Viking forms a sequence of p a r a l l e l and a r c u a t e

t r e n d s , e a c h o f which i s a complex of s e p a r a t e b u t l o c a l l y connected sandstone bodies deposited a s s h o r e l i n e sands. d u r i n g a p e r i o d of i n c o n s t a n t marine r e g r e s s i o n . These t r e n d s were formed Sandstone ' B '
is a unit

w i t h i n t h e lower p a r t of t h e Upper C r e t a c e o u s B e l l y R i v e r Formation i n t h e Pembina O i l F i e l d , A l b e r t a . T h i s s a n d s t o n e body, and o t h e r s a t t h e b a s e

of t h e f o r m a t i o n , a l s o form a sequence of s h o r e l i n e , o f f - l a p p i n g s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s (Fig. 4 - 7 ) d e p o s i t e d d u r i n g a r e g r e s s i v e phase of t h e sea. sandstone u n i t s i n the i n t e r v a l designated ' C ' The

are s t a c k e d , o f f - l a p p i n g

s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s formed as b a r s i n a r e g r e s s i v e sequence of t h e Oligocene F r i o Formation i n Texas. The Viking Formation ( F i g , 4 - 6 ) i s an i n t e r e s t i n g example of r e g r e s s i v e marine s h o r e l i n e sand b o d i e s t h a t show a t y p i c a l funnel-shaped s e l f - p o t e n t i a l curve.
of s u b - p a r a l l e l ,

I n c e n t r a l A l b e r t a t h e Viking comprises a sequence

l i n e a r s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s t h a t have a r e g i o n a l a r c u a t e t r e n d

193

SHORELINE DEPOSITS
BARRIER BARS
tu y1

AND
c

REGRESSIVE S A N D S

SP

I
'

BEACH
L

SEA LEVEL

00
REGRESSIVE SHORELINE DEPOSIT

50 m

F i g . 4-5.

S e l f - p o t e n t i a l c u r v e s of e l e c t r i c l o g s , and a g e n e r a l i z e d s e c t i o n of a r e g r e s s i v e s h o r e l i n e sand d e p o s i t , showing funnel-shape c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e l o g and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o o f f - l a p p i n g c o a s t a l s a n d s s u c h as b a r r i e r b a r s .

Lower C r e t a c e o u s Viking S a n d s t o n e , Joarcam F i e l d , A l b e r t a .

B

Upper C r e t a c e o u s B e l l y R i v e r S a n d s t o n e , Pembina F i e l d ,
C

Alberta.

Oligocene F r i o Sandstone, Texas.

t o t h e northwest.

T h i s t r e n d t a k e s a broad sweep a c r o s s t h e whole of

s o u t h e r n and c e n t r a l A l b e r t a , and e x t e n d s a l s o i n t o s o u t h e r n Saskatchewan. Each s a n d s t o n e body i n t h e sequence t e n d s t o have an o f f - l a p p i n g r e l a t i o n -

194
-t

zoo
z 0

-+loo
-0MSL

2
W 2
J

F i g . 4-6.

E l e c t r i c - l o g s t r u c t u r a l s e c t i o n showing funnel-shaped c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e s e l f - p o t e n t i a l curve of o i l and g a s - b e a r i n g Lower C r e t a c e o u s Viking Formation n e a r Edmonton, Alberta. ( A f t e r T i x i e r and F o r s y t h e , 1951).

s h i p and r e p r e s e n t s a s h o r e l i n e sand formed d u r i n g a t i m e o f eastward r e g r e s s i o n of t h e s e a . R e f e r r i n g t o t h e l i t h o l o g y and g r a i n g r a d a t i o n of s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s i n t h e Viking Formation, Game11 (1955, p . 65) s a y s , "These s a n d s are o f t e n c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t o beds a v e r a g i n g 25 f e e t i n t h i c k n e s s , o v e r 100 f e e t a r e found n e a r Edmonton. though beds

The s a n d s are subgraywackes, b e i n g

made up of w h i t e q u a r t z and rounded b l a c k c h e r t g r a i n s s e c o n d a r i l y cemented with s i l i c a . G l a u c o n i t e , w h i t e c h e r t , k a o l i n and i r o n s t o n e c o n c r e t i o n s a r e

195
found i n t h e s a n d s i n v a r y i n g amounts. Regionally t h e sands a r e f i n e s t

a t t h e n o r t h e a s t p i n c h o u t edge of t h e member and become s l i g h t l y c o a r s e r a t the southwest, c l o s e r t o t h e source. L o c a l l y , however, c o n s i d e r a b l e The r e g r e s s i v e t y p e

v a r i a t i o n i n g r a i n s i z e may o c c u r i n a s i n g l e bed.

of sand b e d , w i t h upward d e c r e a s i n g amounts of s h a l e and s i l t t o a s a n d s t o n e followed above by a t h i n b l a c k c h e r t conglomerate, i s common. The Viking

s h a l e s are u s u a l l y s i l t y o r sandy and c o n t a i n carbonaceous m a t e r i a l and f i s h remains". The upward-fining o f t h e Viking s a n d s t o n e r e f e r r e d t o by

Gammell i s c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d by t h e funnel-shaped c h a r a c t e r of t h e s e l f -

- p o t e n t i a l c u r v e shown i n F i g . 4-6.

The same E-log c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are

e x h i b i t e d by t h e o f f - l a p p i n g b a s a l s a n d s t o n e u n i t s of t h e Upper Cretaceous B e l l y River Formation i n t h e Pembina O i l F i e l d , A l b e r t a (Fig. 4 - 7 ) .

Compaction Where sandy sediment is a c c r e t i n g c o n t i n u o u s l y a t a c o n s t a n t r a t e , and where t h e c u r r e n t and wave a c t i o n does n o t v a r y a p p r e c i a b l y , t h e u n i t d e p o s i t e d h a s a homogeneous t e x t u r e and composition.

A marked i n c r e a s e i n

t h e l o a d of s i l t and mud, o r a d e c r e a s e i n c u r r e n t and wave a c t i o n , w i l l cause t h e seaward f l a n k of t h e s a n d body t o grade i n t o , o r a b r u p t l y t e r m i n a t e a g a i n s t , a l a y e r of s i l t y mud. R e p e t i t i o n of t h e s e d e p o s i t i o n a l

e v e n t s w i l l produce a sequence of o f f - l a p p i n g sand b o d i e s s e p a r a t e d by l a y e r s of s i l t y mud. P r i o r t o compaction and l i t h i f i c a t i o n , t h e b o u n d a r i e s Following compaction, t h i n l a y e r s

o f each s a n d body a r e c l e a r l y d e f i n e d .

of s i l t y mud s e p a r a t i n g t h e sand b o d i e s may become squeezed i n t o s h a l e -breaks t h a t a r e n o t d e f i n e d by E-logs.

A s a n d s t o n e u n i t may t h e n super-

f i c i a l l y a p p e a r t o b e one c o n t i n u o u s s a n d s t o n e body, whereas i n f a c t i t

w a s d e p o s i t e d a s a r e g r e s s i v e s t r a t i g r a p h i c zone comprising s e v e r a l o f f - l a p p i n g b o d i e s of sand. T h i c k e r l a y e r s of s i l t y mud w i l l compact i n t o

s h a l y b e d s t h a t may e f f e c t i v e l y s e a l o f f t h e subsequent movement of hydrocarbons w i t h i n t h e s a n d s t o n e body. R e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e

196

P ?
h

,BELLY

RIVER,?

m *
0

O I L PRODUCTION

MARKER

r'

ilea
OFFLAPPI NG COASTAL SANDS, UPPER CRETACEOUS BELLY RIVER FM, PEMBINA FIELD, ALBERTA

BOOD
i

F i g . 4-7.

S t r a t i g r a p h i c s e c t i o n s through e a s t e r n and s o u t h e a s t e r n p a r t s of Pembina F i e l d , A l b e r t a , showing o f f l a p p i n g marine c o a s t a l s a n d s (1, 2 , 3 , and 4 ) t r e n d i n g north-south

at the

b a s e of t h e Upper C r e t a c e o u s B e l l y R i v e r Formation which o v e r l i e s marine s h a l e s of t h e Lea Park Formation. These

s a n d s are c u t by c h a n n e l - f i l l s a n d s (5) d e p o s i t e d by d i s t r i b u t a r i e s t r e n d i n g east-west a t t h e f r o n t of a d e l t a p r o g r a d i n g from west t o e a s t . s u r v e of t h e E-log, bars. Note t h e funnel-shaped s e l f - p o t e n t i a l t y p i c a l of c o a s t a l s a n d s such as b a r r i e r

197
of s u c h a s a n d s t o n e u n i t s i s e s s e n t i a l t o p a l e o g e o g r a p h i c and paleogeomorphic

r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a p p l i e d t o t h e s e a r c h f o r o i l and g a s i n s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s .

Ancient Sand Bodies R e g r e s s i v e marine s h o r e l i n e sand b o d i e s t h a t have an o f f - l a p p i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p , commonly w i t h a n g l e s of l e s s t h a n one d e g r e e ( S h e l t o n , 1965), a r e developed as widespread s h e e t s of sand t h a t u l t i m a t e l y form t h i n , diachronous u n i t s of s a n d s t o n e . These u n i t s c o n s t i t u t e e x c e l l e n t s t r a t i -

g r a p h i c marker b e d s , as t h e y o v e r l i e s h a l y marine s e q u e n e e s , and where exposed as a n e a r l y h o r i z o n t a l l a y e r t h e y resist e r o s i o n to form the rim-rock i n canyons and mesas. Eagle Sandstone (Fig.
3-9)

Examples i n c l u d e t h e Upper C r e t a c e o u s i n t h e escarpment a t

t h a t forms a rim-rock

B i l l i n g s , Montana, and the lower s a n d s t o n e beds of t h e Upper Cretaceous Mesaverde Formation i n New Mexico.

In t h e s u b s u r f a c e , examples comprising

o f f - l a p p i n g b o d i e s can b e s e e n i n t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s Viking Formation (Fig. 4-11) i n Saskatchewan, and i n t h e b a s a l s a n d s t o n e u n i t of t h e Upper i n Alberta.

C r e t a c e o u s B e l l y R i v e r Formation (Fig. 4 - 7 )

The b a s a l u n i t of t h e B e l l y R i v e r Formation i s a s h e e t - l i k e sands t o n e t h a t comprises a sequence of o f f - l a p p i n g marine s h o r e l i n e sand b o d i e s l o c a l l y c u t by d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l s f i l l e d w i t h c o a r s e r sand of t h e Buck Creek Member (Fig.

73).

T h i s widespread s a n d s t o n e u n i t i s

o v e r l a i n by B e l l y R i v e r s h a l e s , s i l t s t o n e s , and c o a l seams d e p o s i t e d i n
a d e l t a i c environment; and i s u n d e r l a i n by s e v e r a l hundred f e e t of marine

s h a l e s of t h e Upper C r e t a c e o u s L e a Park Formation on which t h e b a s a l B e l l y R i v e r s a n d s t r a n s g r e s s e d d u r i n g a r e g r e s s i v e phase of t h e s e a . I n t h e Pembina O i l T i e l d r e g i o n , where some o i l p r o d u c t i o n i s o b t a i n e d from t h e Buck Creek Member, t h e b a s a l s a n d s t o n e u n i t h a s a f a i r l y uniform t h i c k n e s s o f 35-45 m. S u p e r f i c i a l l y , t h i s u n i t resembles a

homogeneous s h e e t of f i n e - g r a i n e d s a n d s t o n e , b u t d e t a i l e d E-log c o r r e l -

198 a t i o n s (Fig. 4-7) show t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e t o c o n s i s t of s e p a r a t e

s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s o f f - l a p p i n g t o t h e e a s t , and ctit i n t o by d i s t r i b u t a r y c h a n n e l s f i l l e d w i t h medium t o c o a r s e - g r a i n e d sand. T h i s sequence w a s

d e p o s i t e d d u r i n g a n e a s t w a r d r e g r e s s i o n of t h e sea i n r e s p o n s e t o p r o g r a d a t i o n of a l a r g e d e l t a . A t t h e c l o s e of Lea P a r k t i m e t h e Pembina r e g i o n l a y under a s h a l l o w sea. Marine r e g r e s s i o n c o n t i n u e d i n t o B e l l y R i v e r t i m e , b e g i n n i n g

As t h e sea withdrew,

w i t h t h e d e p o s i t i o n of b a s a l marine s h o r e l i n e s a n d s .

t h e marine s h o r e l i n e s a n d s m i g r a t e d e a s t w a r d , forming a n o f f - l a p p i n g sequence of s e p a r a t e s a n d b o d i e s . These w e r e followed and o v e r l a i n by a

d e l t a c o n s i s t i n g of d e p o s i t s formed i n b a y s , l a g o o n s , e s t u a r i e s , c o a s t a l marshes and r i v e r d i s t r i b u t a r i e s . These d e p o s i t s now form beds of

s a n d s t o n e , s i l t s t o n e , s h a l e and c o a l o v e r l y i n g t h e b a s a l s a n d s t o n e u n i t
of r e g r e s s i v e s h o r e l i n e s a n d s .

The r e g r e s s i v e n a t u r e of t h i s s a n d s t o n e

SEA 7 7 -

LEVEL

SWAMP

MARINE

SEDIMENTS

OFFLAPPING

MARINE SANDS

SHORELINE

F i g . 4-8.

Diagram i l l u s t r a t i n g a c c r e t i o n of o f f l a p p i n g m a r i n e s h o r e l i n e s a n d s , such as t h e r e g r e s s i v e lower member of t h e Mesaverde Sandstones (Upper C r e t a c e o u s ) i n New Mexico. Hollenshead and P r i t c h a r d , 1961). (Redrawn from

199

u n i t i s r e f l e c t e d i n i t s g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n which t e n d s t o r a n g e from f i n e above t o v e r y f i n e below, a g r a d a t i o n r e f l e c t e d i n t h e funnel-shaped s e l f - p o t e n t i a l curve of t h e E-log (Fig. 4 - 7 ) . The s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s of such o f f - l a p p i n g s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s

i s i l l u s t r a t e d with considerable v e r t i c a l exaggeration i n Fig. 4-8, with

r e f e r e n c e t o t h e i n t e r n a l s t r a t i g r a p h i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s of s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s i n t h e Mesaverde Formation.
A g e n e r a l f e a t u r e of a s a n d s t o n e u n i t comp-

r i s i n g o f f - l a p p i n g s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s formed as b e a c h e s , b a r s , and o t h e r o f f - s h o r e s a n d s , i s t h a t i t w i l l , a l t h o u g h w i d e s p r e a d , have some d e g r e e of l i n e a r i t y .

O i l and G a s F i e l d s

S i g n i f i c a n t a c c u m u l a t i o n s of o i l and g a s a r e known w i t h i n r e g r e s s i v e marine s h o r e l i n e sand b o d i e s . I n c o n t r a s t t o t r a n s g r e s s i v e marine s h o r e l i n e

F i g . 4-9.

Schematic diagram i l l u s t r a t i n g t y p e s of sand b o d i e s formed d u r i n g r e g r e s s i o n and subsequent t r a n s g r e s s i o n of a s e a . g e n e r a l e v a l u a t i o n of p e t r o l e u m entrapment p o t e n t i a l i s indicated. ( A f t e r MacKenzie, 1972, F i g . 5 ) .

200

s a n d s MacKenzie (1972) c o n t e n d s t h a t r e g r e s s i v e s a n d b o d i e s a r e less attractive as exploration targets.

He s a y s , p. 5 7 , "During p e r i o d s of

o v e r a l l r e g r e s s i o n , s h o r e l i n e s a n d b o d i e s , i f p r e s e n t , may b e r e p l a c e d u p d i p by d e l t a i c d e p o s i t s ( F i g . 4-9 t h i s t e x t ) . b e c a u s e o f t h e i r many a s s o c i a t e d t y p e s o f s a n d s channel sands migration. These d e l t a i c d e p o s i t s ,

- particularly

distributary

p r o b a b l y would b e r e l a t i v e l y p o o r b a r r i e r s t o up d i p

In c o n t r a s t , d u r i n g p e r i o d s o f o v e r a l l t r a n s g r e s s i o n , t h e s h o r e l i n e
s a n d b o d i e s would b e r e p l a c e d u p d i p by sand-poor l a g o o n a l muds w h i c h , when compacted, would b e r e l a t i v e l y good b a r r i e r s t o u p d i p m i g r a t i o n of o i l . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e s a n d s would b e o v e r l a i n by m a r i n e s h a l e s , which s h o u l d b e effective barriers". The c o r r e c t n e s s o f t h i s c o n t e n t i o n i s open t o q u e s t i o n , as some m a r i n e r e g r e s s i v e s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s are t h e r e s e r v o i r s f o r many o i l and gas f i e l d s . I m p o r t a n t examples i n c l u d e t h e Wattenberg Gas F i e l d p r o d u c i n g

from t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s "J" S a n d s t o n e o f t h e Deaver B a s i n i n C o l o r a d o , , and s e v e r a l f i e l d s p r o d u c i n g from t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s V i k i n g Formation i n A l b e r t a and Saskatchewan.

Wattenberg Gas F i e l d , Colorado The W a t t e n b e r g G a s F i e l d c o v e r s a n o v e r a l l area o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2,500 square kilometres. The f i e l d , which i s s i t u a t e d on t h e axis of t h e

Denver B a s i n , i s c o n s i d e r e d t o i n c l u d e s e v e r a l s t r a t i g r a p h i c t r a p s , t h e g a s b e i n g c o n t a i n e d i n a b l a n k e t s a n d s t o n e u n i t , t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s "3" Sandstone, comprising r e g r e s s i v e marine sandstone bodies deposited i n t h e f r o n t of a northwesterly prograding d e l t a . Entrapment of g a s i s c o n t r o l l e d

by decreasing permeability along t h e edges of t h e sandstone bodies. E n c o u n t e r e d w i t h i n t h e d e p t h r a n g e 2,200-2,600 o f t h e g a s - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e , o r p a y , i s 8 m.

m, t h e average n e t t h i c k n e s s
Average p o r o s i t y i s 9.5%.

201

PRODUCTION EXCEEDING BURBANK FIELD,

500

BARRELS

OKLAHOMA

F i g . 4-10.

D i s t r i b u t i o n of i n i t i a l d a i l y o i l p r o d u c t i o n exeeeding 500 b a r r e l s p e r day p e r w e l l , Burbank and South Burbank f i e l d s , Osage and Kay C o u n t i e s , Oklahoma, F i g u r e shows s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p of p r o d u c t i o n t o t h i c k e r p a r t s of curved, l i n e a r b o d i e s o f P e n n s y l v a n i a n s a n d s t o n e d e p o s i t e d as s h o r e l i n e sands. curvilinear b e l t . Note en e c h e l o n t r e n d s e a s t of t h e main (Redrawn from B a s s , 1941).

202
P e r m e a b i l i t y , a v e r a g i n g l e s s t h a n one m i l l i d a r c y , i s e x t r e m e l y low, and gas f l o w s o n l y a f t e r t h e s a n d s t o n e h a s been f r a c t u r e d . t h e a v e r a g e w e l l y i e l d s g a s and 64O A . P . I . After completion,

c o n d e n s a t e a t rates of 300-600 Ultimate gas production i s

thousand c u b i c f e e t and 10-20 b a r r e l s p e r day.

e s t i m a t e d t o b e 1.3 t r i l l i o n (thousand b i l l i o n ) c u b i c f e e t (36,400 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) o v e r a 40 y e a r p e r i o d , each w e l l on a 320-acre s p a c i n g producing 2 b i l l i o n c u b i c f e e t . Burbank O i l F i e l d , Oklahoma P r o d u c t i o n i n t h e Burbank O i l F i e l d o f Oklahoma (Fig. 4-10) i s o b t a i n e d from a number of Pennsylvanian s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s t h a t form f o u r p a r a l l e l and a r c u a t e t r e n d s , t h e c e n t r a l and n o r t h e r n t r e n d s showing an

en echeZon arrangement.

These t r e n d s c o n s t i t u t e a b e l t , t h e t h i c k e r and

more p r o d u c t i v e p a r t o f which h a s a w i d t h of 5 km and a l e n g t h of 25 km. The s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s r a n g e i n t h i c k n e s s up t o 30 m and c o n s i s t of w e l l - s o r t e d g r a i n s which show a g r a d a t i o n from f i n e i n t h e t h i c k e r p a r t s t o v e r y f i n e n e a r the edges of t h e b o d i e s . P o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y t r e n d s

c o n s e q u e n t l y conform t o t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l t r e n d s and a r e h i g h e r where t h e s a n d s t o n e i s t h i c k e r a l o n g t h e axis of e a c h body. I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e

d e p o s i t i o n a l environment o f t h e s e s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s s u g g e s t s (Bass, 1941) t h a t t h e y were d e p o s i t e d as a sequence of o f f - l a p p i n g beaches and b a r s along s h o r e l i n e trends t h a t migrated t o t h e northeast. The c u r v a t u r e of

t h e s e t r e n d s a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e y were developed as a p e r i p h e r a l margin of s h o r e l i n e sands f l a n k i n g t h e p r o g r a d i n g edge of a d e l t a l o b e . I n i t i a l d a i l y p r o d u c t i o n from some w e l l s exceeded 2,000 b a r r e l s of o i l a day. Fig. 4-10 shows l i n e a r t r e n d s where t h e i n i t i a l d a i l y These p r o d u c t i o n t r e n d s ,

p r o d u c t i o n p e r w e l l exceeded 500 b a r r e l s a day.

i n c l u d i n g p a r t o f t h e South Burbank f i e l d , have y i e l d e d more than 40 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (6.4 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) .

203 Viking O i l and Gas F i e l d s , A l b e r t a and Saskatchewan I n A l b e r t a and Saskatchewan, s e v e r a l f i e l d s produce o i l and g a s from t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s Viking Formation.

I n A l b e r t a , t h e main o i l f i e l d s
t h e main g a s

are t h e Joarcam, J o f f r e , Hamilton Lake, and Gilby-Bentley;

f i e l d s a r e t h e V i k i n g - K i n s e l l a , P r o v o s t , B e a v e r h i l l Lake, B i n d l o s s , F a i r y d e l l , S e d a l i a , C e s s f o r d , and F o r t Saskatchewan. The main o i l and g a s

f i r l d s i n Saskatchewan are t h e M i l t o n , H o o s i e r , Smiley-Dewar, W h i t e s i d e , C o l v i l l e - S m i l e y , Eureka, B e a u f i e l d , Dodsland, and Avon H i l l .

A l l of

t h e s e a c c u m u l a t i o n s o c c u r i n up-dip s e c t i o n s of l i n e a r and l e n t i c u l a r s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y where s t r a t i g r a p h i c t r a p s have been modified by c l o s u r e s r e s u l t i n g from d r a p i n g o v e r h i l l s on t h e eroded s u r f a c e of t h e P a l e o z o i c , o r from d r a p i n g over s e c t i o n s f l a n k e d by c o l l a p s e f e a t u r e s r e s u l t i n g from t h e s o l u t i o n of s a l t l a y e r s w i t h i n t h e P a l e o z o i c . The Viking Formation i s a d i a c h r o n o u s s t r a t i g r a p h i c u n i t , comprising beds o f s a n d s t o n e and s h a l e , t h a t forms an a r c u a t e b e l t t r e n d i n g n o r t h - w e s t e r l y a c r o s s s o u t h e r n Saskatchewan and s o u t h - c e n t r a l A l b e r t a . These

l i n e a r s a n d s t o n e beds a r e markedly l e n t i c u l a r , l o c a l l y s e p a r a t e d by s h a l e l a y e r s , and s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l l y a r r a n g e d as an o f f - l a p p i n g sequence. Deposited as s h o r e l i n e and near-shore formed beaches and o f f - s h o r e b a r s . s a n d s i n a r e g r e s s i n g sea, t h e y

The l i t h o l o g y and E-log c h a r a c t e r -

i s t i c s of t h e Viking s a n d s t o n e s are d e s c r i b e d i n an e a r l i e r s e c t i o n of t h i s chapter. These s a n d s t o n e s a r e u n d e r l a i n by marine s h a l e s of t h e

J o l i Fou Formation, which i s t h e l o w e s t u n i t of t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s Colorado Group, and a r e o v e r l a i n by s h a l e s and s i l t s t o n e s of t h e same group. I n Saskatchewan, a minor d i s c o n f o r m i t y a t t h e b a s e of t h e Viking

Formation i n d i c a t e s t h a t l o c a l l y t h e r e w a s w i t h d r a w a l of t h e J o l i Fou sea p r i o r t o d e p o s i t i o n of t h e Viking s a n d s . The J o l i Fou, which o v e r l i e s

t h e Mannville Group ( s e e Carbon Gas F i e l d s , F i g . 5 - 9 ) , c o n s i s t s of d a r k g r e y , f i s s i l e , n o n - c a l c a r e o u s , b e n t o n i t i c s h a l e s w i t h some l a m i n a t i o n s

204

S E C T I O N ACROSS TREND OF V I K I N G FM., S A S K A T C H E W A N . E

-

" 7

MILES
Km

F i g . 4-11.

L a t e r o l o g s e c t i o n E-El

of t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s Viking Formation

showing o f f - l a p p i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p of s a n d s t o n e members N , M, L 1 , Lu, and K through Eureka and Avon H i l l o i l and g a s f i e l d s , Saskatchewan. Colorado S e a . Arrow i n d i c a t e s d i r e c t i o n of r e t r e a t of t h e (Redrawn from Evans, 1970).

of s i l t s t o n e and v e r y f i n e - g r a i n e d s a n d s t o n e .

It t h i c k e n s n o r t h w a r d , o v e r

a d i s t a n c e of 300 km, from 6 m n e a r Calgary t o 30 m n e a r Edmonton, and a l s o t h i c k e n s e a s t w a r d t o 45 m i n w e s t - c e n t r a l Saskatchewan. The f a u n a

i n t h e J o l i Fou c o n s i s t s mainly o f b i v a l v e s and a r e n a c e o u s forams, sugge s t i n g a shallow-water, near-shore m a r i n e environment.

The o f f - l a p p i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p of Viking s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 4-11 which i s a s e c t i o n a c r o s s t h e Viking Formation t r e n d i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e Eureka and Avon H i l l s f i e l d s i n Saskatchewan. T h i s t r e n d s t r i k e s west-southwest t o n e a r t h e Alberta-Saskatchewan boundary where i t j o i n s t h e main Viking t r e n d i n a wide n o r t h w e s t e r l y - t r e n d i n g arc. The main p r o d u c t i o n comes from t h e 'M' 4-11 and 4-12. s a n d s t o n e member shown i n F i g s .

T h i s member forms a l e n t i c u l a r r i b b o n of s a n d s t o n e , 10-20

k m wide and up t o 8 m t h i c k , t h a t f o l l o w s a remarkably s t r a i g h t w e s t -southwest t r e n d f o r w e l l o v e r 100 km. t h e u n d e r l y i n g 'N' member ( F i g . 4-11) o r i g i n a t e d as a f a l l of v o l c a n i c a s h . The 'M' member i s s e p a r a t e d from by a b e n t o n i t e l a y e r which probably G r a i n g r a d a t i o n w i t h i n t h e 'M'

205

0 0

MILES

I--r++A
Km

1 0

ISOPACH M A P ' M I M E M B E R VIKING FM, SASKATCHEWAN

F i g . 4-12. Isopach map of 'M' member, Lower Cretaceous Viking f o r m a t i o n , i n a r e a of H o o s i e r , Smiley-Dewar, C o l v i l l e - S m i l e y , Eureka, B e a u f i e l d , and Dodsland o i l and g a s f i e l d s , Saskatchewan. (Redrawn from Evans, 1970).

l a y e r i s from f i n e r below t o c o a r s e r above.

Porosity increases in the

t h i c k e r p a r t s o f t h e s a n d s t o n e body, and p a r t i c u l a r l y improves i n t h e c h e r t p e b b l e zones. These p e b b l e zones were p r o b a b l y formed a s l a g

d e p o s i t s on b e a c h e s , where c u r r e n t and wave a c t i o n h a s more v i g o r o u s l y winnowed t h e s e d i m e n t s .

O i l and g a s a c c u m u l a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e numerous s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s

of t h e Viking Formation are i n t h e more porous and permeable up-dip sections. T h i c k e r p a r t s of a s a n d s t o n e body may b e w a t e r - b e a r i n g , whereas Fig. 4-13

t h e t h i n n e r and l e s s permeable p a r t s up-dip may b e o i l - b e a r i n g .

i s an i s o p a c h map of t h e net--producing s a n d s t o n e of t h e Viking Formation

206
N

F i g . 4-13.

Isopach map of n e t producing s a n d s t o n e body i n Lower Cretaceous Viking Formation, F o r t Saskatchewan g a s f i e l d n o r t h - e a s t of Edmonton, A l b e r t a . Contour i n t e r v a l i n f e e t (1' = 0.305 m).

@drawn from White and Q r r , 1968).

i n t h e F o r t Saskatchewan Gas F i e l d .

F i g . 4-14 i s a sand-percentage map

o f t h e Viking Formation i n t h e same a r e a , showing s t r u c t u r e c o n t o u r s ( f e e t below s e a l e v e l ) i n t h e g a s f i e l d . The g a s accumulation i s n o t , i n

t h i s example, r e l a t e d t o t h e r a t i o of s a n d s t o n e t o s h a l e w i t h i n t h e f o r m a t i o n , b u t t o t h e up-dip p o s i t i o n of an i n d i v i d u a l s a n d s t o n e body. The n e t p r o d u c i n g zone of t h i s s a n d s t o n e body r a n g e s i n t h i c k n e s s up t o

15 m , and h a s an a v e r a g e p o r o s i t y of 2 2 % .
a r e saturated with water.

Down-dip t h e Viking s a n d s t o n e s

A s of e a r l y 1966, t h e F o r t Saskatchewan Gas F i e l d a l o n e had y i e l d e d

207

KM

MILES

F i g . 4-14.

Sand-percentage map of Lower Cretaceous Viking'Formation, F o r t Saskatchewan gas f i e l d , A l b e r t a , showing f i e l d area ( s t i p p l e d ) and Viking s t r u c t u r e c o n t o u r s (broken l i n e s ) i n f e e t ( 1 ' = 0.305 m) sub-sea l e v e l .
O r r , 1968).

(Redrawn from White and

more t h a n 87 b i l l i o n (thousand m i l l i o n ) c u b i c f e e t of gas from e s t i m a t e d r e c o v e r a b l e r e s e r v e s of 205 b i l l i o n (5,740 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) . E s t i m a t e s of t o t a l g a s i n i t i a l l y i n p l a c e i n t h e Viking s a n d s t o n e s of A l b e r t a are p l a c e d a t about 4 . 3 t r i l l i o n (thousand b i l l i o n ) c u b i c f e e t , of which r e c o v e r a b l e r e s e r v e s are e s t i m a t e d t o b e i n excess of 3 t r i l l i o n (84,000 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) , which i s about 7% of t h e t o t a l r e c o v e r a b l e g a s r e s e r v e s i n A l b e r t a , a s of 1970. The e s t i m a t e d t o t a l o i l i n i t i a l l y

i n p l a c e i n t h e Viking s a n d s t o n e s of A l b e r t a i s more t h a n 320 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s , of which 110 m i l l i o n (17.5 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) , r e p r e s e n t i n g

less t h a n 1.5% of t h e i n i t i a l t c t a l r e c o v e r a b l e o i l r e s e r v e s i n A l b e r t a ,

may u l t i m a t e l y b e produced.

208 Sabre O i l F i e l d , Colorado P r o d u c t i o n i n t h e Sabre O i l F i e l d (Fig. 4-15), s i t u a t e d on t h e

westward-dipping e a s t e r n f l a n k of t h e Denver B a s i n , Colorado, i s o b t a i n e d from a s a n d s t o n e body w i t h i n t h e Upper C r e t a c e o u s "D"

I,

Sandstone u n i t .

The

D 11 Sandstone i s o v e r l a i n and u n d e r l a i n by marine s e d i m e n t s of t h e Upper

The Huntsman

C r e t a c e o u s Graneros S h a l e and Huntsman S h a l e r e s p e c t i v e l y .

o v e r l i e s t h e o f f - s h o r e marine "J" Sandstone which i s t h e producing s a n d s t o n e of t h e Wattenberg O i l F i e l d , Colorado, n c n t i o n e d e a r l i e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r . I n Nebraska, t h e "J" Sandstone on t h e e a s t e r n f l a n k of t h e Denver Basin i s c u t by r i v e r c h a n n e l s f i l l e d w i t h s a n d s which l o c a l l y form s t r u c t u r a l - s t r a t i g r a p h i c t r a p s f o r o i l (Fig. 1-50). The o i l - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e body

of the Sabre F i e l d i s a l i n e a r , n o r t h w a r d - t r e n d i n g l e n s t h a t h a s a t h i c k n e s s

of up t o 15 m , a w i d t h o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 km, and a l e n g t h of more than 15 km. T h i s body, r e f e r r e d t o as t h e Sabre Bar, shows v a r i a t i o n s i n t h i c k n e s s

1,800'

SECTION

ACROSS SABER BAR

F i g . 4-15.

S e c t i o n a c r o s s Upper C r e t a c e o u s "D"

Sandstone where i t forms

a n o i l - b e a r i n g b a r r i e r b a r known a s Saber F i e l d , Logan and Weld C o u n t i e s , Colorado. I n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e i s s u g g e s t e d from (Redrawn

c o r r e l a t i o n of p e r m e a b i l i t y i n f i v e wells shown. from G r i f f i t h , 1966).

209
a l o n g s t r i k e , s o t h a t t h e geometry of t h e body i s t h a t of a connected s t r i n g of pod-shaped, l e n t i c u l a r s a n d s t o n e beds. The sandstone i s micaceous and

very f i n e - g r a i n e d .

P o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y a r e v a r i a b l e , t h e l a t t e r R e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e p r o b a b l e o r i g i n a l

ranging up t o 500 m i l l i d a r c y s .

shape of t h e Sabre s a n d s t o n e body (Fig. 4-15) shows i t t o b e bar-shaped. This i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s s u b s t a n t i a t e d by c o r r e l a t i o n of w e l l s a c r o s s t h e body, which i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y i n c r e a s e s upward, a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b a r r i e r b a r s and o t h e r o f f - s h o r e b a r s i n which t h e g r a i n g r a d a t i o n i s from f i n e r below t o c o a r s e r above.
b

Wells in t h e Sabre F i e l d r e q u i r e h y d r a u l i c f r a c t u r i n g t r e a t m e n t i n o r d e r t o rpoduce o i l a t r a t e s o f 10-60 b a r r e l s p e r day, accompanied by s m a l l flows of gas. Gas-oil and o i l - w a t e r c o n t a c t s w i t h i n t h e sand-

s t o n e body appear t o be h o r i z o n t a l .

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

21 1
Chapter

TRANSGRESSIVE MARINE SHORELINE SAND

Introduction

Geomorphology T r a n s g r e s s i v e marine s h o r e l i n e sand b o d i e s a r e formed i n an i n n e r n e r i t i c t o l i t t o r a l environment where t h e s e a l e v e l i s r i s i n g r e l a t i v e t o the land. The sand b o d i e s , which commonly c o a l e s c e t o form d i s c o n t i n u o u s

s h e e t s of sand, grow landward over a d e l t a p l a i n o r an e r o s i o n a l s u r f a c e . Depressions on t h e land s u r f a c e , such a s s t r i k e v a l l e y s f l a n k i n g c u e s t a s ,

are f i l l e d w i t h sand.

Subsequent e r o s i o n of a t r a n s g r e s s i v e s h e e t of Where t h e remnants

sand may l e a v e only remnants w i t h i n t h e s e d e p r e s s i o n s .

a r e w i t h i n a n c i e n t s t r i k e v a l l e y s , t h e sand b o d i e s form l i n e a r l e n s e s p a r a l l e l t o t h e s t r i k e of t h e underlying beds. These remnant, sand b o d i e s

commonly tend t o b e p a r a l l e l t o t h e s h o r e l i n e t r e n d of t h e s e a i n which they were d e p o s i t e d . Where a s h e e t - l i k e complex of sand b o d i e s t r a n s g r e s s e s

a c o a s t a l p l a i n o r f l a t e r o s i o n a l s u r f a c e , t h e i n d i v i d u a l sand b o d i e s , formed a s beach r i d g e s , a l s o t r e n d along t h e c o a s t . Recognition of t h e

o r i g i n of sand b o d i e s , and t h e n a t u r e of t h e i r l i n e a r i t y , is e s s e n t i a l t o r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e paleogeographic and paleogeomorphic s i t u a t i o n s t h a t may have a b e a r i n g on e x p l o r a t i o n f o r o i l and gas.

A s s t a t e d by

S e l l e y (1970, p. l l l ) , "Obviously a c o n s i d e r a b l e understanding n o t only

of sedimentology b u t a l s o of geomorphology i s needed t o p r e d i c t t h e

l o c a t i o n of hydrocarbon r e s e r v o i r s i n t h e b a s a l sands of t r a n s g r e s s i v e c l a s t i c shorelines".

A d i s t i n c t i o n i s drawn between sand b o d i e s t r a n s g r e s s i n g over a

d e l t a p l a i n o r e r o s i o n a l s u r f a c e and sand b o d i e s , s i t u a t e d on a c o n t i n -

212 ental shelf many miles from land, that are prograding toward the coast.

An example of the latter type is the Upper Cretaceous Eagle Sandstone of

Montana (Fig. 3-9). This sandstone unit exhibits all the characteristics

of a barrier bar complex, but was apparently growing toward a coast situated more than 50 miles away (Shelton, 1965). A further distinction

must be drawn where transgressing marine sands over-ride alluvial sands. There are examples where alluvial sand bodies have been mistaken for marine sand bars, because of their shape. A case in point is the Lower Cretaceous Ellerslie Sandstone in the Bellshill Lake Oil Field, Alberta (Figs. 39 and 4 0 ) . The producing sandstone body in this field was

originally thought to be a sand bar flanked by marine to brackish-water silty muds and limey beds containing forams and ostracods. Conybeare (1964, 1972) and Martin (1966) showed the sandstone body to be a remnant of an eroded alluvial terrace situated in a broad valley that was inundated by brackish-water as the sea advanced southward. Other examples, where interpretations of depositional environment must proceed with caution, are cited by Selley (1970, p. 110) and Levorsen (1967, p. 336-337). Selley

cites Levorsen's references to the Lower Cretaceous Cutbank Sandstone of Montana, and the basal sandstone of the Pliocene Quirequire Formation, Venezuela, as examples of transgressive sand units. Both units are of

non-marine origin, the Cutbank filling channels of an ancient drainage system (Fig. 1-51). Transgressive sheet-like units of marine sand are comparatively thin and widespread. Where transgression takes place over a delta the sands overlie coastal-marsh peat, bay muds, and distributary sands. Where transgression is over an unconformity the sands overlie eroded rocks, soils, and alluvial or lacustrine sediments. Transgressive sand units are formed from the re-working of pre-existing sediments and soils, from the erosion of sandstone headlands cropping out along beaches, and

213

from the accretion of sand carried from river mouths by longshore currents. The last factor is probably of minor importance in a transgressive situation in which the sediment load carried to the sea is probably much lighter than in the regressive phase. The lower rate of sedi-

mentation in transgressive units results in a greater degree of winnowing of the sediment, comparative thinness of the unit, and in some situations is also reflected in a relatively high quartz content of the sands.
E-log Characteristics

Transgressive, sheet-like units of sand are built up by the gradual encroachment of a beach upon a land surface. Encroachment is facilitated where the land surface is low-lying with respect to sea level, such as on delta plains and other coastal lowlands. The encroaching sand body includes a beach exposed at low tide and a broad, sub-sea extension of the beach. Landward, in the zone of

strongest wave action, the beach sand is a mixture of coarser grain sizes. Seaward, in deeper and quieter water, finer-grained sand is

deposited.

In still deeper water, the sand grades into silts and muds

which, with continuing transgression of the beach, progressively buries the sand unit. The physical principle involved in the differential

deposition of sand grains on a transgressive beach is the same as that previously described with reference to the development of a prograding barrier bar, except that in the former case, the depositional front is migrating landward, and in the latter seaward. Grain gradation within a transgressive sandstone unit is from finer above to coarser below. The same gradation is found in river For this

sand deposits such as channel-fill and point bar sand bodies.

reason, caution is necessary in the interpretation of some basal

214

sandstone units, and may in part explain why a sandstone such as the Lower Cretaceous Cutbank Sandstone of Montana should have been referred

1 0 ) . to as a transgressive unit (Selley, 1970, p. 1

Grain gradation is

not always evident, but where present is commonly reflected in the bell-shaped self-potential curve of the E-log. These characteristics of

transgressive sands are illustrated by Pirson (1970) in diagrams combining self-potential curves and dipmeter plots.
(1959)

They are also shown by Pate

in E-log sections of the stratigraphic interval including the

transgressive Pennsylvanian Tonkawa Sandstone of the Anadarko Basin, Oklahoma. Pirson further shows theoretical self-potential curves of the

regressive Point Lookout Formation and transgressive Cliff House Formation of the Upper Cretaceous Mesaverde Group in the San Juan Basin of New Mexico. These formations merge laterally, passing upward from a regressive Pirson states that the rapidity of transgression

to a transgressive phase.

can be gauged by the accentuation of the bell-shaped self-potential curve. The accentuation is indirectly a measure of the degree of grain gradation effected by winnowing which will be greater under more vigorous energy conditions such as those existing along the shoreline of a rapidly advancing sea. Compaction Transgressive marine shoreline sand bodies are comparatively thin and widespread. They are deposited on the land surface of a coastal plain

which may be an erosional surface or the depositional surface of a delta. Where the transgressive sand unit is lying on eroded rocks, compaction of the overlying beds will have little or no effect on its geometry. The

important factor controlling the original geometry is the configuration of the surface on which the sands are deposited. Subsequent erosion of the

overlying beds and of the sandstone unit itself will modify its geometry, leaving isolated sandstone bodies such as wedges, strike valley lenses,

215

and sandstone patches in the older topographic depressions.

Where

erosion of the underlying beds occurs, remnants of the sheet-like transgressive sandstone unit may be left as cap rock on buttes and mesas. Cessation of uplift and erosion, subsequent transgression of the sea, and burial of the individual residual sandstone bodies by fine-grained estuarine and marine sediments may result in the formation, by compaction of the overlying sediments, of a number of potential reservoirs for oil and gas. Where the transgressing sand unit is lying on poorly consolidated
to unconsolidated sediments, such as clays and silts underlying the

surface of a delta coastal-plain, compaction of these underlying beds may have a marked effect on the subsequent geometry of the unit. Gentle

variations in the dip of the sheet-like sand unit may reflect differences of sand-mud ratio in various parts of the underlying pile of sediments undergoing compaction. More accentuated variatic
IS

in dip may reflect

local draping of underlying clays over a deeper body of sand Fuch as a barrier bar. Other factors influencing variations in the post-depositional

dip o f a transgressive sand unit are compaction of the underlying pile of sediments over basement topographic features, and penecontemporaneous faults caused by mass slumping within the underlying section. The latter may result in local deformation of the transgressive sand unit to form monoclinal structures. Ancient Sand Bodies A classic exmaple of a transgressing sand is the Ordovician St. Peter Sandstone of Minnesota. This friable sandstone is composed entirely The

of well-rounded grains of quartz having a fairly uniform size.

rounded quartz grains are pitted, a feature that has been regarded as indicative of an eolian origin. The sandstone, as a unit, is remarkably

sheet-like; it has an average thickness of 2 3 m but ranges up to 90 m,

and covers an area of approximately 575,000 sq. km according to Dapples

(1955).

The St. Peter is associated with shelf carbonates and was regarded

by Dapples as a continuous series of coalescent shoreline sands migrating over a stable shelf. The Devonian Oriskany Sandstone of West Virginia,

a quartz arenite cemented by quartz to form an orthoquartzite, is also considered to be a transgressive sandstone unit. These examples are

probably exceptional in that they are composed entirely of quartz grains, although in general it can be said that transgressive sands are commonly quartzose. Regressive sands are commonly lithic, but can also be quartzose,

as is the case with some present-day beach sands in the Gulf of Mexico. The composition of river sands is a mixture of quartz and lithic grains, with the former commonly predominant. The origin of sands composed entirely of quartz grains is by no means certain. They may have formed from the erosion of quartzose sandstones, from sand dunes, or from pre-existing sands. It is probable that

the sand grains in all such quartz sands have been re-cycled several times. Arguments bearing on this problem are discussed by Pettijohn, Potter, and Siever (1972, p. 224-225). Another classic example of a transgressive marine sandstone is the Lower Cambrian Tapeats Sandstone exposed in the Grand Canyon of Arizona. The Tapeats overlies Precambrain rocks, and is overlain by marine shales
of the Middle Cambrian Bright Angel Formation.

Referring to the great

unconformity on which the Tapeats rests, McKee (1969, p . 79) says, "Its record is plainly seen from many vantage points on the canyon rims, but it is perhaps even more impressive where observed from closer sites along the Colorado.
In places this unconformity is a remarkably flat, even

surface for a distance of miles; it bevels the upturned ends of schists and other metamorphic rocks of early Precambrian time and is covered by flat-lying strata of the Cambrian. Elsewhere it is seen as cross sections

21 7
of rugged h i l l s o r r i d g e s , some hundreds of f e e t h i g h , of l a t e Precambrian q u a r t z i t e s and o t h e r r e s i s t a n t r o c k s , surrounded by and b u r i e d b e n e a t h s e d i m e n t s d e p o s i t e d i n t h e Cambrian sea". The g r e a t span of t i m e r e p r e s e n t e d

by t h i s unconformity i s c i t e d by McKee, a f t e r estimates by Sharp ( 1 9 4 0 ) , t o b e 100 m i l l i o n y e a r s . The T a p e a t s Sandstone i s d e s c r i b e d by McKee (1969, p. 80) as f o l l o w s . "The T a p e a t s Sandstone i s a massive, c l i f f - f o r m i n g u n i t w i t h a t h i c k n e s s r a n g i n g from 100 t o 300 f e e t t h r o u g h o u t t h e canyon area.

In

most p l a c e s i t i s c h o c o l a t e brown, b u t i n some p l a c e s i t i s g r e y o r cream-coloured and i n o t h e r s , a deep r e d brown. The sand i s c o a r s e t o medium

g r a i n e d ; c o a r s e p a r t i c l e s are dominant e x c e p t i n p a r t s of t h e upper h a l f , where medium-size g r a i n s are more common. Bedding i s conspicuous because

of c o n t r a s t s i n d e g r e e of c e m e n t a t i o n t h a t cause l a y e r s t o weather i n t o a l t e r n a t i n g r e s i s t a n t l e d g e s and s h a l l o w recesses. F l a t , even beds up t o

a few i n c h e s t h i c k a r e common, b u t by f a r t h e more abundant s t r u c t u r a l

f e a t u r e s i s c r o s s b e d d i n g w i t h i n l a y e r s r a n g i n g i n t h i c k n e s s from feet.

4to

Most c r o s s - s t r a t a are t a b u l a r p l a n a r o r wedge p l a n a r b u t l o c a l l y Asymmetrical r i p p l e marks, t r i l o b i t e t r a i l s , and

some are of t r o u g h t y p e .

p r o b l e m a t i c a l worm b o r i n g s are w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d and numerous a t some localities. In many p l a c e s t h e T a p e a t s g r a d e s upward i n t o t h e B r i g h t

Angel through a zone i n which c o a r s e s a n d s t o n e beds a l t e r n a t e w i t h g r e e n s h a l y muds tones".

O i l and Gas F i e l d s

T r a n s g r e s s i v e marine s h o r e l i n e sand b o d i e s are known t o c o n t a i n o i l and g a s , a l t h o u g h more examples areknown i n r e g r e s s i v e s a n d s . MacKenzie (1970) h a s advanced t h e i d e a t h a t t h e p e r c e n t a g e of good t r a p s i n t r a n s g r e s s i v e s a n d s t o n e s should b e h i g h e r t h a n i n r e g r e s s i v e s a n d s t o n e s , b e c a u s e t h e former are o v e r l a i n by less permeable marine s h a l e s , whereas

218 the latter are overlain by delta sands and silts which on compaction would form a less effective seal. Argued on this basis MacKenzie has a point, although it can be said that on the basis of statistics, the number of known oil and gas reservoirs in regressive sandstone bodies considerably exceeds the number known in transgressive bodies.
A factor that probably

has considerable relevance to the hydrocarbon potential of transgressive and regressive sedimentary sequences is the relative amounts of organic matter incorporated with the sediments.

In regressive sequences the

river systems drain large areas and carry organic matter as colloids and macerated plant fragments. This organic matter is carried to the sea where the macerated plant remains are deposited and the colloids are precipitated by intermingling of fresh and salt water. Also, the delta

sediments deposited in brackish-water bays and coastal swamp environments are rich in organic matter, both plant and animal. Transgressive sequences,

on the other hand, are commonly deposited over flat coastal areas that

border on lowlands from which little sediment or organic matter is being derived. The transgressive nature of the coastline itself, subject to

active erosion by wave action, is not conducive to the growth of coastal swamps, nor to the many forms of organisms that thrive in more protected environments. Furthermore, high energy environments are not conducive to

the retention of organic matter in muds.

A third consideration is the nature of the surface over which the

sand unit is transgressing. Where the surface is erosional and underlain by consolidated material and bedrock, the source of oil or gas that subsequently becomes entrapped in the transgressive sand unit is probably within the overlying marine sediments. But where the surface is a delta

plain underlain by unconsolidated, organic-rich muds and silts, the source may be either the underlying deltaic sequence of the overlying marine sediments.

219

It is of interest to note that the first significant flow of oil in Australia, although not the first discovery, was obtained in 1953 from a Lower Cretaceous transgressive unit in Western Australia, the Birdrong 0 ' Sandstone. The well, Rough Range No. 1, initially flowed 3 A.P.I. waxy

oil at rates of up to 600 barrels per day, but later proved to be non-commercial. The accumulation within the Birdrong, a sheet-like sandstone unit unconformably overlying Jurassic and older rocks, is located in a structure formed by draping of the sandstone over an elongate buried hill. The Birdrong, a clean quartzose sandstone, is glauconitic in its upper part. It has good porosity and permeability and is the main fresh-water

artesian aquifer in the Carnarvon Basin. Yardarino-Dongara Gas Field, Western Australia In the Yardarino-Dongara Field of Western Australia gas and oil are produced from the basal Yardarino Sandstone of the Lower Triassic Kockatea Formation. This sandstone, which lies unconformably on Precambrian and

Permian beds, is a transgressive marine unit.

It consists

0)

light grey,

quartzose, very fine to coarse-grained sandstone with conglomeratic layers. In the field area the sandstone is about 55 m thick and is overlain by marine shales. Porosity ranges up to 25% but averages about 17%; permeability

ranges up to several thousand millidarcys, but is comonly in the range 100-700 millidarcys

The field is essentially a structural-stratigraphic trap, the Yardarino Sandstone showing marked thinning over a basement erosional high. Production consists mainly of gas containing approximately 97%

methane, with a condensate content of up to 15 barrels per million cubic feet of gas, and minor quantities of 3 5 ' A.P.I. waxy oil. Producible

gas reserves are estimated (Cope, 1972) to be in the order of 500,000 million cubic feet (14,000 million cubic metres) containing a minimum

220 of 500,000 b a r r e l s (79,500 c u b i c m e t r e s ) of c o n d e n s a t e .

Formation w a t e r

u n d e r l y i n g t h e g a s and o i l i s b r a c k i s h t o s a l t y .

Red Oak, W i l b e r t o n , and K i n t a Gas F i e l d s , Oklahoma

Gas p r o d u c t i o n i n t h e Red Oak, W i l b e r t o n , and K i n t a f i e l d s of t h e

M c A l i s t e r B a s i n , Oklahoma, i s o b t a i n e d from s a n d s t o n e s a t t h e b a s e , and i n t h e lower s e c t i o n of t h e Lower Pennsylvanian Atoka Formation. The

b a s a l s a n d s t o n e s , termed t h e F o s t e r Sand, c o n s i s t o f f o u r s e p a r a t e b e l t s t r e n d i n g t o t h e s o u t h e a s t ( F i g . 5-1). These l i e unconformably, i n

e r o s i o n a l d e p r e s s i o n s , on l i m e s t o n e s and s h a l e s of t h e Pennsylvanian Wapanucka Formation. The F o s t e r Sand, which h a s a t h i c k n e s s of up t o 9 m, f i n e t o medium q u a r t z g r a i n s .

i s composed predominantly of well-rounded,

0
KM

20

DLSTRIBUTARY A N D TRENDS,

SHORELINE

SAND

PENNSYLVANIAN OKLAHOMA

ATOKA FM,

F i g . 5-1.

F o s t e r Sand t r e n d s 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 , formed as d i s t r i b u t a r i e s f i l l i n g e r o s i o n a l d e p r e s s i o n s , o v e r l a i n by n o r t h e a s t - t r e n d i n g s h o r e l i n e S p i r o Sand r a n g i n g i n t h i c k n e s s t o 100 f e e t (30 m). The F o s t e r i s t h e l o w e s t number of t h e Lower Pennsylvanian Atoka Formation, M d l i s t e r B a s i n , e a s t e r n Oklahoma. from Lumsden, P i t t m a n and Buchanan, 1 9 7 1 ) . (Redrawn

221
I t i s commonly cross-bedded and c o n t a i n s s h a l e c l a s t s and f r a g m e n t s of

f o s s i l wood.

The o r i g i n of t h i s b a s a l s a n d s t o n e u n i t i s e v i d e n t l y

a l l u v i a l , t h e s a n d s h a v i n g been d e p o s i t e d i n a system of p a r a l l e l r i v e r d i s t r i b u t a r i e s t h a t trended southeast across a c o a s t a l p l a i n t h a t was a t l e a s t 60 km i n w i d t h . Some g a s p r o d u c t i o n , i n c l u d i n g t h a t of t h e K i n t a

F i e l d , i s o b t a i n e d from t h e F o s t e r Sand. The F o s t e r Sand i s o v e r l a i n by t h e S p i r o Sand, a t r a n s g r e s s i v e marine u n i t up t o 30 m t h i c k . The S p i r o forms an e l o n g a t e s a n d s t o n e u n i t

t h a t t r e n d s s o u t h w e s t , normal t o t h e F o s t e r t r e n d , f o r more t h a n 100km. The S p i r o Sand i s a l s o q u a r t z o s e , p r o b a b l y h a v i n g been i n l a r g e p a r t d e r i v e d from t h e F o s t e r Sand. f i n e t o fine-grained.

I t i s moderately w e l l s o r t e d , and v e r y

A s a whole, t h e S p i r o i s r e f e r r e d t o as a b l a n k e t

s a n d s t o n e b u t c o n s i s t s of m a s s i v e , l e n t i c u l a r b e d s , d e p o s i t e d as s h o r e l i n e sand b o d i e s , i n t e r b e d d e d w i t h t h i n l a y e r s of s i l t y s a n d s t o n e and s h a l e . Low-angle cross-bedding and b i o t u r b a t i o n have been d e s c r i b e d , t h e former p r o b a b l y r e s u l t i n g from v a r i a t i o n s i n d e p o s i t i o n a l s l o p e s of ,the seaward e x t e n s i o n s of b e a c h e s . The S p i r o Sand, which t r a n s g r e s s e d t o t h e n o r t h w e s t , i s n o t uniformly developed, some l o c a l i t i e s a l o n g i t s t r e n d b e i n g t h i c k e r and more permeable. Dry g a s a c c u m u l a t i o n s , which are l a r g e l y r e l a t e d t o s t r a t i g r a p h i c c o n t r o l , i n c l u d e t h e Red Oak and Wilburton F i e l d s . Morrow O i l F i e l d s , Oklahoma
O i l p r o d u c t i o n from s e v e r a l f i e l d s i n t h e Anadarko Basin of

Oklahoma i s o b t a i n e d from t h e Cherokee Sandstone, t h e b a s a l u n i t of t h e Lower Pennsylvanian Morrow Formation. The Cherokee, which l i e s unconforis a

mablg on M i s s i s s i p p i a n beds of l i m e s t o n e and s h a l e ( F i g . 5-Z),

marine t r a n s g r e s s i v e u n i t t h a t forms a c o r r u g a t e d s h e e t of s a n d s t o n e comprising p a r a l l e l t r e n d s a l o n g which t h e s a n d s t o n e i s t h i c k e r .

222

-.

LS. DATUM

200

SEA LEVEL

MILE

North

SANDSTONE CHARACTERISTICS I L E N G T Y MANY MILES

2 WIDTH, ONE -HALF TO ONE MILE 3 BICONVEX

4

ABRUPT SEAWARD PINCHOUT TRANSITIONAL LANDWARD PINCHOUT SUBPARALLEL

TWO OR MORE SAND BODIES ARE

5
(I

7 TRENDS CONTROLLED BY W S T - M I S S . STRUCT,

N O T PRESENT STRUCTURAL GRAIN

F i g . 5-2 a , b.

E-log s e c t i o n ( a ) and g e n e r a l i z e d b l o c k diagram (b) showing r e l a t i o n s h i p of o i l - b e a r i n g Pennsylvanian Cherokee Sandstone, developed as s t r i k e - v a l l e y s a n d s , t o c u e s t a s formed on eroded s u r f a c e o f t h e M i s s i s s i p p i a n i n Anadarko B a s i n , Oklahoma. ( A f t e r Busch, 1959).

223

Depending on whether the top or bottom of the sandstone unit is taken as a datum, these thick trends appear respectively as topographic depressions or as ridges. The interpretation placed on them by Busch (1959) is that

they are bar-shaped sand bodies deposited in erosional depressions at the base of cuestas formed by unequal erosion of outcropping layers of limestone and shale. As such, they can be defined as strike valley sands. Busch (1959, p. 2832) says, "Strike valley sands derive their name from the fact that they are deposited in the low areas between cuestas at the

rig.

3-3.

isopacn map o r incervai LaDove (+) or below

(-)J

between a

datum and the top of a sandstone unit in the Pennsylvanian Morrow Formation, northwestern Oklahoma. Figure shows

known (black) and inferred (hatchured) oil fields developed where sand ridges are intersected by northwest-plunging folds. (After Busch , 1959).

224

time the land surface is inundated by a transgressive sea. may be either erosional escarpments or fault-scarps.''

Such cuestas

These thick, linear sandstone bodies are lenticular in section, ranging in width up to 3 km,in thickness to 1 5 m, and in length to 65 km. They terminate fairly abruptly along the thicker edge where they merge into a shale facies, the landward edge pinching out on the flank of each cuesta. These parallel sandstone lenses are intersected by northwest-plunging folds which form structural closures within the sandstone at some of the intersections. Within these closures oil has accumulated to form two parallel strings of separate pools (Fig. 5 - 3 ) .

Milligan Oil Field, British Columbia

In the Milligan Oil Field of northeastern British Columbia,

production is obtained from the Upper Triassic Halfway Sandstone. The Halfway unconformably overlies silty dolomite beds of the Doig Tormation, and is overlain conformably by silty dolomite beds of the Charlie Lake Formation (Fig. 5-6). It has a linear northwest trend and is lenticular In the field area this trend, which bifurcates

in section (Figs 5 - 4 , 5 - 5 ) .

into two parallel but connected sub-trends, is known to have alength of more than 80 km. Each sub-trend has a width of approximately 3-5 km, the

overall width of the main trend ranging up to 10 km. In the Milligan Field the gross thickness of the Halfway ranges up to

15 m.

The sandstone is quartzose and fine to very fine-grained,

except at the base which is commonly gritty. The grains are sub-angular to sub-rounded. Porosity ranges up to 2 8 % , but averages 2 2 % , and permeability is in the range 400-600 millidarcys (Clark, 1 9 6 1 ) .
E-log

The

(Fig. 5-6) of the Halfway is characterized by a blocky, slightly Both top and bottom boundaries are

bell-shaped self-potential curve.

225

F i g . 5-4.

I s o p a c h map o f t h e o i l - b e a r i n g Upper T r i a s s i c H d f w a y S a n d s t o n e , B r i t i s h Columbia. S t r u c t u r e c o n t o u r s show t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f (Redrawn from M o t h e r s i l l , 1 9 6 8 ) .

t h e b a s e of t h e sandstone.

NORTH

0
L

MILES
I.
1

o---4
loo,..
MILLIGAN

KM

FIELD

B C

F i g . 5-5.

S t r a t i g r a p h i c s e c t i o n through t h e X i l l i g a n F i e l d , B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a , s h o w i n g i n f e r r e d c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e o i l - b e a r i n g Upper T r i a s s i c Halfway S a n d s t o n e a t t h e t i m e of d e p o s i t i o n . (Redrawn from C l a r k , 1 9 6 1 ) .

226
UNION- H B
d-54-G

CHARLIE LAKE FM

E -LOG,

MlLLlGAN

FIELD

Fig. 5-6.

T y p i c a l E-log of t h e Upper T r i a s s i c Halfway Sandstone i n t e r v a l i n Union

H.B.

d-54-G,

Yilligan Field, British

Columbia, showing t h e blocky c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e s e l f p o t e n t i a l c u r v e , and t h e o i l - w a t e r c o n t a c t . C l a r k , 1961). (Redrawn from

sharp.

The b l o c k y c h a r a c t e r r e f l e c t s t h e e x c e l l e n t s o r t i n g of f i n e - t o

v e r y - f i n e q u a r t z g r a i n s , and t h e s l i g h t d e f l e c t i o n a t t h e b a s e r e f l e c t s

a thick g r i t t y layer.

Cross-bedding i s a n o t a b l e f e a t u r e , t h e f o r e s e t ( M o t h e r s i l l , 1968).

beds commonly d i p p i n g a t a n g l e s of less t h a n 20

The a m p l i t u d e s of t h e cross-beds r a n g e from l e s s t h a n an i n c h t o s e v e r a l i n c h e s , p l a c i n g them i n t h e s m a l l t o medium s i z e c a t e g o r y (Conybeare and Crook, 1968) of r i p p l e s formed by c u r r e n t s . I n t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t of t h e

Halfway Sandstone t r e n d , i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e P e e j a y and C u r r a n t o i l f i e l d s , t h e upper p a r t of t h e Balfway, which i s t h e o i l - b e a r i n g s e c t i o n i n t h e s e f i e l d s , c o n t a i n s t h i n beds of c o q u i n a c o n s i s t i n g mainly of bivalve shells. I n t h e M i l l i g a n F i e l d area t h e Doig Formation, which unconformably u n d e r l i e s t h e Halfway Sandstone, d i p s southwest a t 7 m/km, whereas t h e

221

Halfway d i p s southwest a t about 5 m/km.

This relationship suggests t h a t a t

t h e t i m e of d e p o s i t i o n of t h e Halfway, t h e Doig beds must have had a s o u t h w e s t e r l y d i p of a b o u t 2 m/km. The lower p a r t of t h e Halfway c r o p s

o u t a l o n g t h e f o o t h i l l s of n o r t h e a s t e r n B r i t i s h Columbia and t h i c k e n s southwestward i n t h e s u b s u r f a c e . Although t h e Halfway w a s d e p o s i t e d as

an i r r e g u l a r s h e e t of s a n d , d u r i n g a p e r i o d of marine t r a n s g r e s s i o n t o t h e n o r t h e a s t , i t s l i n e a r t r e n d s , c u r r e n t - b e d d i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and c o a r s e r b a s a l l a y e r raises problems c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s of t h e sand body geometry t o i t s p a l e o g e o g r a p h i c s e t t i n g . In p a r t i c u l a r , i t is

p e r t i n a n t t o know w h e t h e r , i n t h e ' 4 i l l i g a n F i e l d area, t h e s a n d s t o n e t r e n d s r e p r e s e n t d e p o s i t i o n as s h o r e l i n e sand b a r s o r a s d i s t r i b u t a r i e s . The u s e

of s e v e r a l datums i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of s t r a t i g r a p h i c s e c t i o n s d e p i c t i n g t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f t h e Halfway s u g g e s t d i f f e r e n t p o s s i bilities. Probably t h e most r e a s o n a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ( C l a r k , 1961),

u s i n g a datum j u s t above t h e Halfway, shows t h e sand b o d i e s f i l l i n g d e p r e s s i o n s , i n t e r p r e t e d as s t r i k e - v a l l e y s , i n t h e u n d e r l y i n g Doig Formation.

P a r a l l e l s u b - t r e n d s of t h e Halfway i n t h e M i l l i g a n F i e l d

area are t h o u g h t t o have r e s u l t e d from c o n c e n t r a t i o n of sand i n s e p a r a t e

s t r i k e - v a l l e y s between c u e s t a s a l o n g t h e c o a s t . Subsequent s t r u c t u r a l

d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e s e t r e n d s h a s formed s e v e r a l t r a p s f o r o i l , i n c l u d i n g the Milligan Field. Horseshoe O i l F i e l d , New M e x i The Horseshoe F i e l d of t h e San Juan B a s i n , New Mexico, y i e l d s o i l from t h e b a s a l s a n d s t o n e u n i t of t h e Upper Cretaceous N i o b r a r a Formation. T h i s s a n d s t o n e l i e s unconformably on g e n t l y f o l d e d b e d s of sandy s h a l e , and l i m e s t o n e which c o n s t i t u t e p a r t of t h e Upper C r e t a c e o u s Gallup and C a r l i l e Formations. D i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s a n d s t o n e shows a marked p a r a l l e l i s m of

l e n t i c u l a r t r e n d s , r e s u l t i n g from c o n c e n t r a t i o n of t h e o r i g i n a l sand i n s t r i k e v a l l e y s f l a n k i n g c u e s t a s formed by d i f f e r e n t i a l e r o s i o n o f s h a l y and sandy beds b e n e a t h t h e unconformity ( F i g s . 5-7 and 5-8).

228

0 FEET

KM

1 1

MILE

C R O S S - S E C T I O N S OF B A S A L NIOBRARA SANDSTONE H O R S E S H O E FIELD, N E W M E X I C O

F i g . 5-7.

S t r a t i g r a p h i c c r o s s - s e c t i o n s of t h e Upper Cretaceous b a s a l Niobrara Sandstone i n t h e Horseshoe o i l f i e l d , San Juan B a s i n , New Mexico. The sand b o d i e s w e r e formed a l o n g c u e s t a s on t h e

eroded s u r f a c e of t h e G a l l u p Formation and C a r l i l e Formation

during

cransgression of the Niobrara sea.

(&dram from

P e n t t i l a , 1964).

Work by P e n t t i l a (1964) and McCubbin (1969) e s t a b l i s h e d t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l and s t r a t i g r a p h i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s of t h e b a s a l Niobrara Sands t o n e which t h e y b e l i e v e t o have been d e p o s i t e d as a s h o r e l i n e sand by a t r a n s g r e s s i v e sea. The importance of t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n l i e s i n t h e

f a c t t h a t t h e unconformity which u n d e r l i e s t h e Niobrara and b e v e l s t h e Gallup,

w a s p r e v i o u s l y n o t recognized.

Consequently, t h e b a s a l Niobrara Sandstone McCubbin s a y s

w a s thought t o b e e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e b a s a l Gallup Sandstone.

t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s are l o c a l i z e d on t h e seaward s i d e of c u e s t a s , t h e s t e e p e r s l o p e s of which f a c e d seaward.

A s t h e sea advanced,

t h e s e c u e s t a s formed r i d g e s which t e m p o r a r i l y impeded t r a n s g r e s s i o n , r e s u l t i n g i n a s t a t i o n a r y s h o r e l i n e , w i t h t h e consequent d e p o s i t i o n of

a t h i c k e r body o f sand.

229

Fig. 5-8.

Generalized diagram showing the stratigraphic relationship

of the Upper Cretaceous basal Niobrara Sandstone to cuestas

and strike-valleys formed on the eroded surface of the Upper

Cretaceous Carlile Formation during transgression of the Niobrara sea. (Modified by MacKenzie, 1972, after McCubbin,

1 9 6 9 ) .

The basal Niobrara Sandstone in the Horseshoe Field area comprises three units which lie in different stratigraphic positions resulting from deposition against separate ridges at various times during the overall period of marine transgression. The oldest unit is the lower reservoir in the Horseshoe Field. This sandstone body strikes southeast for a The main sandstone body in the Horseshoe It divides

distance of more than 40 km.

trend has a width of 6 km, and a thickness of up to 15 m.

to the northwest into two separate oil-bearing trends, the Many Rocks and Mesa, each of which has a width of about 2 km.

230

The Niobrara i s t e x t u r a l l y v a r i a b l e , g r a d i n g from f i n e t o coarse-grained. Average p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y a r e 15% and 175 m i l l i d a r c y s Thin s t r i n g e r s of c o a r s e , pebbly sandstone a r e common i n I n t e r b e d s of

respectively.

s e c t i o n s where t h e s a n d s t o n e i s g e n e r a l l y f i n e - g r a i n e d . dark s h a l e a r e a l s o p r e s e n t .

McCubbin (1969, p. 2122) s t a t e s , "The most

n o t a b l e compositional f e a t u r e s o f t h e s a n d s t o n e a r e t h e b r i g h t green g l a u c o n i t e g r a i n s , which compose a s much a s 10 p e r c e n t of t h e r o c k , and t h e v e r y common and widespread p h o s p h a t i c nodules and pebbles". The

s a n d s t o n e a l s o c o n t a i n s Inoceramus, O s t r e a , s h a r k t e e t h and bone fragments

In t h e s h a l y b e d s , b i o t u r b a t i o n i s a common f e a t u r e .
The s a n d s t o n e i s commonly cross-bedded, i n d i v i d u a l s e t s ranging

i n t h i c k n e s s from a few c e n t i m e t r e s i n t h e s u b s u r f a c e t o more t h a n a metre i n o u t c r o p s . The d i p s of t h e s e cross-beds sands. exceed 20, indicating

t h e i r d e r i v a t i o n as current-bedded

The d e p o s i t i o n a l environment

i s i n d i c a t e d t o have been one of f a i r l y h i g h energy on beaches, probably

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t i d a l c h a n n e l s c u t t i n g through sand b a r s a+ sands i n l o c a l i n l e t s .

re-working

In t h e Horseshoe F i e l d t h e o l d e s t sandstone member of t h e Niobrara forms a l o n g , narrow body t h a t t r e n d s s o u t h e a s t f o r up t o 60 k m toward t h e Cha Cha F i e l d which a l s o produces o i l from t h e Niobrara. Entrapment

of o i l and gas h a s r e s u l t e d from s t r a t i g r a p h i c f a c t o r s modified l o c a l l y by s t r u c t u r e .

A t most l o c a t i o n s , pinch-out of t h e s a n d s t o n e body i s

s o l e l y r e s p o n s i b l e ; i n o t h e r s t h e accumulation of g a s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , has r e s u l t e d from t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e sandstone body t r e n d w i t h n o r t h e a s t -plunging f o l d s .

In t h e Horseshoe-Mesa F i e l d s t h e g a s - o i l column exceeds

The e s t i m a t e d u l t i m a t e recovery of o i l from t h e

990 m (McCubbin, 1969).

Horseshoe-Mesa and Many Rocks f i e l d s i s i n e x c e s s of 46 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (7. 3 m i l l i o n cubic metres). An a d d i t i o n a l e s t i m a t e of 13 m i l l i o n from t h e

Cha Cha F i e l d s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e lower u n i t a l o n e of t h e Niobrara Sandstone

231 w i l l u l t i m a t e l y y i e l d more t h a n 60 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s ( 9 . 5 m i l l i o n c u b i c metres) of o i l .

Carbon Gas F i e l d , A l b e r t a The Carbon Gas F i e l d of A l b e r t a ( F i g . 5-9) produces from t h e Carbon Sandstone of t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s Mannville Group. This sandstone

i s t h e approximate s t r a t i g r a p h i c e q u i v a l e n t of t h e widespread G l a u c o n i t e

S a n d s t o n e , a marine t r a n s g r e s s i v e s a n d s t o n e u n i t w i t h i n t h e Mannville Group.

I n o t h e r a r e a s o f A l b e r t a , t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c zone e q u i v a l e n t t o

t h e G l a u c o n i t e s a n d s t o n e i n c l u d e s s a n d s t o n e members known by o t h e r names. The marine Home Sand of Turner V a l l e y i n s o u t h w e s t e r n A l b e r t a , t h e Wabiskaw member of n o r t h - c e n t r a l A l b e r t a , t h e g l a u c o n i t e s a n d s t o n e a t t h e b a s e of t h e Clearwater Formation i n n o r t h e a s t e r n A l b e r t a , and t h e Bluesky Sandstone of t h e Peace R i v e r a r e a i n w e s t - c e n t r a l A l b e r t a a r e

a l l c o n s i d e r e d by Workman (1958) t o b e s t r a t i g r a p h i c e q u i v a l e n t s o f t h e
G l a u c o n i t e Sandstone.

KM
2 0

' 0

G E O M E T R Y OF C A R B O N GAS
0

5
. MILES

0,-

5
~~

S A N D , ALBERTA

F i g . 5-9.

Isopach map of n e t porous s a n d s t o n e i n t h e producing sands t o n e of t h e E a r l y C r e t a c e o u s Mannville Group, Carbon G a s F i e l d , Alberta. Contour i n t e r v a l i n f e e t ( 1 ' = 0.305 m).

(Redrawn from Workman, 1968).

232
The Glauconite Sandstone i s a p e r s i s t e n t s t r a t i g r a p h i c u n i t over much of c e n t r a l Alberta.
It o v e r l i e s t h e Ostracod Member (a t h i n

a r g i l l a c e o u s limestone containing a brackish water fauna) and c o n s i s t s of one o r more g l a u c o n i t i c sandstone bodies. Over a wide a r e a t h e comp-

o s i t i o n and t e x t u r e of t h e Glauconite Sandstone shows considerable v a r i a t i o n .

It i s e s s e n t i a l l y a fine-grained

quartzose sandstone containing v a r i a b l e East of t h e F i f t h Meridian and south of Glaister

amounts of l i t h i c c o n s t i t u e n t s .

Edmonton t h e Glauconite Sandstone i s commonly not g l a u c o n i t i c .

(1959, p. 623) s t a t e s , "The member i s predominantly marine i n t h e Edmonton a r e a b u t becomes more non-marine toward the south and gradually l o s e s i t s l i t h o l o g i c identity". The thickness of t h e Glauconite member, which i s

commonly i n t h e o r d e r 6-9 m but ranges up t o more than 30 m , changes markedly over a d i s t a n c e of a few kilometres. This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y

n o t i c e a b l e i n t h e a r e a l y i n g e a s t of t h e F i f t h Meridian where t h e sands

are commonly a l l u v i a l .

In t h e Carbon and Ghost Pine gas f i e l d s f o r

example, t h e producing sandstones a r e non-glauconitic and vary i n thickness w i t h i n t h e range 6-25 m. East of t h e F i f t h Meridian, t h e a l l u v i a l sand-

s t o n e s t h a t a r e t h e approximate s t r a t i g r a p h i c equivalent of the Gl.auconite Sandstone t r e n d northwest, west, and southwest. The t r e n d s were formed by West of t h e F i f t h

a r i v e r system d r a i n i n g lowlands l y i n g t o t h e e a s t .

Meridian t h e Glauconite Sandstone i s g e n e r a l l y g l a u c o n i t i c and contains a higher percentage of l i t h i c fragments.

In t h i s region, t h e sandstone

bodies f r i n g e a marine s h o r e l i n e trending approximately north-northwest. I n t h e a r e a of t h e Carbon Gas F i e l d , t h e Carbon Sandstone, encountered a t a depth of 1,460 m, c o n s i s t s of s e v e r a l l e n t i c u l a r sandstone bodies separated by s h a l y l a y e r s . These sandstone bodies,

which t h i n and become less porous, t o t h e e a s t , form a northwesterlym i n width and 25 k m i n length. -trending b e l t up t o 5 k The Carbon

Sandstone l i e s approximately 15 m above t h e Ostracod member, and 15-23 m

feet below a coal seam.

It ranges in thickness from 6 to 25 m, the maximum

The basal sandstone body

net-porous sandstone being in the range 12-15 m.

is thicker and coarser than the upper bodies, a relationship indicated by the bell-shaped self-potential curve of E-logs of the producing zone in the Carbon field. The sandstone is generally quartzose, fine to medium-

-grained, fairly well sorted,and predominantly of sub-angular grains. Porosity is in the range 15-25%, averaging 21%. Permeability ranges up to

3,000 millidarcys but averages only 80 millicarcys.

The Carbon Sandstone has been placed in the category of transgressive sands because it was deposited during a period of widespread inundation of alluvial-deltaic sediments by the Early Clearwater sea transgressing to the south. The beds adjacent to the Carbon Sandstone,

both above and below, contain arenaceous forams, suggesting an inner neritic environment such as a salt-water bay of tidal estuary. Smooth-

-shelled ostracods within an underlying stratigraphic unit comprising two or more thin, discontinuous layers of argillaceous limestone, indicate local brackish-water conditions. Overlying coal seams must have been formed by the accumulation of vegetation in coastal marshes. The

paleogeomorphic origin of the Carbon Sandstone is not known, but it may have been formed from bodies of sand, filling a tidal channel on a coastal plain. Regional dip of the strata in the Carbon Gas Field area is westerly; and within the field, a stratigraphic marker at the top of the Carbon Sandstone interval indicates a local monoclinal structure. Entrapment of gas may in part be controlled by this structure, although the field is considered to be essentially a stratigraphic trap. Initial

gas in place is estimated to be 155 billion (thousand million) cubic feet,

of which 130 billion (3,640 million cubic metres) will ultimately be

recovered.

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Chaptei

SUBMARINE VALLEYS

Introduction

Geomorphology The e x i s t e n c e of p r f s e n t - d a y submarine v a l l e y s on c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l v e s and s l o p e s h a s been known f o r many y e a r s . But i t was n o t u n t i l

t h e a d v e n t o f marine seismic s u r v e y s t h a t a n c i e n t v a l l e y s , commonly b u r i e d by T e r t i a r y t o Quaternary s e d i m e n t s , could b e demonstrated. Present-day v a l l e y s t r e n d seaward from t h e landmass, some a p p a r e n t l y forming d e n d r i t i c p a t t e r n s , b u t o t h e r s f o l l o w i n g b r o a d l y s i n u o u s o r arcuate courses. Although some submarine v a l l e y s are known t o b i f u r c a t e

SUNDA

SHELF VALLEYS

F i g . 6-1.

I n f e r r e d d e n d r i t i c p a t t e r n of submarine v a l l e y s on t h e Sunda S h e l f o f f t h e c o a s t of I n d o n e s i a . Kuenen. 1950). (Redrawn from

236
a t t h e i r landward e x t r e m i t i e s , t h e development of d e n d r i t i c p a t t e r n s i s

open t o q u e s t i o n .

An example i s t h e Sunda S h e l f of I n d o n e s i a (Fig. 6-1).

During t h e P l e i s t o c e n e much of t h e Sunda S h e l f w a s a landmass, and t h e i n f e r r e d d e n d r i t i c system of submarine v a l l e y s , as i n t e r p r e t e d by Molengraaff (1922), i s t h o u g h t t o have o r i g i n a t e d as a f l u v i a l s t r e a m system. Molengraaff gave t h e name Sunda R i v e r t o t h e main v a l l e y i n t h e H i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w a s endorsed by Kuenen

n o r t h e r n d e n d r i t i c system.

(1950) who r e f e r r e d t o t h e s e submarine v a l l e y s a s drowned r i v e r c h a n n e l s deepened by t i d a l s c o u r . Shepard and D i l l (1966), however, d i d n o t a c c e p t

t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n w i t h o u t r e s e r v a t i o n and p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s based on t h e p o s s i b l e e x i s t e n c e of a d e n d r i t i c p a t t e r n a r e somewhat speculative. Some submarine v a l l e y s and canyons e x t e n d t o t h e upper p a r t s of a c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l f , o t h e r s a r e c o n f i n e d t o t h e r e g i o n of t h e c o n t i n e n t a l slope. Many l a r g e r i v e r s t e r m i n a t e a t t h e upper r e a c h e s of submarine

v a l l e y s which may, i n p a r t , owe t h e i r g e n e s i s t o t h e r i v e r ' s development d u r i n g some e a r l i e r p e r i o d when sea l e v e l w a s lower and much of t h e c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l f w a s exposed a s a c o a s t a l p l a i n . O t h e r submarine

v a l l e y s have no a p p a r e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p t o any p r e s e n t o r p r e v i o u s r i v e r s y s t e m , and t h e i r g e n e s i s i s n o t understood. They may have been formed Such c u r r e n t s

by submarine c u r r e n t s sweeping down t h e c o n t i n e n t a l s l o p e . could have

r e s u l t e d from t i d a l a c t i o n i n f l u e n c e d by C o r i o l i s f o r c e .

Submarine canyons, h a v i n g formed by whatever mechanisms, a r e t h e p r e s e n t -day c o u r s e s f o r s t r o n g c u r r e n t s which a r e p e r i o d i c a l l y augmented by t u r b i d i t y c u r r e n t s f l o w i n g down t h e lower r e a c h e s . Hypotheses c o n c e r n i n g

t h e o r i g i n s of submarine v a l l e y s and canyons are d i s c u s s e d by Kuenen (1950, 1 9 5 3 ) , and a r e e x t e n s i v e l y d e a l t w i t h by Shepard and D i l l (1966). S c h o l l and Hopkins (1968, p . 2 6 6 ) , i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e g i g a n t i c submarine canyons of t h e Bering S e a , s a y t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e i r l o c a t i o n ,

231

t r e n d , and g e n e r a l shape a r e s t r u c t u r a l l y determined, e r o s i o n of t h e canyons was e f f e c t e d by s l i d i n g masses of sediment which began t h e i r movements i n t h e L a t e T e r t i a r y , a i d e d by t h e s l u i c i n g of f l u v i a l sediment from a l a r g e r i v e r . They d e s c r i b e t h e s e canyons a s f o l l o w s , "Bering

Canyon, t h e w o r l d ' s l o n g e s t known submarine s l o p e v a l l e y , and Zhemchug Canyon, p o s s i b l y t h e w o r l d ' s l a r g e s t , i n c i s e t h e n o r t h e a s t e r n c o n t i n e n t a l margin of t h e Bering Sea.

A t h i r d v a l l e y , P r i b i l o f Canyon, also c u t s

t h i s margin and a l s o i s v e r y l a r g e i n comparison t o most submarine canyons. m i n l e n g t h and h a s a volume of about 4300 km3. Bering Canyon i s n e a r l y 400 k Zhemchug Canyon h a s a volume of n e a r l y 8500 km3, and i s 15 t o 20 times l a r g e r than t h e most " l a r g e " submarine canyons ( f o r example, Monterey Canyon). Zhemchug and P r i b i l o f Canyons a r e f u r t h e r d i s t i n g u i s h e d by an

unusual headward b i f u r c a t i o n t h a t h a s c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e formation of deep, e l o n g a t e d , o u t e r - s h e l f basins".

Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t t o petroleum g e o l o g i s t s i s t h e presence of c o a r s e , well-washed, ripple-marked sand w i t h i n submarine val$eys (Heezen These sands a r e worked

and H o l l i s t e r , 1 9 7 1 ; Shepard and M a r s h a l l , 1 9 7 3 ) . by c u r r e n t s t h a t flow w i t h i n t h e v a l l e y s .

In t h e c a s e of canyons o f f t h e

c o a s t of C a l i f o r n i a , Shepard and Marshall ( 1 9 7 3 ) r e c o r d c u r r e n t s of less t h a n 50 cm/sec t h a t a l t e r n a t e l y flow up and down t h e canyons d u r i n g p e r i o d s ranging from 20 minutes t o 1 2 hours.
i s down t h e canyons.

The n e t movement of t h e sand

Shepard and Marshall s t a t e , p . 2 5 7 , "We a r e not y e t

It

i n a p b s i t i o n t o a s s i g n d e f i n i t e causes t o t h e canyon-floor c u r r e n t s .

i s obvious t h a t a t most deeper water s t a t i o n s t h e t i d e s have an important

influence. However, t h e much s h o r t e r c y c l e s , w i t h a peak around 4 hours a r e not r e l a t e d t o t h e t i d e s . These s h o r t e r c y c l e s

(Marshall, i n prep.)

can b e s t be e x p l a i n e d by i n t e r n a l waves". The n a t u r e and s t r a t i g r a p h i c sequence of sediments f i l l i n g a submarine v a l l e y o r canyon w i l l depend on s e v e r a l f a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o t h e

composition of s o u r c e m a t e r i a l and t h e dynamics of t h e environment. I n c l u d e d i n t h e s e f a c t o r s , which o b t a i n i n v a r y i n g d e g r e e s a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s a l a n g t h e c o u r s e of a submarine v a l l e y , are t h e r e l a t i v e volumes of sediment of v a r i o u s s i z e g r a d e s b e i n g t r a n s p o r t e d , t h e rates of s e d i m e n t a t i o n , t h e c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s , and t h e r a t e s a t which s e a l e v e l may r i s e o r f a l l . sedimentation. These f a c t o r s a r e i n t e r - r e l a t e d d u r i n g p e r i o d s of normal

I n t e r u p t i o n s by t u r b i d i t y c u r r e n t s i n t r o d u c e o t h e r f a c t o r s The normal sediment-

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h a t p a r t i c u l a r hydrodynamic s t a t e .

a r y and s t r a t i g r a p h i c sequence d e p o s i t e d i n a submarine v a l l e y d u r i n g a p e r i o d of r i s i n g sea l e v e l i s d e s c r i b e d by Normark and P i p e r (1969) and i l l u s t r a t e d by F i g . 6-2. T h i s sequence of s e d i m e n t s i s based on t h e

assumption t h a t , i n g e n e r a l , c u r r e n t s f l o w i n g a l o n g t h e bottom o f a submarine v a l l e y t e n d t o wane w i t h i n c r e a s i n g d e p t h , and u l t i m a t e l y d i s p e r s e on t h e submarine f a n a t t h e b a s e of a v a l l e y . The r e s u l t o f and f i n e r

such a f l o w p a t t e r n i s t o d e p o s i t c o a r s e r sediment up-current sediment down-current,

a l a t e r a l g r a d a t i o n of sediment t h a t forms a wedge The o v e r a l l v e r t i c a l

of sand p i n c h i n g o u t a t some p o i n t down t h e v a l l e y .

sequence i s a l s o graded and i s , i n e f f e c t , a t r a n s g r e s s i n g sequence of sediment i n which t h e c o a r s e r g r a d e s , such a s s a n d , a r e d e p o s i t e d i n t h e upper r e a c h e s of a v d l e y and a r e s u b s e q u e n t l y b u r i e d by f i n e r sediments as t h e s e a l e v e l rises. The r e s u l t i n g wedge of b a s a l sand may u l t i m a t e l y

by c o m p l e t e l y b u r i e d by muds.
T h e p o s s i b l e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s concept t o petroleum e x p l o r a t i o n

is evident.

Where such wedges of sand a r e d e p o s i t e d , t h e i r i n i t i a l d i p

i s commonly i n c r e a s e d by r e g i o n a l t i l t i n g a l o n g t h e f l a n k of t h e s e d i -

mentary b a s i n .

I n such a s i t u a t i o n , t h e o v e r l y i n g marine muds could be

s o u r c e beds f o r hydrocarbons, o r t h e i r p r e c u r s o r s , which would t h e n m i g r a t e i n t o t h e wedge of sand d u r i n g s u b s e q u e n t compaction of t h e s e c t i o n . T e r t i a r y submarine v a l l e y s o f f t h e Gippsland c o a s t of A u s t r a l i a , f o r

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5
S L

SECTIONAL

VIEWS

OF

SUBMARINE

CUT-AN D-F I L L

CH A N N ELS

F i g . 6-2.

A - C r o s s - s e c t i o n a l views showing development of a submarine

cut-and-fill

channel d u r i n g a p e r i o d of r i s i n g sea l e v e l .

(Redrawn from Normark and P i p e r , 1969).

B

L o n g i t u d i n a l s e c t i o n i n t e r p r e t e d from c r o s s - s e c t i o n s above.

example, s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d as p o s s i b l e t a r g e t s f o r o i l and gas accumulations. C e r t a i n of t h e s e v a l l e y s a p p e a r t o b e l a r g e l y f i l l e d w i t h

Oligocene mudstone, b u t t h e bottoms of t h e s e v a l l e y s have n o t been t e s t e d

a t v a r i o u s l o c a t i o n s by d r i l l i n g .
It i s p o s s i b l e , and p a r t i c u l a r l y s o as

t h e a r e a i s a p r o l i f i c p e t r o l e u m p r o v i n c e , t h a t i f wedges of s a n d s t o n e a r e l o c a l l y p r e s e n t a t t h e b a s e of t h e s e T e r t i a r y submarine v a l l e y s , t h e y may prove t o b e t r a p s f o r o i l and g a s a t t h e i r up-dip, wedge-out e x t r e m i t i e s .

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E-log C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
Sand b o d i e s i n submarine v a l l e y s and canyons are l i n e a r , b u t commonly b i f u r c a t e on a submarine f a n a t t h e mouth of t h e canyon. Some b o d i e s

are formed d u r i n g long p e r i o d s of normal s e d i m e n t a t i o n , o t h e r s are

d e p o s i t e d d u r i n g s h o r t p e r i o d s by t u r b i d i t y c u r r e n t s . I n t h e former, t h e

sand may b e w e l l s o r t e d and c l e a n , i n t h e l a t t e r i t i s p o o r l y s o r t e d and e x h i b i t s graded bedding from c o a r s e r below t o f i n e r above. The sand

b o d i e s d e p o s i t e d d u r i n g p e r i o d s of normal s e i d m e n t a t i o n may a l s o b e graded. L o c a l l y , and p r o b a b l y r a r e l y , t h e y may have g r a d i n g from f i n e r T h i s t y p e of g r a d i n g i s normally c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

below t o c o a r s e r above.

of b a r r i e r b a r s and o t h e r r e g r e s s i v e s h o r e l i n e sand b o d i e s .

In submarine

v a l l e y s a n d s t h e p o s s i b l e e x i s t e n c e of t h i s i n v e r s e g r a d a t i o n may b e e x p l a i n e d by a s i t u a t i o n i n which t h e s a n d i s b e i n g d e p o s i t e d by a c u r r e n t thad l o c a l l y f l o w s down t h e v a l l e y w i t h d e c r e a s i n g v e l o c i t y . This decrease

may r e s u l t from v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e topography of t h e v a l l e y , such as a

downstream i n c r e a s e i n w i d t h . The c o a r s e r sand i s d e p o s i t e d f i T s t , followed A d d i t i o n of more s a n d , c a r r i e d

by f i n e r s a n d s f a r t h e r down t h e v a l l e y .

from the upper r e a c h e s of t h e submarine v a l l e y , r e s u l t s i n f u r t h e r a c c r e t i o n t o t h e sand body which p r o g r a d e s down t h e v a l l e y . T h i s growth i s r e f l e c t e d to finer

i n t h e development of g r a i n g r a d a t i o n from c o a r s e r up-current down-current on t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l s u r f a c e of t h e sand body.

As accretion

c o n t i n u e s , g r a d a t i o n i s a l s o developed w i t h i n t h e v e r t i c a l sequence of t h e s a n d body, i n t h e same way a s i n s h o r e l i n e r e g r e s s i v e s a n d s , from f i n e r below t o c o a r s e r above. The o v e r a l l s e c t i o n of sediment i n a submarine v a l l e y or f a n a t t h e b a s e of a canyon, i s a composite sequence of sand-bodies formed under d i f f e r i n g hydrodynamic c o n d i t i o n s , i n t e r b e d d e d w i t h muds and s i l t s . There

i s no o r d e r l y o r p r e d i c t a b l e sequence.

In g e n e r a l , t h e graded b e d , which

i s t h e g e n e t i c u n i t i n t u r b i d i t y c u r r e n t d e p o s i t s , i s t o o t h i n and p o o r l y

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SUBMARINE C A N Y O N DEPOSITS F A N S A N D TURBlDlTES
c

SP

:
J

SP

:
c

100

Fig. 6-3.

Self-potential curves of electric logs of a submarine canyon fan (A) and turbidity current deposits (B,C, and D ) . Generalized section (E) shows self-potential curves of graded sandstone beds deposited by turbidity currents in a submarine canyon.
A

Upper Miocene Stevens Sandstone, Rosedale Field, This unit is oil-bearing and overlies the

California.

Rosedale Sandstone which fills a channel (Fig. 6-7).

B and

C - Upper Pliocene Pic0 Sandstone, Saticoy Field, California.

D

Lower Pliocene Repetto Sandstone, Ventura Field, California.

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s e p a r a t e d from o t h e r graded beds t o b e d e t e c t e d as such on t h e E-log. sequence of graded b e d s , on t h e o t h e r hand, shows on t h e s e l f - p o t e n t i a l curve as a s e r r a t e d o r f a i r l y smooth c y l i n d e r ( F i g . 6 - 3 , B , C , and D) w i t h a b r u p t upper and lower c o n t a c t s r e p r e s e n t i n g b o u n d a r i e s between t h e sequence and muds d e p o s i t e d d u r i n g p e r i o d s of normal s e d i m e n t a t i o n . The

s e r r a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t i n d i v i d u a l graded b e d s , b u t do n o t r e f l e c t t h e g r a i n gradation. Such a sequence may b e up t o 100 f e e t o r more t h i c k .

In F i g . 6 - 3 , sequences B and C are s e c t i o n s of t h e Upper P l i o c e n e

P i c 0 Sandstone i n t h e S a t i c o y o i l f i e l d , C a l i f o r n i a , and sequence D i s a s e c t i o n of t h e Lower P l i o c e n e R e p e t t o Sandstone i n t h e Ventura o i l f i e l d , California. Sequence A i s a s e c t i o n of t h e Upper Miocene S t e v e n s Sandstone

i n t h e Rosedale F i e l d ( F i g . 6 - 7 ) , , C a l i f o r n i a . oil-bearing.

A l l of t h e s e sequences a r e

Sequence A shows a s e c t i o n composed of s e v e r a l sub-sequences.

Some a r e i n t e r p r e t e d as t u r b i d i t y c u r r e n t d e p o s i t s , some a r e s h a l e b e d s d e p o s i t e d as muds d u r i n g p e r i o d s of normal s e d i m e n t a t i o n , and o t h e r s may be s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s formed by s t r o n g c u r r e n t s , b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i S y by turbidity currents. Compaction The e f f e c t s of compaction on a s e d i m e n t a r y sequence d e p o s i t e d i n a submarine v a l l e y depends on t h e v o l u m e t r i c and s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s of beds of mud and s a n d , and a l s o on t h e geometry and p e t r o p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of i n d i v i d u a l sand b o d i e s . These sand b o d i e s are l i n e a r , and Some

commonly f o r k e d where they s p i l l o v e r t h e s u r f a c e of a submarine f a n .

are composed of c l e a n s a n d ; o t h e r s , d e p o s i t e d by t u r b i d i t y c u r r e n t s , a r e composed of p o o r l y s o r t e d , d i r t y sand. imposed graded b e d s . The l a t t e r commonly c o n s i s t s of s u p e r -

Both t y p e s of sand b o d i e s may b e o v e r l a i n o r under-

l a i n by beds of f i n e - g r a i n e d s e d i m e n t s o r by e a c h o t h e r ; and t h e whole sequence may a t t a i n a t h i c k n e s s of s e v e r a l thousand f e e t .

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W i t h i n a s u b m a r i n e v a l l e y t h e e f f e c t s of compaction on t h e geometry
of a s a n d s t o n e body a t t h e b a s e o f t h e v a l l e y is m i n i m a l , b e c a u s e t h e

v a l l e y c u t s i n t o c o n s o l i d a t e d s e d i m e n t s and r o c k . of a v a l l e y - f i l l
w i l l be t i l t e d .

Within t h e upper p a r t

s e c t i o n s a n d b o d i e s o v e r l y i n g t h e f l a n k s of t h e v a l l e y W i t h i n a submarine f a n , where t h e s a n d s are d e p o s i t e d

n e a r t h e mouth of a submarine canyon and t h e muds a r e d e p o s i t e d n e a r t h e f r i n g e s o f t h e f l a n k , t h e e f f e c t of compaction i s t o a c c e n t u a t e t h e wedge shape of t h e sandy s e c t i o n . I n d i v i d u a l sand bodies w i t h i n t h i s s e c t i o n

are b r o a d l y l e n t i c u l a r .
Of p r i m a r y c o n c e r n t o p e t r o l e u m g e o l o g i s t s i s t h e e f f e c t o f compaction on t h e p e t r o p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s a n d b o d i e s d e p o s i t e d by t u r b i d i t y c u r r e n t s . P o o r l y s o r t e d , l i t h i c , and s i l t y , t h e s e s a n d s do

n o t r e s i s t compaction as w e l l as q u a r t z o s e s a n d s .

With i n c r e a s i n g d e p t h

o f b u r i a l , and by t e c t o n i c d e f o r m a t i o n , b o t h s t a t i c a n d dynamic p r e s s u r e s c a u s e s h a t t e r i n g of s a n d g r a i n s , accompanied by d i a g e n e t i c a l t e r a t i o n s which p r o g r e s s i v e l y d e c r e a s e t h e p o r o s i t y a n d p e r m e a b i l i t y . &This f e a t u r e

w i l l be d e a l t w i t h s p e c i f i c a l l y i n l a t e r pages d e s c r i b i n g t h e Ventura O i l
F i e l d where compaction h a s b e e n e f f e c t e d n o t o n l y by d e p t h o f b u r i a l b u t a d d i t i o n a l l y by f o l d i n g and t h r u s t - f a u l t i n g . In t h e absence of l a r g e s t r u c t u r e s , t u r b i d i t y c u r r e n t sand b o d i e s are n o t a t t r a c t i v e t a r g e t s f o r e x p l o r a t i o n . bodies is d i f f i c u l t Exploration f o r such sand

b e c a u s e o f l a c k of w e l l - d e f i n e d l i t h o l o g i c s e q u e n c e s F u r t h e r m o r e , where t h e

s u i t a b l e t o t h e c o n t a i n m e n t of s t r a t i g r a p h i c t r a p s . oil-bearing

zone i s d e e p , e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e r e s e r v o i r may b e h i n d e r e d by A p a r t from

r e c o v e r y problems i n v o l v i n g e x c e p t i o n a l l y low p e r m e a b i l i t y .

d e p t h a n d p e r m e a b i l i t y , t h e volume and geometry of t h e h y d r o c a r b o n - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e body may p r e c l u d e e c o n o m i c a l l y v i a b l e p r o d u c t i o n .

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Ancient Sand Bodies Submarine v a l l e y sediments and t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d submarine f a n sediments a r e d e p o s i t e d i n v a l l e y s s i t u a t e d on t h e o u t e r f r i n g e s of c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l v e s , i n canyons c u t t i n g i n t o c o n t i n e n t a l s l o p e s , and a s f a n s s p r e a d i n g down t h e lower c o n t i n e n t a l s l o p e s t o t h e a b y s s a l p l a i n s . They a r e commonly i n c l u d e d i n t h e f l y s c h f a c i e s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h i c k sequences of sediment d e p o s i t e d i n a deep-sea environment i n a t e c t o n i c a l l y a c t i v e , r a p i d l y s u b s i d i n g sedimentary b a s i n . The f l y s c h f a c i e s probably

c o n t a i n s t h e m a j o r i t y of sandy sequences d e p o s i t e d by t u r b i d i t y c u r r e n t s , i n c l u d i n g t h e o i l - b e a r i n g sandstone beds of t h e Ventura a n t i c l i n e , a g i a n t o i l f i e l d i n California. Most submarine v a l l e y sediments a r e d e p o s i t e d i n

r e l a t i v e l y deep w a t e r b u t some, i n c l u d i n g b o d i e s of w e l l s o r t e d , c l e a n sand a r e d e p o s i t e d i n t h e upper r e a c h e s of submarine v a l l e y s i n r e l a t i v e l y shallow w a t e r . The l a t t e r can be r e f e r r e d t o an o u t e r n e r i t i c k a c i e s

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by w e l l - s t r a t i f i e d sediments d e p o s i t e d i n a r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e t o g e n t l y warping sedimentary b a s i n . This c a t e g o r y of o u t e r n e r i t i c

d e p o s i t i o n a l environments probably i n c l u d e s t h e s e d i m e n t o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s t h a t o b t a i n e d d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d of formation and i n f i l l i n g of t h e Oligocene submarine v a l l e y s t h a t i n f l u e n c e t h e entrapment of gas i n t h e Marlin f i e l d of t h e Gippsland Basin, V i c t o r i a . Large submarine f a n s a t t h e mouths of major submarine v a l l e y s comprise

a complex of e r o s i o n a l and d e p o s i t i o n a l f e a t u r e s , i n c l u d i n g minor canyons

and v a l l e y s , v a l l e y - f i l l d e p o s i t s , l e v e e s , and s h e e t s of sediments. The

whole complex forms a prograding wedge t h a t t h i n s away from t h e mouth of t h e major submarine v a l l e y . The Bengal Fan complex (Figs. 6-4 and 6 - 5 )

Fig. 6-4.

Bathymetric c h a r t of Bengal Fan based on soundings.

Contours,

ranging from 200 meters t o 5 , 0 0 0 m e t e r s , have v a r i a b l e i n t e r vals. ( A f t e r Curray and Moore, 1971).

245

246
2s'
23"
15"

10"

10"

F i g . 6-5.

H y p o t h e t i c a l l o n g i t u d i n a l s e c t i o n , from n o r t h t o s o u t h , of t h e Bengal Pan complex. ( A f t e r Curray and Moore, 1971).

l y i n g between t h e Andaman I s l a n d s and t h e e a s t c o a s t of I n d i a i s an o u t s t a n d i n g example. T h i s complex h a s a l e n g t h of 3,000 km, a w i d t h of 1,000 km, The s e d i m e n t s i n t h i s g i g a n t i c

and a t h i c k n e s s r a n g i n g up t o 12 km.

accumulation have been d e r i v e d from t h e d e l t a of t h e Ganges-Brahyaputra R i v e r s y s t e m i n Bangladesh. Curray and Moore (1971) s t a t e t h a t t h e f a n

h a s been formed by t u r b i d i t y c u r r e n t s sweeping s e d i m e n t s from t h e d e l t a a l o n g a main submarine canyon, and d i s p e r s i n g them i n t o a b r a i d e d network of f a n v a l l e y s . On t h e b a s i s of seismic r e f l e c t i o n p r o f i l e s t h e Bengal

Fan i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s t r a t i g r a p h i c u n i t s d e p o s i t e d d u r i n g t h e Miocene, P l i o c e n e , and Quaternary r e s p e c t i v e l y . These u n i t s , which a r e s e p a r a t e d

by prominent d i s c o n f o r m i t i e s , are b e l i e v e d t o have formed d u r i n g p e r i o d s of i n c r e a s e d u p l i f t of t h e Himalayan o r o g e n i c b e l t . The q u a t e r n a r y s e d i -

ments are l a r g e l y undeformed, whereas t h e o l d e r s e d i m e n t s a r e f o l d e d and f a u l t e d , p r o b a b l y by g r a v i t y s l i d i n g of u n c o n s o l i d a t e d s e d i m e n t s b e n e a t h the continental slope. The s u r f a c e of t h e Bengal Fan shows f e a t u r e s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e of some r i v e r systems. Curray and Moore (1971, p. 566) s a y , "Details of

247
s h a l l o w sub-bottom s t r u c t u r e show a g r e a t v a r i e t y of c h a n n e l t y p e s .
In

some p a r t s o f t h e f a n s u r f a c e , c h a n n e l s are p a r t l y o r c o m p l e t e l y f i l l e d . Elsewhere t h e c h a n n e l s a p p e a r t o b e b r a i d e d o r are i n c i s e d f o r o v e r 100 m i n t o s e d i m e n t a r y f i l l w i t h i n f o r m e r l y much d e e p e r v a l l e y s . The most

s i g n i f i c a n t f e a t u r e b r o u g h t o u t by t h e s e r e c o r d s i s t h e u n m i s t a k a b l e e v i d e n c e f o r pronounced m i g r a t i o n of t h e c h a n n e l s by c u t - a n d - f i l l a n a l a g o u s t o t h o s e o f s u b a e r i a l streams. processes

The t u r b i d i t y c u r r e n t c h a n n e l s ,

i n f a c t , show a l l of t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l and e r o s i o n a l c a p a b i l i t i e s o f suba e r i a l streams f o r a d j u s t i n g t o v a r i a b l e b a s e l e v e l s , stream l o a d s , a n d d i s c h a r g e volumes". These s i m i l a r i t i e s o f d e p o s i t i o n a l and e r o s i o n a l

f e a t u r e s s u g g e s t t h a t submarine f a n s p r o b a b l y c o n t a i n numerous p o t e n t i a l s t r a t i g r a p h i c t r a p s o f t h e t y p e s found i n a l l u v i a l s e q u e n c e s formed by r i v e r systems. Abandoned s u b m a r i n e c h a n n e l s , c u t t i n g f l a t - l y i n g to

g e n t l y - d i p p i n g b e d s , are f i l l e d w i t h s e d i m e n t which may s u b s e q u e n t l y form

a b a r r i e r t o t h e movement of o i l o r g a s w i t h i n t h e a d j a c e n t i n c i s e d b e d s .

C u r r a y and Moore (1971, F i g . 3c) i n c l u d e o n e seismic p r o f i l e t h a t shows abandoned, s e d i m e n t - f i l l e d c h a n n e l s 60 m d e e p , and 2 km wide. These are

r e m i n i s c e n t of t h e M a r l i n C h a n n e l , b e l i e v e d t o b e of submarine o r i g i n , f l a n k i n g t h e up-dip s i d e o f t h e M a r l i n F i e l d ( F i g . 6-11) The M a r l i n C h a n n e l , however, i s more t h a n 300 m deep. Viewed i n t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s , t h e Bengal Fan complex c o m p r i s e s a s e d i m e n t a r y b a s i n i n which t h e lower and p o s s i b l e t h i c k e s t u n i t rests on basement r o c k s and i s of unknown o r i g i n , w h e r e a s t h e u p p e r u n i t s are primarily turbidites. i n Victoria.

Yoakum Channel, Texas The Yoakum Channel (Fig. 6-6) i n Lavaca County, T e x a s , w a s formed

as a submarine v a l l e y d u r i n g t h e E a r l y Eocene a n d l a t e r f i l l e d m a i n l y w i t h
f i n e - g r a i n e d muddy s e d i m e n t , now s h a l e , of t h e Eocene Wilcox Group. This

248

15
I

MILES
K M

5 ' 0

I S O P A C H M A P OF E O C E N E SUBMARINE C A N Y O N , TEXAS.
Fig. 6-6. Isopach map and s e c t i o n of t h e Yoakum Channel, Lavaca County, Texas. This channel w a s a submarine canyon and i s (Redrawn from

f i l l e d w i t h s h a l e of t h e Eocene Wilcox Group. Halbouty, 1969 a f t e r Hoyt, 1959).

s h a l e s e c t i o n , which i s l o c a l l y up t o 750 m t h i c k , i s o v e r l a i n by massive s a n d s t o n e beds of t h e same group. The c h a n n e l , which h a s a f a i r l y uniform

width o f 10-15 km and a l e n g t h of more t h a n 100 km, w a s t h e s i t e f o r a h o l e d r i l l e d t o a d e p t h of 5,490 m t o t e s t t h e hydrocarbon-bearing of a p o s s i b l e s a n d s t o n e s e c t i o n a t t h e b a s e . potential

Halbouty (1969, p. 27)

"The p l a y w a s based on

comments on t h i s e x p l o r a t i o n v e n t u r e a s f o l l o w s .

t h e i d e a t h a t the Yoakum s h a l e channel (Hoyt, 1959) i n w e s t e r n Lavaca County, Texas, o r i g i n a l l y had been f i l l e d w i t h lower and middle Wilcox s a n d s t o n e and s h a l e s i m i l a r t o t h e sediments on t h e channel f l a n k s .
It

w a s thought t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l f i l l , w i t h a n e s t i m a t e d volume of 75 cu m i

249
o r 250,000 a c r e - f t , was e r o d e d from t h e c h a n n e l and r e d e p o s i t e d downdip The c h a n n e l t h e n w a s f i l l e d w i t h s h a l e a n d Halbouty a l s o

from t h e Lavaca County area.

c o v e r e d w i t h t y p i c a l u p p e r Wilcox s a n d s t o n e d e p o s i t s " .

s a y s , "The d r i l l i n g v e n t u r e , which w a s an a t t e m p t t o l e a r n more a b o u t t h e sandstone-distribution p a t t e r n o f t h e downdip Wilcox a t t h e mouth of t h e

Yoakum c h a n n e l , w a s n o t s u c c e s s f u l b e c a u s e e x p e c t e d s a n d s t o n e b e d s w e r e n o t p r e s e n t beneath t h a t p a r t i c u l a r d r i l l site". Halbouty m e n t i o n s t h e

p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e s e d i m e n t s e r o d e d from t h e Yoakum Channel may have b e e n r e - d e p o s i t e d f a r t h e r downdip from t h e mouth o f t h e c h a n n e l t h a n t h e

s i t e of t h e u n s u c c e s s f u l w i l d c a t t e s t .
The c o n c e p t o f h y d r o c a r b o n e n t r a p m e n t w i t h i n t h e up-dip p a r t o f a

s a n d s t o n e wedge w i t h i n a submarine c h a n n e l i s a t t r a c t i v e , p a r t i c u l a r l y where t h e c h a n n e l i s s i t u a t e d w i t h i n a n o i l o r g a s - b e a r i n g p r o v i n c e . But

f i n d i n g t h e l o c a t i o n o f s u c h a s a n d s t o n e wedge may u l t i m a t e l y depend on t e c h n o l o g i c a l developments i n g e o p h y s i c a l methods. R o s e d a l e Channel., California

is f i l l e d with the

The R o s e d a l e Channel i n C a l i f o r n i a ( F i g . 6-7)

Late Miocene R o s e d a l e S a n d s t o n e , a c o a r s e t o f i n e - g r a i n e d , l i t h i c s a n d s t o n e which l o c a l l y shows g r a d e d b e d d i n g .

feldspathic to

The R o s e d a l e Channel

r a n g e s from less t h a n 2 km t o n e a r l y 3 km i n w i d t h , h a s b e e n t r a c e d f o r more t h a n 10 km, and i s a t l e a s t 360 m deep. M i c r o f o s s i l s i n t h e Rosedale

S a n d s t o n e s u g g e s t t h a t d e p o s i t i o n o c c u r r e d a t water d e p t h s of more t h a n

300 m.

M a r t i n (1963, p . 4 5 4 ) s a y s , "From t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f t h e c h a r -

a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e R o s e d a l e Channel and t h e Rosedale S a n d s t o n e s u c h as t h e s e d i m e n t s , m i c r o f a u n a l a g e s , d e p t h o f water, and d i s p l a c e d f a u n a s , t h e e v i d e n c e s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t s t h a t e r o s i o n and f i l l i n g o c c u r r e d e n t i r e l y w i t h i n t h e m a r i n e environment".

H e s a y s f u r t h e r , p. 4 5 5 , " T u r b i d i t y c u r r e n t s o r

g r a v i t y f l o w s o f s e d i m e n t are c o n s i d e r e d t o h a v e a f f e c t e d t h e d o w n c u t t i n g ;

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ISOPACH A N D

SECTION

OF

ROSEDALE

CHANNEL SANDSTONE
Fig. 6-7. Isopach and s e c t i o n of Late Miocene Rosedale Sandstone f i l l i n g a submarine c h a n n e l , Great V a l l e y , n e a r B a k e r s f i e l d , California. (Redrawn from M a r t i n , 1963).

however, i t seems l i k e l y t h a t t h e lower F r u i t v a l e S h a l e i n t o which t h e canyon c u t p r o b a b l y w a s n o t i n d u r a t e d t o any g r e a t d e g r e e d u r i n g t h i s

t i m e and b e c a u s e of t h e l a c k of much i n d u r a t i o n , e r o s i o n probably w a s

facilitated".
O i l o r g a s have n o t been d i s c o v e r e d w i t h i n t h e Rosedale Sandstone,

a l t h o u g h t h e o v e r l y i n g Lower Massive U n i t of t h e S t e v e n s Sandstone (Fig.

6-3), which i s t h e producing zone i n t h e Rosedale O i l F i e l d , may b e a

f a c i e s of beds t h a t can b e t r a c e d down-channel t o t h e Rosedale Sandstone. M a r t i n h o l d s o u t some hope f o r t h e Rosedale and s a y s , p. 4 5 5 , " L i t t l e o r no p e t r o l e u m h a s been d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e s e d i m e n t s of t h e Rosedale Channel, b u t t h i s does n o t p r e c l u d e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t f u t u r e d i s c o v e r i e s may b e

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made. F i l l e d and b u r i e d submarine canyons s h o u l d have an e x c e l l e n t

p o t e n t i a l f o r any e x p l o r a t o r y e f f o r t s a l t h o u g h from t h e n a t u r e of t h e s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s , l o c a t i o n and r e c o g n i t i o n may b e d i f f i c u l t " .

O i l and G a s F i e l d s

Sediments i n a n c i e n t submarine v a l l e y s have n o t o f t e n been s t r a t i g r a p h i c t a r g e t s f o r o i l and gas e x p l o r a t i o n , a l t h o u g h s u c h f e a t u r e s

are p r e s e n t on a l l c o n t i n e n t a l margins and a p p e a r t o have been s o i n t h e

past. The d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t a r i s e i n s e a r c h i n g f o r a s t r a t i g r a p h i c t r a p

i n a b u r i e d submarine v a l l e y have h i t h e r t o p r e c l u d e d much e n t h u s i a s m f o r s u c h an e x p l o r a t i o n programme. With few e x c e p t i o n s , s u c h as t h e pre-

v i o u s l y mentioned e x p l o r a t o r y h o l e d r i l l e d i n t o t h e Yoakum Channel i n Texas, e x p l o r a t i o n i n submarine v a l l e y and f a n d e p o s i t s h a s been r e s t r i c t e d t o areas s u c h as t h e Ventura O i l F i e l d of C a l i f o r n i a , where f o l d i n g of t h e beds a f f o r d s s t r u c t u r a l c l o s u r e . And y e t , as p o i n t e d o u t by Hedberg (1970,

p . 3 ) , "For t h e p e t r o l e u m g e o l o g i s t , it i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t through t h e

a g e s t h e c o n t i n e n t a l margin h a s been t h e g r e a t mixing bowl i'n which h a s been brewed most o f t h e w o r l d ' s p e t r o l e u m and from which most of i t s p e t r o l e u m p r o d u c t i o n t o d a t e h a s been d e r i v e d " . Commenting on t h e

d e p o s i t i o n a l environment and p e t r o l e u m p o t e n t i a l of submarine f a n s on a c o n t i n e n t a l r i s e , Emery e t al. (1970, p . 103) s a y , "The l a r g e mass movements t h a t remove t h i c k s e q u e n c e s o f s e d i m e n t s from t h e c o n t i n e n t a l s l o p e b r i n g them t o t h e upper p a r t of t h e c o n t i n e n t a l r i s e . Because

t h e s e d i s p l a c e d s e d i m e n t s are f i n e g r a i n e d , when d e p o s i t e d en masse t h e y can r e t a i n most of t h e i r o r g a n i c matter o u t of r e a c h of t h e o v e r l y i n g oxygen-rich water. Continuous s e i s m i c r e f l e c t i o n p r o f i l e s and c o r e s

s u g g e s t t h a t sandy t u r b i d i t e s a l s o are p r e s e n t t h r o u g h o u t most of t h e c o n t i n e n t a l r i s e , and some of them are i n t e r b e d d e d w i t h t h e d i s p l a c e d

s i l t s and c l a y s from t h e c o n t i n e n t a l s l o p e .

Under such c o n d i t i o n s , w e

might e x p e c t t h e d i s p l a c e d s i l t s and c l a y s t o s e r v e as o i l s o u r c e beds and

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t h e sandy t u r b i d i t e s t o b e r e s e r v o i r beds. The sesimic d a t a a l s o r e v e a l The Ventura O i l Other

t h e p r e s e n c e of many s t r a t i g r a p h i c and s t r u c t u r a l t r a p s " .

F i e l d , one of the w o r l d ' s l a r g e f i e l d s , i s a n i m p o r t a n t example.

o i l and g a s a c c u m u l a t i o n s i n submarine v a l l e y and f a n d e p o s i t s may i n t h e f u t u r e b e found f a r o u t t o sea u n d e r l y i n g t h e upper s l o p e s of a c o n t i n e n t a l rise. A s p o i n t e d o u t by Beck and Lehner (1974), t e c h n o l o g i c a l

advances i n deep-sea d r i l l i n g a r e b r i n g i n g t h e s e g e o l o g i c a l l y a t t r a c t i v e r e g i o n s w i t h i n t h e realm o f e x p l o r a t i o n f e a s i b i l i t y . Whether e x p l o r a t i o n

i n t h e s e o f f - s h o r e r e g i o n s w i l l u l t i m a t e l y prove t o b e economically f e a s i b l e is a question f o r the future.

Brentwood, Dutch Slough and West Thornton O i l and G a s F i e l d s , C a l i f o r n i a The Brentwood, Dutch Slough, and West Thornton f i e l d s i n t h e Scaramento V a l l e y , C a l i f o r n i a , y i e l d o i l and g a s from massive s a n d s t o n e beds o f t h e Paleocene M a r t i n e z Formation. These beds a r e t r u n c a t e d by t h e

Meganos Channel (Fig. 6-8) which i s f i l l e d mainly w i t h Paleocene s i l t y s h a l e which forms a cap r o c k f o r o i l and g a s a c c u m u l a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e sandstone beds. Entrapment of b o t h o i l and gas r e s u l t s from a s t r u c t u r a l t h e hydrocarbon-bearing beds having

- s t r a t i g r a p h i c s i t u a t i o n ( F i g . 6-9),

been f o l d e d and t i l t e d , t h e n t r u n c a t e d by t h e Meganos Channel which w a s f i l l e d w i t h impermeable s e d i m e n t s . Dickas and Payne (1967) s a y t h a t 95% of t h e sediments f i l l i n g t h e Meganos Channel are s h a l e s , l o c a l l y g l a u c o n i t i c , t h a t g r a d e i n t o s i l t y beds i n t h e lower p a r t of t h e s e c t i o n . Some t h i n b a s a l s a n d s t o n e beds

are p r e s e n t i n t h e n o r t h e r n and upper p a r t o f t h e c h a n n e l , b u t t h e s e have

proved t o b e u n p r o d u c t i v e .

These v a l l e y - f i l l s e d i m e n t s are b e l i e v e d t o

have been d e p o s i t e d i n a submarine v a l l e y i n w a t e r d e p t h s r a n g i n g from n e r i t i c t o upper b a t h y a l . more t h a n 80 km sediment. The Meganos Channel, which h a s a l e n g t h of

and a w i d t h of 3-10 km, is f i l l e d w i t h up t o 600 m of

These dimensions a r e comparable t o t h o s e o f t h e Congo R i v e r

253

ISOPACH
F i g . 6-8.

OF MEGANOS CHANNEL. CALIFORNIA

I s o p a c h of t h e P a l e o c e n e Meganos Channel, Sacramento V a l l e y , California. T h i s c h a n n e l e r o d e s P a l e o c e n e s a n d s t o n e b e d s and

i s f i l l e d m a i n l y w i t h s h a l e and s i l t s t o n e deposiited as mud i n

water d e p t h s r a n g i n g from n e r i t i c t o u p p e r b a t h y a l .
from D i c k a s and Payne, 1967).

(Redrawn

s u b m a r i n e canyon which a c c o r d i n g t o Heezen

e t a l . (1964) h a s a l e n g t h

o f 320 km, a w i d t h of up t o 8 k m , and a d e p t h o f up t o 900 m below t h e canyon r i m . Shepard and Emery (1973 a ) f u r t h e r d e s c r i b e t h e Congo River

canyon as V-shaped and r a n g i n g i n d e p t h up t o 1,400 m from t h e r i m t o t h e base. Although t h e Brentwood, Dutch S l o u g h , and West Thornton f i e l d s

are n o t p r o d u c i n g from s e d i m e n t s w i t h i n t h e submarine v a l l e y , t h e i r

l o c a t i o n s depend on t h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n of f o l d e d and u p t u r n e d hydrocarbon- b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e s w i t h impermeable s h a l y b e d s i n t h e Meganos Channel.

254

-O
L !
B DATUM
-

IO

FEET

I
-

'

I
I

I
MARlINZ FM

1,

13000
KM

STRUCTURAL

SECTIONS

ACROSS

MEGANOS

CHANNEL,
F i g . 6-9.

CALIFORNIA
and 3-B' a c r o s s t h e Paleocene hleganos

S t r u c t u r a l s e c t i o n s A-A'

Channel, Sacramento V a l l e y , C a l i f o r n i a , showing o i l and g a s accumulations i n Paleocene beds of t h e Martinez Formation, Brentwood f i e l d . (Redrawn from Dickas and Payne, 1967).

255
S t r a t i g r a p h i c and s t r u c t u r a l c o n t r o l i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t of t h e M a r l i n F i e l d ( F i g . 6-11) i n the Gippsland B a s i n , V i c t o r i a . The Brentwood and

Dutch Slough, c o n s i d e r e d t o b e major f i e l d s , a r e l o c a t e d i n t h e s o u t h -western p a r t of t h e c h a n n e l shown i n F i g . 6-8, whereas t h e West Thornton f i e l d lies i n the northern part. U l t i m a t e p r o d u c i b l e r e s e r v e s of gas i n

t h e Dutch Slough f i e l d a r e e s t i m a t e d t o amount t o more t h a n 300,000 m i l l i o n c u b i c f e e t (8,400 m i l l i o n c u b i c metres).

M a r l i n Gas F i e l d , V i c t o r i a

I n t h e M a r l i n F i e l d ( F i g s . 6-10 and 6-11) o f t h e Gippsland Basin, V i c t o r i a , gas and some l i g h t o i l are produced from f i v e s a n d s t o n e u n i t s w i t h i n t h e Paleocene t o Eocene L a t r o b e Group. These u n i t s are t i l t e d ,

t r u n c a t e d by an e r o s i o n a l s u r f a c e , and f l a n k e d on t h e east by a submarine c h a n n e l f i l l e d w i t h mudstones o f t h e Oligocene t o Miocene Lakes Entrance Formation. The mudstones p r o v i d e an e f f e c t i v e s e a l . The g a s - b e a r i n g Individual
i

s a n d s t o n e s l i e w i t h i n a s e c t i o n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 180 m t h i c k .

s a n d s t o n e beds have a t h i c k n e s s of up t o 30 m , and t h e cumulative net-pay t h i c k n e s s f o r a l l f i v e u n i t s exceeds 100 m. The s a n d s t o n e s a r e l i g h t g r e y ,

f r i a b l e , q u a r t z o s e t o l i t h i c , g e n e r a l l y f i n e - g r a i n e d , micaceous, and l o c a l l y s i l t y w i t h carbonaceous f l a k e s . P o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y have The f i v e

r a n g e s of 15-30% and up t o 1,000 m i l l i d a r c y s r e s p e c t i v e l y .

s a n d s t o n e u n i t s a r e s e p a r a t e d by carbonaceous mudstones i n c l u d i n g beds of coal. These g a s - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e s were d e p o s i t e d i n a p a r a l i c t o a l l u v i a l environment, b u t d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n concerning t h e i r paleogeomorphic o r i g i n s have n o t been p u b l i s h e d . G r i f f i t h and Hodgson (1971) The L a t r o b e

are of t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e y a r e b r a i d e d s t r e a m d e p o s i t s .

Group comprises a wedge of s e d i m e n t s , t h i c k c c n i n g t o many thousands of f e e t o f f s h o r e , t h a t formed a s a d e l t a i c complex. Coal beds i n t h e M a r l i n

F i e l d a r e a , 50 km o f f s h o r e , are i n d i v i d u a l l y up t o 6 m t h i c k , b u t onshore

256

MARLIN GAS AND OIL FIELD GIPPSLAND BASIN, VICTORIA

F i g . 6-10.

S t r u c t u r e map showing sub-sea l e v e l c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e e r o s i o n a l s u r f a c e of t h e L a t r o b e Group, M a r l i n Gas F i e l d , Victoria. S e c t i o n A-A' e x t e n d s t o t h e upper l e v e l of t h e Contour i n t e r v a l i s 100

M a r l i n Channel, a submarine v a l l e y . f e e t (30 m ) .

( A f t e r G r i f f i t h and Hodgson, 1971, modified

by Beddoes, 1973).

25 7
M A R L I N GAS A N D OIL FIELD
STUCTURE CROSS-SECTION A-A'

SCALE
I LDMLTRLS

1c

n*,

Vertical Exaggeration 10 1

F i g . 6-11.

S t r u c t u r e s e c t i o n A-A'

a c r o s s t h e M a r l i n Gas F i e l d , V i c t o r i a ,

showing a f a u l t bounding t h e w e s t e r n f l a n k of t h e M a r l i n Channel shown i n F i g . 6-10. m o d i f i e d by Beddoes, 1973) ( A f t e r G r i f f i t h and Hodgson, 1971,

t h e y r a n g e up t o 90 m t h i c k .

In the offshore a r e a s s t r a t i g r a p h i c zonation

w i t h i n t h e L a t r o b e Group depends on t h e assemblage of p o l l e n s and s p o r e s . During t h e l a t e h i s t o r y of t h e L a t r o b e Group a marine t r a n s g r e s s i o n , which began i n t h e Late Eocene, r e s u l t e d i n t h e d e p o s i t i o n e l s e w h e r e of up t o

300 m of marine mudstone and up t o 30 m of g l a u c o n i t i c , v e r y f i n e - g r a i n e d

sandstone. These beds a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e L a t r o b e Group, a l t h o u g h t h e y

w e r e d e p o s i t e d d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s o f a r e g i o n a l marine t r a n s g r e s s i o n

t h a t l a t e r l a i d down t h e Lakes G n t r a c c e Group. The f i e l d , which h a s a s t r o n g w a t e r d r i v e , i s a s t r u c t u r a l stratigraphic trap.

A southwest-plunging f o l d w a s eroded d u r i n g t h e L a t e

258
Eocene t o form a c l o s e d e r o s i o n a l f e a t a e ( a dome-shaped h i l l ) f l a n k e d on t h e e a s t by a v a l l e y ( s u b s e q u e n t l y a submarine c h a n n e l ) . c l o s u r e is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 275 m. Maximum v e r t i c a l

The e s t i m a t e d u l t i m a t e p r o d u c i b l e r e s e r v e s

of g a s amount t o 3,500,000 m i l l i o n c u b i c f e e t (98,000 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) c o n t a i n i n g 175 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s ( 2 7 . 8 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) of c o n d e n s a t e .

E s t i m a t e s of u l t i m a t e r e c o v e r y of t h e l i g h t o i l have n o t been p u b l i s h e d .

Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e f i l l i n g o f t h e M a r l i n submarine c h a n n e l w i t h muds h a s been a prime f a c t o r i n forming a n up-dip s e a l f o r gas

in t h e t i l t e d and e r o d e d s a n d s t o n e beds of t h e L a t r o b e Group.

tural-stratigraphic

The s t r u c t -

s i t u a t i o n i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t of t h e Brentwood F i e l d

( F i g . 6-9) i n C a l i f o r n i a .

Ventura O i l

and Gas F i e l d , C a l i f d r n i a . P r o d u c t i o n i n t h e Ventura O i l F i e l d of t h e Ventura Basin,

C a l i f o r n i a , i s o b t a i n e d from t h e Upper P l i o c e n e P i c 0 Sandstone and t h e Lower P l i o c e n e R e p e t t o Sandstone. Both u n i t s form a c o n t i n u o u s sequence,

more t h a n 3,000 m t h i c k , of o i l - b e a z i n g s a n d s t o n e s , sandy s i l t d t o n e s and organic-rich s i l t y claystones. The sequence comprises t u r b i d i t y c u r r e n t

d e p o s i t s and normal deep-sea s e d i m e n t s t h a t formed a submarine f a n i n a t e c t o n i c a l l y a c t i v e b a s i n (Natland and Kuenen, 1951). Coincidence of t h e

a r e a of optimum sand d e p o s i t i o n and t h e a r e a of growth of t h e Ventura a n t i c l i n e has r e s u l t e d i n a t h i c k oil-bearing section. This section has

been d i v i d e d i n t o s e v e r a l o i l - p r o d u c i n g zones a t d e p t h s r a n g i n g from 300 t o 2,700 m. The upper most zone y i e l d s g a s and c o n d e n s a t e (56' A.P.I.),

t h e upper zones y i e l d l i g h t o i l ( 4 2 O A . P . I . ) , h e a v i e r o i l (300 A . P . I . ) .

and t h e lower zones y i e l d

These a c c u m u l a t i o n s , which o c c u r i n a number

of i n d i v i d u a l t r a p s i n s e p a r a t e f a u l t b l o c k s w i t h i n a r e v e r s e and t h r u s t f a u l t e d a n t i c l i n e , have d i f f e r e n t r e s e r v o i r p r e s s u r e s and o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (Levorsen, 1967). Other a c c u m u l a t i o n s having a similar d e p o s i t i o n a l

and s t r u c t u r a l g e n e s i s a r e p r e s e n t i n t h e Lower P l i o c e n e of t h e Los Angeles

259

B a s i n , and i n t h e Upper Miocene o f t h e San J o a q u i n B a s i n , b o t h i n C a l i f ornia. Within t h e 2,700 metres of o i l - b e a r i n g s e c t i o n i n t h e Ventura F i e l d , p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e s a n d s t o n e s d e c r e a s e s p r o g r e s s i v e l y w i t h d e p t h from a r a n g e of 60-250 m i l l i d a r c y s i n t h e upper zone t o l e s s t h a t 5 m i l l i d a r c y s i n t h e lower. The o i l - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e s i n t h e lowermost zone

commonly have a p e r m e a b i l i t y o f o n l y one m i l l i d a r c y , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h i s u n i t h a s been reduced by a f a c t o r of s e v e r a l hundred

times s i n c e i t was d e p o s i t e d .

This d r a s t i c reduction has r e s u l t e d d i r e c t l y

from t h e s h a t t e r i n g and compaction of g r a i n s by a combination of s t a t i c and dynamic p r e s s u r e s caused by d e p t h of b u r i a l and t h e s t r e s s e s t h a t produced f o l d i n g and f a u l t i n g , and i n d i r e c t l y by t h e p l u g g i n g of p o r e s p a c e r e s u l t i n g from d i a g e n e t i c a l t e r a t i o n s . There i s no e v i d e n c e (Natland

and Kuenen, 1951) t h a t s e d i m e n t o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e upper and lower p a r t s o f t h e s e c t i o n a c c o u n t i n any way f o r t h e v a r i a t i o n s i n p e r m e a b i l i t y . The Ventura F i e l d area was t h e s i t e of d e p o s i t i o n by t u r b i d i t y c u r r e n t s d u r i n g most of t h e P l i o c e n e , and t h i s f a c i e s c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e e n t i r e oil-bearing section.

Hertel (1929) e s t i m a t e d t h a t u l t i m a t e r e c o v e r y from t h e Ventura

F i e l d would amount t o more t h a n 250 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s of o i l and 600,000 m i l l i o n c u b i c f e e t of g a s . S i n c e t h e n : a d d i t i o n a l producing zones w i t h i n Halbouty (1978) s t a t e s t h a t a t t h e

t h e f i e l d have been d i s c o v e r e d .

b e g i n n i n g of 1967 t h e c u m u l a t i v e p r o d u c t i o n p l u s t h e e s t i m a t e d r e c o v e r a b l e r e s e r v e s of o i l i n t h e Ventura f i e l d amounted t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 818 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (130 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) . He a l s o s t a t e s t h a t a t t h e b e g i n n i n g

of 1966 t h e c u m u l a t i v e p r o d u c t i o n of gas was 1,847,000 m i l l i o n c u b i c f e e t

(52,000 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) .

It i s of i n t e r e s t t o n o t e t h a t more r e c e n t

estimates of u l t i m a t e p r o d u c t i o n i n t h i s f i e l d , d i s c o v e r e d i n 1916, have proved t o b e a b o u t t h r e e t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e e a r l i e r estimates.

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

261

Chapter

TIDAL CURRENT SAND B O D I E S

Introduction

Geomorphology T i d a l c u r r e n t r i d g e s of sand and s i l t are known i n many p a r t s of t h e world. They are developed as ribbon-shaped sand b o d i e s a l i g n e d These sand b o d i e s are commonly

parallel t o the t i d a l current direction.

found a t d e p t h s w i t h i n t h e r a n g e 10-100 m , on p a r t s of t h e c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l f s u b j e c t t o s t r o n g t i d a l c u r r e n t s f l o w i n g a t v e l o c i t i e s of up t o 5 km/hr. Of t h o s e d e s c r i b e d , examples i n t h e North Sea ( P e t t i j o h n ,

P o t t e r , and S i e v e r , 1972; B l a t t , M i d d l e t o n , and Murray, 1972; Houbolt, 1968; and S t r i d e , 1 9 6 3 ) , i n t h e Gulf of Korea (Off, 1963), and i n Taiwan S t r a i t (Boggs, 1974) are mentioned h e r e . remarkably s i m i l a r . The dimensions of t h e s e r i d g e s are

I n t h e North Sea ( F i g s . 7-1 and 7-2) t h e y have a

t h i c k n e s s o f up t o 50 m, a l e n g t h of up t o 70 km b u t commonly less t h a n 50 km, and a w i d t h of 3-5 km. I n t h e Gulf of Korea (Fig. 7-3) t h e y have In

a t h i c k n e s s o f 10-35 m, a l e n g t h of 10-60 km, and a w i d t h of 2-3 km.

Taiwan S t r a i t t h e y are 5-30 m t h i c k , and up t o 3.5 km wide.

S w i f t and

HcMullen (1968) a l s o d e s c r i b e t i d a l sand b q d i e s i n t h e Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia. These b o d i e s a r e up t o 30 m t h i c k and 30 km l o n g .

In t h e North Sea t i d a l r i d g e s were e x t e n s i v e l y s t u d i e d by Houbolt

(1968).

On t h e s u r f a c e of t h e s e asymmetrical r i d g e s , and t r e n d i n g o b l i q u e l y

a c r o s s t h e i r s t r i k e , are l a r g e c u r r e n t r i p p l e s r e f e r r e d t o as t i d a l sand waves. Although v e r y l i t t l e i s known about t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e of t i d a l

c u r r e n t r i d g e s , the movement of sand waves a c r o s s t h e i r s u r f a c e s i s r e f l e c t e d i n t e r n a l l y as cross-bedding. The n a t u r e of t h i s cross-bedding i s n o t w e l l

known, b u t i s i n d i c a t e d by s p a r k e r s u r v e y s t o be p l a n a r and sweeping.

262

Gentle back slope

with megoripples

Steep slope with

F i g . 7-1.

O u t l i n e s and g e n e r a l i z e d c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f s a n d r i d g e s i n t h e s o u t h e r n b i g h t of t h e North S e a . (Redrawn by P e t t i j o h n ,

P o t t e r and S i e v e r , 1972, a f t e r H o u b o l t , 1968).

These N o r t h Sea sand r i d g e s , formed on t h e f l a t s e a f l o o r o f an open s h e l f , a p p e a r t o have f l a t b a s e s a n d convex t o p s . This i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is indicated

by s p a r k e r s u r v e y s which o u t l i n e t h e geometry of t h e r i d g e s , and i s f u r t h e r s u g g e s t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e sand b o d i e s m i g r a t e a c r o s s t h e sea f l o o r like giant ripples. The s a n d which i s n o t d i r e c t l y d e r i v e d from any p r e s e n t -

-day r i v e r b u t from t h e sea f l o o r i t s e l f , i s e x t r e m e l y w e l l s o r t e d and f i n e -grained. C o r i n g does n o t show any g r a i n g r a d a t i o n w i t h i n t h e r i d g e s .

263

Well Bank ____

~

sea level seo level

--<k-l

35'

Smith Knoll

30 '

25'

20 '

15'

10'

5'

53"

55'

50'

45'

Vorfolk
Y L

,L
,

,,
L u i A ' " ' ' , .
L A

35'

40'

45'

50'

55'

2"

5'

1 0 '

15'

20'

25'

30'

35'

F i g . 7-2.

Isopach map of sand r i d g e s formed by t i d a l c u r r e n t s i n t h e s o u t h e r n b i g h t of t h e North Sea. (Modified by B l a t t ,

Middleton, and Murray, 1 9 7 2 , a f t e r Houbolt, 1968).

264

T I DAL CURRENT RIDGES THE GULF OF KOREA

T I D A L CURRENT DIRECTION

. I

20 MILES

F i g . 7-3.

T i d a l c u r r e n t r i d g e s of sand i n t h e Gulf of Korea. c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n s i n d i c a t e d by a r r o w s .

Tidal

( A f t e r O f f , 1963,

redrawn from U.S. Navy Hydrographic O f f i c e c h a r t s . )

265

Measurements of grain orientation indicate a preferred direction at 45'

to

the strike of the sand ridges, a result that is not surprising in view of the oblique movement of current ripples across the leading edges of the sand ridges. The non-parallelism of average grain orientation to the trend

of the sand ridges suggests that measurements of mean grain orientation in sandstones should be applied to the interpretation of sandstone body trends with some reservation. Off (1963) describes tidal current ridges (Fig. 7-3) in the Gulf of Korea. These ridges have developed on a flat and shallow continental shelf

where in places the water depths, at distances up to 65 km from shore, do not exceed 40 m. The ridges form an arcuate pattern trending parallel to

the direction of flow of the tidal currents. Of particular interest is an example showing the alignment of ridges both parallel and normal to the coast line. Other examples illustrated by Off show the alignment of tidal

current ridges in straits and estuaries to be essentially parallel to the coast. These geomorphologic relationships w i l l have some bearing on the

interpretation of ancient sand bodies such as off-shore bars and barrier islands which also lie parallel to the coastline. Off (1963, p. 327) describes the tidal current ridges in the Gulf of Korea as follows, "Here, the ridges are spaced with an average of 3 miles between crests and rise
an average of 65 feet from their base.

They are oriented approximately

parallel with the west coast of Korea and perpendicular to the north end of the Yellow Sea". With reference to sand ridges in Taiwan Strait, Boggs (1974, p. 253) says, "The rather widespread development of large, asymmetrical sand waves in Taiwan Strait suggests active transport of bottom sediment. The pattern of sediment transport, although not yet accurately determined, appears to be complex; transport in a seaward direction, transport in a landward direction, and longshore transport are all indicated in various parts of

266
the strait. The s a n d waves a r e developed i n areas o f sandy bottom s e d i -

ments t h a t Niino and Emery (1961) c o n s i d e r e d t o be r e l i c t P l e i s t o c e n e s e d i m e n t s ; i t a p p e a r s q u i t e l i k e l y , however, t h a t t h e sediment h a s been e x t e n s i v e l y reworked s i n c e P l e i s t o c e n e t i m e by bottom c u r r e n t s t h a t may have markedly a l t e r e d o r i g i n a l s e d i m e n t a r y s t r u c t u r e s and m i n e r a l concentr a t i o n s , as w e l l as l o c a l topography of t h e sea f l o o r " .

E-log C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

In t h e North Sea t h e sand i n t i d a l c u r r e n t r i d g e s i s commonly f i n e - g r a i n e d and e x t r e m e l y w e l l s o r t e d , h a v i n g been d e r i v e d from o l d e r beds d e p o s i t e d i n t h e sea o r on a s u r f a c e s u b s e q u e n t l y i n u n d a t e d by t h e sea. Some r i d g e s c o n s i s t of muddy sand o r muddy s i l t . Sand r i d g e s , b e i n g

composed of re-worked sediment of f a i r l y uniform g r a i n s i z e , have a homogeneous t e x t u r e and show no s i g n i f i c a n t g r a i n g r a d a t i o n . A s shown by

Houbolt (1968) some r i d g e s i n t e r n a l l y r e f l e c t shock waves from a s p a r k e r , i n d i c a t i n g cross-bedding o r i n c l i n e d bedding h a v i n g minor v a r i a t i o n s of t e x t u r e and c o m p o s i t i o n , whereas o t h e r r i d g e s g i v e no r e f l e c t i o n s and a p p e a r t o b e i n t e r n a l l y homogeneous.
t h a t t h e E-log s e l f - p o t e n t i a l

In e i t h e r c a s e i t can bi: expected

c u r v e of an a n c i e n t t i d a l c u r r e n t sand body but

w i l l show n e i t h e r a tendency t o b e b e l l - s h a p e d n o r funnel-shaped,

e x h i b i t a b l o c k y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i m i l a r t o t h a t of some d i s t r i b u t a r y channel sand b o d i e s .

Compaction A t some s t a g e i n t h e g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y o f t i d a l c u r r e n t sand r i d g e s , p r o v i d e d t h e y remain below s e a l e v e l , t h e y are b u r i e d i n a s e d i m e n t a r y p i l e . Thus p r e s e r v e d i n t h e g e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d , t h e y are s u b j e c t e d by i n c r e a s i n g d e p t h of b u r i a l t o t h e e f f e c t s of compaction. These w i l l r e s u l t i n s u b s i d -

ence of t h e s a n d s t o n e body, and i n d r a p i n g of t h e o v e r l y i n g f i n e r sediments. Subsidence may be minimal, depending on t h e d e g r e e of compaction and t h i c k -

267

n e s s of t h e u n d e r l y i n g s e c t i o n of s e d i m e n t s .

I n t h e c a s e of t h e North Sea

t i d a l c u r r e n t sand r i d g e s , t h e s e c t i o n o f sediment r e s t i n g on c o n s o l i d a t e d rock is comparatively t h i n . The f l a t s e a - f l o o r between t h e sand r i d g e s i s

covered w i t h a g r a v e l l y l a g d e p o s i t , composed of c h e r t p e b b l e s and s k e l e t a l f r a g m e n t s , whi& m r l i e s a bed of s t i f f b l u i s h - g r e y c l a y . S i m i l a r l y , where

t i d a l c u r r e n t s a n d r i d g e s are formed i n a marine t r a n s g r e s s i v e s i t u a t i o n , t h e compactional e f f e c t s r e s u l t i n g from s u b s i d e n c e of t h e sand body w i l l n o t g r e a t l y a l t e r t h e o r i g i n a l shape of t h e body. Consequently, i t s topo-

g r a p h i c c o n f i g u r a t i o n w i l l b e p r e s e r v e d , a l t h o u g h somewhat m o d i f i e d , i n t h e s t r a t a i n which i t i s b u r i e d . I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e o r i g i n a l geometry of

s u c h s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s can b e s t b e done by means of s e c t i o n s and maps drawn w i t h a datum b e n e a t h t h e body. Ancient Sand Bodies Many examples have been c i t e d of s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s d e p o s i t e d as sand b a r s on s h a l l o w marine s h e l v e s s u b j e c t t o t h e a c t i o n of waves and ocean currents. Some of t h e s e a n c i e n t s a n d s w e r e swept on t o a se& f l o o r of c l a y Others appear t o S e l l e y (1967)

and s i l t , and some accumulated on a c a r b o n a t e s h e l f .

t r a n s g r e s s b o t h c a r b o n a t e and non-carbonate environments.

d e s c r i b e s a Miocene s e c t i o n i n Libya where f l u v i a l and p a r a l i c s a n d s d e p o s i t e d i n a d e l t a i c environment can b e t r a c e d i n t o l i m e s t o n e beds d e p o s i t e d on a s h a l l o w marine c a r b o n a t e s h e l f . Descriptions of sandstone

b o d i e s are commonly i n c o m p l e t e , and t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s p l a c e d on t h e i r o r i g i n s may b e e q u i v o c a l . P e t t i j o h n , P o t t e r and S i e v e r (1972, p. 493)

s a y , " I n t h e absence of p l e n t i f u l , good d e s c r i p t i o n s of a n c i e n t marine s h e l f sand b o d i e s , w e have a t t e m p t e d t o summarize and s y n t h e s i z e t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s from few and s c a t t e r e d d a t a (Table 11-6). learned". Much remains t o b e

They f u r t h e r d e s c r i b e some o f t h e g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of

a n c i e n t marine s h e l f s a n d s as f o l l o w s .

"The s a n d o f many a n c i e n t marine s h e l v e s t e n d s t o be m i n e r a l o g i c a l l y m a t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y on c r a t o n s , presumably b e c a u s e i t h a s p a s s e d through t h e s h o r e l i n e complex. Thus a r g i l l a c e o u s r o c k f r a g m e n t s and u n s t a b l e m i n e r a l s Glauconite, d e t r i t a l carbonate s k e l e t a l

g e n e r a l l y are n o t v e r y abundant.

d e b r i s , marine f o s s i l s , and c o l l o p h a n e are commonly p r e s e n t .

A relict

f a u n a and anomalously c o a r s e g r a i n s a r e common i n t h e upper few f e e t of some s h e l f s a n d s . G r a v e l o r conglomerate may b e d e r i v e d l o c a l l y . Cementing

a g e n t s are mostly c h e m i c a l , b u t may i n c l u d e a p p r e c i a b l e d e t r i t a l material proximal t o clay o r s h a l e t r a n s i t i o n s . S o r t i n g g e n e r a l l y i s good t o e x c e l l e n t , rounding. The

and t h e r e i s p e r h a p s a tendency f o r b e t t e r - t h a n - a v e r a g e

v a r i a b i l i t y of t e x t u r a l p a r a m e t e r s between samples i s g e n e r a l l y very l o w " . T i d a l c u r r e n t sand b o d i e s p r o b a b l y have f o s s i l c o u n t e r p a r t s , b u t none have been proven. The E l a t e r i t e Bar i n t h e Lower Permian White R i m

Sandstone o f Utah (Baars and S e a g a r , 1970) h a s morphological s i m i l a r i t i e s .

So do some of t h e a r c u a t e sand b o d i e s of t h e Lower C r e t a c e o u s Viking

Formation i n A l b e r t a and Saskatchewan (Evans, 1970), a l t h o u g h o t b e r Viking sand b o d i e s are i n t e r p r e t e d as s h o r e l i n e and n e a r - s h o r e s a n d s d e p o s i t e d as beaches and o f f - s h o r e b a r s . Off (1963) h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t i d a l c u r r e n t s

were e f f e c t i v e i n t h e d e p o s i t i o n of t h e Upper M i s s i s s i p p i a n P a l e s t i n e
S a n d s t o n e , which l i e s s t r a t i g r a p h i c a l l y above t h e channel-forming B e t h e l Sandstone (Fig. 1-29), and a l s o i n t h e d e p o s i t i o n of t h e Upper Cretaceous Cardium Sandstone o f A l b e r t a . With r e f e r e n c e t o t h e P a l e s t i n e Sandstone

h e s a y s , p . 335, " I n a r e c e n t s t u d y o f t h e C h e s t e r s a n d s o f t h e I l l i n o i s Basin ( P o t t e r

e t az., 1 9 5 8 ) , a t t e n t i o n w a s c a l l e d t o t h e alignment of

sand b o d i e s p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e c u r r e n t d i r e c t i o n s i n d i c a t e d by cross-bedding, and p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o r e g i o n a l s t r i k e . The r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s of some of

t h e s e s a n d b o d i e s ( a s shown by P o t t e r ' s F i g u r e 13 f o r example) and t h e i r unique d i m e n s i o n a l s c a l e , b o t h as t o i n d i v i d u a l t h i c k n e s s and d i s t a n c e of s e p a r a t i o n , combined w i t h t h e p r e s e n c e of cross-bedding and s u g g e s t i o n of

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a marine environment, s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t t h a t t h e y are t i d a l c u r r e n t r i d g e s .

The P a l e s t i n e i s i n t e r p r e t e d by P o t t e r stone.

et aZ. (1958) as a channel sand-

The Cardium (Fig. 3-22) sand b o d i e s are c o n s i d e r e d by Berven (1966)

and o t h e r s t o b e o f f - s h o r e b a r s . The E l a t e r i t e Bar ( F i g . 7 - 4 ) i s composed of f i n e - g r a i n e d , w e l l s o r t e d , q u a r t z o s e s a n d s t o n e t h a t is f a i r l y uniformly s a t u r a t e d w i t h heavy a s p h a l t i c o i l t h a t s e e p s o u t as bitumen from t h i s exhumed s t r a t i g r a p h i c t r a p . The s a n d s t o n e body, which t r e n d s i n a s l i g h t a r c , i s up t o 60 m t h i c k , 2-3 km wide, and 16 k m long. I n t e r n a l l y , t h e sandstone e x h i b i t s large-scale t h a t d i p 20-25 d e g r e e s s o u t h e a s t

sets of sweeping c r o s s - s t r a t i f i c a t i o n

and have l o n g t a n g e n t i a l b a s a l c o n t a c t s . The o r i g i n of t h e E l a t e r i t e Bar i s n o t e n t i r e l y c l e a r . Several

i n v e s t i g a t o r s have a g r e e d t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e White R i m e Sandstone w a s i n p a r t d e p o s i t e d i n s h a l l o w w a t e r , i t w a s mainly e o l i a n . The c h i e f proponent

SEAWARD

LAGOONAL

Fig. 7-4.

G e n e r a l i z e d c r o s s - s e c t i o n of E l a t e r i t e Bar i n t h e Lower Permian White R i m Sandstone, s o u t h e a s t e r n Utah. Baars and S e a g e r , 1970). (After

270
of t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s Baker ( 1 9 4 6 ) . Baars and S e a g e r (1970) h a v e

r e f u t e d t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f o r t h e E l a t e r i t e Bar which t h e y d e s c r i b e as a d e f i n i t e and r e g u l a r s a n d b u i l d - u p Shale. conformably o v e r l y i n g t h e Organ Rock

They s a y , p . 716, "It i s p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e White R i m S a n d s t o n e i s origin. The b e s t e v i d e n c e is t h e g e o m e t r i c and geo-

o f shallow-marine

g r a p h i c c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f i t s c o n t a i n e d s a n d b a r s , t h e n a t u r e of t h e c r o s s - s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and r i p p l e m a r k s , t h e r e g i o n a l r e l a t i o n s of t h e f o r m a t i o n , t h e p r e s e n c e of a p r o b l e m a t i c a l g a , and t h e a b s e n c e of t r a c k s " . The

E l a t e r i t e Bar i s conformably o v e r l a i n by Lower Permian s h a l y b e d s which i n

t u r n are unconformably o v e r l a i n b y t h e T r i a s s i c Moenkopi Formation.
No

e v i d e n c e h a s b e e n advanced t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e E l a t e r i t e Bar may b e ( o t h e r t h a n t h e uppermost p a r t which h a s b e e n re-worked) formed by c u r r e n t s c o u r i n g . an erosional feature

I n f a c t , Baars and S e a g e r o f f e r e v i d e n c e t o With r e f e r e n c e t o t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f

s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s i s n o t t h e case.

t h e E l a t e r i t e Bar t h e y s a y , p . 714, "The topography i s of s e d i m e n t a r y r a t h e r t h a n e r o s i o n a l o r i g i n , as shown by t h e g r a d u a l change of w a v e l e n g t h o f the r i p p l e s a l o n g c o n t i n u o u s b e d d i n g p l a n e s from 2 i n . a t t h e t o p t o

6 i n . a t t h e m a r g i n i n r e s p o n s e t o d e e p e n i n g o f t h e water o v e r t h e edge o f
t h e bar. From t h i s e v i d e n c e , i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e E l a t e r i t e Bar was

b u i l t where water d e p t h s r e a c h e d a t l e a s t 50 f t a l o n g i t s seaward margin". F u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s may c l a r i f y t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and d e t e r m i n e t h e o r i g i n of t h e E l a t e r i t e Bar. E x t e r n a l l y and i n t e r n a l l y t h i s

s a n d s t o n e body h a s s i m i l a r i t i e s o f d i m e n s i o n s and a p p a r e n t d e p o s i t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t t o t h o s e of t h e North S e a s a n d r i d g e s d e s c r i b e d by Houbolt (1968)

.
The p o t e n t i a l o f t i d a l c u r r e n t sand r i d g e s as r e s e r v o i r s f o r o i l

and g a s h a s b e e n p o i n t e d o u t by Houbolt (1968, p . 2 6 4 ) w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o m a r i n e t r a n s g r e s s i v e s i t u a t i o n s where l a r g e , t h i c k and e l o n g a t e d s a n d b o d i e s c a n b e formed. He s a y s , "These s a n d b o d i e s w i l l c o n s i s t of c l e a n ,

271

w e l l - s o r t e d s a n d , w i t h o u t a v e r t i c a l g r a d a t i o n i n g r a i n s i z e and w i l l be o v e r l a i n by c l a y e y marine s e d i m e n t s i f t h e t r a n s g r e s s i o n c o n t i n u e s . Hence t h e y w i l l form e x c e l l e n t r e s e r v o i r s f o r o i l " . To i l l u s t r a t e h i s

p o i n t h e c i t e s t h e Well Bank, one of t h e l a r g e t i d a l c u r r e n t r i d g e s i n t h e North Sea.

Assuming t h a t t h i s s a n d body h a s a p o r o s i t y o f 30%, t h e

p o r e space b e i n g c o m p l e t e l y f i l l e d w i t h o i l , and t h a t 20% of t h e o i l can b e r e c o v e r e d , h e estimates t h a t t h e body c o u l d y i e l d 950 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s

(151 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t e r s ) of o i l .

This i s a t h e o r e t i c a l consideration but

i l l u s t r a t e s t h e p o s s i b l e p o t e n t i a l of s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s h a v i n g s i m i l a r dimensions and good p o r o s i t y - p e r m e a b i l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

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Chapter 8

ALLUVIAL FANS AND SHEETS

Introduction

Geomorphology A l l u v i a l f a n s and s h e e t s are composed of g r a v e l , s a n d , and s i l t d e r i v e d as d e t r i t u s from t h e r a p i d e r o s i o n o f a n u p l i f t e d c r u s t a l b e l t o r b l o c k t h a t i s commonly bounded by an a c t i v e f a u l t . The s u r f a c e e x p r e s s i o n

of c o a l e s c i n g f a n s and s h e e t s , f e d by v a l l e y s d i s s e c t i n g t h e u p l i f t e d b l o c k ( F i g . 8-1), i s s e e n as a pediment o r a l l u v i a l p l a i n . I n t h e sub-

s u r f a c e f a n s commonly merge t o form a wedge of sediment s e v e r a l thousand f e e t t h i c k , whereas s h e e t s are v e r y much t h i n n e r and more widespread. Where s u c h f a n s are formed i n a s e m i - d e s e r t environment, p a r t i c u l a r l y where b l o c k f a u l t i n g movements of t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t have formed a b a s i n and range topography, g r e a t t h i c k n e s s e s of accumulated f a n s , commonly exceeding

3,000 m, b u t i n p l a c e s up t o 8,000 m ( C r o w e l l , 1954) are known t o e x i s t .

B u l l (1972, p. 63) d e f i n e s a l l u v i a l f a n d e p o s i t s as f o l l o w s , "Fans c o n s i s t

of w a t e r - l a i d s e d i m e n t s , d e b r i s - f l o w d e p o s i t s , o r b o t h .

Water-laid Entrenched

s e d i m e n t s o c c u r as c h a n n e l , s h e e t f l o o d , o r s e i v e d e p o s i t s .

stream c h a n n e l s commonly a r e b a c k f i l l e d w i t h g r a v e l t h a t may b e i m b r i c a t e d ,

m a s s i v e , o r t h i c k bedded.

Braided s h e e t s of f i n e r - g r a i n e d s e d i m e n t s

d e p o s i t e d downslope from t h e c h a n n e l may b e cross-bedded, massive, lamina t e d , o r t h i c k bedded. gravel". S e i v e d e p o s i t s a r e o v e r l a p p i n g l o b e s of permeable

Leopold, Wolman, and M i l l e r (1964) d e s c r i b e a n a l l u v i a l f a n They s a y t h a t w i t h i n h a l f a

f l a n k i n g t h e S a n d i a Mountains, New Mexico.

m i l e of t h e mountain f r o n t , which i s bonnded by a normal f a u l t , w e l l s

p e n e t r a t e d 10-30 m of s a n d and g r a v e l o v e r l y i n g g r a n i t e , whereas w e l l s

274

F i g . 8-1.

Sketch of c o a l e s c i n g a l l u v i a l f a n s , showing o r i g i n a l d e p o s i t i o n a l s l o p e s ( S e c t i o n s A-A' Blanc, 1972). and B-B'). ( A f t e r Le

215
d r i l l e d o n l y a s h o r t d i s t a n c e f a r t h e r from t h e mountains p e n e t r a t e d more t h a n 100 m of s a n d and g r a v e l , i n d i c a t i n g a r a p i d t h i c k e n n i n g of t h e a l l u v i a l wedge. F a r t h e r from t h e s o u r c e , b o t h f a n and s h e e t g r a v e l s and

s a n d s become t r a n s i t i o n a l w i t h r i v e r and l a k e s a n d s , s i l t s , and muds ( F i g . 8-2), o r w i t h marine s e d i m e n t s where t h e pediment s l o p e s down t o t h e s e a . The middle t o lower s l o p e s of a l l u v i a l f a n s and s h e e t s are commonly remarkable f o r t h e i r b r a i d e d s t r z a m d e p o s i t s which c h a r a c t e r i z e d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n s h e a v i l y l a d e n w i t h sediment. S e l l e y (1970, p . 24) s a y s , "Many

p r e s e n t - d a y b r a i d e d r i v e r s are found on piedmont f a n s a t t h e edge of mountains where t h e r e are l a r g e amounts of sediment and d i s c h a r g e i s o f t e n , b u t not always, seasonal. Examples have been d e s c r i b e d from t h e h o t and from t h e p e r i g l a c i a l mountains of

d e s e r t s of t h e mid w e s t of U . S . A .

FEET

5
MILES

KM

F i g . 8-2.

S e c t i o n of an a l l u v i a l f a n (1) g r a d i n g i n t o r i v e r d e p o s i t s

(2) and o v e r l y i n g P l e i s t o c e n e l a k e c l a y s ( 3 ) i n a v a l l e y
f l a n k i n g t h e Sierra Nevada mountains of C a l i f o r n i a . from B u l l , 1972 a f t e r Magleby and K l e i n , 1965). (Redrawn

276
t h e Yukon i n Canada (e.g. B l i s s e n b a c h , 1954, and Williams and Rust, 1969). I n t h e s e r e g i o n s e r o s i o n i s r a p i d , d i s c h a r g e i s s p o r a d i c and h i g h , and t h e r e i s l i t t l e vegetation t o hinder runoff. r i v e r s a r e g e n e r a l l y overloaded w i t h sediment. c u t t h a n i t chokes i n i t s own d e t r i t u s . Because of t h e s e f a c t o r s

A channel i s no sooner

This i s dumped a s b a r s i n t h e Repeated

c e n t r e of t h e channel around which two new channels a r e d i v e r t e d .

b a r formation and channel branching g e n e r a t e s a network of b r a i d e d channels over t h e whole d e p o s i t i o n a l a r e a . Thus t h e alluvium of b r a i d e d r i v e r s i s

t y p i c a l l y composed of sand and g r a v e l channel d e p o s i t s t o t h e e x c l u s i o n of f i n e - g r a i n e d overbank s i l t s and c l a y s . Due t o r e p e a t e d channel s w i t c h i n g

and f l u c t u a t i n g d i s c h a r g e t h e r e i s g e n e r a l l y an absence of l a t e r a l l y e x t e n s i v e c y c l i c sequences s i m i l a r t o t h o s e produced by meandering channels. Fining-upward g r a v e l , s a n d , s i l t sequences have been recorded however and

a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o waning c u r r e n t v e l o c i t i e s a s a channel i s g r a d u a l l y i n f i l l e d ( W i l l i a m and R u s t , 1969)".

The term f a n r e f e r s t o t h e topographic shape of an accumulakion of sediment d i s c h a r g e d on t h e g e n t l e s l o p e of a pediment (commonly 2-3 d e g r e e s ) from a narrow v a l l e y c u t t i n g i n t o an a d j a c e n t range of h i l l s o r mountains. The d i s t a l p o r t i o n s of f a n s merge down t h e s l o p e t o form s h e e t s of sediment which a r e g e n e r a l l y f i n e r g r a i n e d than t h o s e d e p o s i t e d c l o s e r t o t h e mountains. Fans a r e b u i l t up by an accumulation of l a y e r s of sediment The d e p o s i t

d e p o s i t e d l a r g e l y a s s e a s o n a l outwash d u r i n g r a i n y p e r i o d s .

consequently progrades i n t o t h e v a l l e y , which may be a broad topographic feature. The s u b s u r f a c e c o n f i g u r a t i o n of a f a n d e p o s i t i s somewhat l i n e a r ,

It i s a l s o wedge-

i t having been d e p o s i t e d a l o n g t h e f l a n k of a v a l l e y .

-shaped t o l e n t i c u l a r ( B u l l , 1972). run-off,

V a r i a t i o n s i n t h e r a t e s of s e a s o n a l

and t e c t o n i c i n f l u e n c e s such a s f a u l t movements of t h e v a l l e y

f l o o r o r f l a n k s w i l l i n f l u e n c e t h e development of t h e a l l u v i a l wedge. I n d i v i d u a l l a y e r s , which grade from c o a r s e r t o f i n e r away from t h e mountains,

271 and which may a l s o show g r a i n g r a d a t i o n from c o a r s e r below t o f i n e r above, w i l l n o t have any r e g u l a r sequence w i t h r e s p e c t t o one a n o t h e r . Layers of

c o a r s e g r a v e l may o v e r l i e l a y e r s of sand and g r i t , and t h e l a y e r s thems e l v e s may t h i c k e n and t h i n t o such an e x t e n t t h a t they a r e i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e

as s t r a t i g r a p h i c u n i t s .

Whether o r n o t such l a y e r s can b e t r a c e d l a t e r a l l y

depends l a r g e l y on t h e l i n e of s e c t i o n t a k e n , and on t h e geometry of t h e a l l u v i a l f a n body. A s p o i n t e d o u t by B u l l (1972), i n d i v i d u a l beds may b e

t r a c e d f o r l o n g d i s t a n c e s a l o n g r a d i a l s e c t i o n s , b u t along cross-fan s e c t i o n s t h e beds appear t o be l e n t i c u l a r and a r e commonly c u t by channels. These channels a r e most common n e a r t h e apex of t h e a l l u v i a l f a n body, whereas i n t h e d i s t a l p a r t s , away from t h e s o u r c e of t h e sediment, t h e l a y e r s a r e more s h e e t - l i k e . The t o t a l s e c t i o n of sediment i n an a l l u v i a l

f a n body may appear i n t h e s u b s u r f a c e , and p o s s i b l y a l s o i n o u t c r o p , a s a s i n g l e u n i t comprising p o o r l y s o r t e d , u n s e q u e n t i a l l a y e r s and l e n s e s of g r a v e l , s a n d , and s i l t . E-log C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s A l l u v i a l f a n d e p o s i t s c o n s i s t l a r g e l y of poorly s o r t e d c l a s t i c s d e p o s i t e d by d r a i n a g e systems t h a t commonly form b r a i d e d s t r e a m s , b u t which may a l s o d i s c h a r g e t h e i r sediment l o a d s d u r i n g i n t e r m i t t e n t p e r i o d s
of s h e e t run-off.

Consequently, t h e s e sediments accumulate r a p i d l y t o

form t h i c k s e c t i o n s of superimposed l a y e r s and l e n s e s , each of which may have no g r a i n g r a d a t i o n o r may show some degree of g r a d a t i o n from c o a r s e r below t o f i n e r above. Where p r e s e n t , i n an i n d i v i d u a l l a y e r o r l e n s , g r a i n curve,

g r a d a t i o n may be r e f l e c t e d i n t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e s e l f - p o t e n t i a l i n d i c a t e d by a p o o r l y d e f i n e d bell-shape.

Superimposed one on t h e o t h e r , curve t h a t show no

o r i n t e r c a l a t e d w i t h p o r t i o n s of t h e s e l f - p o t e n t i a l

meaningful c h a r a c t e r , t h e o v e r - a l l c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e E-log may i n d i c a t e merely a t h i c k s e c t i o n of p o o r l y d e f i n e d l a y e r s .

In t h i s r e s p e c t , where

t h e s e c t i o n i s s e v e r a l hundred f e e t t h i c k , t h e r e may b e s i m i l a r i t i e s

278
between t h e E-logs of a l l u v i a l f a n and t u r b i d i t y c u r r e n t d e p o s i t s .

In

g e n e r a l , t h e E-log s e l f - p o t e n t i a l of an a l l u v i a l f a n d e p o s i t tends t o be blocky and s e r r a t e d . Compaction Wedges of c l a s t i c sediments accumulating a l o n g a s i n k i n g trough u n d e r l a i n by a graben complex, o r p i l i n g up a l o n g t h e f l a n k of an u p t h r u s t i n g range of mountains, a r e r e l a t i v e l y uncompactible and s o r e t a i n t o a l a r g e degree t h e i r o r i g i n a l shape a f t e r b u r i a l . Essentially, a l l u v i a l fan

d e p o s i t s a r e f l a t on t h e t o p and markedly b u t i r r e g u l a r l y concave a t t h e base. The d e p o s i t s a r e always f l a n k e d on one s i d e by o l d e r rock which i s

probably i n l a r g e p a r t t h e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l f o r t h e d e p o s i t , and may a l s o b e u n d e r l a i n by a l l u v i a l and l a c u s t r i n e sediments.

In some a r e a s where t h e

u p l i f t e d b e l t of mountains i s f l a n k e d by a marine c o a s t l i n e , o r where t h e b e l t f l a n k s a v a l l e y invaded by t h e s e a , t h e a l l u v i a l f a n d e p o s i t may o v e r l i e and merge l a t e r a l l y i n t o marine c a r b o n a t e o r non-carbonate sediments. Depending on t h e n a t u r e of t h e b a s e on which an h l l u v i a l f a n

i s d e p o s i t e d , subsequent compaction w i l l modify t h e shape of t h e f a n which

n e v e r t h e l e s s r e t a i n i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of b e i n g r e g u l a r a t t h e t o p and i r r e g u l a r a t t h e base. The choice of a datum f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g a c r o s s

s e c t i o n consequently l i e s i n t h e sequence of beds immediately o v e r l y i n g the a l l u v i a l fan deposit. The o r i g i n a l p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y of a l l u v i a l f a n sediments i s e x c e l l e n t , and s u r f a c e w a t e r permeates downward s o r a p i d l y t h a t only t h e lowermost beds a r e water-bearing. With r e f e r e n c e t o a l l u v i a l f a n d e p o s i t s

f l a n k i n g t h e Sandia Mountains, New Mexico, Leopold, Wolman, and M i l l e r

(1964) s t a t e t h a t i n b o r e s d r i l l e d n e a r t h e base of t h e mountain range

w a t e r i s u s u a l l y o b t a i n e d from t h e t h i n edge of t h e a l l u v i a l f a n d e p o s i t , c o n s i s t i n g of g r a v e l l y i n g on t h e rock of which t h e range i s composed.

In

279 b o r e s d r i l l e d s l i g h t l y f a r t h e r from t h e r a n g e , where s e v e r a l hundred f e e t of a l l u v i a l f a n sand and g r a v e l w e r e p e n e t r a t e d , t h e s e d i m e n t s a r e d r y . Compaction, w i t h i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e , d e c r e a s e s t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e l i t h i c c l a s t i c s which are much more r e a d i l y a l t e r e d than quartzose sands. A l t e r a t i o n s are e f f e c t e d by m e c h a n i c a l l y f r a c t u r i n g

t h e g r a i n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e of rock f r a g m e n t s , f e l d s p a r s , and t h e f e r r o magnesian m i n e r a l s , by d i a g e n e t i c a l t e r a t i o n of t h e m i n e r a l c o n s t i t u e n t s t o form c l a y m i n e r a l s which p a r t i a l l y p l u g t h e p o r e space, and by cementa t i o n of t h e g r a i n s w i t h c a l c i t e , i r o n o x i d e and o t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t s d e p o s i t e d by c i r c u l a t i n g w a t e r . The e f f e c t on water movements w i t h i n

deeply buried a l l u v i a l fan deposits i s t o decrease t h e v e r t i c a l permeability and t o d e v e l o p t r e n d s of r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r p e r m e a b i l i t y a l o n g d e p o s i t i o n a l and l a t e r a l l y d i r e c t i o n a l f e a t u r e s such as c h a n n e l s .

k c i e n t Sand Bodies Examples of a n c i e n t a l l u v i a l f a n d e p o s i t s are n o t common, b u t some have been d e s c r i b e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e . O t h e r d e p o s i t s , which p r o b a b l y are

a l l u v i a l f a n s , have been d e s c r i b e d b u t n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y d e f i n e d , as t o t h e i r origin. S e l l e y (1970, p . 3 0 ) , based on S e l l e y (1965), d e s c r i b e s Precambrian "The c o a r s e g r a i n

a l l u v i a l f a n d e p o s i t s i n n o r t h w e s t S c o t l a n d as f o l l o w s .

s i z e , a n g u l a r i t y , poor s o r t i n g , and p e t r o g r a p h y of t h e b a s a l f a c i e s d e p o s i t s c l e a r l y show t h a t t h e y were d e r i v e d l o c a l l y from t h e Lewisian g n e i s s . Their

geometry and t h e r a d i a t i n g d e p o s i t i o n a l d i p s l e a v e s l i t t l e doubt t h a t t h e y

are a n c i e n t piedmont f a n s .

D e p o s i t i o n w a s p r o b a b l y due t o a v a l a n c h e s , mud-

f l o w s , and s h e e t f l o o d s s u c h as o c c u r on s t e e p s l o p e s n e a r t h e a p i c e s o f Recent f a n s f e . g . Blackwelder, 1928)". S e v e r a l samples, which may i n p a r t Some of t h e s e

b e of a l l u v i a l f a n o r i g i n , are mentioned by S e l l e y (1970).

a r e s e q u e n c e s , many hundreds of metres t h i c k , which show a l a t e r a l t r a n s i t i o n from b r a i d e d s t r e a m d e p o s i t s n e a r t h e i r s o u r c e t o f l u v i a l sediments

d e p o s i t e d i n a meandering stream s y s t e m , o r t o l a c u s t r i n e s e d i m e n t s . O t h e r s c o n s t i t u t e w i d e s p r e a d b u t c o m p a r a t i v e l y t h i n (more t h a n 100 m) s h e e t s of conglomeratic sandstone. These examples, i n v a r i o u s p a r t s of

t h e w o r l d , r a n g e i n a g e from t h e Precambrian t o t h e Cenozoic. Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t , b e c a u s e l o c a l l y t h e y form r e s e r v o i r s f o r p e t r o l e u m , are L a t e P a l e o z o i c t o Mesozoic a l l u v i a l f a n and s h e e t d e p o s i t s i n North A f r i c a . Sandsfone. These have c o l l e c t i v e l y been r e f e r r e d t o as t h e Nubia

C o n s i d e r a b l e c o n f u s i o n e x i s t s i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e on t h e Nubia The term, used a t v a r i o u s l o c a l i t i e s i n

S a n d s t o n e (Pomeyrol, 1968).

North A f r i c a , i n c l u d e s b e d s r a n g i n g from C a r b o n i f e r o u s t o E a r l y C r e t a c e o u s . Beds r e f e r r e d t o as Nubia S a n d s t o n e (sensu stricto) are p r e d o m i n a n t l y of

t e r r e s t r i a l and f r e s h - w a t e r

o r i g i n , a l t h o u g h some s t r a t i g r a p h i c sequences

which have been l o o s e l y r e f e r r e d t o as Nubia i n c l u d e b e d s w i t h m a r i n e fossils. McKee (1963) s t u d i e d t h e sequence and t y p e s of s e d i m e n t a r y

s t r u c t u r e s w i t h i n b e d s r e f e r r e d t o as Nubia and concluded t h a t t h e y were d e p o s i t e d i n f l u v i a t i l e , l a c u s t r i n e , e s t u a r i n e and l a g o o n a l environments on a b r o a d c o n t i n e n t a l p l a i n t h a t w a s c o n t i n u a l l y b u t i r r e g u l a r l y subsiding. Such b e d s o f t e r r e s t r i a l o r i g i n o c c u r around t h e margins o f t h e They have an e x t e n s i v e d i s t r i b -

Saharan and Arabian Precambrian S h i e l d s .

u t i o n and are n o t e d f o r c r o s s - b e d d i n g o f t h e t y p e found i n b r a i d e d stream deposits. S e l l e y (1970) advanced t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a f t e r views e x p r e s s e d

by S t o k e s (1950) and W i l l i a m s (1969) w i t h r e s p e c t t o b e d s i n o t h e r p a r t s of t h e w o r l d , t h c t t h e s e d e p o s i t s were l a i d down as piedmont f a n s formed of d e t r i t u s d e r i v e d from t h e e r o s i o n o f r e t r e a t i n g s c a r p s of o l d e r b e d s o f s a n d s t o n e and conglomerate.

In t h e S i r t e B a s i n , L i b y a , v a s t q u a n t i t i e s of t e r r i g e n o u s c l a s t i c s
were d e r i v e d from t h e e r o s i o n o f a Precambrian m a s s i f t o t h e s o u t h .
c l a s t i c s are mentioned by Conant and Goudarzi (1967, p. 7 2 1 ) who s a y , "Widespread o v e r s o u t h e r n Libya i s a t h i c k sequence o f c o n t i n e n t a l b e d s These

281
UM SAHM FMN. ( marine shelf sand )

DlSl A L L U V I A L FAN

THIRD

RETREATING

SCARP

ISHRIN A L L U V I A L FAN

G \
f r ,

SECOND

RETREATING

SCARP

, ' 1
0 - . 0 '

S A L E 8 A L L U V I A L FAN

\r,
t + + + + + + ~ ++ + t + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
FIRST RETREATING SCARP

I'.'.'.~I
.

. . .

..

..... ,

. . . . . . , . , . ,.

PRECAMBRIAN

F i g . 8-3.

Cambro-Ordovician s e c t i o n i n Jordan showing o r i g i n as

on-lapping a l l u v i a l fans r e s u l t i n g f r o m repeated u p l i f t and

pedimentation.

( A f t e r Selley,

1970).

282
l o n g known a s t h e Nubian Sandstone, which i s a l s o p r e s e n t i n much of n o r t h e a s t e r n A f r i c a and t h e Arabian P e n i n s u l a , though l o c a l l y known by d i f f e r e n t names". S e l l e y (1970) d e s c r i b e s Cambro-Ordovician c o n g l o m e r a t i c

s a n d s t o n e beds i n J o r d a n (Fig. 8-3) which, h e s a y s , are s i m i l a r i n l i t h o l o g y and sequence of s e d i m e n t a r y s t r u c t u r e s t o t e r r e s t r i a l beds of t h e Nubia Sandstone i n Egypt. The beds i n J o r d a n , comprising a t h i c k n e s s of

700 m of c o a r s e , cross-bedded a l l u v i a l s a n d s t o n e s , a r e b e l i e v e d t o have been l a i d down by b r a i d e d streams f l o w i n g o v e r a c o a l e s c i n g complex of b r o a d , i m b r i c a t e d a l l u v i a l f a n s t h a t formed a piedmont p l a i n . T h i s sequence of

beds rests on t h e Precambrian igneous basement and i s o v e r l a i n by s a n d s t o n e d e p o s i t e d as marine s h o r e l i n e s a n d s .

O i l and Gas F i e l d s

Lower C r e t a c e o u s s a n d s t o n e s i n t h e S i r t e B a s i n , Libya, r e f e r r e d t o by Conant and Goudarzi (1967) as Nubian Sandstone, and a l i t h o l o g i c a l l y

s i m i l a r sequence of non-marine C a r b o n i f e r o u s s a n d s t o n e s i n t h e Gul'f of

Suez r e g i o n of t h e United Arab R e p u b l i c , a l s o r e f e r r e d t o as Nuhian by Weeks (1952) c o n t a i n o i l i n s t r u c t u r a l - s t r a t i g r a p h i c traps. S e l l e y (1970,

p . 47) r e f e r s t o t h e s e o i l a c c u m u l a t i o n s i n t h e S i r t e Basin as f o l l o w s , "Here Lower C r e t a c e o u s a l l u v i a l f a n s are banked a g a i n s t an i r r e g u l a r (? f a u l t e d ) basement topography. Cenomanian t r a n s g r e s s i o n . They were b u r i e d by marine s h a l e s of t h e

Where s t r u c t u r a l l y h i g h r e l a t i v e t o t h e s h a l e s ,

t h e s e f a n d e p o s i t s , s t i l l l a r g e l y uncemented, c o n t a i n some i n t e r e s t i n g o i l fields". I n t h e e a s t e r n embayment of t h e S i r t e Basin d e p o s i t i o n of t h e s e

a l l u v i a l f a n d e p o s i t s w a s penecontemporaneous w i t h s u b s i d e n c e and b l o c k faulting. Conant and Goudarzi (19673 s t a t e t h a t o i l accumulations i n t h e s e

m.

Lower C r e t a c e o u s beds are a t d e p t h s i n t h e range 2,700-4,300

I n t h e Gulf

of Suez r e g i o n t h e o i l a c c u m u l a t i o n s are i n C a r b o n i f e r o u s s a n d s t o n e where t h e up-dip edges of t h e s a n d s t o n e form f a u l t s c a r p s o v e r l a i n by Miocene

283
marine mudstone.
I t i s of i n t e r e s t t o n o t e t h a t in b o t h t h e S i r t e B a s i n

and t h e Gulf of Suez r e g i o n , where i n t h e former a r e a t h e accumulations may be essentially stratigraphic-structural and i n t h e l a t t e r are c e r t a i n l y

s t r u c t u r a l , t h e r e s e r v o i r beds o f a l l u v i a l f a n d e p o s i t s are o v e r l a i n by marine s h a l e s o r mudstone. The g e n e r a l i t y can b e s t a t e d t h a t where a l l u v i a l

f a n d e p o s i t s are o v e r l a i n by marine t r a n s g r e s s i v e s e d i m e n t s , t r a p s f o r p e t r o l e u m can occur w i t h i n them, depending l a r g e l y on t h e p r e s e n c e of structural closure. This t y p e of s t r a t i g r a p h i c - d e p o s i t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n may

a r i s e where an u p t h r u s t b l o c k of t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t forms a b e l t of mountains

a d j a c e n t and p a r a l l e l t o a marine c o a s t l i n e , o r where a v a l l e y , f l a n k e d by a l l u v i a l f a n s d e r i v e d from a d j a c e n t mountains, and u n d e r l a i n by an a c t i v e l y s i n k i n g graben complex, i s f l o o d e d by a t r a n s g r e s s i n g sea.

Where t h e

a l l u v i a l f a n d e p o s i t s are o v e r l a i n by marine mudstones, which may be c a l c a r e o u s , t h e p e t r o l e u m g e n e r a t e d i n t h e marine beds and t r a p p e d i n t h e a l l u v i a l f a n d e p o s i t s may c o n s i s t of b o t h o i l and p e t r o l i f e r o u s gas. where t h e o v e r l y i n g beds are n o t a b l y carbonaceous, h a v i n g formed i n a c o a s t a l swamp t o r i v e r backswamp environment, t h e hydrocarbons g e n e r a t e d But

are more l i k e l y t o predominantly c o n s i s t of n a t u r a l gas.

I n Libya, v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o d u c t i o n of o i l i s o b t a i n e d from C r e t a c e o u s s a n d s t o n e s which g e n e r a l l y are r e f e r r e d t o as Nubian. Lador

(1971) g i v e s f i g u r e s f o r t h e c u m u l a t i v e p r o d u c t i o n of o i l , t o 1971, from

a number of f i e l d s , a l l o f which have been b r o u g h t on stream s i n c e t h e

e a r l y 1960's. the Cretaceous.

These f i e l d s are p r o d u c i n g e i t h e r e x c l u s i v e l y o r mainly from

The Z e l t e n F i e l d h a s a c u m u l a t i v e p r o d u c t i o n of approximately

1,000 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (159 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) from Cretaceous and Paleocene

b e d s ; t h e S a r i r F i e l d h a s a c u m u l a t i v e p r o d u c t i o n of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 380 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (60 m i l l i o n c u b i c metres) from Upper C r e t a c e o u s b e d s ; and t h e Waha F i e l d has a cumulative p r o d u c t i o n of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 300 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s ( 4 8 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) from Cretaceous and Eocene b e d s . A l l of

284 t h e o t h e r f i e l d s p r o d u c i n g from t h e C r e t a c e o u s have a c u m u l a t i v e p r o d u c t i o n of 320 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (51 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) . Dor, K o t l a , Magid, Mansour, L-65, Samah. These f i e l d s i n c l u d e t h e

J e b e l , Lehib, Ora, Bahi, B e 1 Hedan, and

The t o t a l c u m u l a t i v e p r o d u c t i o n of a l l t h e s e f i e l d s , t o 1971, amounts

t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2,000 m i l l i o n b a r r e l s (218 m i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) of l i g h t gravity o i l .

A new d i s c o v e r y mentioned by Lador (1971), which i s s i t u a t e d

some 16 km s o u t h w e s t of t h e Z e l t e n F i e l d , y i e l d e d a flow of 4 9 O A . P . I .

oil,

a t r a t e s up t o 1,000 b a r r e l s p e r day, from a s a n d s t o n e a t a d e p t h of about

3,350 m.

Lador r e f e r s t o t h i s s a n d s t o n e as Nubian.

285
Chapter 9

EOLIAN SAND

Introduction

Geomorphology E o l i a n s a n d s a c c u m u l a t e on a l a n d s u r f a c e t h a t may b e p r e s e r v e d as an unconformity o r a disconformity i n t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c record. Discon-

t i n u i t y may b e p r o f o u n d as i n t h e case of a w i d e s p r e a d d e s e r t , o r of v e r y minor s i g n i f i c a n c e a s i n t h e c a s e of s a n d d u n e s formed i n r i v e r p o i n t b a r s o r m a r i n e and l a c u s t r i n e s h o r e l i n e d e p o s i t s .

I n d e s e r t s where sand

dunes are f o r m i n g , t h e s a n d i s i n i t i a l l y d e r i v e d from areas o f d e f l a t i o n , n o t e d f o r t h e i r l a g d e p o s i t s o f s a n d - b l a s t e d p e b b l e s o r f r o n t h e wind-swept beaches of a c o a s t a l environment. Sand i s s e c o n d a r i l y d e r i v e d from t h e

c o n t i n u a l s h i f t i n g o f t h e s a n d dunes t h e m s e l v e s . Sand dunes e x h i b i t a v a r i e t y o f s h a p e s which h a v e b e e n v a r i o u s l y c l a s s i f i e d ( P e t t i j o h n , P o t t e r , and S i e v e r , 1972) w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o p h y s i c a l p a r a m e t e r s , s u c h as volume o f sand s u p p l y and v e l o c i t y of wind, which have d e t e r m i n e d o r i n f l u e n c e d t h e i r morphology. But a l l s u c h dunes are c h a r a c (Fig. 9-1)

t e r i z e d by l a r g e a m p l i t u d e , h i g h a n g l e (> 3 0 " ) , sweeping c r o s s - b e d s These f e a t u r e s h a v e been d e s c r i b e d by McKee (1966). S e t s o f c r o s s - b e d s , p i l e d o n e on t h e o t h e r , a r e known t o form a c c u m u l a t i o n s s e v e r a l hundred f e e t t h i c k .

The b a s e of s u c h a n a c c u m u l a t i o n poorly sorted,

may b e a s h e e t of h o r i z o n t a l l y bedded, c o a r s e r - g r a i n e d , p e b b l y s a n d o v e r - r i d d e n by a moving f r o n t o f dunes.

Such s a n d s h e e t s are The

formed by d e f l a t i o n o f t h e d e s e r t s u r f a c e and c a n c o v e r v a s t areas.

s a n d removed i s b o r n e b y t h e wind and d e p o s i t e d on dunes which may i n t u r n m i g r a t e o v e r some o t h e r area o f t h e sand s h e e t . Reineck and Singh (1973,

286
Detail of asymmetrical trough, Side trench

SE
feet

NW

5Mmn trench

fl0

1 0

IS

20 Ice1

Main trench, Norlh wall

SW

NE

feet

-LO

.30

- 20
10

isa

feet ILO

130

120

110

IOO

90

80

7 0

60

50

LO

30

20

10

- Hoiindlng iurfoce
F i g . 9-1.

Selected c r o ~ 5 - 5 i i o i u n i

28" Apparent dip

I n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e o f a s a n d dune a t White Sands N a t i o n a l Monument, New Mexico, showing a SW-NE s e c t i o n i n t h e

I

d i r e c t i o n of s a n d t r a n s p o r t , and a SE-NW t r a n s v e r s e s e c t i o n . ( A f t e r McKee, 1966).

p . 196) d e s c r i b e s u c h s h e e t s i n p r e s e n t day d e s e r t s a s f o l l o w s , "Sand s h e e t s a r e u s u a l l y v e r y l a r g e areas o f d e s e r t c o u n t r y , more o r less f l a t i n nature. S l i g h t u n d u l a t i o n s o r s m a l l d u n e - l i k e f e a t u r e s may b e p r e s e n t .

The s u r f a c e r a r e l y shows s u c h f e a t u r e s as wind s a n d r i p p l e s o r wind granule ripples. However, d u r i n g s t o r m s s a n d s t r i p s commonly d e v e l o p The s u r f a c e of s a n d s h e e t s i s s p r i n k l e d w i t h c o a r s e r I n t e r n a l l y a s a n d s h e e t i s made up of h o r i z o n t a l l y Such e v e n l y

( c f . Bagnold, 1954). sediments

pebbles.

bedded sand l a y e r s s e p a r a t e d b y s i n g l e l a y e r s o f p e b b l e s .

l a m i n a t e d s a n d ( h o r i z o n t a l l y bedded s a n d ) i s a l s o a common t y p e o f

281

bedding i n i n t e r d u n e a r e a s " .

And f u r t h e r , "There a r e v a s t a r e a s of sand Such sand s h e e t s

s h e e t s known which a r e devoid of any k i n d o f p e b b l e s .

are made up of w e l l - s o r t e d a e o l i a n s a n d w i t h well-developed h o r i z o n t a l l y

l a m i n a t e d sand.

A combination of r a p i d s e d i m e n t a t i o n , h i g h wind v e l o c i t i e s ,

and f a i r l y uniform g r a i n s i z e of t h e sand cause d e p o s i t i o n of s h e e t sand w i t h an a b u n d a n t l y developed e v e n l y l a m i n a t e d sand bedding ( c f . Bagnold, 1954; G l e n n i e , 1970)

."

Reineck and Singh (1974, p . 212) a f t e r Glennie (1970) l i s t t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of wind-deposited s a n d s .

1.

Bedding can be h o r i z o n t a l b u t u s u a l l y e x h i b i t s l a r g e - s c a l e c r o s s -bedding, showing f a i r l y c o n s t a n t o r i e n t a t i o n .

2.

I n d i v i d u a l laminae are w e l l s o r t e d , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e f i n e r g r a i n s i z e s ; s h a r p g r a i n s i z e d i f f e r e n c e s between lamlnae a r e common.

3.

G r a i n s i z e s commonly r a n g e s from s i l t t o c o a r s e sand.

Maximum s i z e

f o r g r a n u l e s and s m a l l p e b b l e s t r a n s p o r t e d by wind i s i n t h e o r d e r m i n diameter are,rare. of 1 cm, b u t p a r t i c l e s exceeding 5 m

4.
5.
6.

The l a r g e r sand g r a i n s 0.5 Clay d r a p e s are rare. Sands a r e f r e e of c l a y .

1.0 mm) t e n d t o b e w e l l rounded.

7.
8.

Uncemented q u a r t z g r a i n s e x h i b i t a f r o s t e d s u r f a c e . Mica i s commonly a b s e n t .

E-log C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Sand dunes t h a t have been p r e s e r v e d i n a sequence of marine o r l a c u s t r i n e s h o r e l i n e s a n d s , o r i n r i v e r p o i n t b a r d e p o s i t s , commonly appear t o be lacking i n s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . Close examination may i n d i c a t e

t h a t t h e dune d e p o s i t i s i n f a c t cross-bedded, b u t t h a t i t s e q u i d i m e n s i o n a l g r a i n s i z e t e n d s t o mask t h e laminae. I n o t h e r dunes, a d j a c e n t laminae may

b e r e a d i l y a p p a r e n t where t h e y e x h i b i t a marked d e g r e e o f v a r i a t i o n i n

grain size.

But w i t h i n t h e dune as a whole t h e r e i s commonly l i t t l e A l s o , t h e r e is l i t t l e

v a r i a t i o n i n mean g r a i n s i z e from t o p t o bottom.

i n t e r g r a n u l a r material, t h e s a n d s b e i n g c l e a n and v e r y w e l l s o r t e d . Winnowing by t h e wind, r e p e a t e d c o n t i n u a l l y , r e s u l t s i n t h e s e g r e g a t i o n of s a n d s i n t o accumulations of Yrarious b u t c o n s i s t e n t r a n g e s i n g r a i n s i z e . Subsequent c y c l e s of winnowing, caused by a change of c l i m a t e o r wind p a t t e r n , may r e s u l t i n t h e development of younger o v e r - r i d i n g dunes composed of s a n d w i t h a d i f f e r e n t mean g r a i n s i z e . Consequently, a n accumulation of

s a n d d u n e s , t h a t may be more t h a n 100 m t h i c k , w i l l have a c o n s i s t e n t mean g r a i n s i z e w i t h i n e a c h i n d i v i d u a l dune, b u t may show v a r i a t i o n s , between dunes. The s e l f - p o t e n t i a l c u r v e r e f l e c t i n g a sequence of supzrimposed

dunes w i l l b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i t s c y l i n d r i c a l s h a p e , b u t t h e c u r v e may show e i t h e r a f a i r l y c o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e , o r superimposed segments ( r e p r e s e n t i n g superimposed dunes) of d i f f e r e n t a m p l i t u d e s . Compact i o n With t h e e x c e p t i o n of s m a l l ;and dunes i n r i v e r p o i n t b a r s and s h o r e l i n e sand b o d i e s , e o l i a n s a n d s are d e p o s i t e d i n d e s e r t environments

on a l a n d s u r f a c e .

T h i s l a n d s u r f a c e may b e an unconformity, o r i t may

c l o s e l y r e p r e s e n t an h i a t u s w i t h i n an a l l u v i a l f a n o r s h e e t hundreds of feet thick.

It may a l s o r e p r e s e n t an h i a t u s i n a p a r a l i c t o i n n e r n e r i t i c

environment where a c a r b o n a t e s h e l f o r t i d a l f l a t i s exposed by a r e g r e s s i n g

sea t o form a n e x t e n s i v e c o a s t a l p l a i n t h a t s u b s e q u e n t l y i s encroached upon

by s h e e t s and dunes of sand. The e f f e c t s of compaction on i n d i v i d u a l sand

b o d i e s s u c h a s d i s c r e t e b u t composite dunes, and on sand s h e e t s o r sand beds composed of merging dunes w i l l depend on t h e s t r a t i g r a p h i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s that obtain. Where a s a n d dune, s i m p l e o r complex, l i e s on an unconformity,

o r on a t h i c k s e c t i o n composed e s s e n t i a l l y of a l l u v i a l f a n s a n d s , i t w i l l r e t a i n t o a l a r g e d e g r e e i t s o r i g i n a l s h a p e , which i s mainly p l a n a r a t t h e b a s e and convex a t t h e t o p . But where a dune o v e r l i e s compactible s e d i m e n t s ,

such as c o a s t a l d e p o s i t s of mud, i t s o r i g i n a l p l a n a r b a s e may b e deformed

s o t h a t t h e sand body becomes hi-convex.

In t h i s c o n t e x t i t might b e

d i f f i c u l t t o d i s t i n g u i s h such a dune, s u b s e q u e n t l y b u r i e d by marine s e d i ments, from a t i d a l c u r r e n t sand body (Fig. 7 - 4 ) . D i s c r e t e e o l i a n sand b o d i e s of t h i s t y p e are t h e e x c e p t i o n , and most wind-deposited s a n d s form b e d s l y i n g on f a i r l y f l a t s u r f a c e s which have been b e v e l l e d p r i o r t o o r penecontemporaneously w i t h t h e d e p o s i t i o n of t h e o v e r l y i n g bed. Compaction of such a bed i s c o m p a r a t i v e l y uniform and does

n o t p r e s e n t problems of morphology d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e e n c o u n t e r e d i n t h e compaction of s a n d s t o n e beds of o t h e r o r i g i n s . With r e f e r e n c e t o t h e e f f e c t s of compaction on t h e p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y of e o l i a n s a n d s , t h e o r i g i n a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n composition between wind d e p o s i t e d and w a t e r - l a i n s a n d s are s i g n i f i c a n t . E o l i a n sands

are commonly, b u t n o t always, q u a r t z s a n d s .

They are of f a i r l y uniform

g r a i n s i z e , and do n o t have an a p p r e c i a b l e o r i g i n a l c o n t e n t of s i l t o r c l a y d e p o s i t e d as d u s t w i t h t h e sand. Exceptions are found i n tHe d e l t a of t h e

Rio Grande R i v e r , Texas, where dunes of e x t r e m e l y f i n e sand and s i l t a r e r e f e r r e d t o as ' c l a y d u n e s ' . D i a g e n e t i c a l t e r a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g from

compaction a f t e r b u r i a l a r e minimal i n most e o l i a n s a n d s , a l t h o u g h m e t e o r i c

waters moving through a bed of sand may c a u s e some s o l u t i o n and r e - p r e c i p i t a t i o n ( R i t t e n h o u s e , 1971) r e s u l t i n g i n p i t t i n g of t h e g r a i n s and i n t h e development of i n t e r g r a n u l a r growths of q u a r t z t h a t d e c r e a s e p o r o s i t y and permeability.
I n g e n e r a l , e o l i a n s a n d s r e t a i n much of t h e i r o r i g i n a l p o r e

s p a c e , and compaction h a s l e s s e f f e c t on them t h a n i t does on sands of other origins.

In many e o l i a n s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s t h e p o r o s i t y and permeab-

i l i t y i s f a i r l y uniform t h r o u g h o u t t h e body, a c o n d i t i o n t h a t o b t a i n s i n some marine s a n d s , but; r a r e l y i n f l u v i a l s a n d s .

290

Ancient Sand Bodies Among t h e many a n c i e n t e o l i a n sand d e p o s i t s , some c l a s t i c examples are found i n t h e J u r a s s i c Navajo Sandstone ( S t o k e s , 1961) of t h e Colorado P l a t e a u , t h e J u r a s s i c E n t r a d a Formation (Tanner, 1965) o f New Mexico, t h e T r i a s s i c BotucatCl Formation (de Almeida, 1953) of t h e Sdo Paulo area, B r a z i l , t h e Permian Coconino Sandstone (McKee, 1969) of t h e Grand Canyon, and t h e Pennsylvanian t o Permian Caspar Formation (Conybeare and Crook, 1968) of Wyoming. These s a n d s t o n e beds e x h i b i t t h e l a r g e - s c a l e , sweeping cross-beds F o s s i l s a n d s h e e t s , on t h e o t h e r hand, do n o t

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f sand dunes.

have t h e marked d i a g n o s t i c f e a t u r e s o f e o l i a n d u n e s , and c o n s e q u e n t l y have n o t been r e a d i l y r e c o g n i z e d . Beds o f a n c i e n t e o l i a n s a n d s commonly range i n t h i c k n e s s t o more t h a n

100 m.

The Navajo, which i s a h i g h l y porous medium t o f i n e - g r a i n e d q u a r t z

I t i s of i n t e r e s t t o n o t e

s a n d s t o n e ( L e s s e n t i n e , 1 9 6 5 ) , r a n g e s up t o 300 m. t h a t present-day

a c c u m u l a t i o n s of s a n d dunes i n t h e Sahara are known t o The E n t r a d a , which i s b v e r l a i n by

l o c a l l y a t t a i n a t h i c k n e s s o f 200-3C0 m.

beds of a n h y d r i t i c l i m e s t o n e , h a s an upper s a n d s t o n e member t h a t is p a r t l y of eolian origin. T h i s s a n d s t o n e i s d e s c r i b e d by P e t e r s o n

e t aZ. (1965) as
and r a n g i n g i n

m a s s i v e , orjlnge to g r e y , f r i a b l e , f i n e t o medium-grained, t h i c k n e s s up t o 150 f e e t .

They r e g a r d t h e E n t r a d a Sandstone a s a porous

and permeable b l a n k e t s a n d s t o n e t h a t forms e s s e n t i a l l y one h y d r o l o g i c u n i t . The Coconino S a n d s t o n e , which i n cross-bedded o u t c r o p s r e s e m b l e s t h e Navajo,

is d e s c r i b e d by McKee (1969) a s a w e l l - s o r t e d q u a r t z sand t h a t forms a

wedge, r a n g i n g i n t h i c k n e s s t o more t h a n 150 m , a c r o s s n o r t h e r n Arizona. McKee (1969, p. 88) d e s c r i b e s t h e Coconino a s f o l l o w s : "The most d i s t i n c t i v e s t r u c t u r e i n t h e Coconino i s t h e l a r g e - s c a l e , wedge p l a n a r c r o s s - s t r a t i f i c a t i o n t h a t i s p r o m i n e n t l y d i s p l a y e d i n t h e w h i t e c l i f f f a c e s of t h i s s a n d s t o n e throughout t h e r e g i o n (McKee, 1933). The

291 i n c l i n e d l a m i n a e , h a v i n g d i p s of as much as 34 d e g r e e s , have g e n t l y c u r v i n g s u r f a c e s t h a t i n p l a c e s are 60-70 f e e t l o n g . The b e v e l l e d upper edges of

i n d i v i d u a l sets a r e formed by low a n g l e e r o s i o n s u r f a c e s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e t h e b a s e s of h i g h e r s e t s of c r o s s - s t r a t a . Other s t r u c t u r e s t y p i c a l of t h e

Coconino are l o n g , p a r a l l e l r i p p l e marks, w i t h rounded crests and o r i e n t e d with axes p a r a l l e l t o t h e d i p slopes". The above d e s c r i p t i o n i s t y p i c a l of many o u t c r o p s of a n c i e n t e o l i a n s a n d s which form massive and m a g n i f i c e n t l y s c u l p t u r e d g e o l o g i c a l monuments i n some of t h e n a t i o n a l p a r k s of t h e U.S.A., and i n o t h e r p a r t s of t h e world.

The Botucatfi Formation, which e x t e n d s southward from B r a z i l i n t o Uruguay

and A r g e n t i n a , i s of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t b e c a u s e i t may b e , a c c o r d i n g t o Sanford and Lange (1960), t h e l a r g e s t c o n t i n u o u s e o l i a n d e p o s i t i n t h e w o r l d , c o v e r i n g an a r e a of more t h a n 1,300,000 s q . km. This formation,

which commonly r a n g e s i n t h i c k n e s s up t o 200 m b u t i s more t h a n 300 m t h i c k i n t h e SQo Paulo area, c o n s i s t s of f i n e t o medium-grained q u a r t z o s e s a n d s t o n e . The sand g r a i n s are w e l l rounded, have p i t t e d s u r f a c e s , and ?re covered w i t h a r e d f e r r u g i n o u s pigment.
A s t r i k i n g feature of t h e outcrops is t h e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e o l i a n cross-bedding s i m i l a r t o t h a t of t h e Coconino d e s c r i b e d above. The Botucatci l i e s on an unconformity and i s unconformably

o v e r l a i n by Upper T r i a s s i c v o l c a n i c s . The Botucatci h a s good p o r o s i t y and p e r m e a b i l i t y , and i n f a v o u r a b l e s t r a t i g r a p h i c and s t r u c t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s c o u l d b e a p o t e n t i a l l y a t t r a c t i v e r e s e r v o i r bed f o r o i l o r g a s . Sanford and Lange (1960, p. 1344) s a y , "In

t h e s t a t e of Sgo Paulo are l a r g e a r e a s i n which t h e s e s a n d s t o n e s are impregn a t e d w i t h r e s i d u a l a s p h a l t d e r i v e d from o i l s e e p i n g up through f a u l t s " .

O i l and Gas F i e l d s

R e f e r r i n g t o t h e economic s i g n i f i c a n c e of e o l i a n d e p o s i t s , S e l l e y

(1970, p. 63) s a y s , " E o l i a n s a n d s t o n e s are p o t e n t i a l l y of h i g h p o r o s i t y and

292
p e r m e a b i l i t y because t h e y are t y p i c a l l y well-rounded, g e n e r a l l y o n l y l i g h t l y cemented. well-sorted, and

Regional p e r m e a b i l i t y i s l i k e l y t o b e Because of t h e s e f e a t u r e s e o l i a n Selley

good due t o absence o f s h a l e i n t e r b e d s .

s a n d s t o n e s can b e i m p o r t a n t a q u i f e r s and hydrocarbon r e s d r v o i r s " .

i s o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t i n g e n e r a l e o l i a n d e p o s i t s can be r a t e d as poor
p r o s p e c t s because t h e y commonly occur w i t h i n c o n t i n e n t a l b a s i n s , although t h e s e may o v e r l i e , o r b e o v e r l a i n by a sequence of marine t o p a r a l i c s t r a t a t h a t i n c l u d e s s o u r c e beds f o r o i l o r g a s . The Lower Permian R o t l i e g e n d e s

red-beds of n o r t h w e s t Europe and t h e North Sea c o n t a i n examples of gas- b e a r i n g e o l i a n s a n d s t o n e s o v e r l y i n g s o u r c e beds. North Sea Gas F i e l d s Major gas f i e l d s producing from t h e R o t l i e g e n d e s i n t h e North Sea i n c l u d e Groningen on t h e n o r t h c o a s t of t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , and I n d e f a t i g a b l e , Leman, and West Sole i n B r i t i s h waters o f f t h e c o a s t o f E a s t Anglia and Lincolnshire. The R o t l i e g e n d e s , which i n c l u d e s e o l i a n and o t h e r d e s e r t

environment s a n d s t o n e s , l i e s unconformably on Carboniferous c o a l nieasures. Glennie (1972) shows t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e R o t l i e g e n d e s i s confined t o n o r t h w e s t Europe and t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t of t h e North Sea where i t e x t e n d s t o t h e east c o a s t o f England. From s o u t h t o n o r t h t h e f a c i e s grade from

t h o s e formed i n a f l u v i a t i l e environment c h a r a c t e r i z e d by wadis, t o d e s e r t sand dunes formed on a c o a s t a l p l a i n , and f a r t h e s t n o r t h t o s h a l y sediments and e v a p o r i t e s on a t i d a l p l a i n s i m i l a r t o t h e p r e s e n t day sabkha environment

of t h e P e r s i a n Gulf.

With r e f e r e n c e t o t h e t h i c k n e s s and l i t h o l o g i c

v a r i a t i o n s of t h e s e b e d s , Kent (1967, p . 739) remarked, "It i s n o t p o s s i b l e

a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e t o comment on t h e r e g i o n a l v a r i a t i o n of t h e Lower
Permian R o t l i e g e n d e s . The c r i t i c a l p o i n t i s t h a t i t i n c l u d e s t h e main
a b a s a l sandstone u n i t with a

o b j e c t i v e of t h e North Sea gas s e a r c h :

t h i c k n e s s i n some p l a c e s measured i n hundreds o f f e e t .

This s a n d s t o n e

c o n t a i n s i n t h e d i s c o v e r y f i e l d s a t S l o c h t e r e n and probably elsewhere an

293
important p r o p o r t i o n of almost uncemented dune s a n d s t o n e of h i g h p o r o s i t y The S l o c h t e r e n w e l l s are s i t u a t e d n e a r Groningen on Some f i v e y e a r s l a t e r , w i t h r e f e r e n c e

and p e r m e a b i l i t y " .

t h e n o r t h c o a s t of t h e N e t h e r l a n d s .

t o s e c t i o n s i n t h e southwestern and s o u t h - c e n t r a l p a r t s of t h e R o t l i e g e n d e s b a s i n , Glennie ( 1 9 7 2 , p. 1055) was a l s o r e t i c e n t about q u a n t i f y i n g t h i c k n e s s

o r g e n e r a l l i t h o l o g y and s t a t e d , "Total t h i c k n e s s and r e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n s

of each f a c i e s change from p l a c e t o p l a c e , hence no scale can be g i v e n .

One

o r more o f t h e s e sedimentary f a c i e s may b e a b s e n t i n any p a r t i c u l a r area".

In g e n e r a l , t h e R o t l i e g e n d e s comprises a lower u n i t of conglomeratic

s a n d s t o n e i n t e r b e d d e d w i t h cross-bedded s a n d s t o n e , and an upper u n i t of well-sorted, p l a n a r cross-bedded s a n d s t o n e which i s o v e r l a i n by beds of The lower u n i t i s i n t e r p r e t e d by Glennie (1972)

dolomite and e v a p o r i t e s .

as comprising dune and f l u v i a t i l e sands formed i n a mixed e o l i a n and wadi

environment. The upper u n i t he i n t e r p r e t s as an accumulation of sand dunes.

These gas-bearing s a n d s t o n e s form a f a c i e s which i s d i s t r i b u t e d from

m l o n g and Groningen west t o England, c o v e r i n g an a r e a approximately 1,OOd k up t o 300 km wide.

The R o t l i e g e n d e s b a s i n , as a whole, a l s o t r e n d s east-

- w e s t and i s up t o 2,000 km l o n g and 500 km wide.

The g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y of t h e s e gas-bearing sands and a s s o c i a t e d beds h a s been o u t l i n e d by Glennie (1972). U p l i f t and l e v e l l i n g of t h e

C a r b o n i f e r o u s c o a l measures was accompanied by t h e i n l a n d r e g r e s s i o n of an escarpment i n c i s e d by wadis and f l a n k e d by a l l u v i a l f a n s . Wind-blown sands

formed a s h e e t of dunes o v e r a p l a i n e x t e n d i n g t o t h e sabkhas which f r i n g e d t h e c o a s t l i n e of a l a r g e i n l a n d body of s a l t water. Subsequent t r a n s g r e s s i o n of

t h i s d e s e r t sea over t h e c o a s t a l p l a i n r e s u l t e d i n reworking of t h e uppermost p a r t of t h e dune s a n d s , and s u b s e q u e n t l y i n d e p o s i t i o n of t h e K u p f e r s c h i e f e r , t h e c u p r i f e r o u s s h a l e s t h a t are t h e b a s a l u n i t of t h e Z e c h s t e i n e v a p o r i t e s . With r e f e r e n c e t o t h e l i t h o l o g y of t h e gas-bearing dune sands Glennie (1972, p. 1058) s a y s , "The g r a i n s i z e o f t h e s e s a n d s ranges from

294
v e r y f i n e t o medium and, l o c a l l y , p a r t i c u l a r l y n e a r t h e b a s e of an i n t r a f o r m a t i o n a l s e q u e n c e , may b e c o a r s e . The f i n e r g r a i n s are s u b a n g u l a r and F r o s t e d g r a i n s a r e common. The

t h e c o a r s e r ones subrounded o r , r a r e l y , rounded.

No a r g i l l a c e o u s material i s p r e s e n t a p a r t from a u t h i g e n i c c l a y .

s a n d s t o n e s g e n e r a l l y are cemented w i t h h e m a t i t e and a u t h i g e n i c c l a y , b u t locally d o l o m i t e and a n h y d r i t e are i m p o r t a n t as cements, t o g e t h e r w i t h Depending on t h e amount of cement p r e s e n t , t h e Where primary p o r o s i t y i s p r e s e r v e d ,

minor a u t h i g e n i c q u a r t z .

s a n d s t o n e may b e h a r d o r q u i t e f r i a b l e .

t h e s e s a n d s t o n e s form t h e main r e s e r v o i r r o c k f o r t h e R o t l i e g e n d e s gas". According t o G l e n n i e (1972) t h e p r o b a b l e p r o d u c i b l e r e s e r v e s of gas from known major f i e l d s w i t h i n t h e R o t l i e g e n d e s amount t o about 2,500 b i l l i o n (thousand m i l l i o n ) c u b i c meters. t r i l l i o n (million million) cubic f e e t . T h i s i s t h e e q u i v a l e n t of 85 T h i s amount i n c l u d e s 1,800 b i l l i o n

c u b i c meters i n t h e Groningen f i e l d and 700 b i l l i o n c u b i c meters i n o f f -shore North Sea F i e l d s ( I n d e f a t i g a b l e , Leman, and West S o l e ) . Additional

r e c o v e r a b l e r e s e r v e s o f a b o u t 250 b i l l i o n c u b i c m e t e r s (8.5 t r i l l i o n c u b i c f e e t ) are e s t i m a t e d t o b e c o n t a i n e d i n smaller f i e l d s y i e l d i n g g a s from t h e R o t l i e g e n d e s i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s and West Germany.

Hassi R ' M e l and Houd Berkaoui G a s and O i l F i e l d s , A l g e r i a

The Hassi R ' M e l Gas F i e l d and t h e Houd Berkaoui O i l F i e l d s a r e s i t u a t e d 600 km and 800 km r e s p e c t i v e l y s o u t h e a s t of Oran, A l g e r i a . of t h e s e f i e l d s are producing from g e n t l y e l o n g a t e domes w i t h i n Lower Both

Triassic s a n d s t o n e s which unconformably o v e r l i e an u n d u l a t i n g s u r f a c e of

P a l e o z o i c ( i n p a r t Cambro-Ordovician) r o c k s . The dome s t r u c t u r e s a p p e a r

t o r e s u l t from d r a p i n g of t h e Lower Triassic s a n d s t o n e s o v e r b u r i e d h i l l s of P a l e o z o i c r o c k . These s a n d s t o n e s , which have n o t been named, are They c o v e r an area o f a t l e a s t 150,000 sq km i n

d e s c r i b e d by A l i (1973).

n o r t h w e s t e r n A l g e r i a , and r a n g e i n t h i c k n e s s up t o 200 m depending on t h e topography of t h e u n d e r l y i n g P a l e o z o i c . I n the north-central

area of t h e

A l g e r i a n Sahara t h e Lower T r i a s s i c l i e s d i r e c t l y on t h e Precambrian.

295
The Lower T r i a s s i c h a s been d i v i d e d by A l i (1973) i n t o f o u r u n i t s a s follows: a b a s a l S e r i e s I n f e r i o r comprising 70 m of s h a l e , a n d e s i t e and c o n s i s t i n g of 50 m of sandstone; a middle u n i t of
is

s a n d s t o n e ; a lower u n i t "C"
I1

B II c o n t a i n i n g 40 m of s h a l e and s a n d s t o n e ; and an upper u n i t "A"

q u a r t z o s e sandstone having a t h i c k n e s s i n t h e range 10-30 m. conformably o v e r l a i n by s h a l e and e v a p o r i t e s . t h e main r e s e r v o i r i s Unit"A",

Unit "A"

I n t h e Hassi R ' M e l F i e l d ,

whereas i n t h e Houd Berkaoui F i e l d

p r o d u c t i o n i s o b t a i n e d l a r g e l y from sandstone beds i n t h e S e r i e s I n f e r i o r .

A l i (1973) d e s c r i b e s Unit "A"

a s f i n e t o medium-grained,

c o n s i s t i n g of

sub-rounded g r a i n s , p a r t l y cemented w i t h a n h y d r i t e .

The sandstone i s

f a i r l y w e l l s o r t e d and h a s f a i r t o good p o r o s i t y ranging up t o 16%. Sandstone beds i n t h e S e r i e s I n f e r i o r a r e f i n e t o coarse-grained. g e n e r a l , t h e Lower T r i a s s i c s a n d s t o n e s a r e q u a r t z o s e , c o n s i s t i n g of sub-rounded t o sub-angular grains. P o r o s i t y i s commonly i n t h e range In

12-15% b u t ranges up t o 20%.

P e r m e a b i l i t y averages 500 m i l l i d a r c y s and

ranges up t o 1,300 m i l l i d a r c y s .

A l i (1973) s t a t e s t h a t gas r e s e r v e s i n Hassi R'Mel F i e l d a r e

e s t i m a t e d t o be 70 t r i l l i o n c u b i c f e e t (1,960 b i l l i o n c u b i c m e t r e s ) .
No e s t i m a t e s of p r o d u c t i o n c a p a b i l i t i e s a r e given f o r Houd Berkaoui

F i e l d which c o n t a i n s 13 m of n e t sand.
No f o s s i l s have been found i n t h e Lower T r i a s s i c s a n d s t o n e s i n

t h e n o r t h w e s t e r n p a r t of t h e A l g e r i a n Sahara.

The sandstones l i e

unconformably on a g e n t l y u n d u l a t i n g e r o s i o n a l s u r f a c e of P a l e o z o i c and Precambrian rocks and a r e conformably o v e r l a i n by a Middle t o Upper T r i a s s i c e v a p o r i t i c sequence. These s t r a t i g r a p h i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e

s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f t h e Rotliegendes i n t h e North Sea a r e a and suggest t h a t t h e Lower T r i a s s i c gas and o i l - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e s of A l g e r i a a r e

l a r g e l y non-marine and probably, i n p a r t a t l e a s t , of e o l i a n o r i g i n .

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SUBJECT INDEX

abnormal p r e s s u r e , Afiesere Field, Nigeria, Alberta,

107 131

i s l a n d , 26, 103, 119, 141, 144, 167, 183

4 1 , 6 6 , 127, 203, 231 40

B a r t l e s v i l l e Channel,

36 52

Albuquerque, Algeria, 294

31

Sandstone,

basement topography, 43 Bay of Fundy, 261 beach r i d g e , 183, 211 Beaspaw S h a l e , 116 B e a u f i e l d F i e l d , Saskatchewan, 203, 205 B e a v e r h i l l Lake F i e l d , A l b e r t a , 203 246 Bedford Formation, 23, 45
B e 1 Hedan F i e l d , L i b y a , 284

Alliance Field, Alberta, alluvial fan, Almy Formation, Anadarko B a s i n , Andaman S e a , 185 Islands, anhydrite, 273

276

179 159, 214, 221

4 1 , 294 30

A n v i l Rock S a n d s t o n e , Appalachian D e l t a , Arabian Peninsula, Argentina, Arizona, 291 3 7 , 216 108 282

B e l l Creek F i e l d , Wyoming, 164, 169

B e l l s h i l l Lake F i e l d , A l b e r t a , 31, 6 9 , 127, 212 B e l l y R i v e r Formation, 129, 192, 196

P o o l , A l b e r t a , 129, 131

Arkoma B a s i n , 118 a s p h a l t , 291 a s p h a l t i c o i l , 269

Assam,

Bengal Fan, 244 b e n t o n i t e , 203

Beria S a n d s t o n e , 29, 45
B e r i n g Canyon, 237 66 B e t h e l S a n d s t o n e , 48, 268 Big P i n e y F i e l d , Wyoming, 179 B i n d l o s s F i e l d , A l b e r t a , 203 203 b i o t u r b a t i o n , 165, 168, 230 b i r d f o o t d e l t a , 100

88
122, 220

Athabasca O i l Sands, Atoka F o r m a t i o n ,

A u s t i n F i e l d , Michigan, 155 Avon H i l l F i e l d , Saskatchewan,

103

Bahi F i e l d , L i b y a , 284 B a l t i m o r e Canyon, Bangladesh, Barail Series, bar-finger sand, 246 88 9 5 , 183 22

B i r d r o n g S a n d s t o n e , 219
B i s t i F i e l d , New Mexico, 173

bitumen, 6 9 , 269 b i v a l v e s 26, 204, 226 Black S e a , 90 B l a i r m o r e S a n d s t o n e , 20 Group, 128 b l a n k e t s a n d , 183

B a r n s l e y F i e l d , Kentucky, 48 b a r r i e r b a r , 9 5 , 131, 133, 141, 145, 148, 151, 174, 184, 189, 208

334
Bluesky Sandstone, 231 B l u f f Creek F i e l d , Texas, 1 1 2 Booch Sandstone, 107, 113, 116, 118 B o t u c a t t u Formation, 290 b r a i d e d streams, 274, 279, 280 B r a z i l , 161, 290 Brazos Basin, 35 Brentwood F i e l d , C a l i f o r n i a , 252 B r i g h t Angel Formation, 216 B r i t i s h Columbia, 224 Buck Creek Member, 197 Buie-Blaco F i e l d , Texas, 112 Burbank F i e l d , Oklahoma, 201 buried hills, Chanute F i e l d , Kansas, 36, 52

C h a r l i e Lake Formation, 229 Chattanooga S h a l e , 124 chenier, 190

Cherokee Formation, 5 2 , 158, 221 C h e s t e r S e r i e s , 113, 126 Cheyenne V a l l e y F i e l d , Oklahoma, 56, 59 C h i n l e Formation, 37 Chlorite,

171

Cisco Group, 35, 48, 110 classification, 1 sand body s h a p e s , 2

71

d e p o s i t i o n a l intrironments,

Burma, 185 Bush C i t y F i e l d , Kansas, 54

10

C l e a r w a t e r Formation, 6 8 , 231 Cleveland Member, 29 214

Cabin Creek F i e l d , Ohio, 30, 45 c a l c i t e , 39, 59, 72, 129, 160, 279 C a l i f o r n i a , 241, 249, 252, 258, 275 Cambrian System, 27 Canadaway Group, 43 Carbon F i e l d , A l b e r t a , 20, 231

C l i f f House Formation, 159, 198, 233, 255

c o a l seam, 32, 5 2 , 66, 8 8 , 111, 130,

c o a s t a l marsh, 34, 72, 233 p l a i n , 184 Coconino Sandstone, 290 colloids, 218

Sandstone, 231, 233

c a r b o n a t e r o c k s , 108 Carbondale Formation, 32 Channel, 33 C a r b o n i f e r o u s P e r i o d , 107, 112 Carbonized p l a n t r e m a i n s , 26, 36, 47, 5 2 , 75, 82, 116, 133, 182 Cardium Sandstone, 169, 178, 268 Carnarvon B a s i n , 219
C a r l i l e Formation, 227

Colorado, 37, 2 0 0 , 208, 290 Group, 171, 203 Columbus F i e l d , Texas, 134 C o l v i l l e - Smiley F i e l d , Saskatchewan, 203, 205 compaction,

1 2 1 , 185

r i v e r d e p o s i t s , 23

25

d e l t a - f r i n g e s a n d , 106 barrier bar, 147

Caspar Formation, 290 Caucasus Mountains, 9 1 C e s s f o r d F i e l d , A l b e r t a , 203 Cha Cha F i e l d , New Mexico, 175, 230 channel-fill,

r e g r e s s i v e marine s a n d , 195 t r a n s g r e s s i v e marine s a n d , 214 submarine v a l l e y s a n d , 242 t i d a l current sand, alluvial fan, 266

21, 81, 110

278

c h a n n e l s a n d , 13, 25, 29

e o l i a n s a n d , 288

335
Congo R i v e r , 2 6 , 252 c o n o d o n t s , 129 continental s h e l f , 93 Cook Ranch F i e l d , Texas, 112 Cooper B a s i n , 60 Coyote Creek F i e l d , Wyoming, 80 C r e t a c e o u s , 40 C r o s s f i e l d F i e l d , A l b e r t a , 169, 172 C r y s t a l F a l l s Formation, 111 c u e s t a , 10, 211, 222, 228 C u r r a n t F i e l d , B r i t i s h Columbia, 226 Cut Bank F i e l d , Montana, 84 S a n d s t o n e , 8 7 , 212 E a g l e S a n d s t o n e , 146, 151, 197, 212
East A n g l i a , 292 East Tuskegee F i e l d , Oklahoma, 124 East Sandbar F i e l d , Wyoming, 76

Edmonton, 70
E l a t e r i t e Bar, 268

270

E l k Creek F i e l d , 4 8
E l l e r s l i e S a n d s t o n e , 31, 69, 127, 212

E-log c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,

point b a r , 17 d e l t a - f r i n g e s a n d , 103 b a r r i e r b a r , 147 r e g r e s s i v e marine s a n d , 192 t r a n s g r e s s i v e marine s a n d , 213 submarine v a l l e y s a n d , 240 c i d a l c u r r e n t s a n d , 266 a l l u v i a l f a n , 277 e o l i a n s a n d , 287

Dale C o n s o l i d a t e d F i e l d , I l l i n o i s , 126

datum, 2 5 , 31, 71, 126, 223, 225, 227, 267, 278 Davis S a n d s t o n e , 181
Delaware, 22

E n t r a d a Formation, 290 entrapment p o t e n t i a l , 199 e o l i a n s a n d , 168, 2 1 5 , , 2 8 5 , 287 Eriemu F i e l d , N i g e r i a , 131 e s t u a r y , 26, 28, 7 1 Eureka F i e l d , Saskatchewan, 203, 205 Evergreen Formation, 64

E x t e n s i o n F i e l d , Oklahoma, 52

d e l t a d i s t r i b u t a r y , 9 7 , 113, 131 l o b e , 104, 108 f r i n g e s a n d , 9 3 , 117

Delta Duck Club F i e l d , L o u i s i a n a , 20

Denver B a s i n , 1 9 , 41, 82, 200, 208 d e p o s i t i o n a l t r e n d , 11 Devonian, 2 6 , 40, 6 6 , 70 d i a c h r o n o u s u n i t , 3 , 9 9 , 183, 197 d i a p i r i c s t r u c t u r e , 134 D i s i Formation, 281 d i s t r i b u t a r y , 13, 9 3 , 119

F a i r y d e l l F i e l d , Alberta, 203 F a l l C i t y F i e l d , Texas, 134 F a l l R i v e r S a n d s t o n e , 80 f a u l t i n g , 89 F a y e t t v i l l e Channel, 27 f e l d s p a r , 139, 145, 278 fire-flooding, F l o r i d a , 34 F l y R i v e r , Papua, 149 f l y s c h f a c i e s , 244 forams, 7 1 , 204, 212, 233 f o r m a t i o n f l u i d s , 107 F o r t Saskatchewan F i e l d , 203, 206 66

mouth b a r , 9 5 , 97

Dodsland F i e l d , Saskatchewan, 203, 205 Doig Formation, 224 d o l o m i t e , 41, 157, 294 Donkey Creek F i e l d , Wyoming, 79 Dor F i e l d , L i b y a , 284 Dutch Slough F i e l d , C a l i f o r n i a , 252 Dynneson S a n d s t o n e , 80

336
F o s t e r Sandstone, 220 Four C o r n e r s , 38 F r i o Sandstone, 193 Frio-Vicksburg Trend, Texas, 134 F r o n t i e r Formation, 176 F r u i t v a l e S h a l e , 250 Groningen F i e l d , N e t h e r l a n d s , 292 growth s t r u c t u r e s , 107, 133, 186 Gulf C o a s t , 107 Gulf of Korea, 261, 264 Gulf of Mexico, 142 Gulf of Suez, 282 Gulf of Venice, 189 G a l l u p Formation, 173, 227 G a l v e s t o n I s l a n d , 167 Ganges - Brahmaputra R i v e r system, 2146 G a r r i n g t o n F i e l d , A l b e r t a , 169, 172 g a s d r i v e , 45, 48, 54 g a s - s o l u t i o n d r i v e , 78, 172, 176 Gas Draw F i e l d , Wyoming, 169 g a s t r o l i t h s , 124 g a s t r o p o d s , 26, 86 Gay Hague, The, 70 Halfway Sandstone,224 Hamilton Lake F i e l d , A l b e r t a , 203 Hardin F i e l d , Texas, 181 Hardinsburg S e r i s, 124 H a r t s h o r n e Sandstone, 121
H a s s i R ' M e l F i e l d , A l g e r i a , 294

144, 216

gypsum, 43, 157

Spencer

Richardson Trend,

Hawkins F i e l d , Oklahoma, 121 Heath Formation, 51 H i l i g h t F i e l d , Wyoming, 76 Home Sand, 231 Hoosier F i e l d , Saskatchewan, 203, 205 Horseshoe F i e l d , New Mexico, 227 Houd Berkaoui F i e l d , A l g e r i a , 294 Hughenden F i e l d , A l b e r t a , 31, 69, 128 Huntsman S h a l e , 19, 82, 208 hydrodynamic c o n d i t i o n , 11, 66, 88, 182 h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , 48, 62 I l l i n o i s , 32, 113, 126

V i r g i n i a , 47 geometry of s a n d s t o n e b o d i e s , 3, 94 Ghost P i n e F i e l d , A l b e r t a , 232 Gidgealpa F i e l d , South A u s t r a l i a , 62

Gilby

Group, 60

B e n t l e y F i e l d , A l b e r t a , 203

Gipplsand B a s i n , 238, 244, 255 g l a u c o n i t e , 132, 151, 176, 194, 230,

252, 257, 268

G l a u c o n i t e s a n d s t o n e , 231 g r a b e n , 278, 283 Graham Formation, 35 g r a i n g r a d a t i o n , 10, 16, 19, 40, 72,

B a s i n , 30, 33, 115, 268

75, 86, 89, 93, 106, 148, 151, 176, 213.

i l l i t e , 62, 171

I n d e f a t i g a b l e F i e l d , North Sea, 292 I n d i a , 246 I n d i a n a , 35 I n d o n e s i a , 235 I r e t o n Formation, 73 Irrawaddy R i v e r , 185, 188 I s h r i n Formation, 281 i s o l i t h map, 22, 145, 170

o r i e n t a t i o n , 146, 265 i m b r i c a t i o n , 146

Grand Canyon, 216, 290 Grand I s l e , 145 Graneros S h a l e , 208 G r a n i t e Wash, 41 Green R i v e r B a s i n , 179

337
i s o t i m e map, 150 I t a l y , 189 I t a p a r i c a Formation, 161 Ivanhoe F i e l d , Montana, 51
L i t t l e Creek F i e l d , M i s s i s s i p p i , 20

Long I s l a n d , 142 Los Angeles B a s i n , 258 L o u i s i a n a , 143, 191 Luzerne F i e l d , Kentucky, 48

J a c k p i l e Sandstone, 39 J e b e l F i e l d , Libya, 284 Joarcam F i e l d , A l b e r t a , 192, 203 J o f f r e F i e l d , A l b e r t a , 203 J o l i Fou Formation, 203 Jordan, 281
71

Magid F i e l d , Libya, 284 Maikop F i e l d , U.S.S.R., 90

Main P a s s Block 35 F i e l d , L o u i s i a n a , 138 Mannville Group, 203, 231 Mansour F i e l d , L i b y a , 284 Many Rocks F i e l d , New Mexico, 175, 229 marine f o s s i l s , 114 marker bed, 144, 197

J 1, S a n d s t o n e , 19, 200

J u r a s s i c , 40

Kansas, 36, 5 4 , 158 k a o l i n , 26, 39, 62, 194 Keg Coulee F i e l d , Montana, 5 1 K i n t a F i e l d , Oklahoma, 220 K i t t y F i e l d , Wyoming, 76, 169 Kockatea Formation, 219 Kootenai Formation, 84 K o t l a F i e l d , Libya, 284 K u p f e r s c h i e f e r S h a l e , 293

M a r l i n F i e l d , V i c t o r i a , 244, 247, 255 M a r t i n e z Formation, 252 Mata

Catu Trend, B r a z i l , 161 Formation, 107, 118, 122

McAlester B a s i n , 220

McMurray Formation, 66 meander b e l t , 15 M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a , 188 Meganos Channel , 252 Mercure Formation, 137 Mesa F i e l d , New Mexico, 175, 229 Mesaverde Sandstone, 197, 214 Michigan Formation, 155, 157 Midland F i e l d , Kentucky, 48
Miller Creek F i e l d , Wyoming, 80

Laguna Madre, 142 Lake Basin F i e l d , Montana, 117 Lake Creek F i e l d , Texas, 134 Lakes E n t r a n c e Formation, 255 Laramide orogeny, 179 L a t r o b e Group, 255, 257 Lea Park Formation, 129 Lehib F i e l d , Libya, 284 Leman F i e l d , North Sea, 292 l e v e e , 9 5 , 190 l i b y a , 267, 280, 283 l i g n i t e , 88, 133 l i m e s t o n e , 34, 5 2 , 66, 71, 90, 111, 123, 223, 233, 267 L i n c o l n s h i r e , 292

M i l l i g a n F i e l d , 224 Milton F i e l d , Saskatchewan, 203 Minnesota, 215 Misener Sandstone, 124 M i s s i s s i p p i , 29 R i v e r , 14, 9 3 , 96

D e l t a , 188

M i s s i s s i p p i a n , 40 Moenkopi Formation, 37, 270 monocline, 9 1 , 215

338

Montana, 50, 8 4 , 1 1 6 , 1 4 6 , 151, 197 Moolayember Sandstone, 62 Moomba Field, South Australia, 6 0 Moonie Field, Queensland, 6 4 Moorari Field, South Australia, 6 2 Morris Field, Texas, 112 Morrison Formation, 39 Morrow Field, Oklahoma, 2 2 1

O'Connor Field, Wyoming, 79 offshore bar, 141, 1 5 4 , 1 6 0 , 1 6 9 , 1 7 5 ,

1 7 7 , 183

Oficina Formation 137 Ohio Shale, 29 oil, accumulation in synclines, 4 8

production, 2 0 1

Oklahoma, 3 6 , 5 2 , 118, 1 2 4 , 1 5 9 , 220 Olympic Field, Oklahoma, 1 6 1 Ora Field, Libya, 284 Organ Rock Shale, 2 7 0 Oriskany Sandstone, 216 Ostra Field, Venezuela, 1 3 7 ostracods, 7 1 , 8 6 , 1 6 3 , 2 1 2 , 2 3 3 Ostracod Member, 232 outwash-plain, 4 3 Padre Island, 142 paleoslope, 31 Palestine Sandstone, 113, 268 Papua, 1 4 8 i Pecan Island, 1 9 1 Peejay Field, British Columbia, 226 Pembina Field, Alberta, 1 2 9 , 1 9 2 , 196 Pennsylvania, 40 permeability, 11, 18, 1 2 1 , 1 2 3 , 1 2 9 , 139 Permian, 40 Petersburg Formation, 33, 35 Pickanjinnie Field, Queensland, 62 Pic0 Sandstone, 2 4 1 , 258 Pleistocene, 70 Po River, 9 9 , 1 0 3 , 189 point bar, 1 7 , 2 1 , 38, 7 2 , 80 Point Lookout Formation, 214 Pokrovsk Field, U.S.S.R., 1 2 3 porosity, 11, 1 9 , 1 2 3 , 129,139 potentiometric gradient, 76 Potomac Group, 22

Formation, 2 2 3

Muddy Formation, 7 4 , 7 6 , 153, 1 6 4 , 1 6 9

43

Music Mountain Oil Pool, Pennsylvania, Ordovician, 27 Muskeg Formation, 4 1 Nahorkatiya Field, Assam, 88 Navajo Sandstone, 290 Nebraska, 19 Neocomian, 6 8 , 72 Netherlands, The, 70 net sandstone, 1 2 3 Newcastle Sandstone, 79 New Mexico, 3 7 , 39, 1 7 3 , 1 9 7 , 2 2 7 ,
2 7 8 , 2 8 6 , 290

New Ulm Field, Texas, 134 New York, 142 Nicobar Fan, 2 4 5 Niger Delta, 131, 138

River, 9 3 Nigeria, 131

Nile Delta, 187 Niobrara Formation, 2 2 7 , 230 Nisku Formation 7 1 North Dakota, 51 North Africa, 280 North Sea, 2 6 1 , 2 6 3 , 2 7 1 , 292 Nova Scotia, 2 6 1 Nubia Sandstone, 280 Oakdale Field, Oklahoma, 59

339
Powder R i v e r B a s i n , 41, 73, 76, 79, 164, 169 Precambrian R u s s i a n P l a t f o r m , 123

System, 26, 42 S h i e l d , 6 8 , 127, 280

Sabkha, 292 S a b r e F i e l d , C a l i f o r n i a , 208 S a d d l e Creek Formation, 111 S a h a r a , 290 S a l e b Formation, 281 s a l i n i t y , 62, 64, 66, 84, 87, 182, 220 S a l l y a r d s Trend F i e l d s , Kansas, 158 S a l t Creek F i e l d , Wyoming, 176 Samah F i e l d , L i b y a , 284 S a n d i a Mountains, 273, 278 s a n d d u n e s , 143, 216

P r e c i p i c e S a n d s t o n e , 62 P r i b i l o f Canyon, 237 p r o d e l t a , 9 6 , 103 p r o g r a d a t i o n , 98, 185 p r o t e r o z o i c , 40 P r o v o s t F i e l d , A l b e r t a , 203 P u l a s k i Channel, 27 p y r i t e , 47

q u a r t z s a n d , 289 Q u a t e r n a r y System, 26, 40 Queensland, 62 Quicksand Creek F i e l d , Texas, 134 Q u i r e q u i r e Formation, 212 R e c l u s e F i e l d , Oklahoma, 76, 1 5 3 , 164 Red E a r t h F i e l d , A l b e r t a , 4 1 Red Oak F i e l d , Oklahoma, 220 Red Fork S a n d s t o n e , 5 6 , 159 r e g r e s s i v e marine Sand, 1 8 3 , 198
Reimers

s h e e t , 285

287, 290

sill, 98
p e r c e n t a g e map, 207

San J o a q u i n B a s i n , 259 San J u a n B a s i n , 173, 214, 227 S a r i r F i e l d , L i b y a , 283 Saskatchewan, 19 7, 200, 203 S a t i c o y F i e l d , C a l i f o r n i a , 241 S c o t l a n d , 279 S e d a l i a F i e l d , A l b e r t a , 203 s e d i m e n t a r y s t r u c t u r e s , 10, 16, 86, 94 S e e l i g s o n F i e l d , Texas, 2 0 , 1 1 0 , 134 s e i s m i c r e f l e c t o r , 149 self-potential c u r v e , 18, 22

Lane - H a r t Trend,

Nebraska, 82 R e p e t t o S a n d s t o n e , 241, 258 Rewan Formation, 6 3 Rhine R i v e r , 70, 72 Rierdon Formation, 84 Rio Grande R i v e r , 118, 289 r i v e r channels, 13

Series I n f e r i o r , 295

Sharon School F i e l d , Kentucky, 48 S h e r i d a n F i e l d , Texas, 134 Shinarump Formation, 37 S h i r a Streak F i e l d , Pennsylvania, 153 S h o e s t r i n g F i e l d , Oklahoma, 5 6 , 59 s h o e s t r i n g s a n d s , 13, 36, 103, 110, 113, 116, 119, 158 Showgrounds S a n d s t o n e , 62 S i b e r i a n P l a t f o r m , 27 s i d e r i t e , 171 S i e r r a Nevada Mountains, 275

d e p o s i t s , 21

terraces, 7 1

Roma S h e l f , 62 R o s e d a l e F i e l d , C a l i f o r n i a , 241 S a n d s t o n e , 249 R o t l i e g e n d e s red-beds, 292

Rozet F i e l d , Wyoming, 79

340 silica, 3 0 , 1 6 0 , 194 Sirte Basin, 280 Skull Creek Formation, 1 9 , 7 4 , 7 9 , 82 Sliverville Sandstone, 43 Slochteren Field, Netherlands, 292 Smiley tidal channels, 1 8 6 , 230

current ridges, 1 1 4 , 261

2 6 5 , 269

Timbalier Island, 143 time-stratigraphic marker, 2 4 Tirrawarra Field, South Australia, 62 Tonkawa Sandstone, 214 Toolachee Formation, 60 Torridonian Formation, 26 Totah Field, New Mexico, 175 trace elements, 69 transgressive marine sand, 2 1 1 , 2 3 3 Triassic, 40 trilobite, 217 turbidity current, 2 4 0 , 2 4 2 , 2 4 4 , 2 4 9 , 258 Tuscaloosa Sandstone, 20 Tyler Field, Montana, 5 0 Um Sahm Formation, 281 United Arab Republic, 1 8 7 , 282 uranium, 3 8 , 40 Uruguay, 2 9 1
U.S.S.R., 1 1 2 , 1 1 6 , 123'

- Dewar Field, Saskatchewan,

7-03, 205

South Australia, 60 South Ceres P o o l , Oklahoma, 56 South Glenrock Field, Wyoming, 7 3 , 79 South Pine Hollow Field, Oklahoma, 1 2 1 South Waterflow Field, New Mexico, 175 Southwest Pass, 9 6 , 9 8 spill-over bar, 38 Spiro Sandstone, 220 steam injection, 66 Stensvad Field, Montana, 5 1 Stevens Sandstone, 2 4 1 , 250 St. Peter Sandstone, 215 St. Charles Field, Kentucky, 48 strike-valley, 1 0 , 2 1 1 , 2 2 2 , 229 submarine valley, 2 3 5 , 2 4 8 , 2 5 0 , 256 fan, 2 4 4 , 258 sulphur, 69 Sunda Shelf, 235 Surat Basin, 6 3 Sweetgrass Arch, 84 Swift Formation, 84 Taiwan Strait, 2 6 1 , 265 Tapeats Sandstone, 216 tarry oil, 6 8 Teapot Dome, Wyoming, 176 tectonic deformation, 107 Tennessee, 27 Tertiary, 40 Texas, 3 5 , ' 1 0 8 , 1 1 0 , 1 3 4 , 1 8 1 , 193

Utah, 3 7 , 268 Ute Field, Wyoming, 169 vanadium, 38 Venango Group, 153 Venezuela, 1 3 7 , 212 Ventura Field, California, 2 4 1 , 2 4 3 ,
2 5 1 , 258

Basin, 258

Victoria, 2 4 4 , 2 4 7 , 255 Viking - Kinsella Field, Alberta, 203 Formation, 192 Volgograd Delta, 1 1 2 , 116 Waal River, 6 0 Wabamun Formation, 7 1

Gulf Coast, 133

341
Wabiskaw Member, 68, 231 wadi, 292 Wakita Trend, Oklahoma, 56, 159 Wapanucka Formation, 220 water d r i v e , 4 1 , 59, 6 4 , 7 2 , 129, 139 Wattenberg F i e l d , Colorado, 200 waxy o i l , 45, 89. 219 West A u s t r a l i a , 219
West Germany, 294

W h i t e s i d e F i e l d , Saskatchewan, 203 W i l b e r t o n F i e l d , Oklahoma, 220 Wilcox F i e l d , Texas 133

Group, 247

Wisner F i e l d , L o u i s i a n a , 20 Wyoming, 73, 76, 176, 179, 290

Yardarino 2 19

Dongara F i e l d , West A u s t r a l i a ,

West Lake Verret F i e l d , L o u i s i a n a , 20

West Moorcroft F i e l d , Wyoming, 81 West S o l e F i e l d , North Sea, 292

Yegua Formation, 181 Yoakum Channel, 247 Yukon, 276

West Thornton F i e l d , C a l i f o r n i a , 252

White Sands N a t i o n a l Monument, 286
White R i m S a n d s t o n e , 268

Z e c h s t e i n e v a a o r i t e s , 293 Z e l t e n F i e l d , Libya, 283 Zhemchug Canyon, 237

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