Naturally Fract Reservoirs

4 Oileld Review
The Nature of Naturally Fractured Reservoirs

Tom Bratton
Denver, Colorado, USA
Dao Viet Canh
Nguyen Van Que
Cuu Long Joint Operating Company (JOC)
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Nguyen V. Duc
VietSovPetro
Vung Tau City, Vietnam
Paul Gillespie
David Hunt
Hydro
Bergen, Norway
Bingjian Li
Ahmadi, Kuwait
Richard Marcinew
Satyaki Ray
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Bernard Montaron
Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Ron Nelson
Broken N Consulting, Incorporated
Cat Spring, Texas, USA
David Schoderbek
ConocoPhillips
Calgary
Lars Sonneland
Stavanger, Norway
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Lee Conn,
MI LLC, Houston; Phil Christie, John Cook and
Michael Williams, Cambridge, England; Adam Donald and
Omer Gurpinar, Denver, Colorado; Peter Kaufman, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, USA; and John Lassek, Sugar Land, Texas.
BorTex, ClearFRAC, CMR (Combinable Magnetic Resonance),
ECLIPSE, FMI (Fullbore Formation MicroImager), Formation
MicroScanner, GeoFrame, geoVISION, MDT (Modular
Formation Dynamics Tester), Petrel, RAB (Resistivity-at-the-
Bit), Sonic Scanner, Variable Density and VDA (Viscoelastic
Diverting Acid) are marks of Schlumberger.
Naturally fractured reservoirs present a production paradox. They include reservoirs
with low hydrocarbon recovery: these reservoirs initially may appear highly
productive, only to decline rapidly. They are also notorious for early gas or water
breakthrough. On the other hand, they represent some of the largest, most productive
reservoirs on Earth. The paradoxical nature of this class of reservoirs is the impetus
behind the industrys efforts to learn more about them and model them with a
reasonable amount of certainty.
Nearly all hydrocarbon reservoirs are affected in
some way by natural fractures, yet the effects of
fractures are often poorly understood and largely
underestimated. In carbonate reservoirs, natural
fractures help create secondary porosity and
promote communication between reservoir
compartments. However, these high-permeability
conduits sometimes short-circuit uid ow
within a reservoir, leading to premature water or
gas production and making secondary-recovery
efforts ineffective. Natural fractures also occur in
siliciclastic reservoirs of all types, complicating
seemingly straightforward matrix-dominated
production behavior. In addition, natural fractures
are the main producibility factor in a wide range
of less conventional reservoirs, including
coalbed-methane (CBM), shale-gas, basement-
rock and volcanic-rock reservoirs. Although
natural fractures play a lesser role in high-
porosity, high-permeability reservoirs such as
turbidites, they commonly form barriers to ow,
frustrating attempts to accurately calculate
recoverable reserves and predict production
over time.
Ignoring the presence of fractures is not
optimal reservoir management; eventually, frac -
tures cannot be ignored because the tech nical
and economic performance of the reservoir
degrades.
1
The biggest risk in not characterizing
natural fractures early is that such an oversight
can severely limit future eld-development
options. For example, a company that does not
take advantage of the opportunities to evaluate
natural fractures during the early development
stage may waste resources on unnecessary inll
drilling. Asset teams may never extract the
hydrocarbons originally deemed recoverable
because, without understanding the impact of
natural fractures on production behavior, they
have not adequately prepared the eld for
secondary recovery.
This article examines the impact of natural
fractures on hydrocarbon reservoirs at different
stages of reservoir development. The classi -
cations of natural fractures and naturally frac -
tured reservoirs (NFRs) are reviewed, along with
factors that affect NFR behavior. We describe
methods used over a range of scales to identify
and characterize natural fractures and to model
the inuence of fracture systems on production.
Case studies from around the world highlight
various approaches.
Natural Fractures in Field Development
The investigation of natural fractures should start
during the exploration stage. Relevant surface
outcrops of the reservoir section or reservoir
analogs can form the basis of a lithological,
structural and stratigraphic foundation from
which geologists build conceptual models. These
models often begin with knowledge of the
regional stresses (next page).
2
The stress state is
important in NFRs because the stress state
58732schD04R1.qxp:58732schD04R1 10/10/06 9:44 PM Page 4
Summer 2006 5
largely dictates whether fractures are open to
conduct reservoir uids. In addition, the
magnitude and direction of horizontal stresses
play critical roles in hydraulic fracture design,
the primary stimulation method for NFRs.
Multicomponent (3C) seismic surveys acquired
early in eld development yield important data for
determination of azimuthal anisotropy, which is
essential to characterize natural fractures and to
place wells effectively.
3
For example, knowing the
general orientation of fracture systems during
well planning dramatically improves the chance
that a well will intersect fractures.
New wells present an opportunity to collect
appropriate geological, geophysical and mechan -
ical data from many sources, including infor -
mation from logging tools, borehole seismic
surveys, sampling devices and fullbore cores.
Other valuable sources of information that can
be acquired during the early stages of eld
development include drillstem tests, initial ow
tests, and buildup and drawdown tests. Properly
assessing the role of natural fractures can result
in early eld-development successes and can lay
the groundwork for later development stages,
including secondary-recovery projects.
Information about natural fractures is also
important during the well-construction stage.
During overbalanced drilling and cementing
operations, open natural fractures can cause lost
circulation problems, loss of expensive drilling
uids and the potential loss of wells. A less
obvious cost may be associated with the reduced
productivity that results when drilling uids and
cement seal fractures that were once open and
potentially productive.
4
Employing underbalanced
drilling techniques and using less damaging
1. Nelson RA: Evaluating Fractured Reservoirs:
Introduction, Geologic Analysis of Naturally Fractured
Reservoirs, 2nd ed. Woburn, Massachusetts, USA:
Gulf Professional Publishing (2001): 12.
2. For more on world stress data: http://www-wsm.physik.
uni-karlsruhe.de/pub/introduction/introduction_
frame.html (accessed May 18, 2006).
3. Kristiansen P, Gaiser J and Horne S: How
Multicomponent Seismic Can Be Used to Manage
Fractured Carbonate Reservoirs, paper SPE 93762,
presented at the 14th SPE Middle East Oil & Gas Show
and Conference, Bahrain, March 1215, 2005.
4. Ehlig-Economides CA, Taha M, Marin HD, Novoa E and
Sanchez O: Drilling and Completion Strategies in
Naturally Fractured Reservoirs, paper SPE 59057,
presented at the SPE International Petroleum
Conference and Exhibition, Villahermosa, Mexico,
February 13, 2000.
>
World stress map showing stress data compiled from various sources. In oil and gas regions, borehole measurements are an important source of
present-day in-situ stress information. This basic information is used in modeling to help understand fracture networks in fields worldwide. (From the
World Stress Map Project, http://www-wsm.physik.uni-karlsruhe.de/pub/casmo/content_frames/stress_maps_frame.html, used with permission.)
Regime
Thrust fault
Normal fault
Strike slip
Unknown
Method
Focal mechanisms
Breakouts
Drilling-induced fractures
Borehole slotter
Overcoring
Hydraulic fractures
Geological indicators
58732schD04R1:58732schD04R1 8/14/06 7:29 PM Page 5
drilling or cementing uids are possible ways to
reduce lost circulation and its associated
damage. However, in many cases, drillers options
are more limited.
When drilling weakened and depleted NFRs
surrounded by low-permeability shales or
overpressured zones, drillers must maintain a
certain mud weight to support the shale or
prevent a blowout from the overpressured zone.
Through the years, innovative techniques have
been developed to limit the risk, cost and damage
caused by lost circulation problems. These include
heating the drilling uid to alter the stress state
around the borehole; treating the mud with
specialized lost circulation materialsuch as
berswhen losses start to occur; pretreating
the drilling uid with particulate material; and
strategically changing the stresses around the
wellborefor example, by creating fractures.
5
In some cases, natural fractures are so large
that drastic measures are required. For example,
in some carbonate NFRs in central Asia, drilling-
uid losses have reached 80,000 barrels
[12,712 m
3
] in long intervals of highly fractured
and porous rock. The keys to addressing serious
and recurring lost circulation problems are
planning for losses, dening the target and
having the required equipment and materials
available when problems occur.
6
A detailed
knowledge of the fracture system is essential
to mitigation.
Today, MWD tools can monitor critical drilling
parameters in real time, allowing drilling
engineers to mitigate lost circulation problems.
In addition, LWD technology, such as the
geoVISION imaging-while-drilling service and
the RAB Resistivity-at-the-Bit tool, help identify
natural fractures immediately after drilling past
them.
7
Incorporating natural-fracture information
and rock mechanical properties into cement-job
designs reduces the risk of opening up natural
fractures or accidentally fracturing the forma -
tion, both of which could cause lost circulation.
Once well construction and evaluation are
nished, the focus moves to designing a
completion and stimulation program to undo the
damage caused by drilling and cementing. Some
form of stimulation is required for most NFRs
with a low-permeability matrix. Pumping reactive
uidsacidizing, using various formulations of
hydrochloric acid [HCl] or chelantsinto
natural fractures is most common in carbonate
reservoirs to remove near-wellbore damage,
enhance connectivity and improve the conduc -
tivity of the system.
8
During carbonate-rock
stimulation using reactive uids, zones with the
highest permeabilities commonly take most of
the treatment uid, leaving the zones with lower
permeabilities untreated. Consequently, diver -
sion, leakoff and reaction-rate control are keys to
success when acidizing carbonates.
9
Conventional approaches to diversion include
particulate- and viscosity-based-diversion methods.
Particulate diversion uses solids to bridge and
restrict ow to highly permeable or fractured
zones. For example, rock salt or benzoic acid akes
are pumped to divert in the formation at the loss
zone, and ball sealers are used to mechanically
divert from inside tubulars at the perforations.
Viscosity-based diversion uses foams, and acids or
uids gelled with viscoelastic surfactants or
polymers to divert treatment and provide uid-loss
control within the formation. However, polymers
have damaged reservoirs, prompting service
companies to develop new surfactant-base uids.
For example, the VDA Viscoelastic Diverting Acid
system has been used to successfully stimulate
fractured carbonate reservoirs all over the world,
including Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Mexico and
Kazakhstan.
10
In addition, a new technique that
uses both technologiesbrous particulate and
viscosity diversionhas been developed for
acidizing NFRs.
Natural fractures in siliciclastic reservoirs
are also occasionally acidized, typically using a
combination of HCl and hydrouoric acid [HF].
Alternatively, hydraulic fracture stimulation of
NFRs requires that the main fracture path be
kept open and conductive with proppant.
Controlling the leakoff rate and effective
proppant placement, while minimizing damage
to the natural-fracture network, are critical to
achieve optimal stimulation and production.
Natural fractures can signicantly limit the
ability to place large volumes of proppant within
a hydraulically created fracture. Various
techniques are used to limit natural-fracture
dilation and the corresponding uid losses
during hydraulic fracturing. These include
reducing fracture net pressure by rate-control or
low-viscosity uids, and incorporating properly
graded particulates to dynamically bridge
dilating ssures, thereby reducing total leakoff
volume. Additionally, conductivity damage within
the created hydraulic fracture and natural-
fracture system can be reduced by lowering the
total volume of polymer usedfor example, by
using low-polymer crosslinked frac gels, increas -
ing breaker-to-polymer ratios through the use of
encapsulated breakers, or by replacing the
polymeric fracture uid with nondamaging
viscoelastic surfactant uid systems such as
ClearFRAC polymer-free frac uid.
11
The volume occupied by typical fractures
open or mineral-lledwithin a vast matrix is
usually relatively minuscule, yet the ability of
fractures to signicantly impact uid-ow
behavior in hydrocarbon reservoirs is enormous.
It is not surprising that one of the greatest
challenges facing reservoir experts is how to
adequately simulate the effects of fractures on
reservoir behavior. Understanding these
reservoirs requires the acquisition and analysis
of vast amounts of data, and usually begins with
detailed, foot-by-foot characterization of the
fracture and matrix systems. It is the interaction
between these two systems that must be
understood while reservoir properties change
with continued production or injection. As eld
development continues, other informationfor
example, well-test data, production data, and
passive and time-lapse seismic datahelps
validate and improve reservoir models.
The strategy a company uses to achieve eld-
production and recovery potential is intertwined
with, and increasingly directed according to, an
ever-improving NFR model and simulation.
During the primary-production stage, changes in
reservoir pressure, and consequently effective
stress, alter the uid ow within fracture
networks.
12
Water or gas breakthrough is the
most common negative implication of conductive
fractures during the primary-production stage.
Besides adding water production and disposal
costs, producing high-mobility water leaves
behind substantial volumes of low-mobility oil.
Moreover, premature gas production can drain a
reservoir of its energy, damage downhole pumps
and complicate surface treatment of produced
reservoir uids.
Secondary-recovery techniques using uid
injection also change eld pressure and effective
stress dynamics, and therefore change fracture
conductivity to uid ow. At this stage in eld
development, asset teams should be familiar
with the role natural fractures play in large-scale
uid movement. Ideally, production and
secondary-recovery strategieswell patterns
and spacings, and selection of injection and
production zonesshould reect the level of
inuence that natural fractures have on
hydrocarbon sweep as determined by simulation.
6 Oileld Review
Summer 2006 7
Classifying Fractures
When developing and modeling fractured
reservoirs, the ability to understand and predict
the characteristics of fracture and fault systems
is essential.
13
The complexity of natural-fracture
systems is captured in the descriptive, genetic
and geometric methods that geoscientists
employ to classify natural fractures. Knowing
fracture types enhances the simulation of uid
ow through fractures, because various types of
fractures conduct uid differently.
To appreciate common classication schemes,
a basic understanding of how natural fractures
develop is needed. However, achieving this
understanding requires more than extensive
eld observation of natural fractures; it requires
linking those observations with data from
controlled laboratory experiments.
14
In the
laboratory, fracture types are divided into two
groups related to their mode of formation:
shear fractures that form with shearing parallel
to the created fracture, and tension fractures
that form with tension perpendicular to the
created fracture.
In the laboratory, shear and tension fractures
form in consistent orientation with respect to
the three principal stress directions, namely
the maximum compressive principal stress,
1
,
the minimum compressive principal stress,
3
,
and the intermediate stress,
2
(left). Shear
fractures are created under high differential
stress and in conjugate pairs, forming an
acute angle with
1
. Tension fractures, a term
sometimes used interchangeably with extension
fractures, form perpendicular to
3
and at
relatively low differential stresses, when the
value of
3
, after adjustment for pore pressure
the local effective stressis likely tensile. In the
laboratory, it is common to observe the creation
of tension fractures during compression
experiments at low conning pressures and in
association with shear fracturing.
15
Shear and tension fractures described from
laboratory experiments have clear counterparts
that occur naturally; shear fractures correspond
to faults, whereas tension fractures corre spond
to joints.
16
This mechanically based distinction
provides a useful way to classify fractures. Most
faulting occurs during signicant tectonic events
when the differential stress is high. Tectonic
faults typically occur over a broad range of
scales, with displacements that range from
millimeters to kilometers. Seismic images
generally allow the detection of the larger faults,
while borehole data are required to identify and
characterize smaller faults. Tectonic faults
typically cut unimpeded through stratigraphy
and are therefore termed non-stratabound.
Joints, or fractures having no visible displace -
ment, form perpendicular to bedding. Joints can
be either stratabound or non-strata bound.
Stratabound joints stop at bedding surfaces and
often develop a regular spacing and form well-
organized connected networks in plan view.
Commonly, there is a long and continuous set of
joints, termed systematic joints, which are joined
by a perpendicular array of cross joints that
abut the systematic joints.
17
Non-stratabound
joints occur on a wide range of scales and are
spatially clustered.
18
5. Aston MS, Alberty MW, McLean MR, de Jong HJ and
Armagost K: Drilling Fluids for Wellbore Strengthening,
paper IADC/SPE 87130, presented at the IADC/SPE
Drilling Conference, Dallas, March 24, 2004.
Morita N, Black AD and Guh G-F: Theory of Lost
Circulation Pressure, paper SPE 20409, presented at
the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
New Orleans, September 2326, 1990.
6. Ivan C, Burton J and Bloys B: How Can We Best
Manage Lost Circulation? paper AADE-03-NTCE-38,
presented at the AADE National Technology Conference
Practical Solutions for Drilling Challenges, Houston,
April 13, 2003.
7. Inaba M, McCormick D, Mikalsen T, Nishi M, Rasmus J,
Rohler H and Tribe I: Wellbore Imaging Goes Live,
Oileld Review 15, no. 1 (Spring 2003): 2437.
Cheung P, Hayman A, Laronga R, Cook G, Flournoy G,
Goetz P, Marshall M, Hansen S, Lamb M, Li B, Larsen M,
Orgren M and Redden J: A Clear Picture in Oil-Base
Muds, Oileld Review 13, no. 4 (Winter 2001/2002): 227.
Bargach S, Falconer I, Maeso C, Rasmus J,
Bornemann T, Plumb R, Codazzi D, Hodeneld K, Ford G,
Hartner J, Grether B and Rohler H: Real-Time LWD:
Logging for Drilling, Oileld Review 12, no. 3
(Autumn 2000): 5878.
8. Al-Anzi E, Al-Mutawa A, Nasr-El-Din H, Alvarado O,
Brady M, Davies S, Fredd C, Fu D, Lungwitz B, Chang F,
Huidobro E, Jemmali M, Samuel M and Sandhu D:
Positive Reactions in Carbonate Reservoir Stimulation,
Oileld Review 15, no. 4 (Winter 2003/2004): 2845.
9. Diversion is a technique used in injection treatments to
ensure uniform distribution of treatment uid across the
treatment interval. Injected uids tend to follow the path
of least resistance, such as an open natural fracture,
possibly resulting in the least permeable areas receiving
inadequate treatment. By using some means of diversion,
the treatment can focus on the areas requiring the most
treatment. To be effective, the diversion effect should be
temporary to allow full restoration of well productivity
when the treatment is complete.
10. Al-Anzi et al, reference 8.
Albuquerque MAP, Ledergerber AG, Smith CL and
Saxon A: Use of Novel Acid System Improves Zonal
Coverage of Stimulation Treatments in Tengiz Field,
paper SPE 98221, presented at the SPE International
Symposium and Exhibition on Formation Damage
Control, Lafayette, Louisiana, USA, February 1517, 2006.
11. Samuel M, Polson D, Graham D, Kordziel W, Waite T,
Waters G, Vinod PS, Fu D and Downey R: Viscoelastic
Surfactant Fracturing Fluids: Applications in Low-
Permeability Reservoirs, paper SPE 60322, presented at
the SPE Rocky Mountain Regional Low Permeability
Reservoirs Symposium and Exhibition, Denver,
March 1215, 2000.
Samuel M, Card RJ, Nelson EB, Brown JE, Vinod PS,
Temple HL, Qu Q and Fu DK: Polymer-Free Fluid for
Hydraulic Fracturing, paper SPE 38622, presented at
the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
San Antonio, Texas, October 58, 1997.
Chase B, Chmilowski W, Marcinew R, Mitchell C, Dang Y,
Krauss K, Nelson E, Lantz T, Parham C and Plummer J:
Clear Fracturing Fluids for Increased Well Productivity,
Oileld Review 9, no. 3 (Autumn 1997): 2033.
12. Lorenz JC: Stress-Sensitive Reservoirs, paper
SPE 50977, Journal of Petroleum Technology 51, no. 1
(January 1999): 6163.
13. http://www.naturalfractures.com/ (accessed April 20, 2006).
14. Stearns DW and Friedman M: Reservoirs in Fractured
Rock, in King RE (ed): Stratigraphic Oil and Gas Fields
Classication, Exploration Methods and Case Histories,
American Association of Petroleum Geologists,
Memoir 16. Tulsa: AAPG (1972): 82106.
15. Engelder T: Stress Regimes in the Lithosphere.
Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University
Press (1993): 2425.
16. Pollard DD and Aydin AA: Progress in Understanding
Jointing over the Past Century, Geological Society of
America Bulletin 100, no. 8 (1988): 11811204.
17. Gross MR: The Origin and Spacing of Cross Joints:
Examples from the Monterrey Formation, Santa Barbara
Coastline, California, Journal of Structural Geology 15,
no. 6 (June 1993): 737751.
18. Odling NE, Gillespie P, Bourgnie B, Castaing C, Chils J-P,
Christensen NP, Fillion E, Genter A, Olsen C, Thrane L,
Trice R, Aarseth E, Walsh JJ and Watterson J:
Variations in Fracture System Geometry and Their
Implications for Fluid Flow in Fractured Hydrocarbon
Reservoirs, Petroleum Geoscientist 5, no. 4
(November 1999): 373384.
>
Principal stresses and the creation of
fractures. The diagram shows the directions
of the three principal stressesmaximum
compressive principal stress,
1
, the minimum
compressive principal stress,
3
, and the
intermediate stress,
2
. The resultant fracturing
is also indicated. Tension fractures (green) form
parallel to
1
and
2
. The acute angle that forms
between two shear fractures (red) is called the
conjugate angle. The angle that forms between
the shear fracture and
1
is called the dihedral
angle. An obtuse angle forms between the shear
fracture and
3
, while the shear fractures are
parallel to
2
.
The origin of joints is often difcult to
determine, but it is known from rock mechanics
that they occur at low effective
3
. Truly tensile
stress occurs at shallow depths, so some joints
form close to the surface. However, at reservoir
depths, joints can probably form only under high
uid pressure, a process similar to hydraulic
fracturing during well stimulation.
As joints do not involve displacement that
offsets bedding, they cannot be directly observed
on seismic images, but can be located and
characterized by well-log data and borehole
images (above). While it is relatively simple for a
geologist to distinguish faults and joints at an
outcrop, the distinction is often less clear using
subsurface data, as stratigraphic offsets may not
be resolvable. Geologists may therefore have to
rely on a number of criteria, such as fracture ll,
orientation and spatial distribution, to deter mine
whether fractures of a given set are likely to be
faults or joints. It may be necessary in such cases
to develop a pragmatic classication system
based on observed properties of the fractures.
Other types of fractures are created by
volume-reduction mechanisms within the rock
and not from external forces. These include
desiccation cracks, syneresis fractures, thermal
contraction fractures and mineral phase-change
fractures. Of these, syneresis, or chicken-wire
fractures, and mineral phase-change fractures in
carbonates have the greatest importance in oil
and gas production. Syneresis fractures are
formed by a chemical process that causes
dewatering and associated volume reduction.
Carbonate rocks are easily dissolved in
freshwater or aggressive uids and the
dissolution is often concentrated to form caves or
vugs. The resulting porosity is termed karst and
is important in many fractured carbonate
reservoirs. Maps of karst often show that the
porosity is most strongly enhanced along the
planes of preexisting fractures and so clarifying
the underlying fracture system can often help in
understanding karst systems.
Because carbonates dissolve relatively easily
under pressure, they have a tendency to form
stylolitesuneven surfaces of insoluble residue
that form perpendicular to
1
. Stylolites may cause
local permeability reduc tion, or alternatively they
may facilitate subse quent dissolution and perme -
ability increase. Tension gashes, or fracturing
associated with stylolites, are common (next page,
top).
19
While tension gashes may contribute to
permeability measured in core, their subsurface
impact on reservoir producibility is thought to
be minimal.
A genetic classication system examines how
fractures relate to the formation and the
structure in which they are located. The creation
of endogenetic fractures relates to the stresses
during sedimentation, for example cleating in
coals. Exogenetic fractures are formed after
sedimentation and lithication, usually from
tectonic stresses caused by folding and faulting.
Once natural-fracture systems have been
classied in both geologic and engineering
terms, the next step is to investigate their impact
on the reservoir.
Classifying Fractured Reservoirs
Most, if not all, reservoirs contain fractures. It is
the degree to which fractures inuence uid ow
through a reservoir that should dictate the level
of resources needed to identify, characterize and
model fractures. The effects of fractures can
change throughout the productive life of the
reservoir as pressures and uid types change
during primary- and secondary-recovery stages.
Moreover, fractures dont always conduct uid;
they are often barriers to ow. Fractured
reservoirs are classied based on the interaction
between the relative porosity and permeability
contributions from both the fracture and matrix
systems (next page, bottom).
20
In Type 1 reservoirs, fractures provide both
the porosity and permeability elements. Type 2
reservoirs have low porosity and low permeability
in the matrix, and fractures provide the essential
permeability for productivity. Type 3 reservoirs
have high porosity and may produce without
fractures, so fractures in these reservoirs provide
added permeability. Type M reservoirs have high
matrix porosity and permeability, so open
fractures can enhance permeability, but natural
8 Oileld Review
>
Example of low-angle nonsystematic fractures in shales. FMI Fullbore Formation MicroImager
images clearly show both fracturing (blue sinusoids in Track 3 and tadpoles in Track 4) and formation
bedding (green sinusoids and tadpoles). Track 1 displays caliper, borehole orientation and gamma ray
data. Tracks 2 and 3 show the FMI static and dynamic images, respectively. Dip tadpoles are
presented in Track 4.
X70.2
X70.4
X70.6
X70.8
X71.0
X71.2
X71.4
X71.6
X71.8
X72.0
0 120 240 360
FMI Static Image
Resistive Conductive
Orientation North
0 120 240 360
FMI Dynamic Image
Orientation North
gAPI 0 200
Gamma Ray
Bit Size
Caliper 2
mm 125 375
mm 125 375
mm 125 375
Caliper 1
deg 0 90
Bedding True Dip
deg 0 90
Fracture True Dip
deg 0 90
Borehole Drift
D
e
p
t
h
,

f
t
Summer 2006 9
fractures often complicate uid ow in these
reservoirs by forming barriers. Fractures add no
signicant additional porosity and permeability
to Type 4 reservoirs, but instead are usually
barriers to ow. Another reservoir class, Type G,
has been created for unconventional fractured
gas reservoirs, such as CBM, and fractured gas-
condensate reservoirs. Most Type G reservoirs fall
within or near the Type 2 reservoir classication.
Before NFR classication can be done in any
meaningful way, both natural-fracture and
matrix systems within a reservoir must be
understood, along with the complex ow
interaction between those systems. Many factors
affect uid ow within a NFR, including
present-day stress orientation, natural-fracture
directions, whether the fractures are mineral-
lled or open, reservoir uid properties and
phases, and the production and injection history
of the eld. While many of these factors cannot
be controlled, some problems can be mitigated.
Field-development strategies can therefore be
tailored to the natural-fracture systems to
optimize production and recovery. The sooner
this knowledge is acquired, the more prepared
asset teams will be to make important eld-
management decisions early in eld development.
Evaluating Fractures and Fields
There are many different ways to characterize
natural fractures and to evaluate their role in
reservoir exploitation. Dynamic methods seek to
characterize the effects of fractures by
measuring or directly describing the movement
of uids through fractures and matrix. These
dynamic methods include medium-scale interval,
pressure-transient testing, which provides
information on fractures and fracture-related
ow, and estimates of fracture conductivity.
21
These tests can be obtained with the MDT
Modular Formation Dynamics Tester. Another
medium- to large-scale dynamic method uses
injected tracers and water-composition analysis
to determine direct communication attributed to
fractures between zones and between wells.
19. Stylolites are wave-like or tooth-like, serrated, interlocking
surfaces, most commonly seen in carbonate and quartz-
rich rocks, that contain concentrated insoluble residue
such as clay minerals and iron oxides. Stylolites are
thought to form by pressure solution, a dissolution
process that reduces pore space under pressure
during diagenesis.
For more on stylolites: Nelson, reference 1: 163185.
20. Nelson, reference 1: 101124.
21. Jackson RR, Xian C, Carnegie A, Gauthier P and
Brooks AD: Application of Interval Pressure Transient
Testing with Downhole Fluid Analysis for Characterising
Permeability Distributions, In-Situ Flow Fractions and
Water Cut, paper SPE 92208, presented at the SPE
International Petroleum Conference, Puebla, Mexico,
November 79, 2004.
>
Cross section of a stylolite. Stylolites are diagenetic features commonly
found in low-permeability carbonate rocks. They form as irregular surfaces
between two layers and are generally thought to be the result of pressure
solution under a state of differential stress. Stylolites normally inhibit
subsurface fluid flow, but are often associated with small fractures called
tension gashes, which sometimes appear permeable on core tests.
inch 0
0 1
1
cm
>
Naturally fractured reservoir classification system. Type 1 reservoirs,
with fractures providing both primary porosity and primary permeability,
typically have large drainage areas per well, and require fewer wells for
development. These reservoirs show high initial production rates. They are
also subject to rapid production decline, early water breakthrough and
difficulties in determining reserves. Type 2 reservoirs can have surprisingly
good initial production rates for a low-permeability matrix but can have
difficulties during secondary recovery if the communication between the
fracture and the matrix is poor. Type 3 reservoirs are typically more
continuous and have good sustained production rates but can have
complex directional permeability relationships, leading to difficulties during
the secondary-recovery phase. Type M reservoirs have impressive matrix
qualities but are sometimes compartmentalized, causing them to
underperform compared with early producibility estimates, and making
secondary-recovery effectiveness variable within the same field. Type 4
reservoirs would plot near the origin because the fracture contribution to
permeability in Type 4 reservoirs is negative. (Adapted from Nelson,
reference 1: 102.)
T
o
t
a
l

p
e
r
m
e
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
,

%
Total porosity, %
Increasing natural-fracture influence
(decreasing matrix influence)
100% matrix
permeability
100% fracture
permeability
100% matrix
porosity
100% fracture
porosity
Type 3
Type M
(matrix
only)
Type 2
Type
Type 4
1
Type G
Geometric methods measure specic attri -
butes to identify and characterize natural
fractures and assess their potential impact on
production or injection. While traditional logging
measurements, such as caliper and microresis -
tivity logs, can allude to the presence of natural
fractures, they are generally not quantitative.
Today, various technologies have been developed
to address NFRs. The most common small-scale,
log-based fracture-evaluation techniques use
ultrasonic and resistivity borehole imaging
technologies that can be deployed by wireline or
LWD methods.
While the resolution of wireline-conveyed
electrical borehole imaging tools is exceptional,
the most detailed way to assess NFRs is by
acquiring fullbore cores across intervals of
interest.
22
Having access to fullbore core allows
geologists and petrophysicists to examine specic
properties that inuence a fractures ability to
conduct uidsfor example, the presence of in-
lling minerals. Another extremely valuable use
of core data is to provide a ground truth from
which to calibrate other fracture-analysis
methods. However, fullbore coring can be
expensive and poor core recovery can be a
problem in highly fractured rock. Also, coring-
induced fractures can be difcult to distinguish
from unmineralized natural fractures.
23
Despite
the difculties, there are now innovative ways to
characterize NFRs using advanced technologies
and processing techniques.
The fractured granite basement rocks of the
Cuu Long basin, offshore Vietnam, are mostly
Type 1 reservoirsboth porosity and perme ability
in the basement rock are provided by natural
fractures (left).
24
However, in the fractured zones
surrounding faults, secondary porosity has been
documented because hydrothermal uids dissolve
feldspars in the matrix. The result is a hybrid
Type 2/Type 1 NFR.
Since rst production in the early 1990s,
common methods for measuring permeability
the most daunting property to ascertain in these
fractured basement reservoirswere performing
well tests or acquiring and testing core. Well-test
analysis of fractured reservoirs requires
numerous assumptions that can lead to errors,
while core analysis is typically pessimistic
because the most highly fractured reservoir
intervals often are not recovered and analyzed.
Even though Cuu Long reservoirs rely solely
on fractures to produce, their productivity can
be astonishingsome individual wells can
produce more than 20,000 bbl/d [3,180 m
3
/d] of
oil. A series of geologic episodes, including an
extensional phase during rifting, which created
the basin, followed by two major phases of
compression, has led to a complex but prolic
natural-fracture network that can be divided
into three fracture classessolution-enhanced
and unenhanced bounding fractures, straight-
walled fractures and discrete fractures (next
page, left).
25
When not lled with clays, calcite and
zeolites, the bounding network of fractures forms
the main conduits for uid transmission and
provides important storage volume for the
basement reservoirs.
26
Some of the bounding
fractures are enormous, measuring more than 1.5
m [4.9 ft] in fracture width. On the other hand,
10 Oileld Review
25. Bounding fractures are dened as fractures on which
other fractures terminate.
26. Zeolites are microporous crystalline solids with well-
dened structures. Generally, they contain silicon,
aluminum and oxygen in their framework, and cations,
and water or other molecules within their pores. From
http://www.bza.org/zeolites.html (accessed April 30, 2006).
27. To compute fracture apertures, shallow-resistivity data
are needed to calibrate, or scale, the FMI or Formation
MicroScanner tool response. For more on the technique:
Luthi SM and Souhaite P: Fracture Aperture from
Electrical Borehole Scans, Geophysics 55, no. 7 (1992):
821833.
22. Lorenz JC and Hill R: Measurement and Analysis of
Fractures in Core, in Schmoker JW, Coalson EB and
Brown CA (eds): Geophysical Studies Relevant to
Horizontal Drilling: Examples from North America.
Denver: Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists
(1994): 4757.
23. Lorenz JC, Warpinski NR and Teufel LW: Natural
Fracture Characteristics and Effects, The Leading
Edge 15, no. 8 (August 1996): 909911.
24. Li B, Guttormsen J, Hoi TV and Duc NV: Characterizing
Permeability for the Fractured Basement Reservoirs,
paper SPE 88478, presented at the SPE Asia Pacic Oil
and Gas Conference and Exhibition, Perth, Australia,
October 1820, 2004.
>
Location of the Cuu Long basin, offshore Vietnam. Fracture swarms in a granite outcrop along Long
Hai Beach, Vietnam, are an offshore analog of the field (photograph). Fracture swarms run parallel to
the beach for 300 to 400 m [984 to 1,312 ft]. The relative lack of published stress data makes it even
more important to acquire usable stress data when possible (bottom right). (Stress map insert is from
the World Stress Map Project, http://www-wsm.physik.uni-karlsruhe.de/pub/casmo/content_frames/
stress_maps_frame.html, used with permission.)
200 0 miles
0 200 km
Hanoi
Da Nang
Ho Chi
Minh City
C
u
u
L
o
n
g
B
a
s
in
V I E T N A M
Vietnam
S
o
u
t
h

C
h
i
n
a

S
e
a
Summer 2006 11
the majority of discrete fractures are relatively
short, terminate at the bounding fractures,
contribute the majority of the storage capacity to
the bounding networks, and maintain apertures
that mostly range from 0.01 to 0.1 mm [0.0004 to
0.004 in.].
In the elds of the Cuu Long basin, perme -
ability is the driving factor for well productivity.
Using FMI image data, geoscientists from
Schlumberger, Cuu Long Joint Operating
Company (JOC) and VietSovPetro developed a
method to consistently calculate reservoir
permeability and calibrate it to core analysis, well-
testing results and production-log data. First,
fracture interconnectivity is assessed using the
image data and the BorTex texture classication
tool in the Schlumberger GeoFrame integrated
reservoir characterization system platform. This
processing essentially maps out the conductive
anomalies within the resistive granite matrix on
the borehole image and computes a relative
permeability indicator (RPI).
In another processing step, fracture
apertures and fracture density are calculated for
hand-picked fractures on the FMI resistivity
images.
27
These outputs, along with a calibration
constant, are used to calculate fracture
permeability (K
f
). In Type 1 reservoirs, K
f
should
equal reservoir permeability (K
r
) for the same
investigated volume. The RPI can then be scaled
to K
r
to provide a continuous assessment of
permeability. The limited amount of core taken
in a zone of relatively low permeability was used
to calibrate K
r
(above right).
This image-based interpretation technique
has been successful on numerous wells across
the Cuu Long basin. For example, on one well,
300 m [984 ft] of the granite basement rock was
penetrated at a top depth of around 3,900 m
[12,800 ft]. A standard openhole-logging suite
was acquired along with FMI images and only 3 m
[9.8 ft] of fullbore core. After initial production,
dynamic fracture-characterization methods were
employed on two occasionsshortly after the
well was completed and again after 17 months of
productionand included well testing and
production logging.
>
Fracture-classification system used in the Cuu Long basin. The FMI image (left) shows the
two main fracture types. The fracture flow system relationships for each type are described for
the discrete fracture system (top right) and the solution-enhanced system (bottom right).
X,Y84
Fracture Flow-System Relationships
Discrete Fracture System (Secondary)
Tectonic only
Low permeability
Short length
Short height
stress
Fine aperturesubject to principal
Highly tortuous flow paths
Secondary production conduits
(behave like a matrix-porosity system)
X,Y85
X,Y86
X,Y87
X,Y88
Solution-Enhanced System (Primary)
Tectonic modified by hydrothermal
and meteoric processes
High permeability
Long length
Tall height
Large aperture
Linear to radial flow paths
Primary production conduits
0 120 240 360
Orientation North
D
e
p
t
h
,

m
FMI Image
>
Calibration and validation of reservoir
permeability (K
r
) using 3 m of core data
(left). The computed permeability log section
on the right shows the high-permeability
zones (yellow) that contributed to flow
during production logging and well testing.
These zones had an average permeability
from well testing of 69 mD. The continuous
computed K
r
across the same intervals
averaged 92 mD.
0.1 1,000 mD
Core Permeability
Permeability
0.1 1,000 mD
Core Permeability
0.1 1,000 mD
0.1 1,000 mD
1 m
E
s
t
i
m
a
t
e
d

a
v
e
r
a
g
e

p
e
r
m
e
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

f
o
r

t
h
e

c
o
n
t
r
i
b
u
t
i
n
g

z
o
n
e
s

i
s

6
9

m
D
.
Permeability
Permeability
Fracture
Permeability
A correlation between the calculated perme -
abilities and actual reservoir performance was very
good (below). Initially, oil owed from three zones
as demonstrated by the production log, but there
were several high-permeability zones that did not
contribute. Experts at Cuu Long JOC and
VietSovPetro suspected that the lack of
contribution was caused by partial formation
damage, since mud losses were recorded during
drilling, for example from X,090 to X,100 m.
Reassuringly, after 17 months of production, other
zones began to contribute to production. Over
time, the damaged zones cleaned up with
assistance from the pressure drop in the wellbore.
In addition, the water cut had increased since the
start of production.
This technique has helped to minimize the
complicating effects that resistive fracture-lling
minerals have on fracture characterization in the
elds of the Cuu Long basin. However, conductive
minerals in the fractures, found mainly in
weathered zones at the top of the granite, still
pose a dilemma because resistivity-based imaging
tools cannot differentiate between conductive
minerals and conductive drilling uid. In these
zones, special attention is paid to corroborative
datamud-loss records, gas shows and log data
from the MDT or CMR Combinable Magnetic
Resonance tools. Importantly, this fracture-
characterization technique provides a detailed,
depth-continuous permeability output that can
help asset teams with individual well stimulation
and completion and injection designs, and can
be upscaled to reservoir models across an
entire eld.
12 Oileld Review
>
Integrated fracture permeability analysis showing a comparison of computed permeability to production logging and well-testing results. Standard
openhole-log data are displayed in Tracks 1 and 2, FMI images are shown in Track 3, fracture apertures calculated from the FMI data are presented in
Track 4, K
f
and RPI are shown in Track 5, and K
r
with core-calibration points is displayed in Track 6. The yellow box in the Depth Track indicates the
location of significant mud losses during drilling. Tracks 7 and 8 include the interpreted production-log results in the first well-testing job shortly after the
well was drilled. Track 9 presents the interpreted production-log rate, showing zones that contributed water (blue) and oil (red) from the second well-
testing job, performed after the well had been on production for 17 months.
0 120 240 360
FMI Dynamic
Image
Res. Cond.
Orientation North
0.45 -0.15 2 20,000 m
3 3
/m ohm.m
Neutron Porosity
D
e
p
t
h
,

m
X,000
X,100
1.95 2.95 2 20,000 ohm.m
Bulk Density Shallow Laterolog
g/cm
3
0.1 1,000 mD
Core Permeability
Permeability
0.009 0.5
Relative
Permeability
Indicator
1 10,000 mD
Fracture
Permeability
0.00001 0.1
Fracture Aperture
cm
Flow Rate
0 4,000 bbl/d
Oil Rate, bbl/d
Water
Rate,
bbl/d
Oil
Rate,
bbl/d
1,058
784
169
483
132
232
860
452
119
301
106
854
276
Deep Laterolog
6 16
Caliper
in.
0 200
Gamma Ray
gAPI
Permeability
0.1 1,000 mD
Summer 2006 13
Fractures in the Rocky Mountains
Hydrocarbon production from low-porosity, low-
permeability, hard-rock reservoirs depends on
successfully connecting open fracture networks
to the wellbore. Because the matrix quality is
generally low, the surface area exposed to the
wellbore along fracture planes often must be
increased for required production volumes. This
is accomplished by performing hydraulic fracture
stimulation. Open natural fractures contribute to
production but can also cause problems during
drilling, cementing, completion and stimulation
operations. Therefore, it is essential to identify
fractured intervals for cement- and stimulation-
staging considerations.
A powerful combination of high-resolution
borehole imaging and innovative acoustic
measurements from the Sonic Scanner acoustic
scanning platform adds dynamic elements to
detailed fracture analysis from wireline tools.
28
Schlumberger geoscientists and petrophysicists
in the Rocky Mountain region, USA, use Stoneley
and dipole exural-wave data from the Sonic
Scanner tool and FMI image data to clearly
identify formation bedding, sedimentary features
and fractures.
29
The improved low-frequency
Stoneley responsedown to 300 Hzof the
Sonic Scanner tool enables the detection of high-
angle to vertical fractures. Also, using an
attenuation technique called normalized
differential energies (NDE) makes it possible to
differentiate natural fractures from drilling-
induced fractures, even when they are oriented
in the same directionusually parallel to the
present-day maximum horizontal-stress direction.
However, when the stress-related anisotropy
direction differs only slightly from the fracture-
induced anisotropy direction, the new tool is
still able to differentiate the two because
of the improved ability to resolve small amounts
of anisotropynow 2%, versus 5% with the
previous technology.
Frequency-content and signal-strength
variations occur in naturally fractured intervals.
Another processing technique called slowness-
frequency analysis (SFA) allows the interpre -
tation of dipole exural-wave frequency and
amplitude data and shows the quality of the
estimation of shear slowness from exural-wave
dispersion analysis up to several feet into the
formation from the wellbore.
In the Type 2 reservoirs in the Rocky
Mountains, porosities range from 3 to 7% and
matrix permeabilities are in the microdarcies.
The FMI tool enables the calculation of fracture
aperture, fracture porosity, fracture density and
fracture trace length at the wellbore.
30
Combining independent fracture-characterization
methods from the Sonic Scanner Stoneley-wave
and shear-wave analysis with FMI image
interpretation shows an unambiguous assessment
of fracturing across the interval (above). Armed
with this log-based characterization of the
fractures, the asset team can better judge the
optimal way to cement, complete and stimulate
this potentially productive interval.
Experts in the Rocky Mountain region have
developed a hard-rock completion solution that
combines Sonic Scanner data with FMI data to
optimize hydraulic fracture design. The solution
incorporates natural-fracture characterization
including the determination of fracture aperture,
fracture permeability and fracture extentand
the analysis of maximum and minimum hori -
zontal stresses. All this information is captured
in the mechanical earth model that is used by
stimulation designers to optimize hydraulic
fracture design.
28. Arroyo Franco JL, Mercado Ortiz MA, De GS, Renlie L
and Williams S: Sonic Investigations In and Around the
Borehole, Oileld Review 18, no. 1 (Spring 2006): 1433.
29. Donald A and Bratton T: Advancements in Acoustic
Technique for Evaluating Open Natural Fractures,
Transactions of the SPWLA 47th Annual Logging
Symposium, Veracruz, Mexico, June 47, 2006, paper QQ.
30. Hornby B and Luthi S: An Integrated Interpretation of
Fracture Apertures Computed from Electrical Borehole
Scans and Reected Stoneley Waves, in Hurst A,
Grifths C and Worthington P (eds): Geological
Applications of Wireline Logs II, Geological Society
Special Publication 65. London: The Geological Society
(1992): 185198.
>
Fracture characterization using Sonic Scanner and FMI data. Borehole anisotropy analysis includes
the slowness-frequency analysis (SFA) and slowness-time-coherence (STC) projections for the fast
inline and slow inline waveforms. In Track 2, the anisotropy magnitude and direction vary with depth,
ranging from more than 16% (red) to less than 2% (blue). The high-anisotropy zones correspond to
zones with fractures visible on the FMI image in Track 7. Minimum and maximum offline energy
differences are displayed in the Depth Track from the shear-wave anisotropy analysis. Large
differences between measured Stoneley slowness and slowness modeled for an elastic, impermeable
formation are observed in Track 3. Fracture-aperture computations from the Sonic Scanner reflection
and attenuation analysis in Track 4 are compared with fracture apertures calculated on hand-picked
fractures in Track 5 from the FMI image in Track 7. Track 6 displays the Stoneley Variable Density log.
300 s/ft 0
T-Based Fast Shear
X,100
X,200
X,300
X,400
0 100
0 100
Maximum
Energy
Minimum
Energy
D
e
p
t
h
,

f
t
Modeled Stoneley
s/ft 250 150
S-Se
Washout
Caliper
in. 4 14
Bit Size
in. 4 14
T Stoneley
s/ft 250 150
Stoneley Aperture
Fracture Width
in. 0 0.5
Stoneley Permeability
Fracture Trace Length
1/ft 10 0
Fracture Porosity
ft
3
/ft
3
0.1 0
Fracture Permeability
mD 100,000 10
10
s 0 20,440
Stoneley Variable
Density Log
0 120 240 360
FMI Image
Offline
Energy
Orientation North
-90 90 deg
Fast Shear
Azimuth
2 4 6 16 0
Anisotropy Flag, %
Shear Difference
300 s/ft 0
T-Based Slow Shear
200 %
%
Time-Based Anisotropy
0
300 s/ft 0
Compressional T
300 s/ft 0
Stoneley T
0
T-Based Anisotropy
200
Azimuth
Uncertainty
Coalbed Methane Reservoirs
There may be no other NFR as difficult
to stimulate as a coalbed methane (CBM)
reservoir, an unconventional but growing source
of methane. Beginning with its deposition as
peat, coal is a unique reservoir rock. To be
productive, coalbed reservoirs require natural
fractures. Vertical natural fractures in coal are
called cleats, and these form during coalifi -
cation. Systematic coal cleats are classified
geometrically with the primary, more continuous
fracture set called face cleats and the
secondary, less continuous fracture set called
butt cleats (below).
Coal fractures can also be classied
genetically. Endogenetic fractures, or classic
cleats, are created under tension as the coal
matrix shrinks because of dewatering and
devolatilization during coalication. These cleat
sets are orthogonal and nearly always perpen -
dicular to bedding. In contrast, exogenetic
fractures form due to tectonism, and regional
stress elds dictate their orientation. Shear
fractures also are observed in some coals. Cleats
are the primary permeability mechanism in
virtually all CBM reservoirs, so understanding
cleating and natural fracturing in coals is critical
during all facets of CBM reservoir development.
Methane is stored in coal by adsorption, a
process by which the individual gas molecules
are bound by weak electrical forces to the solid
organic molecules that make up the coal.
Coals ability to store methane largely reduces
14 Oileld Review
>
Examples of Canadian coals on FMI images and outcrops. The FMI image (top left) and a photograph from a representative
outcrop (bottom left) of the Alberta Plains coal show both face and butt cleats. Shear fractures, face cleats and butt cleats are
shown on both the FMI image (top right) and the outcrop photograph (bottom right) of the Alberta Foothills coal. Interestingly,
shear fractures usually degrade coal permeability.
Alberta Foothills Coal
gAPI 0 150
Gamma
Ray
mm 125 375
Bit Size
Caliper
mm 125 375
0 90
0 120 240 360
deg
Bedding True Dip
Face Cleat
deg 0 90
FMI Dynamic Image
Orientation North
M
e
a
s
u
r
e
d

d
e
p
t
h
,

m
Face cleat
Shear
fractures
X,X20
X,X21
X,X22
Face cleat
Butt cleat
Shear fracture
Bedding
Foothills Coal
Alberta Plains Coal
gAPI 0 150
Gamma
Ray
mm 375
Bit Size
Caliper
mm 375
deg 0 90
Bedding True Dip
Face Cleat
0 120 240 360 deg 0 90
M
e
a
s
u
r
e
d

d
e
p
t
h
,

m
Orientation North
FMI Dynamic Image
X,X59
X,X60
125
125
Face cleat
Butt cleat
Plains Coal
Summer 2006 15
the need for conventional reservoir-trapping
mechanisms, making coals gas contentwhich
increases with increasing coal rankand the
degree of cleating or natural fracturing the
overriding considera tions when assessing an
area for CBM production potential.
31
This storing ability gives coals unique early-
time production behavior that is related to
desorption, not pressure depletion. Coals may
contain water or gas, or both, in the cleat and
natural-fracture systems, in addition to gas
sorbed onto the internal surface of the coal
matrix. Any water present in the cleat system
must be produced to reduce the reservoir
pressure in the cleat system before signicant
volumes of gas can be produced. Dewatering
increases the permeability to gas within the
cleats and fractures, and causes the gas in the
matrix to desorb, diffuse through the matrix and
move into the cleat system, resulting in CBM
production proles that are unique by
comparison with other fractured reservoirs.
In most CBM reservoirs, water production is
initially high. As the water moves out of the cleats
and fractures, gas saturation and production
increase and water production decreases. The
speed at which the reservoir dewaters depends on
several factors, including original gas and water
saturations, cleat porosity, relative and absolute
permeability of the coal, and well spacing. When
permeability to gas eventually stabilizes, the coal
is considered dewatered and gas production
peaks. From this point, both water and gas
production slowly decline, with gas being the
dominant produced uid.
In just a few years of development, CBM gas
production in Alberta, Canada, has surpassed
300 million ft
3
/d [8.50 million m
3
/d]. Most of this
production comes from the Horseshoe Canyon and
Mannville coal zones, and a small percentage
less than 1%comes from the Ardley coals in the
Upper Cretaceous Scollard formation (above).
The less-exploited Ardley coals, however, are a
signicant potential CBM resource, exceeding
40 trillion ft
3
[1.13 trillion m
3
].
Burlington Resources, now ConocoPhillips,
has investigated the Ardley coals using the FMI
tool.
32
In two wells, the borehole images have
allowed geoscientists at ConocoPhillips and
Schlumberger to determine the present-day
stress regime from drilling-induced fractures,
which are oriented northeast to southwest, in
the direction of maximum horizontal stress.
This direction is consistent with previous
assessments.
33
The FMI images have also
provided insight into the nature and direction of
>
Maps showing the distribution of Alberta coals (left), thickness of the Ardley coal (top right) and
published stress data (bottom right). The map on the left shows the area of the Ardley coal play (red)
where the Ardley coal thickness is greater than 12 m [39.4 ft]. (Stress map insert is from the World
Stress Map Project, http://www-wsm.physik.uni-karlsruhe.de/pub/casmo/content_frames/
stress_maps_frame.html, used with permission.)
Alberta
Alberta
Calgary
Edmonton
km
miles 0
0 200
200
Edmonton
km
miles 0
0 100
100
Ardley coal thickness
0 to 6 m
6 to 12 m
>18 m
12 to 18 m
31. Anderson J, Simpson M, Basinski P, Beaton A, Boyer C,
Bulat D, Ray S, Reinheimer D, Schlachter G, Colson L,
Olsen T, John Z, Khan R, Low N, Ryan B and
Schoderbek D: Producing Natural Gas from Coal,
Oileld Review 15, no. 3 (Autumn 2003): 831.
32. Schoderbek D and Ray S: Reservoir Characterization
of Ardley Coals, Scollard Formation, Alberta: Borehole
Image Interpretation, presented at the AAPG Annual
Meeting, Calgary, June 1619, 2005.
33. Bell JS, Price PR and McLellan PJ: In-Situ Stress in the
Western Canada Sedimentary Basin, in Mossop GD and
Shetson I (compilers): Geological Atlas of the Western
Canada Sedimentary Basin. Calgary: Canadian Society
of Petroleum Geologists and Alberta Research Council
(1994): 439446.
cleating within the Ardley coalsthe Val DOr,
the Arbour, the Silkstone and the Mynheer zones
(above). Interpretation of FMI images suggested
that within the Scollard formation, the Silkstone
coal had the most productive potential and the
Arbour coal had some potential.
ConocoPhillips integrated public and
proprietary cleat-orientation information from
mines and outcrops. In addition, geoscientists
performed a detailed examination of six
unoriented conventional cores that were cut
from the Ardley coals ve to ten years earlier. To
supplement the regional study of Ardley coal
cleating, these cores had to be oriented after the
fact, years after their acquisition. To accomplish
this, ConocoPhillips utilized a technique
developed by Applied Paleomagnetics called
paleomagnetic core orientation, which requires
that whole cores be reassembled and that plugs
cut from the core be selectively demagnetized.
34
The cores are oriented using the secondary
magnetization of magnetite found in nearly all
rocks. This magnetization points to present-day
geographical north and represents the average
geomagnetic eld over the past 780,000 years,
which is the time since the last geomagnetic
polarity reversal. Once the north direction on the
16 Oileld Review
34. Bleakly DC, Van Alstine DR and Packer DR: Core
Orientation 1: Controlling Errors Minimizes Risk and
Cost in Core Orientation, Oil and Gas Journal 83, no. 48
(December 2, 1985): 103109.
Bleakly DC, Van Alstine DR and Packer DR: Core
Orientation 2: How to Evaluate Orientation Data, Quality
Control, Oil and Gas Journal 83, no. 49 (December 9,
1985): 4654.
Hamilton WD, Van Alstine DR and Butterworth JE:
A Fracture-Orientation Comparison Between Core-
Based and Borehole-Imaging Techniques:
Paleomagnetic, Electronic Multishot, and FMI,
presented at the AAPG Annual Convention, San Diego,
California, May 1922, 1996.
35. Barkved O, Bartman B, Compani B, Gaiser J,
Van Dok R, Kristiansen P, Probert T and Thompson M:
>
Images of Ardley coals. The FMI tool successfully identifies cleating, or lack of cleating, in the four Ardley coal zones.
The FMI static image of the Val DOr coal appears very bright (top left), indicating a high degree of mineralization. The
Arbour coal image (top right) indicates no large cleats, while the Silkstone coal image (bottom left) shows abundant
face cleats, mostly striking northeast to southwest. The Mynheer coal is dominated by shale interbeds (bottom right).
Mineralized
Val DOr
X52.0
X52.5
X53.0
Well-cleated
Silkstone
Y12.5
Y13.0
Y13.5
Y14.0
Small-scale
cleating Arbour
X86.5
X87.0
X87.5
Shaly
Mynheer
Y31.5
Y32.5
Y32.0
gAPI 0 200
Gamma Ray
mm 375 125
mm 375 125
mm 375 125
mm 375 125
mm 375 125
mm 375 125
Bit Size
Caliper 2
Caliper 1
deg 0 90
Borehole
Drift
0 360
deg 0 90
Bedding True Dip
deg 0 90
Fracture True Dip
D
e
p
t
h
,

m
0 120 240 360
FMI Dynamic Image
Orientation North
FMI Static
Image
Res. Cond.
Orientation
North
gAPI 0 200
Gamma Ray
Bit Size
Caliper 2
Caliper 1
deg 0 90
Borehole
Drift
0 360
deg 0 90
Bedding True Dip
deg 0 90
Fracture True Dip
D
e
p
t
h
,

m
0 120 240 360
FMI Dynamic Image
Orientation North
FMI Static
Image
Res. Cond.
Orientation
North
The Many Facets of Multicomponent Seismic Data,
Oileld Review 16, no. 2 (Summer 2004): 4256.
Caldwell J, Christie P, Engelmark F, McHugo S,
zdemir H, Kristiansen P and MacLeod M: Shear
Waves Shine Brightly, Oileld Review 11, no. 1
(Spring 1999): 215.
36. Fracture intensity is a qualitative description of the
degree of natural fracturing that is usually derived from
seismic traveltime attributes.
Summer 2006 17
reassembled core is determined, the results from
the detailed analysis can then be oriented,
yielding orientation data comparable to outcrop
and mine studies and FMI image analyses (right).
All sources of data indicated that a dominant
northeast-to-southwest face-cleat system might
be open because of its favorable alignment with
the present-day maximum horizontal stress. The
butt-cleat system in the Ardley coals is much less
persistent and is aligned less favorably with
respect to present-day stresses. The lack of butt
cleats in Ardley coals is in contrast to Horseshoe
Canyon and Mannville coals.
Horizontal wells drilled perpendicular to the
face-cleat system may require hydraulic
fracturing of multiple intervals within the
horizontal section to effectively stimulate the
coals and optimize production potential. A more
effective stimulation promotes the dewatering of
the cleat systems and speeds up gas desorption.
The challenging permeability scenario will also
inuence well-design considerations, such as
drilling updip to maximize drainage.
Exploration for coalbed methane in the
Ardley coals of the Scollard formation is in its
infancy. ConocoPhillips plans to integrate the
results of this cleat study with hydrogeological
and structural interpretations to develop its
future exploration strategy.
A Seismic Net to Capture Fractures
The ability to characterize fracture systems in
the early eld-development stage reduces
economic risk because it enables asset teams to
determine optimal horizontal well directions to
maximize production and recovery. So far, most
of the discussion on fracture characterization
has dealt with the investigation of fractures using
relatively high-resolution techniques as
compared to seismic methods, which use
wavelengths up to 100 m [328 ft] to detect the
presence of natural fractures using azimuthal
anisotropy analysis.
35
These techniques do not
detect individual faults or fractures, but rather
exploit the average response across a large
volume of rock. For example, measuring
traveltime differences between the fast and slow
shear waves, together with the polarization
direction of the fast shear wave, helps to infer
the fracture intensity and fracture orientation,
respectively.
36
Seismic fracture-characterization
methods include velocity anisotropy determina -
tion, azimuthal amplitude variation with offset,
and normal moveout (NMO) variation with
azimuth (right).
>
Determining major cleat directions in the Ardley coals. Paleomagnetic core orientation was used to
supplement the ConocoPhillips Ardley coal database. Rose diagrams showing the cleat strike data
from the rotated core analysis are displayed on the left side of the map, while the rose diagrams from
the FMI interpretation are shown to the right of the map. Overall, the data support a northeast to
southwest face-cleat strike.
Coal cleats
Natural extension fracture
Natural shear fracture
High-angle induced fracture
Low-angle induced fracture
Cleats from FMI tool
Rose Diagram Symbols
Well 6
Well 1
Well 3
Well 4
Well 2
Well 5
FMI cleats
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
5%
10%
15%
5% 10% 15% 20%
20%
Ardley coal thickness
6 to 12 m
>18 m
12 to 18 m
5
2
4
3
6
1
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
2% 4% 6% 8% 10%
>
Seismic azimuthal anisotropy methods. The diagrams show land and marine seismic acquisition
methods used to detect fracture-induced anisotropy. The fracture diagram (top left) shows vertical
fractures striking north-south in the example, causing shear-wave splitting that helps determine the
fast-shear direction (north-south red polarization vectors) and the slow-shear direction (east-west
blue polarization vectors). The sinusoid shows how anisotropy can be determined from compressional
and shear velocity variations with azimuth (top right). The land seismic diagram (bottom left) shows the
rays for common midpoint gathers from two source-receiver directions. The seabed seismic diagram
(bottom right) demonstrates the effects of seismic anisotropy by showing two rays: a south-going fast
ray from a source position to the north of the seabed receiver cable; and a west-going slow ray
from an east source position above the seabed receiver cable. In 3D surveys, all azimuth directions
are interrogated.
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
North South
East West
Azimuth
NE SW
F
a
s
t s
h
e
a
r, N
S
S
lo
w
sh
e
a
r, W
E
F
a
s
t
F
a
s
t N
S
Slow
E
W
F
a
s
t N
S
Natural
fractures
Natural
fractures
Seabed
receiver
cable
S
lo
w
Slow
E
W
Seismic investigations of NFRs include those
from multioffset, multiazimuth vertical seismic
proles (VSPs). Walkaway- and walkaround-VSP
techniques permit velocity anisotropy and
amplitude variation with offset and azimuth
(AVOA) analyses at higher resolutions than with
surface seismic methods and can be used to
calibrate surface seismic results. Integrating all
available data to optimize the VSP conguration
is important for extracting high-quality
anisotropy information. This information can
then be used to design 3D surface seismic
surveys to cover areas remote from well control.
37
Through the years, geophysicists have noted
that compressional- (P-) wave velocities exhibited
azimuthal variations when processing some 3D
seismic surveys, especially those in areas of high
tectonic stress.
38
The fast P-wave direction aligns
with the maximum compressional stress
direction, parallel to natural fractures resulting
from the stress. In this simple scenario, the slow
P-wave direction would be aligned perpendicular
to the fracture strike, and the fracture-lling
uid would affect the velocity. Azimuthal
variations in other seismic attributes, such as
reection amplitudes, have also been observed
and exploited to determine fracture azimuth.
The advantage of examining amplitude
variations is that it detects local azimuthal
variations in contrast to velocity-based
techniques, which respond to the accumulating
effects of overlying strata.
39
Consequently, AVOA
analysis is a higher vertical resolution depiction
of a NFR than that obtained with velocity-based
methods. Reection amplitude, or reectivity,
depends on the effective elastic properties of the
fractured rock at the seismic scale. Because both
P- and shear (S-) velocities change with azimuth
in a fractured medium, an AVO response will be
inuenced by fracture properties, including
fracture azimuth. While AVOA processing and
interpretation are fairly simple where there is a
single alignment in an otherwise homogeneous
medium, multiple fracture directions
for example near faultsand additional sources
of anisotropy may signicantly complicate
the analysis.
40
Another approach examines the azimuthal
variation of P-wave normal moveout (NMO)
velocity.
41
A minimum of three azimuthal measure-
ments is required to construct an ellipse in the
horizontal plane that shows NMO velocities in all
azimuthal directions. Although most seismic
fracture-analysis methods assume a simple
geometryhorizontal beds and vertical
fracturesthe NMO technique allows some
further assessment where beds are dipping and
where natural fractures may not be vertical.
However, this technique also suffers from velocity-
related degradation of vertical resolution.
A carbonate reservoir study in a eld in
southwest Venezuela compared seismic-based
fracture-orientation results with fracture
orientations based on FMI images.
42
Different
seismic data types were used in the study,
including 2D three-component (3C) P- and
S-wave data, and 3D P-wave data. The study
found that most of the results from the rotation
analysis of the converted-wave 2D-3C data, and
the AVOA and NMO analyses of the 2D and 3D
P-wave data determined the general direction of
the regional maximum horizontal stress.
However, results varied between the different
methods because of local structural variations.
With the 3D P-wave data, the AVOA technique
appeared more robust than the NMO analysis.
The Venezuelan study also found that there were
quantiable advantages to acquiring land 3C
data, including the ability to estimate fracture
orientation and fracture density, or intensity.
Acquiring multicomponent seismic data in a
marine setting requires sophisticated four-
component (4C) seabed acquisition equipment.
43
Marine seismic studies have been successful in
identifying anisotropy direction and magnitude
at the specic target horizon by effectively
removing the inuence of the overburden in a
layer-stripping approach.
44
Passive seismic methods that detect the
reservoir response to production or injection can
also be thought of as dynamic fracture- and fault-
characterization techniques. Natural fractures
and faults emit microseismic eventsmostly
due to shear readjustmentsin response to
changes in effective stress following eld
production and injection, and especially during
hydraulic fracture stimulation operations.
45
Sensitive seismic sensors positioned in nearby
wellbores detect these acoustic emissions, which
in this method serve as the seismic source
(above). Special processing methods estimate
event locations, producing a continuous time-
based record of production- or injection-induced
activity. Seismic methods represent medium- to
large-scale fracture detection and character-
ization methods, and therefore have implications
in the effort to model the interwell volume of
these complex reservoirs.
18 Oileld Review
>
Tracking acoustic emissions induced by fluid production or injection.
Producing from or injecting into rocks in the subsurface changes net stress
in fractures and faults, inducing small shear events that emit acoustic
signals (red stars). These emissions can be recorded in nearby monitoring
wells that contain sensitive multicomponent seismic recording equipment.
Special localization processing creates a record of the events in space and
time. These acoustic emissions are located in 3D space and help identify
fracture and fault directions.
Monitoring
well
Natural
fractures
Production or
injection well
Production or
injection well
Summer 2006 19
Regardless of the technique, information
cultivated from seismic data contributes to
reservoir modeling that guides primary- and
secondary-recovery planning. However, in many
elds, wells from which to draw detailed fracture
information are too few and too widely spaced to
populate the model volume. Geologists gather
detailed fracture dataorientation and possibly
spacingfrom analog outcrops. However, this
process rarely captures a comprehensive descrip -
tion of the fracture network for modeling purposes
and sometimes overestimates fracture intensity.
Geoscientists at Hydro and Schlumberger in
Norway have developed a way to capture the
detailed quantitative information needed to make
NFR models from outcrop analogs. This method
uses a combination of high-resolution optical
photography, radar technologies and an automatic
surface-extraction technique now widely used for
mapping faults in 3D seismic datasets.
46
Hydro and
Schlumberger experts have tested this new
technique using a well-studied NFR outcrop analog
in the Guadalupe Mountains, New Mexico, USA.
For several years, Hydro, together with the
University of Texas at Dallas, has been using
detailed 3D photorealistic models for high-
resolution mapping of outcrop analogs.
47
Photorealistic models are derived from the
mapping of high-resolution 2D photographs onto
3D outcrop scans using light detection and
ranging (LIDAR) technology.
48
LIDAR equipment
transmits laser lightvisible electromagnetic
radiationto a target and receives back the
reected signal for analysis to determine certain
properties of the target. The most common type
of LIDAR is used for precise range nding
accurate to 2 mm [0.08 in.]and the returned
radiation intensity can help dene other
characteristics of the target.
Digitizing sufcient detail of sedimentary
architecture from photorealistic models for the
building of reservoir models is a straightforward
process. However, manual digitizing and analysis
of fractures from these datasets are impractical,
because several hundred thousand to millions of
fractures are commonly present. The new
automated approach to outcrop mapping is
organized to take advantage of the 3D directional
information inherent in LIDAR data and couple
it with the detailed information within high-
resolution 2D image data.
To achieve this, the LIDAR and photographic
data are rst analyzed separately. Because the
outcrops naturally weather along fractures, fault
planes and bedding, the major fracture sets and bed
boundaries are captured by vector analysis of the
LIDAR data (above left). The orientations of target
37. Peralta S, Barrientos C and Arroyo JL: The Specialized
Use of the VSP to Dene Fracture Orientation and to
Help in a Multicomponent Survey Design, Transactions
of the SPWLA 47th Annual Logging Symposium,
Veracruz, Mexico, June 47, 2006, paper SS.
Leaney WS, Sayers CM and Miller DE: Analysis of
Multiazimuthal VSP Data for Anisotropy and AVO,
Geophysics 64, no. 4 (July-August 1999): 11721180.
38. Corrigan D, Withers R, Darnall J and Skopinski T:
Fracture Mapping from Azimuthal Velocity Analysis
Using 3D Surface Seismic Data, Expanded Abstracts,
SEG International Exposition and 66th Annual Meeting,
Denver (November 1015, 1996): 18341837.
39. Hall SA and Kendall JM: Constraining the Interpretation
of AVOA for Fracture Characterization, in Ikelle L and
Gangi A (eds): Anisotropy 2000: Fractures, Converted
Waves and Case Studies. Tulsa: The Society of
Exploration Geophysicists (2000): 107144.
40. Sayers CM: Misalignment of the Orientation of
Fractures and the Principal Axes for P and S Waves
in Rocks Containing Non-Orthogonal Fracture Sets,
Geophysical Journal International 133, no. 2 (May 1998):
459466.
Sayers CM and Dean S: Azimuth-Dependent AVO in
Reservoirs Containing Non-Orthogonal Fracture Sets,
Geophysical Prospecting 49, no.1 (January 2001): 101106.
Williams M and Jenner E: Interpreting Seismic Data in
the Presence of Azimuthal Anisotropy; or Azimuthal
Anisotropy in the Presence of the Seismic Interpretation,
The Leading Edge 21, no. 8 (August 2002): 771774.
41. Grechka V and Tsvankin I: 3-D Description of Normal
Moveout in Anisotropic Inhomogeneous Media,
Geophysics 63, no. 3 (MayJune 1998): 10791092.
For more on normal moveout (NMO): http://www.
searchanddiscovery.com/documents/geophysical/liner/
images/liner.pdf (accessed May 7, 2006).
42. Perez MA, Grechka V and Michelena RJ: Fracture
Detection in a Carbonate Reservoir Using a Variety
of Seismic Methods, Geophysics 64, no. 4 (July
August 1999): 12661276.
43. 4C marine seismic data are typically acquired using
three orthogonally oriented geophones and a
hydrophone within an ocean-bottom sensor. Provided
the system is in contact with the seabed, the 3C
geophones measure shear waves. The hydrophone
measures compressional waves.
44. Gaiser J, Loinger E, Lynn H and Vetri L: Birefringence
Analysis at the Emilio Field for Fracture
Characterization, First Break 20, no. 8 (August 2002):
505514.
45. Bennet L, La Calvez J, Sarver DR, Tanner K, Birk WS,
Water G, Drew J, Michaud G, Primiero P, Eisner L,
Jones R, Leslie D Williams MJ, Govenlock J, Klem RC
and Tezuka K: The Source for Hydraulic Fracture
Characterization, Oileld Review 17, no. 4 (Winter
2005/2006): 4257.
46. Pedersen SI, Randen T, Snneland L and Steen :
Automatic 3D Fault Interpretation by Articial Ants,
paper Z-99, presented at the 64th EAGE Conference and
Exhibition, Florence, Italy, May 2730, 2002.
47. http://www.aapg.org/explorer/2004/06jun/lasers.cfm
(accessed July 3, 2006).
48. For more on photorealistic models: http://www.
utdallas.edu/~aiken/LASERCLASS/TSPSphotoFINAL.pdf
(accessed June 30, 2006).
>
Using 3D data from light detection and ranging (LIDAR) technology to map
major fracture sets. The digital photograph is photorealistically mapped
onto a surface derived from the LIDAR data (top). The major fracture
patterns are apparent from both image (center) and vector analysis. The Y-
component of the surface normal vector (bottom) shows vertical features
that are mostly fractures. The height of the vertical outcrop face ranges
from about 20 to 25 ft [6.1 to 7.6 m].
Z
X
Y
surfaces are described using the three directional
components of the normal vector. Radiation
intensity is then corrected for both the distance to
the LIDAR apparatus and the angle of the outcrop
surface. A 3D LIDAR model grid is created and
populated with the directional and intensity data.
The corrected LIDAR intensity and directional-
component data can then be partitioned into value
ranges for mapping and analysis.
Although there is good detail in the LIDAR
data, an even higher level of information is
contained in the photographs (above). However,
before an automated structural interpretation of
the photographic data is accomplished, the digital
image must be ltered for noiseanything in the
image that does not represent part of the rock
exposure, such as vegetation or scree.
Next, an attribute or combination of
attributes is selected and the Automated
Structural Interpretation process, adapted from
what is now used in Petrel software, can begin
enhancing surfaces. The process uses an
adaptation of the technique developed for fault
interpretation in 3D seismic volumes. At rst, a
fault or fracture may appear only as a trend
within the data, but as signal-to-noise character -
istics are improved along the surfaces, a more
dened plane is mapped by agents using the
principles of swarm intelligence (next page). A
large number of process agents are deployed in
the data volume, making decisions based on
precoded behavior. Like ants, the agents traverse
the various surfaces emitting an electronic
pheromone along the trail, from which an
estimate of the surface orientation is made and
stored; in this case fractures and bedding are
20 Oileld Review
49. Ali AHA, Brown T, Delgado R, Lee D, Plumb D, Smirnov N,
Marsden R, Prado-Velarde E, Ramsey L, Spooner D,
Stone T and Stouffer T: Watching Rocks Change
Mechanical Earth Modeling, Oileld Review 15, no. 2
(Summer 2003): 22-39.
50. Will R, Archer R and Dershowitz B: Integration of
Seismic Anisotropy and Reservoir-Performance Data for
Characterization of Naturally Fractured Reservoirs Using
Discrete-Feature-Network Models, paper SPE 84412,
presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, Denver, October 58, 2003.
51. Rawnsley K and Wei L: Evaluation of a New Method to
Build Geological Models of Fractured Reservoirs
Calibrated to Production Data, Petroleum Geoscience 7,
no. 1 (February 2001): 2333.
>
Using components of a photorealistic model, photography and innovative software to map
bedding, fractures and faults. A high-resolution digital photograph of an analog outcrop in the
Guadalupe Mountains (top) is processed. The software detects and enhances the discontinuities
on the photograph (middle). The white coding indicates a high level of discontinuity, and the black
coding represents a low level of discontinuity. Both bedding (green) and fracture faces (red)
are mapped (bottom). The height of the vertical outcrop face ranges from about 20 to 25 ft
[6.1 to 7.6 m].
Summer 2006 21
picked. The result is a 2D map of linear outcrop
featuresmostly fractures and beddingbut at
a higher resolution than that extracted from the
LIDAR data.
Once the innovative processing is made on
the high-resolution digital photographs and
LIDAR data, the results are recombined into the
3D photorealistic model for manual verication
and analysis. At this stage, the 2D maps derived
from the photos are transformed into 3D data as
they are projected onto the photorealistic
outcrop model as a series of planes and
attributes. The results of the photographic
and LIDAR analysis are displayed as attributes
in an editing window, and compared to the
photorealistic model by the interpreter for
quality control.
Following editing of the data, the structural
geologist is able to begin the process of quanti -
tative fracture interpretation. Because bedding
is automatically mapped as a part of the process,
the interpreter is able to perform quantitative
analysis of fracture extent, density and orienta -
tion on a layer-by-layer basis, thus estab lishing a
mechanical stratigraphy. The analyzed joint
planes and their relationship to bedding and
faults can then be used as the basis for a discrete
fracture network model. Such models can be
analyzed in terms of representative fracture
volumes and ow heterogeneity related to the
fracture systems.
Modeling the Effects of Fractures
There are perhaps no other simulation tasks as
challenging in todays oil and gas elds as
constructing valid NFR models to simulate
reservoir uid ow with a reasonable degree
of certainty. The challenges span multiple
disciplines and multiple scales, and must always
be addressed with limited information. The
ultimate aim in reservoir simulation is to
estimate and predict the distribution and ow of
uids within the reservoir in response to
production or injection. Natural fractures make
achieving this aim considerably more difcult.
Some experts simplify the challenges of NFR
uid-ow simulation into three categories. First,
a model must resolve the uid pathways by
determining fracture connectivity. Connectivity
depends on fracture length, orientation and
intensity, which come from subsurface data and
outcrop analogs. Second, knowledge of fracture-
system permeabilities, permeability variation
across the eld, and the interaction between
fractures and the matrix is essential. Third, the
uid pressure, or capillary pressure, and the
relative permeabilities in the reservoir must be
captured. Additionally, a good understanding of
the in-situ stress regime is needed for credible
NFR simulation. This information comes from a
variety of sourcesincluding logging measure -
ments, borehole breakout and leakoff testsand
is used in mechanical earth models.
49
The complexity of NFRs represents a real
challenge in reservoir simulation. The most
geologically realistic models are discrete
fracture network (DFN) models. In these models,
each fracture is represented as a plane in the
reservoir with attached properties such as
aperture and permeability. DFNs are able to
represent the geometric complexity of fractured
reservoirs with a high level of detail. Fluid ow
can be simulated through DFNs using nite-
element methods, and the effects of matrix ow
can also be incorporated.
Creating a plausible model, however, places
great demands on geoscientists, and the fracture
system must be parameterized in all its detail.
This model is typically built from high-quality
data near wellboresfor example, borehole
image data, core analysis and pressure-transient
dataand is expanded to the interwell region
using geostatistical techniques. DFN models can
also be guided by seismic anisotropy fracture-
characterization results and production data.
50
Well and seismic data are generally not sufcient
to provide information about fracture extent and
connectivity and so outcrop analogs become
crucial sources of information.
Today, the generation of DFNs still has
limitations. DFNs are computationally intensive,
so it is not possible to model all of the fractures
within a reservoir in this way. While a DFN could
be used for an individual well test history-match,
commercially available DFNs can handle only
single-phase ow and thus cannot model
secondary-recovery mechanisms.
51
It is possible
to represent only the largest fractures geometri -
cally in cellular models, while smaller fractures
have to be represented as modied cell
properties. However, the physics of ow between
fractures and matrix in cellular models can be
represented using the nite-difference method
and using dual-porosity and dual-porosity/
dual-permeability techniques.
It is difcult to provide a link between the
geologists view of a fractured reservoir and a
cellular representation. One method for dealing
with this problem is to create small-scale DFN
models that represent the details of the
fracturing and to upscale them to cellular grid
blocks using either static or dynamic methods.
For example, a joint system was mapped from a
>
Automatic fracture and fault delineation. One or several attributes are selected for the generation of Cube B from the seismic Cube A. Conditioning by
the Petrel Automated Structural Interpretation module is applied to Cube B using swarm intelligence, which enhances the fracture and fault features to
produce the resulting Cube C. The fault surfaces are then extracted as separate objects as shown on Cube D. These surfaces can then be incorporated
into geologic models.
A B C D
helicopter photograph of a eld outcrop (left).
Joints were picked on the photograph using
what is now the Petrel Automated Structural
Interpretation technique. The results were used
to build a DFN, capturing the entire complexity
of the network. With an assumed aperture, the
upscaled permeabilities in three different
directions were determined using a pressure
solver and input to a cellular simulation model.
52
Flow simulation in cellular models is
performed in two ways: by nite-difference and
by streamline simulation.
53
Finite-difference
simulators typically offer a wide range of
functionalities and are preferred in long-term,
mature project environments. Also, nite-
difference simulators have been more suited for
simulating uid ow not dominated by reservoir
heterogeneities in models with fewer uncertain -
ties. Streamline simulators, such as the three-
phase ECLIPSE FrontSim module, are better for
accessing dynamic reservoir behavior in large,
multimillion-cell models. Streamline simulators
are faster to run and allow asset teams to quickly
validate upscaled reservoir models with dynamic
data (below left).
Armed with a suitable ow simulator, asset
teams can now examine connectivity across the
reservoir and consider strategies to maximize
hydrocarbon recovery. As more data come into
the model, each portion of the reservoir model
can be ne-tuned. This may involve improving
structural and mechanical earth models, matrix
and fracture models, and matrix-fracture
exchange models (next page).
22 Oileld Review
>
Streamline simulation. Streamline simulators, such as the ECLIPSE
FrontSim software, allow reservoir engineers and geoscientists to quickly
simulate fluid flow in heterogeneous reservoirs. These simulators are
especially useful when simulating the effects of fractures or other high-
permeability conduits on waterflooding for secondary recovery. In this
example, the streamlines and reservoir layers are color-coded according
to water saturation, S
w
.
G03
G05
G11
G09
G04
G14
G12
G13
G01
34-5
G07
G06
G02
1.0
0.1
S
w
>
Example of an automatically generated fracture pattern from an outcrop in a 50-m by 50-m [164-ft by
164-ft] area (top left) incorporated into a discrete fracture network (DFN) model. A constant aperture
was assigned to the fractures, and the permeability was upscaled using a pressure solver. The upscaled
permeability in the X-direction, Block K
xx
, is scaled according to the color bar (left). Histograms (bottom)
show Block K
xx
and the fracture porosity for each 10-m by 10-m [32.8-ft by 32.8-ft] cell. The rose
diagram (top right) shows the orientation of 1,669 fractures interpreted by what is now the Petrel
Automated Structural Interpretation process.
10 m
Length-weighted orientation
of 1,669 fractures
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
P
e
r
m
e
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

(
K
x
)
,

m
D
10
2
.
5
7
.
5
1
2
.
5
1
7
.
5
2
2
.
5
2
7
.
5
3
2
.
5
3
7
.
5
4
2
.
5
4
7
.
5
5
2
.
5
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
Permeability (K
x
), mD
Permeability, X direction
2
1
0
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
,

n
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

b
l
o
c
k
s
3
2
1
0
.
0
1
7
0
0
.
0
1
7
4
0
.
0
1
7
8
0
.
0
1
8
2
0
.
0
1
8
6
0
.
0
1
9
0
0
.
0
1
9
4
0
.
0
1
9
8
0
.
0
2
0
2
0
.
0
2
0
6
0
.
0
2
1
0
0
.
0
2
1
4
0
.
0
2
1
8
Fracture porosity, %
Fracture Porosity
0
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
,

n
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

b
l
o
c
k
s
Y (N)
X (E)
Z
52. A pressure solver is a tool in modeling software that
enables the calculation of pressure at every point in
a model.
53. Alaka JO, Bahamaish J, Bowen G, Bratvedt K,
Holmes JA, Miller T, Fjerstad P, Grinestaff G, Jalali Y,
Lucas C, Jimenez Z, Lolomari T, May E and Randall E:
Improving the Virtual Reservoir, Oileld Review 13,
no. 1 (Spring 2001): 2647.
54. Ahr WM, Allen D, Boyd A, Bachman HN, Smithson T,
Clerke EA, Gzara KBM, Hassall JK, Murty CRK, Zubari H
and Ramamoorthy R: Confronting the Carbonate
Conundrum, Oileld Review 17, no. 1 (Spring 2005): 1829.
Akbar M, Vissapragada B, Alghamdi AH, Allen D,
Herron M, Carnegie A, Dutta D, Olesen J-R,
Chourasiya RD, Logan D, Stief D, Netherwood R,
Russell SD and Saxena K: A Snapshot of Carbonate
Reservoir Evaluation, Oileld Review 12, no. 4
(Winter 2000/2001): 2041.
55. Kossack CA and Gurpinar O: A Methodology for
Simulation of Vuggy and Fractured Reservoirs, paper
SPE 66366, presented at the SPE Reservoir Simulation
Symposium, Houston, February 1114, 2001.
Gurpinar O, Kalbus J and List DF: Numerical Modeling
of a Large, Naturally Fractured Oil Complex, paper
SPE 59061, presented at the SPE International Petroleum
Conference and Exhibition, Villahermosa, Mexico,
February 13, 2000.
Gurpinar O, Kalbus J and List DF: Numerical Modeling
of a Triple Porosity Reservoir, paper SPE 57277,
presented at the SPE Asia Pacic Improved Oil Recovery
Conference, Kuala Lumpur, October 2526, 1999.
Summer 2006 23
Typically, models are tested and calibrated
using historical pressure and production data
history-matchingand must be updated and
ne-tuned with new information. An asset teams
ability to quickly update reservoir models and
run multiple simulations has been enhanced,
and continues to improve, with the availability of
increased computing power.
Fracture Breakthroughs
Some of the largest hydrocarbon reservoirs in the
world are naturally fractured carbonate
reservoirs in the Middle East, Mexico and
Kazakhstan.
54
In many cases, these reservoirs
have three porosity systems: fracture, matrix and
vuggyboth connected and isolatedand
involve multiphase uid ow, adding to the
modeling difculties. The challenges facing
operators in these elds are daunting. Declining
hydrocarbon productivity, increasing water
production and signicant volumes of unswept
oil are the most obvious reasons for concern.
Closer examination has revealed inherent
difculties in modeling heterogeneous, dual- and
triple-porosity reservoirs with multiphase uid
ow. In these cases, it has been useful to develop
special relationships for relative permeabilities
and capillary pressure that take the complexities
into account.
55
On March 25, 2006, Schlumberger, in an
alliance with King Fahd University of Petroleum
and Minerals, ofcially opened the Schlumberger
Dhahran Center for Carbonate Research (SDCR)
to engage in collaborative projects focusing on
carbonate reservoirs, the majority of which are
NFRs. Scientists at this state-of-the-art research
center will focus on the development of
technologies that address the challenges of
exploiting these complex reservoirs, including
research in land seismic technologies, geology,
rock physics and uid dynamics.
In the past, available static and dynamic data
have dictated an asset teams approach to NFR
characterization, modeling and simulation. Today,
a better understanding of NFR complexities,
improved measurements and interpretation
techniques across a wider range of scales, faster
and vastly improved modeling capabilities and
exciting new research will make the industrys
progress in fractured reservoirs natural. MGG
>
Modeling naturally fractured reservoirs. A workflow example describes the major elements involved in NFR modeling during the project startup (green
background), model creation (yellow background) and model fine-tuning (blue background) phases. The numbers at the bottom indicate where in the
workflow that model fine-tuning should take place, in order of preference.
Engineering
Evaluation
Geological
Evaluation
Fracture
Indicators
Log-Derived Properties
Reservoir and Dynamic
Data for Flow Modeling
Data
Collection,
Verification
and
Validation
Pressure
Production
Injection analysis
Well summaries
Pressure-
treatment analysi
permeability (K
r
)
s
Reservoir
Capillary pressure (P
c
)
Single-well models
Project
Objectives
Status of
the Field
Status of
Data
Project
Time/$$
Well location
Unique identifier
Directional survey
Well completion
Production
Wellbore facilities
Pressure
Well test
PVT
Core analysis
Relative permeability
Logs
Image logs
Dipmeter logs
Sedimentology
Seismic data
Seismic navigation
Velocity control
Drilling records
Reports
Previous studies
Cores
Sedimentology
Facies model
Stratigraphy
Correlations
Synthetics
Seismic
interpretation
Faults and
horizons
Structure
modeling
Dipmeter
interpretation
Petrophysical
evaluation
Regional
structural
setting
Structural
framework
Curvature
Lithology
Drilling
events
Well tests
Production
behavior
Image logs
Sonic logs
Total and matrix petrophysics
Model layering influence
Model grid influence
Fault
Model
Fracture
Index
Flow
Simulation
Grid
Discrete
Fracture
DFN
Verification
3D
Property
Distribution
Reservoir-
Management
Model
Predictive
Reservoir
Model
K
r
, P
c
Two-
phase
Three-phase
Flow
Model
Yes
No
Dual
System
1 2 4 3
NFR Modeling
PVT, production, pressure,
well completion, injection,
test database, K
r c
, P,
prediction objectives
Fracture
Model
Matrix
Model
Streamline
Simulator
Connectivity
Review
Structural
Framework
Fracture
Intensity
Direction
Multiphase
Reproduce
Historical
Behavior
Model

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The Nature of Naturally Fractured Reservoirs

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