HB-17 3

Division I-A SEISMIC DESIGN
2002 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
Section 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 PURPOSE AND PHILOSOPHY These Specications establish design and construction provisions for bridges to minimize their susceptibility to damage from earthquakes. The design earthquake motions and forces specied in these provisions are based on a low probability of their being exceeded during the normal life expectancy of a bridge.1 Bridges and their components that are designed to resist these forces and that are constructed in accordance with the design details contained in the provisions may suffer damage, but should have low probability of collapse due to seismically induced ground shaking. The principles used for the development of the provisions are: 1. Small to moderate earthquakes should be resisted within the elastic range of the structural components without signicant damage. 2. Realistic seismic ground motion intensities and forces are used in the design procedures. 3. Exposure to shaking from large earthquakes should not cause collapse of all or part of the bridge. Where possible, damage that does occur should be readily detectable and accessible for inspection and repair. A basic premise in developing these seismic design guidelines was that they are applicable to all parts of the United States. The seismic hazard varies from very small to high across the country. Therefore, for purposes of design, four Seismic Performance Categories (SPC) are dened on the basis of an Acceleration Coefficient (A) for the site, determined from the map provided, and the Importance Classication (IC). Different degrees of complexity and sophistication of seismic analysis and design are specied for each of the four Seismic Performance Categories. An essential bridge must be designed to function during and after an earthquake. In areas with an Acceleration
1 The probability of the elastic design force levels not being exceeded in 50 years is the range of 80 to 95%. However, the design earthquake force level by itself does not determine risk; the risk is also affected by the design rules and analysis procedures used in connection with the design ground motion.
Coefficient greater than 0.29 essential bridges must meet additional requirements. A bridge is designated essential on the basis of Social/Survival and Security/Defense classications presented in the Commentary.
1.2 BACKGROUND The 1971 San Fernando earthquake was a major turning point in the development of seismic design criteria for bridges in the United States. Prior to 1971, the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) specications for the seismic design of bridges were based in part on the lateral forces requirements for buildings developed by the Structural Engineers Association of California. In 1973, the California Department of Transportation (CalTrans) introduced new seismic design criteria for bridges, which included the relationship of the site to active faults, the seismic response of the soils at the site and the dynamic response characteristics of the bridge. In 1975, AASHTO adopted Interim Specications which were a slightly modied version of the 1973 CalTrans provisions, and made them applicable to all regions of the United States. In addition to these code changes, the 1971 San Fernando earthquake stimulated research activity on seismic problems related to bridges. In the light of these research ndings, the Federal Highway Administration awarded a contract in 1978 to the Applied Technology Council (ATC) to: Evaluate current criteria used for seismic design of highway bridges. Review recent seismic research ndings for design applicability and use in new specications. Develop new and improved seismic design guidelines for highway bridges applicable to all regions of the United States. Evaluate the impact of these guidelines and modify them as appropriate. The guidelines from this ATC project (known as ATC-6) were rst adopted by AASHTO as a set of Guide 439
440
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
1.2
Specications in 1983. They were later adopted as seismic provisions within the Standard Specications in 1990. After damaging earthquakes occurred in California (1989), Costa Rica (1991) and the Philippines (1991), AASHTO requested the Transportation Research Board to review these criteria and prepare revised specications as appropriate. Funded through the National Cooperative Highway Research Program under NCHRP Project 207/45, the National Center for Earthquake Engineering Research (NCEER) prepared this current set of seismic design provisions. They closely follow the previous criteria but remove ambiguities and technical errors, correct technical omissions and introduce new material which is based in part on recent eld experience and partly on new research ndings. In addition, a new format is introduced so as to assist the application of these specications to bridges in different seismic zones.
zien, University of California, Berkeley; Dr. Walter Podolny, Federal Highway Administration; and Dr. Robert Scanlan, Princeton University, New Jersey. The ATC project manager and technical director were Mr. Roland Sharpe and Dr. Ronald Mayes, respectively. In a similar manner, the NCHRP project was also guided by a Project Panel. The members were: Mr. James D. Cooper, Federal Highway Administration; Mr. James H. Gates, California Department of Transportation; Mr. Veldo Goins, Oklahoma Department of Transportation; Mr. Ayaz Malik, New York Department of Transportation; Mr. Charles Ruth, Washington Department of Transportation; and Mr. Edward Wasserman, Tennessee Department of Transportation. Liaison members were Dr. John Kulicki, Modjeski and Masters (NCHRP 12-33 Liaison) and Dr. Walter Podolny (Federal Highway Administration Liaison). The principal investigator for NCEER was Dr. Ian Buckle; subcontractors included Computech Engineering Services, Berkeley, CA, and Imbsen and Associates, Sacramento, CA. NCHRP Project Officers were Mr. Ian Friedland and Mr. Scott Sabol. The work was conducted in several stages: Review of 1992 Standard Specications (Division I-A); survey of designer experience with the application of Division I-A and evaluation of design philosophy. Review of bridge performance in recent earthquakes. Review of revised CalTrans seismic design criteria (ATC-32 project). Review of seismic criteria in the proposed LRFD Bridge Specication (NCHRP 12-33). Conduct of certain special studies. Development of draft revisions in various formats of increasing complexity. Evaluation of proposed revisions. Modication and preparation of nal standards, as appropriate. 1.5 QUALITY ASSURANCE REQUIREMENTS There are numerous instances of structural failures which have occurred during earthquakes that are directly traceable to poor quality control during construction. The literature is replete with reports noting that collapse may have been prevented had proper inspection been exer-
1.3 BASIC CONCEPTS The development of these specications was predicated on the following basic concepts. Hazard to life to be minimized. Bridges may suffer damage but have low probability of collapse due to earthquake motions. Function of essential bridges to be maintained. Ground motions used in design should have low probability of being exceeded during normal lifetime of bridge. Provisions to be applicable to all of the United States. Ingenuity of design not to be restricted.
1.4 PROJECT ORGANIZATION The ATC-6 project was advised by a Project Engineering Panel comprising the following members: Mr. James Cooper, Federal Highway Administration; Mr. Gerard Fox, HNTB, New York; Mr. James H. Gates, California Department of Transportation; Mr. Veldo Goins, Oklahoma Department of Transportation; Dr. William Hall, University of Illinois, Urbana; Mr. Edward Hourigan, New York Department of Transportation; Mr. Robert Jarvis, Idaho Department of Transportation; Mr. Robert Kealey, Modjeski and Masters, Harrisburg; Mr. James Libby, Libby Engineers, San Diego; Dr. Geoffrey Martin, Fugro Inc., Long Beach; Mr. Joseph Nicoletti, URS Blume, San Francisco; Dr. Joseph Pen-
1.5
DIVISION IASEISMIC DESIGN
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cised. To provide adequate seismic quality assurance requirements the engineer species the quality assurance requirements, the contractor exercises the control to achieve the desired quality and the owner monitors the construction process through special inspection. It is essential that each party recognizes its responsibilities, understands the procedures and has the capability to carry them out. Because the contractor does the work and exercises quality control it is essential that the inspection be performed by someone approved by the owner and not the contractors direct employee. In recognition of the fact that responsibility must be coordinated during construction, the Project Engineering
Panel (PEP) for the ATC-6 project examined the responsibility of each party in the current AASHTO (Division I) specications. This PEP found the quality assurance requirements of the Division I specications adequate to cover seismic as well as other design requirements. Therefore, no special quality assurance requirements are included in Division I-A. 1.6 FLOW CHARTS Flow charts outlining the steps in the seismic design procedures implicit in these specications are given in Figures 1.6A and 1.6B.
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HIGHWAY BRIDGES
1.6
FIGURE 1.6A Design Procedure Flow Chart
1.6
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FIGURE 1.6B Sub Flow Chart for Seismic Performance Categories B, C, and D
Section 2
SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS
2.1 NOTATIONS The following symbols and denitions apply to these Specications: a A Ac Ag As Ash Avf B Cm Cs Csm d D E EQF EQM fc fy fyh Fa Fcr Fe Fe Fy g hc H IC K K kh Vertical spacing of transverse reinforcement (hoops or stirrups) in rectangular reinforced concrete columns (in. or mm) Acceleration coefficient determined in Article 3.2 (dimensionless) Area of reinforced concrete column core (in.2 or mm2) Gross area of reinforced concrete column (in.2 or mm2) Area of longitudinal reinforcement in a concrete pile (in.2 or mm2) Total cross-sectional area of transverse reinforcement (hoops or stirrups) used in rectangular reinforced concrete columns (in.2 or mm2) and dened by Equations (66), (67), (76), and (77) Total amount of reinforcement normal to a construction joint (in.2 or mm2) Loads resulting from buoyancy forces and used in the group load combinations of Equations (61), (62), (71), and (72) Coefficient used in steel design to account for boundary conditions (dimensionless) Elastic seismic response coefficient dened in Article 3.6.1 (dimensionless) Elastic seismic response coefficient for mode m dened in Article 3.6.2 (dimensionless) Diameter of a reinforced concrete column (in. or mm) Loads resulting from dead load and used in the group load combinations of Equations (61), (62), (71), and (72) Loads resulting from earth pressure and used in the group load combinations of Equations (61), (62), (71), and (72) Modied foundation seismic forces used in the group load combination of Equations (62) and (72), and dened in Articles 6.2.2 and 7.2.1 Modied seismic forces used in the group load combination of Equations (61) and (71), and dened in Articles 6.2.1 and 7.2.1 Specied compressive strength of reinforced concrete (psi or MPa) Yield strength of reinforcement in reinforced concrete members (psi or MPa) Yield strength of transverse reinforcement (psi or MPa) Axial stress in steel design that would be permitted if axial force alone existed (psi or MPa) Buckling stress for load factor steel design (psi or MPa) Euler buckling stress in the plane of bending (psi or MPa) Euler buckling stress for service load steel design (psi or MPa) Yield strength of structural steel (psi or MPa) Acceleration of gravity (in./sec2 or cm/sec2) Core dimension of a rectangular reinforced concrete column (in. or mm) Height of a column or pier dened in Articles 5.3, 6.3, and 7.3 (ft or m) Importance Classication given in Article 3.3 (dimensionless) Total lateral stiffness of bridge as dened in Article 4.3 (lb/in. or kN/m) Effective length factor used in steel design and given in Articles 6.5 and 7.5 (dimensionless) Seismic coefficient used to calculate lateral earth pressures and dened in Articles 6.4.3 and 7.4.3 (dimensionless) 445
446 L N pe(x) Pn po Q R S S SF SPC T Tm Vc Vj vu Vu vs(x), ve(x) w(x) W h n s
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
2.1
Length of bridge deck dened in Articles 4.3, 5.3, 6.3, and 7.3 (ft or m) Minimum support length for girders specied in Articles 3.10, 5.3, 6.3, and 7.3 (in. or mm) Intensity of the equivalent static seismic loading applied to represent the primary mode of vibration in Articles 4.3 and 4.4 (force/unit length) Minimum axial load specied in Article 7.2.3 for columns and 7.2.4 for piers (lb or N) Assumed uniform loading used to calculate the period in Articles 4.3 and 4.4 (force/unit length) Vertical force at a support due to longitudinal horizontal seismic loads (lb or N) Response modication factor specied in Article 3.7 (dimensionless) Site coefficient specied in Article 3.5.1 (dimensionless) Angle of skew of girder support as dened in Articles 5.3 and 6.3 (degrees) Loads resulting from stream ow forces and used in the group load combinations of Equations (61), (62), (71), and (72) Seismic Performance Category specied in Article 3.4 (dimensionless) Fundamental period of the bridge determined in Articles 4.3 and 4.4 (sec.) Period of the mth mode of vibration of a bridge (sec.) Nominal shear strength provided by concrete as specied in Article 7.6.2(C) Limiting shear force across a construction joint (lb or N) Shear stress (psi or MPa) Shear force (lb or N) Static displacement proles resulting from applied loads po and pe, respectively, and used in Articles 4.3 and 4.4 (in. or mm) Dead weight of the bridge superstructure and tributary substructure per unit length (force/unit length) Total dead weight of bridge superstructure and tributary substructure (lb or kN) The ratio of horizontal shear reinforcement area to gross concrete area of a vertical sectionArticle 7.6.3 (dimensionless) The ratio of vertical shear reinforcement area to the gross concrete area of a horizontal section Article 7.6.3 (dimensionless) Volumetric ratio of spiral reinforcement for a circular column (dimensionless) Strength reduction factor (dimensionless) Coefficient used to calculate the period of the bridge in Article 4.4 (length2) Coefficient used to calculate the period of the bridge in Article 4.4 (force length) Coefficient used to calculate the period of the bridge in Article 4.4 (force length2)
Section 3
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
3.1 APPLICABILITY OF SPECIFICATIONS These Specications are for the design and construction of new bridges to resist the effect of earthquake motions. The provisions apply to bridges of conventional steel and concrete girder and box girder construction with spans not exceeding 500 feet (150 meters). Suspension bridges, cable-stayed bridges, arch type and movable bridges are not covered by these Specications. Seismic design is usually not required for buried type (culvert) bridges. The provisions contained in these Specications are minimum requirements. No detailed seismic analysis is required for any single span bridge or for any bridge in Seismic Performance Category A. For single span bridges (Article 3.11) and bridges classied as SPC A (Section 5) the connections must be designed for specied forces and must also meet minimum support length requirements. 3.2 ACCELERATION COEFFICIENT The Acceleration Coefficient (A) to be used in the application of these provisions shall be determined from the contour maps of Figures 3.2A and 3.2B. (Note: An en-
FIGURE 3.2A Acceleration CoefficientContinental United States (An enlarged version of this map, including counties, is given at the end of DivisionI-A.)
447
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3.2
FIGURE 3.2B Acceleration CoefficientAlaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico
3.2
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larged version of Figure 3.2A is given at the end of Division I-A.) Values given in Figures 3.2A and 3.2B are expressed in percent. Numerical values for the coefficient A are obtained by dividing contour values by 100.0. Local maxima (and minima) are given inside the highest (and lowest) contour for a particular region. Linear interpolation shall be used for sites located between contour lines and between a contour line and local maximum (or minimum). The seismic loads represented by the acceleration coefficients in Figures 3.2A and 3.2B have a 10% probability of exceedance in 50 years (which is approximately equivalent to a 15% probability of exceedance in 75 years). This corresponds to a return period of approximately 475 years. Special studies to determine site- and structure-specic acceleration coefficients shall be performed by a qualied professional if any one of the following conditions exist: (a) The site is located close to an active fault. (b) Long duration earthquakes are expected in the region. (c) The importance of the bridge is such that a longer exposure period (and therefore return period) should be considered. The effect of soil conditions at the site are considered in Article 3.5. 3.3 IMPORTANCE CLASSIFICATION An Importance Classication (IC) shall be assigned for all bridges with an Acceleration Coefficient greater than 0.29 for the purpose of determining the Seismic Performance Category (SPC) in Article 3.4 as follows: 1. Essential bridges IC I 2. Other bridges IC II Bridges shall be classied on the basis of Social/Survival and Security/Defense requirements, guidelines for which are given in the Commentary. 3.4 SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES Each bridge shall be assigned to one of four Seismic Performance Categories (SPC), A through D, based on the Acceleration Coefficient (A) and the Importance Classication (IC), as shown in Table 3.4. Minimum analysis and design requirements are governed by the SPC. 3.5 SITE EFFECTS The effects of site conditions on bridge response shall be determined from a Site Coefficient (S) based on soil prole types dened as follows:
TABLE 3.4 Seismic Performance Category (SPC)
SOIL PROFILE TYPE I is a prole with either 1. Rock of any characteristic, either shale-like or crystalline in nature (such material may be characterized by a shear wave velocity greater than 2,500 feet/seconds (760 meters/seconds), or by other appropriate means of classication); or 2. Stiff soil conditions where the soil depth is less than 200 feet (60 meters) and the soil types overlying rock are stable deposits of sands, gravels, or stiff clays. SOIL PROFILE TYPE II is a prole with stiff clay or deep cohesionless conditions where the soil depth exceeds 200 feet (60 meters) and the soil types overlying rock are stable deposits of sands, gravels, or stiff clays. SOIL PROFILE TYPE III is a profile with soft to medium-stiff clays and sands, characterized by 30 feet (9 meters) or more of soft to medium-stiff clays with or without intervening layers of sand or other cohesionless soils. SOIL PROFILE TYPE IV is a prole with soft clays or silts greater than 40 feet (12 meters) in depth. These materials may be characterized by a shear wave velocity less than 500 feet/seconds (150 meters/seconds) and might include loose natural deposits or synthetic, nonengineered ll. In locations where the soil properties are not known in sufficient detail to determine the soil prole type with condence, the Engineers judgement shall be used to select a site coefficient from Table 3.5.1 that conservatively represents the amplication effects of the site. The soil prole coefficients apply to all foundation types including pile supported and spread footings. A site coefficient need not be explicitly identied if a site-specic seismic response coefficient is developed by a qualied professional (Article 3.6).
3.5.1 Site Coefficient The Site Coefficient (S) approximates the effects of the site conditions on the elastic response coefficient or spectrum of Article 3.6 and is given in Table 3.5.1.
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TABLE 3.5.1 Site Coefficient (S)
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
3.6
The value of Csm need not exceed 2.5A. For Type III or Type IV soils in areas where the coefficient A 0.30, Csm need not exceed 2.0A. EXCEPTIONS:
3.6 ELASTIC SEISMIC RESPONSE COEFFICIENT A seismic response coefficient is specied in this Article which denes the earthquake load to be used in the elastic analysis for seismic effects. These requirements may be superseded by a 5% damped, site-specic, response spectrum developed by a qualied professional. Such a spectrum shall include the effects of both the local seismology and the site soil conditions. 3.6.1 Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient for Single Mode Analysis The elastic seismic response coefficient Cs used to determine the design forces is given by the dimensionless formula: 1.2AS Cs T2/3 where, A the Acceleration Coefficient from Article 3.2, S the dimensionless coefficient for the soil prole characteristics of the site as given in Article 3.5, T the period of the bridge as determined in Articles 4.3 and 4.4 or by other acceptable methods. The value of Cs need not exceed 2.5A. For Soil Prole Type III or Type IV soils in areas where A 0.30, Cs need not exceed 2.0A. 3.6.2 Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient for Multimodal Analysis The elastic seismic response coefficient for mode m, Csm, shall be determined in accordance with the following formula: 1.2AS Cs 2/3 Tm (3-2) (3-1)
1. For Soil Prole Type III or Type IV soils, Csm for modes other than the fundamental mode which have periods less than 0.3 seconds may be determined in accordance with the following formula: Csm A(0.8 4.0Tm) (3-3)
2. For structures in which any Tm exceeds 4.0 seconds, the value of Csm for that mode may be determined in accordance with the following formula: 3AS Cs 4/3 Tm (3-4)
3.7 RESPONSE MODIFICATION FACTORS Seismic design forces for individual members and connections of bridges classied as SPC B, C, or D are determined by dividing the elastic forces by the appropriate Response Modication Factor (R) as specied in Article 6.2 or 7.2. The Response Modication Factors for various bridge components are given in Table 3.7. These factors shall only be used when all of the design requirements of Sections 6 and 7 are satised. If these requirements are not satised, the maximum value of R for substructures and connections shall be 1.0 and 0.8, respectively. 3.8 DETERMINATION OF ELASTIC FORCES AND DISPLACEMENTS For bridges classied as SPC B, C, or D the elastic forces and displacements shall be determined independently along two perpendicular axes by use of the analysis procedure specied in Article 4.2. The resulting forces shall then be combined as specied in Article 3.9. Typically, the perpendicular axes are the longitudinal and transverse axes of the bridge but the choice is open to the designer. The longitudinal axis of a curved bridge may be a chord connecting the two abutments. 3.9 COMBINATION OF ORTHOGONAL SEISMIC FORCES A combination of orthogonal seismic forces is used to account for the directional uncertainty of earthquake
where Tm the period of the mth mode of vibration.
3.9

TABLE 3.7 Response Modications Factor (R)
451
motions and the simultaneous occurrences of earthquake forces in two perpendicular horizontal directions. The elastic seismic forces and moments resulting from analyses in the two perpendicular directions of Article 3.8 shall be combined to form two load cases as follows: LOAD CASE 1: Seismic forces and moments on each of the principal axes of a member shall be obtained by adding 100% of the absolute value of the member elastic seismic forces and moments resulting from the analysis in one of the perpendicular (longitudinal) directions to 30% of the absolute value of the corresponding member elastic seismic forces and moments resulting from the analysis in the second perpendicular direction (transverse). (NOTE: The absolute values are used because a seismic force can be positive or negative.) LOAD CASE 2: Seismic forces and moments on each of the principal axes of a member shall be obtained by adding 100% of the absolute value of the member elastic seismic forces and moments resulting from the analysis in the second perpendicular direction (transverse) to 30% of the absolute value of the corresponding member elastic seismic forces and moments resulting from the analysis in the rst perpendicular direction (longitudinal). EXCEPTION: For SPC C and D when foundation and/or column connection forces are determined from plastic hinging of the columns (Article 7.2.2) the resulting forces need not be combined as specied in this section. If a pier is
designed as a column per Article 7.2.4 this exception only applies for the weak direction of the pier when forces resulting from plastic hinging are used. The combination specied must be used for the strong direction of the pier. 3.10 MINIMUM SEAT-WIDTH REQUIREMENTS
All bridges, regardless of Seismic Performance Category (SPC) and number of spans, shall satisfy minimum support length requirements at the expansion ends of all girders. These support lengths are dened in Figure 3.10 as dimension N. The minimum value for N is given for SPC A in Article 5.3; for SPC B in Article 6.3; and for SPC C and D in Article 7.3. 3.11 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SINGLE SPAN BRIDGES The detailed analysis and design requirements of Sections 4, 5, 6, and 7 are not required for single span bridges. In lieu of rigorous analysis, the connections between the bridge span and the abutments shall be designed to resist the tributary weight at the abutment multiplied by the Acceleration Coefficient and the Site Coefficient for the site. This force must be considered to act in each horizontally restrained direction. The minimum support lengths shall be as specied in Article 3.10.
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FIGURE 3.10 Dimensions for Minimum Support Length Requirements
3.12 REQUIREMENTS FOR TEMPORARY BRIDGES AND STAGED CONSTRUCTION The requirement that an earthquake shall not cause collapse of all or part of a bridge as stated in Article 1.1, applies to temporary bridges which are expected to carry traffic and/or pass over routes that carry traffic. It also applies to those bridges that are constructed in stages and expected to carry traffic and/or pass over routes that carry traffic. However, in view of the limited exposure period, the Acceleration Coefficient given in Article 3.2 may be reduced by a factor of not more than 2 in order to calculate the component elastic forces and displacements. Note
that Acceleration Coefficients for construction sites that are close to active faults shall be the subject of special study. Further, the Response Modication Factors given in Article 3.7 may be increased by a factor of not more than 1.5 in order to calculate the design forces. This factor shall not be applied to connections as dened in Table 3.7. The minimum seat-width provisions of Article 3.10 shall apply to all temporary bridges and staged construction. Any bridge or partially constructed bridge that is expected to be temporary for more than 5 years shall be designed using the requirements for permanent structures and shall not use the provisions of this article.
Section 4
ANALYSIS REQUIREMENTS
4.1 GENERAL The requirements of this section shall control the selection and method of seismic analysis of bridges. Four analysis procedures are presented. Procedure 1. Uniform Load Method Procedure 2. Single-Mode Spectral Method Procedure 3. Multimode Spectral Method Procedure 4. Time History Method In each method, all xed column, pier, or abutment supports are assumed to have the same ground motion at the same instant in time. At movable supports, displacements determined from the analysis prescribed in this chapter, which exceed the minimum seat width requirements as specied in Article 6.3 or 7.3, shall be used in design without reduction by the Response Modication Factor (Article 3.7). 4.2 SELECTION OF ANALYSIS METHOD Minimum requirements for the selection of an analysis method for a particular bridge type are given in Table 4.2A. Applicability is determined by the regularity of a bridge which is a function of the number of spans and the distribution of weight and stiffness. Regular bridges have less than seven spans, no abrupt or unusual changes in weight, stiffness, or geometry and no large changes in these parameters from span-to-span or support-to-support (abutments excluded). They are dened in Table 4.2B. Any bridge not satisfying the requirements of Table 4.2B is considered to be not regular. A more rigorous, generally accepted analysis procedure may be used in lieu of the recommended minimum such as the Time History Method (Procedure 4). Curved bridges comprised of multiple simple spans shall be considered to be not regular bridges if the subtended angle in plan is greater than 20; such bridges shall be analyzed by either Procedure 3 or 4. 4.2.1 Special Requirements for Single-Span Bridges and Bridges in SPC A Notwithstanding the above requirements, detailed seismic analysis is not required for a single-span bridge or for bridges classied as SPC A. 4.2.2 Special Requirements for Curved Bridges A curved continuous-girder bridge may be analyzed as if it were straight provided all of the following requirements are satised: (a) the bridge is regular as dened in Table 4.2B except that for a two-span bridge the maximum span length ratio from span-to-span must not exceed 2; (b) the subtended angle in plan is not greater than 30; and
TABLE 4.2B Regular Bridge Requirements
TABLE 4.2A Minimum Analysis Requirements
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HIGHWAY BRIDGES vs, MAX maximum value of vs(x)
4.2.2
(c) the span lengths of the equivalent straight bridge are equal to the arc lengths of the curved bridge. If these requirements are not satised, then curved continuous-girder bridges must be analyzed using the actual curved geometry. 4.2.3 Special Requirements for Critical Bridges More rigorous methods of analysis are required for certain classes of important bridges which are considered to be critical structures (e.g., those that are major structures in size and cost or perform a critical function), and/or for those that are geometrically complex and close to active earthquake faults. Time history methods of analysis are recommended for this purpose, provided care is taken with both the modeling of the structure and the selection of the input time histories of ground acceleration. Time history methods of analysis are described in Article 4.6. 4.3 UNIFORM LOAD METHOD PROCEDURE 1 The uniform load method, described in the following steps, may be used for both transverse and longitudinal earthquake motions. It is essentially an equivalent static method of analysis which uses a uniform lateral load to approximate the effect of seismic loads. The method is suitable for regular bridges that respond principally in their fundamental mode of vibration. Whereas all displacements and most member forces are calculated with good accuracy, the method is known to overestimate the transverse shears at the abutments by up to 100%. If such conservatism is undesirable then the single mode spectral analysis method (Procedure 2) is recommended. Step 1. Calculate the static displacements vs(x) due to an assumed uniform load po as shown in Figure 4.4A and Figure 4.4B. The uniform loading po is applied over the length of the bridge; it has units of force/unit length and may be arbitrarily set equal to 1.0. The static displacement vs(x) has units of length. Step 2. Calculate the bridge lateral stiffness, K, and total weight, W, from the following expressions: K= po L v s, MAX ( 4 - 1)
and w(x) weight per unit length of the dead load of the bridge superstructure and tributary substructure The weight should take into account structural elements and other relevant loads including, but not limited to, pier caps, abutments, columns and footings. Other loads such as live loads may be included. (Generally, the inertia effects of live loads are not included in the analysis; however, the probability of a large live load being on the bridge during an earthquake should be considered when designing bridges with high live-to-dead load ratios which are located in metropolitan areas where traffic congestion is likely to occur.) Step 3. Calculate the period of the bridge, T, using the expression: T = 2 W gK ( 4 - 3)
where g acceleration of gravity (length/time2) Step 4. Calculate the equivalent static earthquake loading pe from the expression: pe = Cs W L ( 4 - 4)
where Cs the dimensionless elastic seismic response coefficient given by Equation (3-1) pe equivalent uniform static seismic loading per unit length of bridge applied to represent the primary mode of vibration. Step 5. Calculate the displacements and member forces for use in design either by applying pe to the structure and performing a second static analysis or by scaling the results of Step 1 by the ratio pe/po. 4.4 SINGLE MODE SPECTRAL ANALYSIS METHODPROCEDURE 2 The single mode spectral analysis method described in the following steps may be used for both transverse and longitudinal earthquake motions. Examples illustrating its application are given in the Commentary. Step 1. Calculate the static displacements vs(x) due to an assumed uniform loading po as shown in Figure 4.4A.
W = w( x)dx where L total length of the bridge
( 4 - 2)
4.2.2
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FIGURE 4.4A Bridge Deck Subjected to Assumed Transverse and Longitudinal Loading
FIGURE 4.4B Bridge Deck Subjected to Equivalent Transverse and Longitudinal Seismic Loading
The uniform loading po is applied over the length of the bridge; it has units of force/unit length and is arbitrarily set equal to 1. The static displacement vs(x) has units of length. Step 2. Calculate factors , , and : = v s ( x)dx
s
where, Cs the dimensionless elastic seismic response coefficient given by Equation (3-1), pe(x) the intensity of the equivalent static seismic loading applied to represent the primary mode of vibration (force/unit length).
= w( x)v ( x)dx = w( x)v ( x) dx

2 s
( 4 - 5) ( 4 - 6) ( 4 - 7)
Step 5. Apply loading pe(x) to the structure as shown in Figure 4.4B and determine the resulting member forces and displacements for design.
where w(x) is the weight of the dead load of the bridge superstructure and tributary substructure (force/unit length). The computed factors, , , , have units of (length2), (force length), and (force length2), respectively. The weight should take into account structural elements and other relevant loads including, but not limited to, pier caps, abutments, columns and footings. Other loads such as live loads may be included. (Generally, the inertia effects of live loads are not included in the analysis; however, the probability of a large live load being on the bridge during an earthquake should be considered when designing bridges with high live-to-dead load ratios which are located in metropolitan areas where traffic congestion is likely to occur.) Step 3. Calculate the period of the bridge, T, using the expression: T = 2 p o g ( 4 - 8)
4.5 MULTIMODE SPECTRAL ANALYSIS METHODPROCEDURE 3 The multimode response spectrum analysis should be performed with a suitable space frame linear dynamic analysis computer program. 4.5.1 General The multimode spectral analysis method applies to bridges with irregular geometry which induces coupling in the three coordinate directions within each mode of vibration. These coupling effects make it difficult to categorize the modes into simple longitudinal or transverse modes of vibration and, in addition, several modes of vibration will in general contribute to the total response of the structure. A computer program with space frame dynamic analysis capabilities should be used to determine coupling effects and multimodal contributions to the final response. Motions applied at the supports in any one of the two horizontal directions will produce forces along both principal axes of the individual members because of the coupling effects. For curved structures, the longitudinal motion shall be directed along a chord connecting the abutments and the transverse motion shall be applied normal to the chord. Forces due to longitudinal and transverse motions shall be combined as specified in Article 3.9.
where g acceleration of gravity (length/time2). Step 4. Calculate the equivalent static earthquake loading pe(x) from the expression: p e (x) = C s w( x ) v s ( x ) ( 4 - 9)
456 4.5.2 Mathematical Model
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.2.3
The bridge should be modeled as a three-dimensional space frame with joints and nodes selected to realistically model the stiffness and inertia effects of the structure. Each joint or node should have six degrees of freedom, three translational and three rotational. The structural mass should be lumped with a minimum of three translational inertia terms. The mass should take into account structural elements and other relevant loads including, but not limited to, pier caps, abutments, columns and footings. Other loads such as live loads may be included. (Generally, the inertia effects of live loads are not included in the analysis; however, the probability of a large live load being on the bridge during an earthquake should be considered when designing bridges with high live-to-dead load ratios which are located in metropolitan areas where traffic congestion is likely to occur.) 4.5.2(A) Superstructure The superstructure should, as a minimum, be modeled as a series of space frame members with nodes at such points as the span quarter points in addition to joints at the ends of each span. Discontinuities should be included in the superstructure at the expansion joints and abutments. Care should be taken to distribute properly the lumped mass inertia effects at these locations. The effect of earthquake restrainers at expansion joints may be approximated by superimposing one or more linearly elastic members having the stiffness properties of the engaged restrainer units. 4.5.2(B) Substructure The intermediate columns or piers should also be modeled as space frame members. Generally, for short, stiff columns having lengths less than one-third of either of the adjacent span lengths, intermediate nodes are not necessary. Long, exible columns should be modeled with intermediate nodes at the third points in addition to the joints at the ends of the columns. The model should consider the eccentricity of the columns with respect to the superstructure. Foundation conditions at the base of the columns and at the abutments may be modeled using equivalent linear spring coefficients. 4.5.3 Mode Shapes and Periods The required periods and mode shapes of the bridge in the direction under consideration shall be calculated by
established methods for the xed base condition using the mass and elastic stiffness of the entire seismic resisting system. 4.5.4 Multimode Spectral Analysis The response should, as a minimum, include the effects of a number of modes equivalent to three times the number of spans up to a maximum of 25 modes. 4.5.5 Combination of Mode Forces and Displacements The member forces and displacements can be estimated by combining the respective response quantities (e.g., force, displacement, or relative displacement) from the individual modes by the Complete Quadratic Combination (CQC) method. The member forces and displacements obtained using the CQC method of combining modes is generally adequate for most bridge systems. 4.6 TIME HISTORY METHODPROCEDURE 4 Any step-by-step, time history method of dynamic analysis, that has been validated by experiment and/ or comparative performance with similar methods, may be used provided the following requirements are also satised: (a) The time histories of input acceleration used to describe the earthquake loads shall be selected in consultation with the Owner or Owners representative. Unless otherwise directed, ve spectrum-compatible time histories shall be used when site-specic time histories are not available. The spectrum used to generate these five time histories shall preferably be a site-specic spectrum. In the absence of such a spectrum, the response coefficient given by Equation (3-1), for the appropriate soil type, may be used to generate a spectrum. (b) The sensitivity of the numerical solution to the size of the time step used for the analysis shall be determined. A sensitivity study shall also be carried out to investigate the effects of variations in assumed material properties. (c) If an in-elastic time history method of analysis is used, the R-factors permitted by Article 3.7 shall be taken as 1.0 for all substructures and connections.
Section 5
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES IN SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY A
5.1 GENERAL Bridges classied as SPC A in accordance with Table 3.4 of Article 3.4 shall conform to all the requirements of this Section. where, 5.2 DESIGN FORCES FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY A If a mechanical device is used to connect the superstructure to the substructure it shall be designed to resist a horizontal seismic force in each restrained direction equal to 0.20 times the tributary weight. For each segment of a superstructure, the tributary weight at the line of xed bearings, used to determine the longitudinal connection design force, is dened as the total weight of the segment. If each bearing supporting a segment or simply supported span is restrained in the transverse direction, the tributary weight used to determine the transverse connection design force is dened as the dead load reaction at that bearing. L length, in feet for Equation (5-1A) or meters for Equation (5-1B), of the bridge deck to the adjacent expansion joint, or to the end of the bridge deck. For hinges within a span, L shall be the sum of L1 and L2, the distances to either side of the hinge. For single span bridges L equals the length of the bridge deck. These lengths are shown in Figure 3.10. S angle of skew of support in degrees, measured from a line normal to the span. and H is given by one of the following: for abutments, H is the average height, in feet for Equation (5-1A) or meters for Equation (5-1B), of columns supporting the bridge deck to the next expansion joint. H 0 for single span bridges. for columns and/or piers, H is the column or pier height in feet for Equation (5-1A) or meters for Equation (5-1B). for hinges within a span, H is the average height of the adjacent two columns or piers in feet for Equation (5-1A) or meters for Equation (5-1B). 5.4 FOUNDATION AND ABUTMENT DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY A There are no special seismic design requirements for the foundations and abutments of bridges in this category. Nevertheless, compliance is assumed with all requirements that are necessary to provide support for vertical 457 or, N (203 1.67L 6.66H) (1 0.000125S2) (mm) (5-1B)
5.3 DESIGN DISPLACEMENTS FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY A Minimum bearing support lengths as determined in this article shall be provided for the expansion ends of all girders. Bridges classied as SPC A shall meet the following requirement: Bearing seats supporting the expansion ends of girders, as shown in Figure 3.10, shall be designed to provide a minimum support length N (in. or mm), measured normal to the face of an abutment or pier, not less than that specied below. N (8 0.02L 0.08H) (1 0.000125S2) (in) (5-1A)
458
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
5.4
and lateral loads other than those due to earthquake motions. These include, but are not limited to, provisions for the extent of foundation investigation, lls, slope stability, bearing and lateral soil pressures, drainage, settlement control, and pile requirements and capacities. 5.5 STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY A No consideration of seismic forces is required for the design of structural components for bridges in this category except for the design of the connection of the superstructure to the substructure as specied in Article 5.2. Nevertheless, design and construction of structural steel columns and connections shall conform to the requirements of Division I. Either Service Load or Load Factor design may be used. If Service Load design is
used the allowable stresses are permitted to increase by 50%. 5.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY A No consideration of seismic forces is required for the design of structural components for bridges in this category except for the design of the connection of the superstructure to the substructure as specified in Article 5.2. Nevertheless, design and construction of cast-in-place monolithic reinforced concrete columns, pier footings and connections shall conform to the requirements of Division I. Either Service Load or Load Factor design may be used. If Service Load design is used the allowable stresses are permitted to increase by 331 3%.
Section 6
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES IN SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B
6.1 GENERAL Bridges classied as SPC B in accordance with Table 3.4 of Article 3.4 shall conform to all the requirements of this section. 6.2 DESIGN FORCES FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B 6.2.1 Design Forces for Structural Members and Connections Seismic design forces specied in this subsection shall apply to: (a) The superstructure, its expansion joints and the connections between the superstructure and the supporting substructure. (b) The supporting substructure down to the base of the columns and piers but not including the footing, pile cap, or piles. (c) Components connecting the superstructure to the abutment. Seismic design forces for the above components shall be determined by dividing the elastic seismic forces obtained from Load Case 1 and Load Case 2 of Article 3.9 by the appropriate Response Modication Factor of Article 3.7. The modied seismic forces resulting from the two load cases shall then be combined independently with forces from other loads as specied in the following group loading combination for the components. Note that the seismic forces are reversible (positive and negative) and the maximum loading for each component shall be calculated as follows: Group Load 1.0(D B SF E EQM) where, D dead load B buoyancy 459 (6-1) SF stream-ow pressure E earth pressure EQM elastic seismic force for either Load Case 1 or Load Case 2 of Article 3.9 modied by dividing by the appropriate R-Factor. Each component of the structure shall be designed to withstand the forces resulting from each load combination according to Division I, and the additional requirements of this section. Note that Equation (6-1) shall be used in lieu of the Division I, Group VII group loading combination and that the and factors equal 1. For Service Load design, a 50% increase is permitted in the allowable stresses for structural steel and a 331 3% increase for reinforced concrete. 6.2.2 Design Forces for Foundations Seismic design forces for foundations, including footings, pile caps, and piles shall be the elastic seismic forces obtained from Load Case 1 and Load Case 2 of Article 3.9 divided by the Response Modication Factor (R) from Article 3.7 and modied as specied below. These modied seismic forces shall then be combined independently with forces from other loads as specied in the following group loading combination to determine two alternate load combinations for the foundations. Group Load 1.0(D B SF E EQF) (6-2)
where D, B, E, and SF are as dened in Article 6.2.1, and EQF the elastic seismic force for either Load Case 1 or Load Case 2 of Article 3.9 divided by one-half of the Response Modication Factor for the substructure (column or pier) to which the foundation is attached. EXCEPTION: For pile bents, the Response Modication Factor shall not be reduced by one-half.
460
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
6.2.2
If a Group Load other than Equation (6-1) governs the design of the columns, seismic forces transferred to the foundations may be larger than those calculated using Equation (6-2), due to possible overstrength of columns. Each component of the foundation shall be designed to resist the forces resulting from each load combination according to the requirements of Division I and to the additional requirements of Article 6.4. 6.2.3 Design Forces for Abutments and Retaining Walls The components connecting the superstructure to an abutment (e.g., bearings and shear keys) shall be designed to resist the forces specied in Article 6.2.1. Design requirements for abutments are given in Article 6.4.3. 6.3 DESIGN DISPLACEMENTS FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B The seismic design displacements shall be the maximum of those determined in accordance with Article 3.8 or those specied in Article 6.3.1. 6.3.1 Minimum Support Length Requirements for Seismic Performance Category B Bridges classied as SPC B shall meet the following requirement: Bearing seats supporting the expansion ends of girders, as shown in Figure 3.10, shall be designed to provide a minimum support length N (in. or mm) measured normal to the face of an abutment or pier, not less than that specied below. N (8 0.02L 0.08H) (1 0.000125S ) (in.)
2
S angle of skew of support in degrees, measured from a line normal to the span. and H is given by one of the following: for abutments, H is the average height, in feet for Equation (6-3A) or meters for Equation (6-3B), of columns supporting the bridge deck to the next expansion joint. H 0 for single span bridges. for columns and/or piers, H is the column or pier height in feet for Equation (6-3A) or meters for Equation (6-3B). for hinges within a span, H is the average height of the adjacent two columns or piers in feet for Equation (6-3A) or meters for Equation (6-3B). 6.4 FOUNDATION AND ABUTMENT DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B 6.4.1 General This section includes only those foundation and abutment requirements that are specically related to seismic resistant construction in SPC B. It assumes compliance with all requirements that are necessary to provide support for vertical and lateral loads other than those due to earthquake motions. These include, but are not limited to, provisions for the extent of foundation investigation, fills, slope stability, bearing and lateral soil pressures, drainage, settlement control, and pile requirements and capacities. Foundation and abutment seismic design requirements for SPC B are given in the following subarticles. 6.4.2 Foundations
(6-3A)
6.4.2(A) Investigation In addition to the normal site investigation report, the Engineer may require the submission of a report which describes the results of an investigation to determine potential hazards and seismic design requirements related to (1) slope instability, (2) liquefaction, (3) ll settlement, and (4) increases in lateral earth pressure, all as a result of earthquake motions. Seismically induced slope instability in approach lls or cuts may displace abutments and lead to signicant differential settlement and structural damage. Fill settlement and abutment displacements due to lateral pressure increases may lead to bridge access problems and structural damage. Liquefaction of saturated cohesionless lls or foundation soils may contribute to slope and abutment instability, and could lead to a loss of foundation-bearing capacity and lateral pile support. Lique-
or, N (203 1.67L 6.66H) (1 0.000125S2) (mm) where, L length, in feet for Equation (6-3A) or meters for Equation (6-3B), of the bridge deck to the adjacent expansion joint, or to the end of the bridge deck. For hinges within a span, L shall be the sum of L1 and L2, the distances to either side of the hinge. For single span bridges L equals the length of the bridge deck. These lengths are shown in Figure 3.10. (6-3B)
6.4.2(A)
461
faction failures of the above type have led to bridge failures during past earthquakes. 6.4.2(B) Foundation Design For the load combinations specied in Article 6.2.2, the soil strength capable of being mobilized by the foundations shall be established in the site investigation report. Because of the dynamic cyclic nature of seismic loading, the ultimate capacity of the foundation supporting medium should be used in conjunction with these load combinations. Due consideration shall be given to the magnitude of the seismically induced foundation settlement that the bridge can withstand. Transient foundation uplift or rocking involving separation from the subsoil of up to one-half of an end bearing foundation pile group or up to one-half of the contact area of foundation footings is permitted under seismic loading, provided that foundation soils are not susceptible to loss of strength under the imposed cyclic loading. General comments on soil strength and stiffness mobilized during earthquakes, foundation uplift, lateral loading of piles, soil-structure interaction and foundation design in environments susceptible to liquefaction are provided in the Commentary. 6.4.2(C) Special Pile Requirements The following special pile requirements are in addition to the requirements for piles in other applicable specications. Piles may be used to resist both axial and lateral loads. The minimum depth of embedment, together with the axial and lateral pile capacities, required to resist seismic loads shall be determined by means of the design criteria established in the site investigation report. Note that the ultimate capacity of the piles should be used in designing for seismic loads. All piles shall be adequately anchored to the pile footing or cap. Concrete piles shall be anchored by embedment of sufficient length of pile reinforcement (unless special anchorage is provided) to develop uplift forces but in no case shall this length be less than the development length required for the reinforcement. Each concretelled pipe pile shall be anchored by at least four reinforcing steel dowels with a minimum steel ratio of 0.01 embedded sufficiently as required for concrete piles. Timber and steel piles, including unlled pipe piles, shall be provided with anchoring devices to develop all uplift forces adequately but in no case shall these forces be less than 10% of the allowable pile load. All concrete piles shall be reinforced to resist the design moments, shears, and axial loads. Minimum reinforcement shall be not less than the following:
1. Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles. Longitudinal reinforcing steel shall be provided for cast-in-place concrete piles in the upper one-third (8 feet or 2.4 meters minimum) of the pile length with a minimum steel ratio of 0.005 provided by at least four bars. Spiral reinforcement or equivalent ties of 14 inches (6 millimeters) diameter or larger shall be provided at 9 inches (225 millimeters) maximum pitch, except for the top 2 feet (610 millimeters) below the pile cap reinforcement where the pitch shall be 3 inches (75 millimeters) maximum. 2. Precast Piles. Longitudinal reinforcing steel shall be provided for each precast concrete pile with a minimum steel ratio of 0.01 provided by at least four bars. Spiral reinforcement or equivalent ties of No. 3 bars or larger shall be provided at 9 inches (225 millimeters) maximum pitch, except for the top 2 feet (610 millimeters) below the pile cap reinforcement where the pitch shall be 3 inches (75 millimeters) maximum. 3. Precast-Prestressed Piles. Ties in precast-prestressed piles shall conform to the requirements of precast piles. 6.4.3 Abutments 6.4.3(A) Free-Standing Abutments For free-standing abutments or retaining walls which may displace horizontally without signicant restraint (e.g., superstructure supported by sliding bearings), the pseudostatic Mononobe-Okabe method of analysis is recommended for computing lateral active soil pressures during seismic loading. A seismic coefficient equal to one-half the acceleration coefficient (kh 0.5A) is recommended. The effects of vertical acceleration may be omitted. Abutments should be proportioned to slide rather than tilt, and provisions should be made to accommodate small horizontal seismically induced abutment displacements when minimal damage is desired at abutment supports. Abutment displacements of up to 10A inches (250A millimeters) may be expected. The seismic design of free-standing abutments should take into account forces arising from seismically induced lateral earth pressures, additional forces arising from wall inertia effects and the transfer of seismic forces from the bridge deck through bearing supports which do not slide freely (e.g., elastomeric bearings). For free-standing abutments which are restrained from horizontal displacement by anchors or batter piles, the magnitudes of seismically induced lateral earth pressures are higher than those given by the MononobeOkabe method of analysis. As a rst approximation, it is recommended that the maximum lateral earth pressure be computed by using a seismic coefficient kh 1.5A in conjunction with the Mononobe-Okabe analysis method.
462 6.4.3(B) Monolithic Abutments
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 6.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B 6.6.1 General
6.4.3(B)
For monolithic abutments where the abutment forms an integral part of the bridge superstructure, maximum earth pressures acting on the abutment may be assumed equal to the maximum longitudinal earthquake force transferred from the superstructure to the abutment. To minimize abutment damage, the abutment should be designed to resist the passive pressure capable of being mobilized by the abutment backll, which should be greater than the maximum estimated longitudinal earthquake force transferred to the abutment. It may be assumed that the lateral active earth pressure during seismic loading is less than the superstructure earthquake load. When longitudinal seismic forces are also resisted by piers or columns, it is necessary to estimate abutment stiffness in the longitudinal direction in order to compute the proportion of earthquake load transferred to the abutment. 6.5 STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B
Design and construction of cast-in-place monolithic reinforced concrete columns, pier footings and connections shall conform to the requirements of Division I and to the additional requirements of this section. Either Service Load or Load Factor design may be used. If Service Load design is used the allowable stresses are permitted to increase by 331 3%.
6.6.2 Minimum Transverse Reinforcement Requirements for Seismic Performance Category B For bridges classied as SPC B, the minimum transverse reinforcement requirements at the top and bottom of a column shall be as required in Article 6.6.2(A). The spacing of the transverse reinforcement shall be as required in Article 6.6.2(B).
6.5.1 General Design and construction of structural steel columns and connections shall conform to the requirements of Division I and to the additional requirements of this section. Either Service Load or Load Factor design may be used. If Service Load design is used the allowable stresses are permitted to increase by 50%. 6.5.2 P-delta Effects Where axial and exural stresses are determined by considering secondary bending resulting from the design P-delta effects (moments induced by the eccentricity resulting from the seismic displacements and the column axial force), all axially loaded members may be proportioned in accordance with Division I, Article 10.36 or 10.54. 6.6.2(A) Transverse Reinforcement for Connement The cores of columns, pile bents, and drilled shafts shall be conned by transverse reinforcement in the expected plastic hinge regions, generally located at the top and bottom of columns and pile bents, as specied in this subsection. The transverse reinforcement for connement shall have a yield strength not more than that of the longitudinal reinforcement and the spacing shall be as specied in Article 6.6.2(B). The volumetric ratio of spiral reinforcement (s) for a circular column shall be either that required in Division I, Article 8.18 or, A g fc 1 s = 0.45 Ac fyh or, EXCEPTIONS: 1. The effective length factor, K, in the plane of bending may be assumed to be unity in the calculation of Fa, Fe, Fcr, or Fe. 2. The coefficient Cm is computed as for the cases where joint translation is prevented. s = 0.12 fc fyh (6 - 5) (6 4 )
whichever is greater. The total gross sectional area (Ash) of rectangular hoop (stirrup) reinforcement for a rectangular column shall be either,
6.6.2(A) A sh = 0.30ah c or, A sh = 0.12ah c whichever is greater, where: a fc fyh
DIVISION IASEISMIC DESIGN fc A g 1 fyh Ac
463
(6 - 6)
(6 - 7)
Ac Ag Ash
fc fyh hc s
vertical spacing of hoops (stirrups) in inches (millimeters) with a maximum of 6 inches (150 millimeters) area of column core measured to the outside of the transverse spiral reinforcement gross area of column total cross-sectional area in square inches (square millimeters) of hoop (stirrup) reinforcement including supplementary cross ties having a vertical spacing of an inch (millimeter) and crossing a section having a core dimension of hc inches (millimeters). Note that this should be calculated for both principal axes of a rectangular column. specied compressive strength of concrete in psi (MPa) yield strength of hoop or spiral reinforcement in psi (MPa) core dimension of tied column in inches (millimeters) in the direction under consideration ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to total volume of concrete core (out-to-out of spirals).
peripheral longitudinal bars. The 90 hooks of two successive crossties engaging the same longitudinal bars shall be alternated end for end. A hoop is a closed tie or continuously wound tie. A closed tie may be made up of several reinforcing elements with 135 hooks having a six-diameter, but not less than 3 inches (76 millimeters), extension at each end. A continuously wound tie shall have at each end a 135 hook with a six-diameter, but not less than 3 inches (76 millimeters), extension that engages the longitudinal reinforcement.
6.6.2(B) Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement for Connement 1. Transverse reinforcement for confinement shall be provided at the top and bottom of the column over a length equal to the maximum cross-sectional column dimension or one-sixth of the clear height of the column whichever is the larger but not less than 18 inches (450 millimeters). Transverse reinforcement shall be extended into the top and bottom connections for a distance equal to one-half the maximum column dimension but not less than 15 inches (375 millimeters) from the face of the column connection into the adjoining member. 2. Transverse reinforcement for connement shall be provided at the top of piles in pile bents over the same length as specied for columns. At the bottom of piles in pile bents, transverse reinforcement for connement shall be provided over a length extending from three pile diameters below the calculated point of moment xity to one pile diameter but not less than 18 inches (450 millimeters) above the mud line. 3. The maximum spacing for reinforcement shall not exceed the smaller of one-quarter of the minimum member dimension or 6 inches (150 millimeters). 4. Lapping of spiral reinforcement in the transverse connement regions specied in 1 and 2 shall not be permitted. Connections of spiral reinforcement in this region must be full strength lap welds.
Transverse hoop reinforcement may be provided by single or overlapping hoops. Cross-ties having the same bar size as the hoop may be used. Each end of the crosstie shall engage a peripheral longitudinal reinforcing bar. A crosstie is a continuous bar having a hook of not less than 135 with an extension of not less than six-diameter, but not less than 3 inches (76 millimeters), at one end and a hook of not less than 90 with an extension of not less than six-diameter at the other end. The hooks shall engage
Section 7
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES IN SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES C AND D
7.1 GENERAL Bridges classied as either SPC C or SPC D in accordance with Table 1 of Article 3.4 shall conform to all the requirements of this Section. 7.2 DESIGN FORCES FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES C AND D Two sets of design forces are specied in Articles 7.2.1 and 7.2.2 for bridges classied as Category C or D. The design forces for the various components are specied in Articles 7.2.3 through 7.2.7. 7.2.1 Modied Design Forces Design forces shall be determined as in Articles 7.2.1(A) and 7.2.1(B). Note that for columns a maximum and minimum axial force shall be calculated for each load case by taking the seismic axial force as positive and negative. 7.2.1(A) Modied Design Forces for Structural Members and Connections Seismic design forces specied in this Article shall apply to: (a) The superstructure, its expansion joints and the connections between the superstructure and the supporting substructure. (b) The supporting substructure down to the base of the columns and piers but not including the footing, pile cap, or piles. (c) Components connecting the superstructure to the abutment. Seismic design forces for the above components shall be determined by dividing the elastic seismic forces obtained from Load Case 1 and Load Case 2 of Article 3.9 by the appropriate Response Modication Factor of Arti465 cle 3.7. The modied seismic forces resulting from the two load cases shall then be combined independently with forces from other loads as specied in the following group loading combination for the components. Note that the seismic forces are reversible (positive and negative) and the maximum loading for each component shall be calculated as follows: Group Load 1.0(D B SF E EQM) where, D B SF E EQM dead load buoyancy stream-ow pressure earth pressure elastic seismic force for either Load Case 1 or Load Case 2 of Article 3.9 modied by dividing by the appropriate R-Factor. (7-1)
Each component of the structure shall be designed to withstand the forces resulting from each load combination according to Division I, and the additional requirements of this chapter. Note that Equation (7-1) shall be used in lieu of the Division I, Group VII group loading combination and that the and factors equal 1. For Service Load Design, a 50% increase is permitted in the allowable stresses for structural steel and a 331 3% increase for reinforced concrete. 7.2.1(B) Modied Design Forces for Foundations Seismic design forces for foundations, including footings, pile caps, and piles shall be the elastic seismic forces obtained from Load Case 1 and Load Case 2 of Article 3.9 divided by the Response Modication Factor (R) specied below. These modied seismic forces shall then be combined independently with forces from other loads as specied in the following group loading combination to determine two alternate load combinations for the foundations.
466 Group Load 1.0(D B SF E EQF)
HIGHWAY BRIDGES (7-2)
7.2.1(B)
The forces corresponding to a single column hinging are: (a) Axial Forcesunreduced maximum and minimum seismic axial load of Article 3.9 plus the dead load. (b) Momentsas calculated in Step 1. (c) Shear Forceas calculated in Step 2. 7.2.2(B) Bents with Two or More Columns The forces for bents with two or more columns shall be calculated both in the plane of the bent and perpendicular to the plane of the bent. Perpendicular to the plane of the bent the forces shall be calculated as for single columns in accordance with Article 7.2.2(A). In the plane of the bent the forces shall be calculated as follows: Step 1. Determine the column overstrength plastic moment capacities. For reinforced concrete use a strength reduction factor () of 1.3 and for structural steel use 1.25 times the nominal yield strength. (Note: This corresponds to the normal use of a strength reduction factor for reinforced concrete. In this case it provides an increase in the ultimate strength.) For both materials use the axial load corresponding to the dead load. Step 2. Using the column overstrength plastic moments calculate the corresponding column shear forces. Sum the column shears of the bent to determine the maximum shear force for the bent. Note that, if a partial-height wall exists between the columns, the effective column height is taken from the top of the wall. For ared columns and foundations below ground level, see Article 7.2.2(A) Step 2. For pile bents the length of pile above the mud line shall be used to calculate the shear force. Step 3. Apply the bent shear force to the top of the bent (center of mass of the superstructure above the bent) and determine the axial forces in the columns due to overturning when the column overstrength plastic moments are developed. Step 4. Using these column axial forces combined with the dead load axial forces, determine revised column overstrength plastic moments. With the revised overstrength plastic moments calculate the column shear forces and the maximum shear force for the bent. If the maximum shear force for the bent is not within 10% of the value previously determined, use this maximum bent shear force and return to Step 3. The forces in the individual columns in the plane of a bent corresponding to column hinging, are:
where D, B, E, and SF are as dened in Article 7.2.1 and EQF the elastic seismic force for either Load Case 1 or Load Case 2 of Article 3.9 divided by an RFactor equal to 1.0. Each component of the foundation shall be designed to resist the forces resulting from each load combination according to the requirements of Division I and to the additional requirements of Article 7.2.6. 7.2.2 Forces Resulting from Plastic Hinging in the Columns, Piers, or Bents The force resulting from plastic hinging at the top and/or bottom of the column shall be calculated after the preliminary design of the columns is complete. The forces resulting from plastic hinging are recommended for determining design forces for most components as specied in Articles 7.2.3 through 7.2.6. Alternate conservative design forces are specied if forces resulting from plastic hinging are not calculated. The procedures for calculating these forces for single column and pier supports and bents with two or more columns are given in the following subsections. 7.2.2(A) Single Columns and Piers The forces shall be calculated for the two principal axes of a column and in the weak direction of a pier or bent as follows: Step 1. Determine the column overstrength plastic moment capacities. For reinforced concrete columns, use a strength reduction factor () of 1.3 and for structural steel columns use 1.25 times the nominal yield strength. (Note: This corresponds to the normal use of a strength reduction factor for reinforced concrete. In this case it provides an increase in the ultimate strength.) For both materials use the maximum elastic column axial load from Article 3.9 added to the column dead load. Step 2. Using the column overstrength plastic moments, calculate the corresponding column shear force. For ared columns this calculation shall be performed using the overstrength plastic moments at both the top and bottom of the are with the appropriate column height. If the foundation of a column is signicantly below ground level, consideration should be given to the possibility of the plastic hinge forming above the foundation. If this can occur the column length between plastic hinges shall be used to calculate the column shear force.
7.2.2(B)
DIVISION IASEISMIC DESIGN 7.2.5(A) Longitudinal Linkage Forces
467
(a) Axial Forcesthe maximum and minimum axial load is the dead load plus, or minus, the axial load determined from the nal iteration of Step 3. (b) Momentsthe column overstrength plastic moments corresponding to the maximum compressive axial load specied in (a) above, with a strength reduction factor of 1.3 for reinforced concrete and 1.25 times the nominal yield strength for structural steel. (c) Shear Forcethe shear force corresponding to the column overstrength moments in (b) above, noting the provisions in Step 2 above. 7.2.3 Column and Pile Bent Design Forces Design forces for columns and pile bents shall be the following: (a) Axial Forcesthe minimum and maximum design force shall either be the elastic design values determined in Article 3.9 added to the dead load, or the values corresponding to plastic hinging of the column and determined in Article 7.2.2. Generally, the values corresponding to column hinging will be smaller. (b) Momentsthe modied design moments determined in Article 7.2.1. (c) Shear Forceeither the elastic design value determined from Article 7.2.1 using an R-Factor of 1 for the column or the value corresponding to plastic hinging of the column as determined in Article 7.2.2. Generally, the value corresponding to column hinging will be signicantly smaller. 7.2.4 Pier Design Forces The design forces shall be those determined in Article 7.2.1 except if the pier is designed as a column in its weak direction. If the pier is designed as a column the design forces in the weak direction shall be as specified in Article 7.2.3 and all the design requirements for columns of Article 7.6 shall apply. (Note: When the forces due to plastic hinging are used in the weak direction the combination of forces specified in Article 3.9 is not applicable.) 7.2.5 Connection Design Forces The design forces shall be those determined in Article 7.2.1 except that for superstructure connections to columns and column connections to cap beams or footings, the alternate forces specied in 7.2.5(C) below are recommended. Additional design forces at connections are as follows:
Positive horizontal linkage shall be provided between adjacent sections of the superstructure at supports and expansion joints within a span. The linkage shall be designed for a minimum force of the Acceleration Coefficient times the weight of the lighter of the two adjoining spans or parts of the structure. If the linkage is at a point where relative displacement of the sections of superstructure is designed to occur during seismic motions, sufcient slack must be allowed in the linkage so that the linkage force does not start to act until the design displacement is exceeded. Where linkage is to be provided at columns or piers, the linkage of each span may be attached to the column or pier rather than between adjacent spans. Positive linkage shall be provided by ties, cables, dampers, or an equivalent mechanism. Friction shall not be considered a positive linkage. 7.2.5(B) Hold-Down Devices Hold-down devices shall be provided at all supports or hinges in continuous structures, where the vertical seismic force due to the longitudinal horizontal seismic load opposes and exceeds 50% but is less than 100% of the dead load reaction. In this case, the minimum net upward force for the hold-down device shall be 10% of the dead load downward force that would be exerted if the span were simply supported. If the vertical seismic force (Q) due to the longitudinal horizontal seismic load opposes and exceeds 100 percent of the dead load reaction (DR), the net upwards force for the hold-down device shall be 1.2(Q DR) but it shall not be less than that specied in the previous paragraph. 7.2.5(C) Column and Pier Connections to Cap Beams and Footings The recommended connection design forces between the superstructure and columns, columns and cap beams, and columns and spread footings or pile caps are the forces developed at the top and bottom of the columns due to column hinging and determined in Article 7.2.2. The smaller of these or the values specied in Article 7.2.1 may be used. Note that these forces should be calculated after the column design is complete and the overstrength moment capacities have been obtained. 7.2.6 Foundation Design Forces The design forces for foundations including footings, pile caps, and piles may be either those forces determined in Article 7.2.1(B) or the forces at the bottom of the columns corresponding to column plastic hinging as
468
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
7.2.6
determined in Article 7.2.2. Generally, the values corresponding to column hinging will be signicantly smaller. When the columns of a bent have a common footing the nal force distribution at the base of the columns from Step 4 of Article 7.2.2(B) may be used for the design of the footing in the plane of the bent. This force distribution produces lower shear forces and moments on the footing because one exterior column may be in tension and the other in compression due to the seismic overturning moment. This effectively increases the ultimate moments and shear forces on one column and reduces them on the other. 7.2.7 Abutment and Retaining Wall Design Forces The components connecting the superstructure to an abutment (e.g., bearings and shear keys) shall be designed to resist the forces specied in Article 7.2.1. Design requirements for abutments are given in Article 7.4.3 for SPC C and Article 7.4.5 for SPC D. 7.3 DESIGN DISPLACEMENT FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES C AND D The seismic design displacements shall be the maximum of those determined in accordance with Article 3.8 or those specied in Article 7.3.1. 7.3.1 Minimum Support Length Requirements for Seismic Performance Categories C and D Bridges classied as SPC C or D shall meet the following requirement: Bearing seats supporting the expansion ends of girders, as shown in Figure 3.10, shall be designed to provide a minimum support length N (in. or mm), measured normal to the face of an abutment or pier, not less than that specied below. N (12 0.03L 0.12H) (1 0.000125S2) (in.) or, N (305 2.5L 10H) (1 0.000125S2) (mm) where, L length, in feet for Equation (7-3A) or meters for Equation (7-3B), of the bridge deck to the adjacent expansion joint, or to the end of the bridge deck. For hinges within a span, L shall be the sum of L1 and L2, the distances to either side of the hinge. For single span bridges L equals the length of the bridge deck. These lengths are shown in Figure 3.10. (7-3B)
S angle of skew of support in degrees measured from a line normal to the span. and H is given by one of the following: for abutments, H is the average height, in feet for Equation (7-3A) or meters for Equation (7-3B), of columns supporting the bridge deck to the next expansion joint. H 0 for single span bridges. for columns and/or piers, H is the column or pier height in feet for Equation (7-3A) or meters for Equation (7-3B). for hinges within a span, H is the average height of the adjacent two columns or piers in feet for Equation (7-3A) or meters for Equation (7-3B). Positive horizontal linkages shall be provided at all superstructure expansion joints, including those joints within a span, as specied in Article 7.2.5. Relative displacements between different segments of the bridge should be carefully considered in the evaluation of the results determined in accordance with Article 3.8. Relative displacements arise from effects that are not easily included in the analysis procedure but should be considered in determining the design displacements. They include the following: (a) Torsional displacements of bridge decks on skewed supports. (b) Rotation and/or lateral displacements of the foundations. (c) Out-of-phase displacements of different segments of the bridge. This is especially important in determining seat widths at expansion joints. (d) Out-of-phase rotation of abutments and columns induced by traveling seismic waves. 7.4 FOUNDATION AND ABUTMENT DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES C AND D 7.4.1 General This section includes only those foundation and abutment requirements that are specically related to seismic resistant construction in SPC C and D. It assumes compliance with all requirements that are necessary to provide support for vertical and lateral loads other than those due to earthquake motions. These include, but are not limited to, provisions for the extent of foundation investigation, lls, slope stability, bearing and lateral soil pressures, drainage, settlement control, and pile requirements and capacities.
(7-3A)
7.4.1
469
Foundation and abutment seismic design requirements for SPC C are given in Articles 7.4.2 and 7.4.3. Requirements for bridges in SPC D are given in Articles 7.4.4 and 7.4.5. 7.4.2 Foundation Requirements for Seismic Performance Category C Foundation and abutment seismic design requirements for SPC C are given in the following subsections. 7.4.2(A) Investigation In addition to the normal site investigation report, the Engineer may require the submission of a report which describes the results of an investigation to determine potential hazards and seismic design requirements related to (1) slope instability, (2) liquefaction, (3) ll settlement, and (4) increases in lateral earth pressure, all as a result of earthquake motions. Seismically induced slope instability in approach lls or cuts may displace abutments and lead to signicant differential settlement and structural damage. Fill settlement and abutment displacements due to lateral pressure increases may lead to bridge access problems and structural damage. Liquefaction of saturated cohesionless lls or foundation soils may contribute to slope and abutment instability, and could lead to a loss of foundation bearing capacity and lateral pile support. Liquefaction failures of the above type have led to bridge failures during past earthquakes. Further, the above report should include a determination of the potential for surface rupture due to faulting or differential ground displacement (lurching), as a result of earthquake motions. 7.4.2(B) Foundation Design The design forces for the foundations shall be those specied in Article 7.2.6. The soil strength capable of being mobilized by the foundations shall be established in the site investigation report. Because of the dynamic cyclic nature of seismic loading, the ultimate capacity of the foundation supporting medium should be used in conjunction with these load combinations. Due consideration shall be given to the magnitude of the seismically induced foundation settlement that the bridge can withstand. Transient foundation uplift or rocking involving separation from the subsoil of up to one-half of an end bearing foundation pile group or up to one-half of the contact area of foundation footings is permitted under seismic loading, provided that foundation soils are not susceptible to loss of strength under the imposed cyclic loading.
For saturated sand and soft clay foundation soils, due consideration shall be given to the potential for soil strength loss under the imposed cyclic loading in assessing the ultimate capacity of foundations. General comments on soil strength and stiffness mobilized during earthquakes, foundation uplift, lateral loading of piles, soil-structure interaction and foundation design in environments susceptible to liquefaction are provided in the Commentary. 7.4.2(C) Special Pile Requirements The following special pile requirements are in addition to the requirements for piles in other applicable specications. Piles may be used to resist both axial and lateral loads. The minimum depth of embedment, together with the axial and lateral pile capacities, required to resist seismic loads shall be determined by means of the design criteria established in the site investigation report. Note that the ultimate capacity of the piles should be used in designing for seismic loads. All piles shall be adequately anchored to the pile footing or cap. Concrete piles shall be anchored by embedment of sufficient length of pile reinforcement (unless special anchorage is provided) to develop uplift forces but in no case shall this length be less than the development length required for the reinforcement. Each concretelled pipe pile shall be anchored by at least four reinforcing steel dowels with a minimum steel ratio of 0.01 embedded sufficiently as required for concrete piles. Timber and steel piles, including unlled pipe piles, shall be provided with anchoring devices to develop all uplift forces adequately but in no case shall these forces be less than 10% of the allowable pile load. All concrete piles shall be reinforced to resist the design moments, shears, and axial loads. The following special requirements for concrete piles shall apply: 1. Anchorage. The longitudinal reinforcement of all concrete piles shall be anchored to the pile footing or cap to develop a force of at least 1.25Asfy where As is the area of longitudinal reinforcement in the concrete pile and fy is its nominal yield strength. 2. Connement Length. The upper end of every pile shall be reinforced as a potential plastic hinge region, except where it can be established that there is no possibility of any signicant lateral deections in the pile resulting from deformation. The potential plastic hinge region shall, as a minimum, be considered to extend from the underside of the pile cap over a length of not less than two pile diameters or 24 inches (610 mil-
470
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
7.4.2(C)
limeters). If an analysis of the bridge and pile system indicates that a plastic hinge can form at a lower level, the transverse reinforcement requirements of (3) shall extend to that level. Note the special requirements for pile bents given in Article 7.6.2(C), (D), and (E). 3. Volumetric Ratio for Connement. The volumetric ratio of transverse reinforcement to the distance specied in (2) shall be as required for columns in Article 7.6.2(D). 4. Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles. Longitudinal steel shall be provided for cast-in-place concrete piles for the full length of the pile. The upper two-thirds of the pile shall have a minimum longitudinal steel ratio of 0.0075 provided by at least four bars. Spiral reinforcement or equivalent ties of 1 4 inch (6 millimeters) diameter or larger shall be provided at 9 inches (225 millimeters) maximum pitch, except for the top 4 feet (1.2 meters) where the pitch shall be 3 inches (75 millimeters maximum, and where the volumetric ratio shall conform to Article 7.6.2(D). 5. Precast Concrete Piles. Longitudinal reinforcing steel shall be provided for each precast concrete pile with a minimum steel ratio of 0.01 provided by at least four bars. Spiral reinforcement ties in precast, including prestressed, concrete piles shall be No. 3 bars or larger and shall be provided at 9 inches (225 millimeters) maximum pitch except for the top 4 feet (1.2 meters) where the pitch shall be 3 inches (75 millimeters) and the volumetric ratio shall conform to 7.6.2(D). 6. Precast-Prestressed Piles. Ties in precast-prestressed piles shall conform to the requirements of precast piles. 7.4.3 Abutment Requirements for Seismic Performance Category C In addition to the provisions outlined in this section, consideration should be given to the mechanism of transfer of superstructure transverse inertial forces to the bridge abutments. Adequate resistance to lateral pressure should be provided by wing walls or abutment keys to minimize lateral abutment displacements. 7.4.3(A) Free-Standing Abutments For free-standing abutments or retaining walls which may displace horizontally without signicant restraint (e.g., superstructure supported by sliding bearings), the pseudo-static Mononobe-Okabe method of analysis is recommended for computing lateral active soil pressures during seismic loading. A seismic coefficient equal to one-half the acceleration coefficient (kh 0.5A) is recommended. The effects of vertical acceleration may be omitted. Abutments should be proportioned to slide rather
than tilt, and provisions should be made to accommodate small horizontal seismically induced abutment displacements when minimal damage is desired at abutment supports. Abutment displacements of up to 10A inches (250A millimeters) may be expected. The seismic design of free-standing abutments should take into account forces arising from seismically induced lateral earth pressures, additional forces arising from wall inertia effects and the transfer of seismic forces from the bridge deck through bearing supports which do not slide freely (e.g., elastomeric bearings). For free-standing abutments which are restrained from horizontal displacement by anchors or batter piles, the magnitudes of seismically induced lateral earth pressures are higher than those given by the Mononobe-Okabe method of analysis. As a rst approximation, it is recommended that the maximum lateral earth pressure be computed by using a seismic coefficient kh 1.5A in conjunction with the Mononobe-Okabe analysis method. 7.4.3(B) Monolithic Abutments For monolithic abutments where the abutment forms an integral part of the bridge superstructure, maximum earth pressures acting on the abutment may be assumed equal to the maximum longitudinal earthquake force transferred from the superstructure to the abutment. To minimize abutment damage, the abutment should be designed to resist the passive pressure capable of being mobilized by the abutment backll, which should be greater than the maximum estimated longitudinal earthquake force transferred to the abutment. It may be assumed that the lateral active earth pressure during seismic loading is less than the superstructure earthquake load. When longitudinal seismic forces are also resisted by piers or columns, it is necessary to estimate abutment stiffness in the longitudinal direction in order to compute the proportion of earthquake load transferred to the abutment. 7.4.4 Additional Requirements for Foundations for Seismic Performance Category D Foundation design requirements for bridges classied as SPC D shall meet the requirements of Article 7.4.2 plus the additional requirements of this section. 7.4.4(A) Investigation The Engineer may require the submission of a written report which includes, in addition to the requirements of Article 7.4.2, a site-specic study to investigate the inuence of cyclic loading on the deformation and strength characteristics of foundation soils. Potential progressive degradation in the stiffness and strength characteristics of
7.4.4(A)
DIVISION IASEISMIC DESIGN EXCEPTIONS:
471
saturated sands and soft clays should be given particular attention. More detailed analyses of slope and/or abutment settlement during earthquake loading should be undertaken. 7.4.4(B) Foundation Design The design forces for foundations shall be those specied in Article 7.2.6. 7.4.5 Additional Requirements for Abutments for Seismic Performance Category D In addition to the requirements outlined in Article 7.4.3 consideration should be given to the mechanism of transfer of superstructure longitudinal and transverse inertia forces to the abutments, and also to abutment-soil interaction. To minimize potential loss of bridge access arising from abutment damage, monolithic or end diaphragm construction is strongly recommended for short span bridges. Settlement or approach slabs providing structural support between approach lls and abutments are recommended for all bridges classied as SPC D. Slabs shall be adequately linked to abutments using exible ties. 7.5 STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES C AND D 7.5.1 General Design and construction of structural steel columns and connections shall conform to the requirements of Division I and to the additional requirements of this section. Either Service Load or Load Factor design may be used. If Service Load design is used the allowable stresses are permitted to increase by 50%. It should be noted that when Service Load design is used for SPC C and D a conservative design may result because elastic design forces will be required for the design of most components unless the forces resulting from plastic hinging of the columns are used per Article 7.2.2. 7.5.2 P-delta Effects Where axial and exural stresses are determined by considering secondary bending resulting from the design P-delta effects (moments induced by the eccentricity resulting from the seismic displacements and the column axial force), all axially loaded members may be proportioned in accordance with Division I, Article 10.36 or 10.54.
1. The effective length factor, K, in the plane of bending may be assumed to be unity in the calculation of Fa, Fe , Fcr, or Fe. 2. The coefficient Cm is computed as for the cases where joint translation is prevented. 7.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES C AND D 7.6.1 General Design and construction of cast-in-place monolithic reinforced concrete columns, pier footings and connections shall conform to the requirements of Division I and to the additional requirements of this section. Either Service Load or Load Factor design may be used. If Service Load design is used the allowable stresses are permitted to increase by 331 3%. It should be noted that when Service Load design is used for SPC C and D a conservative design may result because elastic design forces will be required for the design of most components unless the forces resulting from plastic hinging of the columns are used per Article 7.2.2. 7.6.2 Column Requirements For the purpose of these provisions, a vertical support is considered to be a column if the ratio of the clear height to the maximum plan dimensions of the support is equal to or greater than 2.5. Note that the maximum plan dimension is taken at the minimum section of the are for a ared column. For supports with a ratio less than 2.5, the provisions for piers of Article 7.6.3 shall apply. For columns the provisions of this section are applicable. Note that a pier may be designed as a pier in its strong direction and a column in its weak direction. 7.6.2(A) Vertical Reinforcement The area of longitudinal reinforcement shall not be less than 0.01 or more than 0.06 times the gross cross-section area Ag. EXCEPTION: Division I, Article 8.18.2.1 applies to columns where a larger cross-section is used for architectural reasons. 7.6.2(B) Flexural Strength The biaxial strength of columns shall not be less than that required for the bending moments determined in
472
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
7.6.2(B)
Article 7.2.3. The design of the column shall be checked for both the minimum and maximum axial loads specied in Article 7.2.3. The strength reduction factors of Division I, Article 8.16 shall be replaced for both spirally and tied reinforced columns by the value of 0.50 when the stress due to the maximum axial load for the column exceeds 0.20fc. The value of may be increased linearly from 0.50 to the value for exure (0.90) when the stress due to the maximum axial load is between 0.20fc and 0. Moment magnication for slenderness effects (Division I, Article 8.16.5) shall be considered in the design of the column. 7.6.2(C) Column Shear and Transverse Reinforcement The factored design shear force Vu of Division I, Equation (8-46) on each principal axis of each column and pile bent shall be the value determined in Article 7.2.3. The factored shear stress vu shall be computed using Vu specied above and the strength reduction factor for shear of Division I, Article 8.16.1.2. The amount of transverse reinforcement shall be at least that specied by Division I, Article 8.16.6. In the end regions of the top and bottom of the column and pile bents, the following provisions shall apply in addition to those of Division I: 1. The shear strength of the concrete, Vc, shall be in accordance with Division I, Article 8.16.6.2 when the axial load associated with the shear produces an average compression stress in excess of 0.1fc over the core concrete area of the support members. As the average compression stress increases from 0 to 0.1fc the strength Vc increases linearly from 0 to the value given by Division I, Article 8.16.6.2. 2. The end region shall be assumed to extend from the soffit of girders or cap beams at the top of columns, or the top of foundations at the bottom of columns, a distance not less than the minimum of (a) the maximum cross-sectional dimension of the column, (b) one-sixth of the clear height of the column, or (c) 18 inches (450 millimeters). 3. The end region of a pile bent shall be the same as specied for columns at the top of the pile bent, and three pile diameters below the calculated point of moment xity to one pile diameter, but not less than 18 inches (450 millimeters) above the mud line at the bottom of the pile bent. 7.6.2(D) Transverse Reinforcement for Connement at Plastic Hinges The cores of columns, pile bents, and drilled shafts shall be conned by transverse reinforcement in the ex-
pected plastic hinge regions, generally located at the top and bottom of columns and pile bents, as specied in this subsection. The largest of these requirements or those of Article 7.6.2(C) shall govern; these requirements are not in addition to those of Article 7.6.2(C). The transverse reinforcement for connement shall have a yield strength not more than that of the longitudinal reinforcement and the spacing shall be as specied in Article 7.6.2(E). The volumetric ratio of spiral reinforcement (s) for a circular column shall be either that required in Division I, Article 8.18 or, A g fc 1 s = 0.45 Ac fyh or, s = 0.12 fc fyh (7 - 5) (7 - 4)
whichever is greater. The total cross-sectional area (Ash) of rectangular hoop (stirrup) reinforcement for a rectangular column shall be either, A sh = 0.30ah c or, A sh = 0.12ah c whichever is greater, where: vertical spacing of hoops (stirrups) in inches (millimeters) with a maximum of 4 inches (100 millimeters). Ac area of column core measured to the outside of the transverse spiral reinforcement. Ag gross area of column. Ash total cross-sectional area in square inches (square millimeters) of hoop (stirrup) reinforcement including supplementary cross-ties having a vertical spacing of an inches (millimeters) and crossing a section having a core dimension of hc inches (millimeters). Note that this should be calculated for both principal axes of a rectangular column. fc specied compressive strength of concrete in psi (MPa). fyh yield strength of hoop or spiral reinforcement in psi (MPa). a fc fyh (7 - 7) fc fyh Ag A 1 c (7 - 6)
7.6.2(D)
473
hc core dimension of tied column in inches (millimeters) in the direction under consideration. s ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to total volume of concrete core (out-to-out of spirals). Transverse hoop reinforcement may be provided by single or overlapping hoops. Cross-ties having the same bar size as the hoop may be used. Each end of the crosstie shall engage a peripheral longitudinal reinforcing bar. A crosstie is a continuous bar having a hook of not less than 135 with an extension of not less than six-diameter, but not less than 3 inches (76 millimeters), at one end and a hook of not less than 90 with an extension of not less than six-diameter at the other end. The hooks shall engage peripheral longitudinal bars. The 90 hooks of two successive crossties engaging the same longitudinal bars shall be alternated end for end. A hoop is a closed tie or continuously wound tie. A closed tie may be made up of several reinforcing elements with 135 hooks having a six-diameter, but not less than 3 inches (76 millimeters), extension at each end. A continuously wound tie shall have at each end a 135 hook with a six-diameter, but not less than 3 inches (76 millimeters), extension that engages the longitudinal reinforcement. 7.6.2(E) Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement for Connement 1. Transverse reinforcement for connement shall be provided at the top and bottom of the column over a length equal to the maximum cross-sectional column dimension or one-sixth of the clear height of the column, whichever is the larger, but not less than 18 inches (450 millimeters). Transverse reinforcement shall be extended into the top and bottom connections as specied in Article 7.6.4. 2. Transverse reinforcement for connement shall be provided at the top of piles in pile bents over the same length as specied for columns. At the bottom of piles in pile bents, transverse reinforcement for connement shall be provided over a length extending from three pile diameters below the calculated point of moment xity to one pile diameter but not less than 18 inches (450 millimeters) above the mud line. 3. The maximum spacing for reinforcement shall not exceed the smaller of one-quarter of the minimum member dimension or 4 inches (100 millimeters). 4. Lapping of spiral reinforcement in the transverse connement regions specied in 1 and 2 shall not be permitted. Connections of spiral reinforcement in this region must be full strength lap welds. 7.6.2(F) Splices Splices shall be in accordance with those specied in Division I, Article 8.32 and the additional requirements of
this Article. Lap splices shall be permitted only within the center half of column height, and the splice length shall not be less than 16 inches (400 millimeters) or 60 bar diameters, whichever is greater. The maximum spacing of the transverse reinforcement over the length of the splice shall not exceed the smaller of 4 inches (100 millimeters) or one-quarter of the minimum member dimension. Welded splices and approved mechanical splices that conform to the current provisions of ACI 318 may be used for splicing provided that splices shall not be used on any two adjacent bars in the same layer of longitudinal reinforcement at the same section and that the distance between splices of adjacent bars is greater than 24 inches (600 millimeters) as measured along the longitudinal axis of the column. 7.6.3 Pier Requirements The provisions of this article are applicable to the design for the strong direction of a pier. The weak direction of a pier may be designed as a column and the provisions of Article 7.6.2 are then applicable. In this case, the Response Modication Factor for columns may be used to determine the design forces in Article 7.2.1. If the pier is not designed as a column in its weak direction, the limitations for shear stress in this article are applicable. The minimum reinforcement ratio both horizontally, h, and vertically n, in any pier shall not be less than 0.0025. Reinforcement spacing either horizontally or vertically shall not exceed 18 inches (457 millimeters). The reinforcement required for shear shall be continuous and shall be distributed uniformly. h the ratio of horizontal shear reinforcement area to gross concrete area of a vertical section. n the ratio of vertical shear reinforcement area to the gross concrete area of a horizontal section. The allowable shear stress, vu, in the pier shall be determined in accordance with the following equation: v u = 2 fc + h fy (7 - 8)
The allowable shear stress shall not exceed 8f . For c lightweight aggregate concrete, the limiting shear stress, vu, calculated from Equation (7-8), shall be multiplied by 0.75. Two curtains of reinforcement shall be used and the reinforcement ratios n and h shall be equal. The reinforcement required by shear shall be uniformly distributed. Splices in horizontal pier reinforcement shall be staggered and splices in the two curtains shall not occur at the same location.
474 7.6.4 Column Connections
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
7.6.4
7.6.5 Construction Joints in Piers and Columns Construction joints in piers and columns resisting seismic forces shall be designed and constructed to resist the design forces at the joint. Where shear is resisted at a construction joint solely by dowel action and friction on a roughened concrete surface, the total shear force across the joint shall not exceed Vj determined from the following formula: Vj (Avffy 0.75Pn) (7-9)
A column connection as referred to in this section is the vertical extension of the column area into the adjoining member. The design force for the connection between the column and the cap beam superstructure, pile cap, or spread footing shall be that specied in Article 7.2.5(C). The development length for all longitudinal steel shall be that required for a steel stress of 1.25fy as given in Division I, Articles 8.24 through 8.32. Column transverse reinforcement required by Article 7.6.2(D) shall be continued for a distance equal to onehalf the maximum column dimension but not less than 15 inches (375 millimeters) from the face of the column connection into the adjoining member. The shear stress in the joint of a frame or bent, in the direction under consideration, shall not exceed 12f for c normal-weight aggregate concrete or 9f for lightc weight aggregate concrete.
where Avf is the total area of reinforcement (including exural reinforcement), Pn is the minimum axial load specied in Article 7.2.3 for columns and Article 7.2.4 for piers, and is the strength reduction factor for shear of Division I, Article 8.16.
Division II CONSTRUCTION
INTRODUCTION
This Division of the Standard Specications for Highway Bridges includes the basic technical construction specications needed for the construction of bridges and other major transportation structures. They generally represent current practices in the United States and are consistent with the AASHTO Design Specications for Bridges which are contained in Division I. They are provided to be used either as part of the specications for projects or as a guide for agencies in developing their own standards. When so used, uniformity and the efficiencies associated therewith may be realized. These technical specications do not include the clauses needed for the administration of a contract and were written to be used in conjunction with general provisions such as those in the AASHTO Guide Specications for Highway Construction. Other comparable sets of general provision clauses currently in use by many States can also be used to cover the administration requirements for construction contracts. The Guide Specications and these Standard Specications are intended to be complementary and to provide for the principal and most widely used items of work required for the construction of major transportation structures. Note that these specications do not identify the date of specications, which are included by reference, such as the AASHTO Standard Specications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Testing and Sampling. As required by the AASHTO Guide Specication, the edition of such specications incorporated by reference will be the edition in effect on the date of advertisement for proposals for the project. Sufficient detail may not be included in these specications to suit local or unusual conditions or unique designs. The many differences in climate, geology, customs, statutes and regulations prevent the writing of a more detailed national construction specication. Therefore, the user is expected to supplement or alter the requirements of these specications, as needed, in the project special provisions. A Commentary is provided to assist the user in developing such special provisions. These specications were extensively revised under NCHRP 12-34 in 1989 and approved by AASHTO Highway Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures in 1990.
476
Section 1
STRUCTURE EXCAVATION AND BACKFILL
1.1 GENERAL Structure excavation shall consist of the removal of all material, of whatever nature, necessary for the construction of foundations for bridges, retaining walls, and other major structures in accordance with the plans or as directed by the Engineer. If not otherwise provided for in the contract, structure excavation shall include the furnishing of all necessary equipment and the construction and subsequent removal of all cofferdams, shoring, and water control systems which may be necessary for the execution of the work. It shall also include, if not otherwise specied, the placement of all necessary backll, including any necessary stockpiling of excavated material which is to be used in backll, and the disposing of excavated material, which is not required for backll, in roadway embankments or as provided for excess and unsuitable material in Subsection 203.02, AASHTO Guide Specications for Highway Construction. If the contract does not include a separate pay item or items for such work, structure excavation shall include all necessary clearing and grubbing and the removal of existing structures within the area to be excavated. Classication, if any, of excavation will be indicated on the plans and set forth in the proposal. The removal and disposal of buried natural or manmade objects are included in the class of excavation in which they are located, unless such removal and disposal are included in other items of work. However, in the case of a buried manmade object, if (1) its removal requires the use of methods or equipment not used for other excavation on the project, (2) its presence was not indicated on the plans or in the special provisions, (3) its presence could not have been ascertained by site investigation, including contact with identified utilities within the area, and (4) the Contractor so requests in writing prior to its removal, the removal and disposal of such object will be paid for as extra work, and its volume will not be included in the measured quantity of excavation. 477 1.2 WORKING DRAWINGS Whenever specied, the Contractor shall provide working drawings, accompanied by calculations where appropriate, of excavation procedures, embankment construction and backlling operations. This plan shall show the details of shoring, bracing, slope treatment or other protective system proposed for use and shall be accompanied by design calculations and supporting data in sufficient detail to permit an engineering review of the proposed design. The working drawings and plans for protection from caving shall be submitted sufficiently in advance of proposed use to allow for their review, revision, if needed, and approval without delay to the work. Working drawings must be approved by the Engineer prior to performance of the work involved and such approval shall not relieve the Contractor of any responsibility under the contract for the successful completion of the work. 1.3 MATERIALS Material used for backll shall be free of frozen lumps, wood or other degradable matter and shall be of a grading such that the required compaction can be consistently obtained using the compaction methods selected by the Contractor. Permeable material for underdrains shall conform to AASHTO Guide Specications for Highway Construction, Subsection 704.01.
1.4 CONSTRUCTION 1.4.1 Depth of Footings The elevation of the bottoms of footings, as shown on the plans, shall be considered as approximate only and the Engineer may order, in writing, such changes in dimensions or elevation of footings as may be necessary to secure a satisfactory foundation.
478
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
1.4.2
1.4.2 Foundation Preparation and Control of Water 1.4.2.1 General All substructures, where practical, shall be constructed in open excavation and, where necessary, the excavation shall be shored, braced, or protected by cofferdams constructed in accordance with the requirements contained in Article 3.3, Cofferdams and Shoring. When footings can be placed in the dry without the use of cofferdams, backforms may be omitted with the approval of the Engineer, and the entire excavation lled with concrete to the required elevation of the top of the footing. The additional concrete required shall be furnished and placed at the expense of the Contractor. Temporary water control systems shall conform to the requirements contained in Article 3.4, Temporary Water Control Systems. 1.4.2.2 Excavations Within Channels When excavation encroaches upon a live stream bed or channel, unless otherwise permitted, no excavation shall be made outside of caissons, cribs, cofferdams, steel piling, or sheeting, and the natural stream bed adjacent to the structure shall not be disturbed without permission from the Engineer. If any excavation or dredging is made at the site of the structure before caissons, cribs, or cofferdams are sunk or are in place, the Contractor shall, without extra charge, after the foundation base is in place, backll all such excavation to the original ground surface or river bed with material satisfactory to the Engineer. Material temporarily deposited within the ow area of streams from foundation or other excavation shall be removed and the stream ow area freed from obstruction thereby. 1.4.2.3 Foundations on Rock When a foundation is to rest on rock, the rock shall be freed from all loose material, cleaned and cut to a rm surface, either level, stepped, or roughened, as may be directed by the Engineer. All seams shall be cleaned out and lled with concrete, mortar, or grout before the footing is placed. Where blasting is required to reach footing level, any loose, fractured rock caused by overbreak below bearing level shall be removed and replaced with concrete or grouted at the Contractors expense. 1.4.2.4 Other Foundations When a foundation is to rest on an excavated surface other than rock, special care shall be taken not to disturb the bottom of the excavation, and the nal removal of the
foundation material to grade shall not be made until just before the footing is to be placed. Where the material below the bottom of footings not supported by piles has been disturbed, it shall be removed and the entire space lled with concrete or other approved material at the Contractors expense. Under footings supported on piles, the over-excavation or disturbed volumes shall be replaced and compacted as directed by the Engineer. 1.4.2.5 Approval of Foundation After each excavation is completed, the Contractor shall notify the Engineer, and no concrete or other footing material shall be placed until the Engineer has approved the depth of the excavation and the character of the foundation material. 1.4.3 Backll Backll material shall conform to the provisions of Article 1.3. If sufficient material of suitable quality is not available from excavation within the project limits, the Contractor shall import such material as directed by the Engineer. All spaces excavated and not occupied by abutments, piers, or other permanent work shall be relled with earth up to the surface of the surrounding ground, with a sufficient allowance for settlement. Except as otherwise provided, all backll shall be thoroughly compacted to the density of the surrounding ground, and its top surface shall be neatly graded. Fill placed around piers shall be deposited on both sides to approximately the same elevation at the same time. Rocks larger than 3 inches maximum dimension shall not be placed against the concrete surfaces. Embankment construction shall conform to the requirements of Subsection 203.02, AASHTO Guide Specications for Highway Construction. The ll at retaining walls, abutments, wingwalls, and all bridge bents in embankment shall be deposited in well-compacted, horizontal layers not to exceed 6 inches in thickness and shall be brought up uniformly on all sides of the structure or facility. Backll within or beneath embankments, within the roadway in excavated areas, or in front of abutments and retaining walls or wingwalls shall be compacted to the same density as required for embankments. No backll shall be placed against any concrete structure until permission has been given by the Engineer. The placing of such backll shall also conform to the requirements of Article 8.15.2, Earth Loads. The backll in front of abutments and wingwalls shall be placed rst to prevent the possibility of forward movement. Jetting of
1.4.3
DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION
479
the ll behind abutments and wingwalls will not be permitted. Adequate provision shall be made for the thorough drainage of all backll. French drains, consisting of at least 2 cubic feet of permeable material wrapped in lter fabric to prevent clogging and transmission of nes from the backll, shall be placed at weep holes. Backlling of metal and concrete culverts shall be done in accordance with the requirements of Sections 26, Metal Culverts, and 27, Concrete Culverts. 1.5 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT 1.5.1 Measurement The quantity to be paid for as structure excavation shall be measured by the cubic yard. The quantities for payment will be determined from limits shown on the plans, included in the specications, or ordered by the Engineer. No deduction in structure excavation pay quantities will be made where the Contractor does not excavate material which is outside the limits of the actual structure but within the limits of payment for structure excavation. In the absence of plans or special provisions indicating pay limits for structure excavation, the horizontal limits will be vertical planes 18 inches outside of the neat lines of footings or structures without footings; the top limits shall be the original ground or the top of the required grading cross section, whichever is lower; and the lower limits shall be the bottom of the footing or base of structure, or the lower limit of excavation ordered by the Engineer. When foundations are located within embankments and the specications require the embankment to be constructed to a specied elevation which is above the bottom of the footing or base of structure prior to construction of the foundation, then such specied elevation will be considered to be the original ground. When it is necessary, in the opinion of the Engineer, to carry the foundations below the elevations shown on the plans, the excavation for the rst 3 feet of additional depth
will be included in the quantity for which payment will be made under this item. Excavation below this additional depth will be paid for as extra work, unless the Contractor states in writing that payment at contract prices is acceptable. 1.5.2 Payment Unless otherwise provided, structure excavation, measured as provided in Article 1.5.1, will be paid for by the cubic yard for the kind and class specied. Payment for structure excavation shall include full compensation for all labor, material, equipment, and other items that may be necessary or convenient to the successful completion of the excavation to the elevation of the bottom of footings or base of structure. Full compensation for controlling and removing water from excavations and for furnishing and installing or constructing all cofferdams, shoring, and all other facilities necessary to the operations, except concrete seal courses which are shown on the plans, and their subsequent removal, shall be considered as included in the contract price for structure excavation, unless the contract provides for their separate payment. The contract price for structure excavation shall include full payment for all handling and storage of excavated materials which are to be used as backll, including any necessary drying, and the disposal of all surplus or unsuitable excavated materials, unless otherwise provided for in the contract. Any clearing, grubbing, or structure removal which is required, but not paid for under other items of the contract, will be considered to be included in the price paid for structure excavation. Unless the contract provides for its separate payment, the contract price for structure excavation shall include full compensation for the placing and compacting of structure backll. The furnishing of backll material from sources other than excavation will be paid for at the contract unit price for the material being used, or as extra work if no unit price has been established.
Section 2
REMOVAL OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
2.1 DESCRIPTION This work shall consist of the removal, wholly or in part, and satisfactory disposal, or salvage, of all bridges, retaining walls and other major structures which are designated on the plans or in the special provisions to be removed. The work also includes, unless otherwise specied, any necessary excavation and the backlling of trenches, holes or pits that result from such removal. 2.2 WORKING DRAWINGS Working drawings showing methods and sequence of removal shall be prepared: (1) when structures or portions of structure are specied to be removed and salvaged, (2) when removal operations will be performed over or adjacent to public traffic or railroad property, or (3) when called for by the plans or special provisions. At least 10 days prior to the proposed start of removal operations, the working drawings shall be submitted to the Engineer for approval. Removal work shall not begin until the drawings have been approved. Such approval shall not relieve the Contractor of any responsibility under the contract for the successful completion of the work. When salvage is required, the drawings shall clearly indicate the markings proposed to designate individual segments of the structure. 2.3 CONSTRUCTION 2.3.1 General Except for utilities and other items that the Engineer may direct the Contractor to leave intact, the Contractor shall raze, remove and dispose of each structure, or portion of structure, designated to be removed. All concrete and other foundations shall be removed to a depth of at least 2 feet below ground elevation or 3 feet below subgrade elevation, whichever is lower. Unless otherwise specied, the Contractor has the option to either pull piles or cut them off at a point not less than 2 feet below ground line. Cavities left from structure removal shall be back481 lled to the level of the surrounding ground and, if within the area of roadway construction, shall be compacted to meet the requirements of the contract for embankment. Explosives shall not be used except at locations and under conditions cited by the project specications. All blasting shall be completed before the placement of new work. 2.3.2 Salvage Materials which are designated to be salvaged under the contract, for reuse in the project or for future use by the Department, shall remain the property of the Department and shall be carefully removed in transportable sections and stockpiled near the site at a location designated by the Engineer. The Contractor shall restore or replace damaged or destroyed material without additional compensation. Rivets and bolts that must be removed from steel structures to be salvaged shall be removed by cutting the heads with a chisel, then punched or drilled from the hole, or by a method that will not injure the members for reuse and will meet the approval of the Engineer. All members or sections of steel structures shall be match-marked with paint in accordance with the diagram or plan approved by the Engineer prior to dismantling. All bolts and nails shall be removed from lumber deemed salvageable by the Engineer as part of the salvage of timber structures. 2.3.3 Partial Removal of Structures When structures are to be widened or modied and only portions of the existing structure are to be removed, these portions shall be removed in such a manner as to leave the remaining structure undamaged and in proper condition for the use contemplated. Methods involving the use of blasting or wrecking balls shall not be used within any span or pier unless the entire span or pier is to be removed. Any damage to the portions remaining in service shall be repaired by the Contractor at his or her expense.
482
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
2.3.3
Before beginning concrete removal operations involving the removal of a portion of a monolithic concrete element, a saw cut approximately 1-inch deep shall be made to a true line along the limits of removal on all faces of the element which will be visible in the completed work. Old concrete shall be carefully removed to the lines designated by drilling, chipping, or other methods approved by the Engineer. The surfaces presented as a result of this removal shall be reasonably true and even, with sharp straight corners that will permit a neat and workmanlike joint with the new construction or be satisfactory for the purpose intended. Where existing reinforcing bars are to extend from the existing structure into new construction, the concrete shall be removed so as to leave the projecting bars clean and undamaged. Where projecting bars are not to extend into the new construction, they shall be cut off ush with the surface of the old concrete. During full depth removal of deck concrete over steel beams or girders which are to remain in place, the Contractor shall exercise care so as not to notch, gouge, or distort the top anges with jackhammers or other tools. Any damage shall be repaired at the Contractors expense. Repairs will be done as directed by the Engineer and may include grinding, welding, heat straightening, or member replacement, depending on the location and severity of the damage. 2.3.4 Disposal Any material not designated for salvage will belong to the Contractor. Except as provided herein, the Contractor shall store or dispose of such material outside of the right of way. If the material is disposed of on private property, the Contractor shall secure written permission from the
property owner and shall furnish a copy of each agreement to the Engineer. Waste materials may be disposed of in Department-owned sites when such sites are described in the special provisions. Unless otherwise provided in the special provisions, removed concrete may be buried in adjacent embankments, provided it is broken into pieces which can be readily handled and incorporated into embankments and is placed at a depth of not less than 3 feet below nished grade and slope lines. The removed concrete shall not be buried in areas where piling is to be placed or within 10 feet of trees, pipelines, poles, buildings, or other permanent objects or structures, unless permitted by the Engineer. Removed concrete may also be disposed of outside the right-of-way as provided above.
2.4 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT The work as prescribed for by this item shall be measured as each individual structure, or portion of a structure, to be removed. Payment will be made on the basis of the lump sum bid price for the removal of each structure, or portion of structure, as specied. The above prices and payments shall be full compensation for all work, labor, tools, equipment, excavation, backlling, materials, and incidentals necessary to complete the work, including salvaging materials not to be reused in the project when such salvaging is specied and not otherwise paid for. Full compensation for removing and salvaging materials that are to be reused in the project shall be considered as included in the contract prices paid for reconstructing, relocating or resetting the items involved, or in such other contract pay items that may be designated in the contract, and no additional compensation will be allowed therefore.
Section 3
TEMPORARY WORKS
3.1 GENERAL 3.1.1 Description This work shall consist of the construction and removal of temporary facilities which are generally designed by the Contractor and employed by the Contractor in the execution of the work and whose failure to perform properly could adversely affect the character of the contract work or endanger the safety of adjacent facilities, property, or the public. Appropriate reductions in allowable stresses or loads shall be used for design when other than new or undamaged materials are to be used. Such facilities include, but are not limited to, falsework, forms and form travelers, cofferdams, shoring, water control systems, and temporary bridges. The following publications are useful reference documents in the preparation of specications for the design, review and inspection of temporary works: Synthesis of Falsework, Formwork, and Scaffolding for Highway Bridge Structures, November 1991, (FHWA-RD-91-062) Guide Standard Specications for Bridge Temporary Works, November 1993, (FHWA-RD-93-031) Guide Design Specication for Bridge Temporary Works, November 1993, (FHWA-RD-93-032) Certication Program for Bridge Temporary Works, November 1993, (FHWA-RD-93-033) Construction Handbook for Bridge Temporary Works, November 1993, (FHWA-RD-93-034) 3.1.2 Working Drawings Whenever specied or requested by the Engineer, the Contractor shall provide working drawings with design calculations and supporting data in sufficient detail to permit a structural review of the proposed design of a temporary work. When concrete is involved, such data shall include the sequence and rate of placement. Sufficient copies shall be furnished to meet the needs of the Engineer and other entities with review authority. The working 483 drawings shall be submitted sufficiently in advance of proposed use to allow for their review, revision, if needed, and approval without delay to the work. The Contractor shall not start the construction of any temporary work for which working drawings are required until the drawings have been approved by the Engineer. Such approval will not relieve the Contractor of responsibility for results obtained by use of these drawings or any of his other responsibilities under the contract. 3.1.3 Design The design of temporary works shall conform to the AASHTO Standard Specications for Highway Bridges or the Guide Design Specications for Bridge Temporary Works; or to other established and generally accepted design code or specication for such work. When manufactured devices are to be employed, the design shall not result in loads on such devices in excess of the load ratings recommended by their manufacturer. For equipment where the rated capacity is determined by load testing, the design load shall be as stated in the Guide Design Specications for Bridge Temporary Works. The load rating used for special equipment, such as access scaffolding, may be under the jurisdiction of OSHA and/or other State/local regulations. However, in no case shall the rating exceed 80% of the maximum load sustained during load testing of the equipment. When required by statute or specied in the contract documents, the design shall be prepared and the drawings signed by a Registered Professional Engineer. 3.1.4 Construction Temporary works shall be constructed in conformance with the approved working drawings. The Contractor shall verify that the quality of the materials and workmanship employed are consistent with that assumed in the design. 3.1.5 Removal Unless otherwise permitted, all temporary works shall be removed and shall remain the property of the Contractor upon completion of their use. The area shall be re-
484
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
3.1.5
stored to its original or planned condition and cleaned of all debris. 3.2 FALSEWORK AND FORMS 3.2.1 General Falsework is considered to be any temporary structure which supports structural elements of concrete, steel, masonry, or other materials during their construction or erection. Forms are considered to be the enclosures or panels which contain the uid concrete and withstand the forces due to its placement and consolidation. Forms may in turn be supported on falsework. Form travelers, as used in segmental cantilever construction, are considered to be a combination of falsework and forms. Whenever the height of falsework exceeds 14 feet or whenever traffic, other than workmen involved in constructing the bridge, will travel under the bridge, the working drawings for the falsework shall be prepared and sealed by a Registered Engineer. Falsework and forms shall be of sufficient rigidity and strength to safely support all loads imposed, and produce in the nished structure the lines and grades indicated on the plans. Forms shall also impart the required surface texture and rustication, and shall not detract from the uniformity of color of formed surfaces. 3.2.2 Falsework Design and Construction 3.2.2.1 Loads
for wind. However, in no case shall the horizontal load to be resisted in any direction be less than 2% of the total dead load. For post-tensioned structures, the falsework shall also be designed to support any increased or redistribution of loads caused by prestressing of the structure. Loads imposed by falsework onto existing, new or partially completed structures shall not exceed those permitted in Article 8.15, Application of Loads. 3.2.2.2 Foundations Falsework shall be founded on a solid footing safe against undermining, protected from softening, and capable of supporting the loads imposed on it. When requested by the Engineer, the Contractor shall demonstrate by suitable load tests that the soil bearing values assumed for the design of the falsework footings do not exceed the supporting capacity of the soil. Falsework which cannot be founded on a satisfactory footing shall be supported on piling which shall be spaced, driven, and removed in an approved manner. 3.2.2.3 Deections For cast-in-place concrete structures, the calculated deection of falsework exural members shall not exceed 1/240 of their span irrespective of the fact that the deection may be compensated for by camber strips. 3.2.2.4 Clearances Unless otherwise provided, the minimum dimensions of clear openings to be provided through falsework for roadways which are to remain open to traffic during construction shall be at least 5 feet greater than the width of the approach traveled way, measured between barriers when used, and 14 feet high, except that the minimum vertical clearance over interstate routes and freeways shall be 14.5 feet. 3.2.2.5 Construction Falsework shall be constructed and set to grades which allow for its anticipated settlement and deection, and for the vertical alignment and camber indicated on the plans or ordered by the Engineer for the permanent structure. Variable depth camber strips shall be used between falsework beams and soffit forms to accomplish this when directed by the Engineer. Suitable screw jacks, pairs of wedges or other devices shall be used at each post to adjust falsework to grade, to permit minor adjustments during the placement of con-
The design load for falsework shall consist of the sum of dead and live vertical loads, and any horizontal loads. As a minimum, dead loads shall include the weight of the falsework and all construction material to be supported. The combined weight of concrete, reinforcing and prestressing steel and forms shall be assumed to be not less than 160 pounds per cubic foot of normal weight concrete or 130 pounds per cubic foot of lightweight concrete that is supported. Live loads shall consist of the actual weight of any equipment to be supported applied as concentrated loads at the points of contact and a uniform load of not less than 20 pounds per square foot applied over the area supported, plus 75 pounds per linear foot applied at the outside edge of deck overhangs. The horizontal load used for the design of the falsework bracing system shall be the sum of the horizontal loads due to equipment, construction sequence, including unbalanced hydrostatic forces from uid concrete, stream ow when applicable, and an allowance
3.2.2.5
485
crete or structural steel should observed settlements deviate from those anticipated, and to allow for the gradual release of the falsework. Telltales attached to the forms and extending to the ground, or other means, shall be provided by the Contractor for accurate measurement of falsework settlement during the placing and curing of the concrete. Falsework or formwork for deck slabs on girder bridges shall be supported directly on the girders so that there will be no appreciable differential settlement during placing of the concrete. Girders shall be braced and tied to resist any forces that would cause rotation or torsion in the girders caused by the placing of concrete for diaphragms or deck. Welding of falsework support brackets or braces to structural steel members or reinforcing steel will not be allowed unless specically permitted. 3.2.3 Formwork Design and Construction 3.2.3.1 General Forms shall be of wood, steel, or other approved material and shall be mortar tight and of sufficient rigidity to prevent objectional distortion of the formed concrete surface due to pressure of the concrete and other loads incidental to the construction operations. Forms for concrete surfaces exposed to view shall produce a smooth surface of uniform texture and color substantially equal to that which would be obtained with the use of plywood conforming to the National Institute of Standards and Technology Product Standard PSI for Exterior B-B Class I Plywood. Panels lining such forms shall be arranged so that the joint lines form a symmetrical pattern conforming to the general lines of the structure. The same type of form lining material shall be used throughout each element of a structure. Such forms shall be sufciently rigid so that the undulation of the concrete surface shall not exceed 1 8 inch when checked with a 5-foot-long straightedge or template. All sharp corners shall be lleted with approximately 3 4-inch chamfer strips. Concrete shall not be deposited in the forms until all work connected with constructing the forms has been completed, all debris has been removed, all materials to be embedded in the concrete have been placed for the unit to be cast, and the Engineer has inspected the forms and materials. 3.2.3.2 Design
standard. In selecting the hydrostatic pressure to be used in the design of forms, consideration shall be given to the maximum rate of concrete placement to be used, the effects of vibration, the temperature of the concrete and any expected use of set-retarding admixtures or pozzolanic materials in the concrete mix. 3.2.3.3 Construction Forms shall be set and held true to the dimensions, lines and grades of the structure prior to and during the placement of concrete. Forms may be given a bevel or draft at projections, such as copings, to ensure easy removal. Prior to reuse, forms shall be cleaned, inspected for damage and, if necessary, repaired. When forms appear to be defective in any manner, either before or during the placement of concrete, the Engineer may order the work stopped until defects have been corrected. Forms shall be treated with form oil or other approved release agent before the reinforcing steel is placed. Material which will adhere to or discolor the concrete shall not be used. Except as provided herein, metal ties or anchorages within the forms shall be so constructed as to permit their removal to a depth of at least 1 inch from the face without injury to the concrete. Ordinary wire ties may be used only when the concrete will not be exposed to view and where the concrete will not come in contact with salts or sulfates. Such wire ties, upon removal of the forms, shall be cut back at least 1 4 inch from the face of the concrete with chisels or nippers; for green concrete, nippers shall be used. Fittings for metal ties shall be of such design that, upon their removal, the cavities that are left will be of the smallest possible size. The cavities shall be lled with cement mortar and the surface left sound, smooth, even, and uniform in color. When epoxy-coated reinforcing steel is required, all metal ties, anchorages or spreaders which will remain in the concrete shall be of corrosion resistant material or coated with a dielectric material. For narrow walls and columns, where the bottom of the form is inaccessible, an access opening shall be provided in the forms for cleaning out extraneous material immediately before placing the concrete. 3.2.3.4 Tube Forms Tubes used as forms to produce voids in concrete slabs shall be properly designed and fabricated or otherwise treated to make the outside surface waterproof. Prior to concrete placement such tubes shall be protected from the weather and stored and installed by methods that prevent distortion or damage. The ends of tube forms shall be cov-
The structural design of formwork shall conform to ACI Standard, Recommended Practice for Concrete Formwork, (ACI 347) or some other generally accepted
486
HIGHWAY BRIDGES Falsework for: Spans over 14 feet Spans of 14 feet or less Bent caps not yet supporting girders Forms: Not supporting the dead weight of the concrete For interior cells of box girders and for railings
3.2.3.4
ered with caps that shall be made mortar tight and waterproof. If wood or other material that expands when moist is used for capping tubes, a premolded rubber joint ller 1 4 inch in thickness shall be used around the perimeter of the caps to permit expansion. A PVC vent tube shall be provided near each end of each tube. These vents shall be constructed to provide positive venting of the voids. After exterior form removal, the vent tube shall be trimmed to within 1 2 inch of the bottom surface of the nished concrete. Anchors and ties for tube forms shall be adequate to prevent displacement of the tubes during concrete placement. 3.2.3.5 Stay-in-Place Forms Stay-in-place deck soffit forms, such as corrugated metal or precast concrete panels, may be used if shown on the plans or approved by the Engineer. Prior to the use of such forms the Contractor shall provide a complete set of details to the Engineer for review and approval. The detailed plans for structures, unless otherwise noted, are dimensioned for the use of removable forms and any changes necessary to accommodate stay-in-place forms, if approved, shall be at the expense of the Contractor. 3.2.4 Removal of Falsework and Forms 3.2.4.1 General Falsework or forms shall not be removed without approval of the Engineer. In the determination of the time for the removal of falsework and forms, consideration shall be given to the location and character of the structure, the weather, the materials used in the mix, and other conditions inuencing the early strength of the concrete. Methods of removal likely to cause overstressing of the concrete or damage to its surface shall not be used. Supports shall be removed in such a manner as to permit the structure to uniformly and gradually take the stresses due to its own weight. For arch structures of two or more spans, the sequence of falsework release shall be as specied or approved. 3.2.4.2 Time of Removal If eld operations are not controlled by beam or cylinder tests, the following minimum periods of time, exclusive of days when the temperature is below 40F, shall have elapsed after placement of concrete before falsework is released or forms are removed:
14 days 10 days 10 days
24 hours 12 hours
If high early strength is obtained with Type III cement or by the use of additional cement, these periods may be reduced as directed. When eld operations are controlled by cylinder tests, the removal of supporting forms or falsework shall not begin until the concrete is found to have the specied compressive strength, provided further that in no case shall supports be removed in less than 7 days after placing the concrete. In addition to the above time requirements: Forms shall not be removed until the concrete has sufficient strength to prevent damage to the surface. Falsework for post-tensioned portions of structures shall not be released until the prestressing steel has been tensioned. Falsework supporting any span of a continuous or rigid frame bridge shall not be released until the aforementioned requirements have been satised for all of the structural concrete in that span and in the adjacent portions of each adjoining span for a length equal to at least one-half the length of the span where falsework is to be released. Unless otherwise specied or approved, falsework shall be released before the railings, copings or barriers are placed for all types of bridges. For arch bridges, the time of falsework release relative to the construction of elements of the bridge above the arch shall be as shown on the plans or directed by the Engineer. 3.2.4.3 Extent of Removal All falsework and forms shall be removed except: Portions of driven falsework piles more than 1 foot below subgrade within roadbeds, or 2 feet below the original ground or nished grade outside of roadbeds, or 2 feet below the established limits of any navigation channel. Footing forms where their removal would endanger the safety of cofferdams or other work.
3.2.4.3
DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION 3.3.2 Protection of Concrete
487
Forms from enclosed cells where access is not provided. Deck forms in the cells of box girder bridges that do not interfere with the future installation of utilities shown on the plans. 3.3 COFFERDAMS AND SHORING 3.3.1 General Cofferdams and shoring consist of those structures used to temporarily hold the surrounding earth and water out of excavations and to protect adjacent property and facilities during construction of the permanent work. Cofferdams shall be constructed to adequate depths, generally well below the bottom of the excavation, and to adequate heights to seal off all water. They shall be safely designed and constructed, and be made as watertight as is necessary for the proper performance of the work which must be done inside them. In general, the interior dimensions of cofferdams shall be such as to give sufficient clearance for the construction of forms and the inspection of their exteriors, and to permit pumping from outside the forms. Cofferdams which are tilted or moved laterally during the process of sinking shall be righted, reset, or enlarged so as to provide the necessary clearance. This shall be solely at the expense of the Contractor. When water cannot be controlled so that footing concrete can be placed in the dry, a cofferdam shall be employed, and a concrete seal conforming to the requirements of Section 8, Concrete Structures placed underwater below the elevation of the footing. When such a seal is shown on the plans, the Engineer will determine if a cofferdam and seal is required, the depth of the seal to be used, and the required cure time. Such determination will be based on conditions existing at the time of construction. When a concrete seal is not shown on the plans, the Contractor shall make these determinations, and shall be fully responsible for the performance of the seal. After the seal has cured, the cofferdam shall then be pumped out and the balance of the masonry placed in the dry. When weighted cofferdams are employed and the weight is utilized to partially overcome the hydrostatic pressure acting against the bottom of the foundation seal, special anchorage such as dowels or keys shall be provided to transfer the entire weight of the cofferdam into the foundation seal. During the placing and curing of a foundation seal, the elevation of the water inside the cofferdam shall be controlled to prevent any ow through the seal, and if the cofferdam is to remain in place, it shall be vented or ported at or below low water level. Shoring shall be adequate to support all loads imposed and shall comply with any applicable safety regulations.
Cofferdams shall be constructed so as to protect green concrete against damage from a sudden rising of the stream and to prevent damage to the foundation by erosion. No struts or braces shall be used in cofferdams or shoring systems in such a way as to extend into or through the permanent work, without written permission from the Engineer. 3.3.3 Removal Unless otherwise provided or approved, cofferdams, and shoring with all sheeting and bracing shall be removed after the completion of the substructure, with care being taken not to disturb or otherwise injure the nished work. 3.4 TEMPORARY WATER CONTROL SYSTEMS 3.4.1 General Temporary water control systems consist of dikes, bypass channels, umes and other surface water diversion works, cut-off walls and pumping systems, including wellpoint and deep well systems, used to prevent water from entering excavations for structures. 3.4.2 Drawings Working drawings for temporary water control systems, when required, shall include details of the design and the equipment, operating procedures to be employed, and location of point or points of discharge. The design and operation shall conform to all applicable water pollution control requirements. 3.4.3 Operations Pumping from the interior of any foundation enclosure shall be done in such manner as to preclude the possibility of the movement of water through any fresh concrete. No pumping will be permitted during the placing of concrete or for a period of at least 24 hours thereafter, unless it be done from a suitable sump separated from the concrete work by a watertight wall or other effective means subject to approval of the Engineer. Pumping to unwater a sealed cofferdam shall not commence until the seal has set sufficiently to withstand the hydrostatic pressure. Pumping from wellpoints or deep wells shall be regulated so as to avoid damage by subsidence to adjacent property.
488 3.5 TEMPORARY BRIDGES 3.5.1 General
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
3.5
Temporary bridges include detour bridges for use by the public, haul road bridges and other structures, such as conveyor bridges, used by the Contractor. Temporary bridges shall be constructed, maintained and removed in a manner that will not endanger the work or the public. 3.5.2 Detour Bridges When a design is furnished by the Department, detour bridges shall be constructed and maintained to conform to such design or an approved alternative design. When permitted by the specications, the Contractor may submit a proposed alternative design. Any alternative design must be equivalent in all respects to the design and details furnished by the Department and is subject to approval by the Engineer. The working drawings and design calculations for any alternative design must be signed by a Registered Professional Engineer. When a design is not furnished by the Department, the Contractor shall prepare the design and furnish working drawings to the Engineer for approval. The design shall provide the clearances, alignment, load capacity and other design parameters specied or approved. The design shall conform to the Standard Specications for Highway Bridges adopted by AASHTO. If design live loads are not otherwise specied, an HS II 15-44 loading shall be used. The working drawings and design calculations shall be signed by a Registered Professional Engineer. 3.5.3 Haul Bridges When haul road bridges or other bridges which are not for public use are proposed for construction over any right-of-way which is open to the public or over any railroad, working drawings showing complete design and de-
tails, including the maximum loads to be carried, shall be submitted to the Engineer for approval. Such drawings shall be signed by a Registered Professional Engineer. The design shall conform to AASHTO design standards when applicable or to other appropriate standards. 3.5.4 Maintenance The maintenance of temporary bridges for which working drawings are required shall include their replacement in case of partial or complete failure. The Department reserves the right, in case of the Contractors delay or inadequate progress in making repairs and replacement, to furnish such labor, materials, and supervision of the work as may be necessary to restore the structure for proper movement of traffic. The entire expense of such restoration and repairs shall be considered a part of the cost of the temporary structure and where such expenditures are incurred by the Department, they shall be charged to the Contractor. 3.6 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT Unless otherwise provided, payment for temporary works shall be considered to be included in the payment for the various items of work for which they are used and no separate payment will be made therefore. When an item for concrete seals for cofferdams is included in the bid schedule, such concrete will be measured and paid for as provided in Section 8, Concrete Structures. When an item or items for temporary bridges, cofferdams, shoring systems or water control systems is included in the bid schedule, payment will be the lump sum bid for each such structure or system which is listed on the bid schedule and which is constructed and removed in accordance with the contract requirements. Such payment includes full compensation for all costs involved with the furnishing of all materials and the construction, maintenance, and removal of such temporary works.
Section 4
DRIVEN FOUNDATION PILES
4.1 DESCRIPTION This work shall consist of furnishing and driving foundation piles of the type and dimensions designated on the plans or in the special provisions including cutting off or building up foundation piles when required. This specication also covers providing test piles and performing loading tests. Piling shall conform to and be installed in accordance with these specications, and at the location, and to the elevation, penetration, and bearing capacity shown on the plans or as directed by the Engineer. Any improperly driven, broken, or otherwise defective pile shall be corrected to the satisfaction of the Engineer by removal and replacement, or the driving of an additional pile, at no extra cost. Except when test piles are required, the Contractor shall furnish the piles in accordance with the dimensions shown on the plans or special provisions. When test piles are required, the pile lengths shown on the plans are for estimating purposes only and the actual lengths to be furnished for production piles will be determined by the Engineer after the test piles have been driven. The lengths given in the Engineers order list will include only the lengths anticipated for use in the completed structure. The Contractor shall, without added compensation, increase the lengths shown or ordered to provide for fresh heading and for such additional length as may be necessary to suit the method of operation. 4.2 MATERIALS 4.2.1 Steel Piles The structural steel used for foundation piling shall conform to the Specication for Structural Steel for Bridges, AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grades 36, 50, or 50W, or to the Specication for Piling for Use in Marine Environment, ASTM A 690. 4.2.1.1 Painting Unless otherwise provided, when steel piles or steel pile shells extend above the ground surface or water sur489 face they shall be protected by the paint system specied for painting new steel in a high pollution or coastal environment as described in Section 13, Painting. This protection shall extend from an elevation 2 feet below the water or ground surface to the top of the exposed steel. 4.2.2 Timber Piles Timber piles shall conform to the requirements of the Specication for Wood Products, AASHTO M 168. Timber piles shall be treated or untreated as indicated on the plans or in the special provisions. Preservative treatment shall conform to the requirements of Section 17, Preservative Treatment of Wood. The method of storing and handling shall be such as to avoid injury to the piles. Special care shall be taken to avoid breaking the surface of treated piles. Canthooks, dogs, or pike-poles shall not be used. Cuts or breaks in the surface of treated piling and bolt holes shall be treated as specied in Article 16.3.3, Treated Timber. 4.2.3 Concrete Piles Concrete piles shall consist of either precast concrete piles or cast-in-place concrete piles cast in steel shells. Portland cement concrete shall conform to the requirements in Section 8, Concrete Structures, and unless another class is shown on the plans or specied, concrete shall be Class A. Reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of Section 9, Reinforcing Steel, and prestressing shall conform to the requirements of Section 10, Prestressing. Steel shells for cast-in-place concrete piles shall be of not less than the thickness shown on the plans. The Contractor shall furnish shells of greater thickness if necessary to provide sufficient strength and rigidity to permit driving with the equipment selected for use without damage, and to prevent distortion caused by soil pressures or the driving of adjacent piles. The shells shall also be watertight to exclude water during the placing of concrete. The shells may be cylindrical or tapered, step-tapered, or a combination of either, with cylindrical sections.
490 4.3 MANUFACTURE OF PILES 4.3.1 Precast Concrete Piles 4.3.1.1 Forms
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 4.3.1.5.1 Working Drawings
4.3
Forms for precast concrete piles shall conform to the general requirements for concrete form work as provided in Section 3, Temporary Works. Forms shall provide access for vibration and consolidation of the concrete. 4.3.1.2 Casting
The Contractor shall submit two sets of working drawings to the Engineer at the job site for prestressed concrete piles. Said drawings shall show the pile dimensions, materials, prestressing methods, tendon arrangement and prestressing forces proposed for use and, any addition or rearrangement of reinforcing steel from that shown on the plans. Construction of the piles shall not begin until the drawings have been approved by the Engineer. 4.3.1.6 Storage and Handling
Handling and placing of concrete shall conform to the requirements of Section 8, Concrete Structures, and these specications. Special care shall be taken to place the concrete so as to produce satisfactory bond with the reinforcement and avoid the formation of stone pockets, honeycomb, or other such defects. To secure uniformity, the concrete in each pile shall be placed continuously and shall be compacted by vibrating or by other means acceptable to the Engineer. The forms shall be overlled, the surplus concrete screeded off, and the top surfaces nished to a uniform, even texture similar to that produced by the forms. 4.3.1.3 Finish Portions of piling exposed to view shall be nished in accordance with the provisions governing the nishing of concrete columns. Other piling shall not be nished except as set forth above. 4.3.1.4 Curing and Protection Concrete piles shall be cured as provided in Section 8, Concrete Structures, and these Specifications. As soon as the piles have set sufficiently to avoid damage, they shall be removed from the forms and stacked in a curing pile separated from each other by wood-spacing blocks. No pile shall be driven until at least 21 days after casting and, in cold weather, for a longer period as determined by the Engineer. Concrete piles for use in sea water or sulfate soils shall be cured for not less than 30 days before being used. Concrete shall be protected from freezing until the compressive strength reaches at least 0.8 f c. 4.3.1.5 Prestressing Prestressing of concrete piles shall conform to the provisions of Section 10, Prestressing.
Removal of forms, curing, storing, transporting, and handling of precast concrete piles shall be done in such a manner as to avoid excessive bending stresses, cracking, spalling, or other injurious results. Piles to be used in sea water or in sulfate soils shall be handled so as to avoid surface abrasions or other injuries exposing the interior concrete. 4.3.2 Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles 4.3.2.1 Inspection of Metal Shells At all times prior to the placing of concrete in the driven shells, the Contractor shall have available a suitable light for the inspection of each shell throughout its entire length. 4.3.2.2 Placing Concrete No concrete shall be placed until all driving within a radius of 15 feet of the pile has been completed, or all driving within the above limits shall be discontinued until the concrete in the last pile cast has set at least 5 days. Concrete for cast-in-place piles shall be dense and homogeneous. In lieu of the provisions concerning vibration of concrete as specied in Article 8.7.4, vibration or rodding of concrete for cast-in-place piles will only be required to a depth of 5 feet below the ground surface. Concrete shall be placed for each pile in a single continuous operation with the ow of concrete directed down the center of the pile so as to consolidate the concrete by impact. Accumulations of water in shells shall be removed before the concrete is placed. After the concrete has hardened, the top surface shall be cut back to remove laitance and to expose the aggregate as specied in Article 8.8.
4.4 4.4 DRIVING PILES 4.4.1 Pile Driving Equipment
491
Driving equipment that damages the piling shall not be used. All pile driving equipment, including the pile driving hammer, hammer cushion, drive head, pile cushion and other appurtenances to be furnished by the Contractor shall be approved in advance by the Engineer before any driving can take place. Pursuant to obtaining this approval, the Contractor shall submit, at least 2 weeks before pile driving is to begin, a description of pile driving equipment to the Engineer. Whenever the bearing capacity of piles is specied to be determined by Method B, Wave Equation Analysis, the Contractor shall also submit calculations, based on a wave equation analysis, demonstrating that the piles can be driven with reasonable effort to the ordered lengths without damage. The following hammer efficiencies shall be used in a wave equation analysis: Hammer Type Single acting air/steam Double acting air/steam Diesel Efficiency in Percent 67 50 72
During pile driving operations, the Contractor shall use the approved system. Any change in the driving system will only be considered after the Contractor has submitted revised pile driving equipment data and calculations. The Contractor will be notied of the acceptance or rejection of the driving system changes within 7 calendar days of the Engineers receipt of the requested change. The time required for submission, review, and approval of a revised driving system shall not constitute the basis for a contract time extension to the Contractor. Approval of pile driving equipment shall not relieve the Contractor of his responsibility to drive piles, free of damage, to the bearing and tip elevation shown on the plans or specied in the special provisions. 4.4.1.1 Hammers 4.4.1.1.1 General Piles may be driven with a drop hammer, an air/steam hammer, or diesel hammer conforming to these specications. Pile driving hammers, other than drop hammers, shall be of the size needed to develop the energy required to drive piles at a penetration rate of not less than 0.10 inch per blow at the required bearing value. 4.4.1.1.2 Drop Hammers Drop (gravity) hammers shall not be used for concrete piles or for piles whose design load capacity exceeds 30 tons. When gravity hammers are permitted, the ram shall weigh not less than 2,000 pounds and the height of drop shall not exceed 15 feet. In no case shall the ram weight of gravity hammers be less than the combined weight of the drive cap and pile. All gravity hammers shall be equipped with hammer guides to insure concentric impact on the drive head or pile cushion. 4.4.1.1.3 Air Steam Hammers The weight of the striking part of air/steam hammers used shall not be less than 1 3 the weight of pile and drive cap, and in no case shall the striking part weigh less than 2,750 pounds. The plant and equipment furnished for air/steam hammers shall have sufficient capacity to maintain, under working conditions, the pressure at the hammer specied by the manufacturer. 4.4.1.1.4 Diesel Hammers Open-end (single acting) diesel hammers shall be equipped with a device to permit the Engineer to determine hammer stroke at all times during pile driving operations. Closed-end (double acting) diesel hammers shall
In addition to the other requirements of these specications, the criteria which the Engineer will use to evaluate the driving equipment consists of both the required number of hammer blows per inch and the pile stresses at the required ultimate pile capacity. The required number of hammer blows indicated by calculations at the required bearing capacity shall be between 3 and 10 per inch for the driving equipment to be acceptable. In addition, for the driving equipment to be acceptable, the pile stresses, which are indicated by the calculations, to be generated by the driving equipment shall not exceed the values where pile damage impends. The point of impending damage in steel piles is dened herein as a compressive driving stress of 90% of the yield point of the pile material. For concrete piles, tensile stresses shall not exceed 3 multiplied by the square root of the concrete compressive strength, fc, plus the effective prestress value, i.e., (3f prestress), and compressive stresses shall c not exceed 85% of the compressive strength minus the effective prestress value, i.e. (0.85 fc prestress). For timber piles, the compressive driving stress shall not exceed three times the allowable static design strength listed on the plans. These criteria will be used in evaluating calculated results to determine acceptability of the Contractors proposed driving system.
492
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.4.1.1.4
be equipped with a bounce chamber pressure gauge, in good working order, mounted near ground level so as to be easily read by the Engineer. A correlation chart of bounce chamber pressure and delivered hammer energy shall be provided by the Contractor. 4.4.1.1.5 Vibratory Hammers Vibratory or other pile driving methods may be used only when specically allowed by the Special Provisions or in writing by the Engineer. Except when pile lengths have been determined from load test piles, the bearing capacity of piles driven with vibratory hammers shall be veried by redriving the rst pile driven in each group of 10 piles with an impact hammer of suitable energy to measure the pile capacity before driving the remaining piles in the group. 4.4.1.1.6 Additional Equipment or Methods In case the required penetration is not obtained by the use of a hammer complying with the above minimum requirements, the Contractor may be required to provide a hammer of greater energy or, when permitted, resort to supplemental methods such as jetting or preboring. 4.4.1.2 Driving Appurtenances 4.4.1.2.1 Hammer Cushion All impact pile driving equipment except gravity hammers shall be equipped with a suitable thickness of hammer cushion material to prevent damage to the hammer or pile and to insure uniform driving behavior. Hammer cushions shall be made of durable, manufactured materials, which will retain uniform properties during driving. Wood, wire rope, and asbestos hammer cushions shall not be used. A striker plate shall be placed on the hammer cushion to insure uniform compression of the cushion material. The hammer cushion shall be inspected in the presence of the Engineer when beginning pile driving and after each 100 hours of pile driving. The hammer cushion shall be replaced by the Contractor before driving is permitted to continue whenever there is a reduction of hammer cushion thickness exceeding 25% of the original thickness. 4.4.1.2.2 Pile Drive Head Piles driven with impact hammers shall be tted with an adequate drive head to distribute the hammer blow to the pile head. The drive head shall be axially aligned with the hammer and the pile. The drive head shall be guided by the leads and not be free-swinging. The drive head shall t around the pile head in such a manner as to prevent transfer of torsional forces during driving while maintaining proper alignment of hammer and pile.
For steel and timber piling, the pile heads shall be cut squarely and a drive head provided to hold the longitudinal axis of the pile in line with the axis of the hammer. For precast concrete and prestressed concrete piles, the pile head shall be plane and perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the pile to prevent eccentric impacts from the drive head. For special types of piles, appropriate driving heads, mandrels or other devices shall be provided so that the piles may be driven without damage. 4.4.1.2.3 Pile Cushion The heads of concrete piles shall be protected by a pile cushion when the nature of the driving is such as to unduly injure them. When plywood is used, the minimum thickness placed on the pile head prior to driving shall not be less than 4 inches. A new pile cushion shall be provided if, during driving, the cushion is either compressed more than one-half the original thickness or begins to burn. The pile cushion dimensions shall be such as to distribute the blow of the hammer throughout the cross section of the pile. 4.4.1.2.4 Leads
Pile driving leads which support the pile and the hammer in proper positions throughout the driving operation shall be used. Leads shall be constructed in a manner that affords freedom of movement of the hammer while maintaining alignment of the hammer and the pile to insure concentric impact for each blow. The leads shall be of sufcient length to make the use of a follower unnecessary and shall be so designed as to permit proper alignment of battered piles. 4.4.1.2.5 Followers
Followers shall only be used when approved in writing by the Engineer, or when specically allowed in the special provisions. When a follower is permitted, in order to verify that adequate pile penetration is being attained to develop the desired pile capacity, the rst pile in each bent and every 10th pile driven thereafter shall be furnished sufficiently long and shall be driven full length without a follower. The follower and pile shall be held and maintained in equal and proper alignment during driving. The follower shall be of such material and dimensions to permit the piles to be driven to the length determined necessary from the driving of the full length piles. The nal position and alignment of the rst two piles installed with followers in each substructure unit shall be veried to be in accordance with the location tolerances specied in Article 4.4.3 before additional piles are installed.
4.4.1.2.6 4.4.1.2.6 Jets
493
Jetting shall only be permitted if approved in writing by the Engineer or when specically allowed in the special provisions. When jetting is not required, but approved after the Contractors request, the Contractor shall determine the number of jets and the volume and pressure of water at the jet nozzles necessary to freely erode the material adjacent to the pile without affecting the lateral stability of the nal in-place pile. The Contractor shall be responsible for all damage to the site caused by jetting operations. When jetting is specically required in the special provisions, the jetting plant shall have sufficient capacity to deliver at all times a pressure equivalent to at least 100 pounds per square inch at two 3 4-inch jet nozzles. In either case unless otherwise indicated by the Engineer, jet pipes shall be removed when the pile tip is a minimum of 5 feet above prescribed tip elevation and the pile shall be driven to the required bearing capacity with an impact hammer. Also, the Contractor shall control, treat if necessary, and dispose of all jet water in a manner satisfactory to the Engineer. 4.4.2 Preparation for Driving 4.4.2.1 Site Work 4.4.2.1.1 Excavation In general, piles shall not be driven until after the excavation is complete. Any material forced up between the piles shall be removed to the correct elevation before concrete for the foundation is placed. 4.4.2.1.2 Preboring to Facilitate Driving When required by the special provisions, the Contractor shall prebore holes at pile locations to the depths shown on the plans, specied in the special provisions, or allowed by the Engineer. Prebored holes shall be smaller than the diameter or diagonal of the pile cross section and sufficient to allow penetration of the pile to the specied depth. If subsurface obstructions, such as boulders or rock layers are encountered, the hole diameter may be increased to the least dimension which is adequate for pile installation. Any void space remaining around the pile after completion of driving shall be lled with sand or other approved material. The use of spuds (a short strong driven member which is removed to make a hole for inserting a pile), shall not be permitted in lieu of preboring, unless specically allowed by the special provisions or in writing by the Engineer. 4.4.2.1.3 Predrilled Holes in Embankments Piles to be driven through newly constructed embankments shall be driven in holes drilled or spudded through
the embankment when the depth of the new embankment is in excess of 5 feet. The hole shall have a diameter of not less than the greatest dimension of the pile cross section plus 6 inches. After driving the pile, the space around the pile shall be lled to ground surface with dry sand or pea gravel. Material resulting from drilling holes shall be disposed of as approved by the Engineer. 4.4.2.2 Preparation of Piling In addition to squaring up pile heads prior to driving, piles shall be further prepared for driving as described below. 4.4.2.2.1 Collars
When timber piles are required to be driven to more than 35 tons bearing or when driving conditions otherwise require it, collars, bands, or other devices shall be provided to protect piles against splitting and brooming. 4.4.2.2.2 Pointing
Timber piles shall be pointed where soil conditions require it. When necessary, the piles shall be shod with metal shoes of a design satisfactory to the Engineer, the points of the piles being carefully shaped to secure an even and uniform bearing on the shoes. 4.4.2.2.3 Pile Shoes and Lugs Pile shoes used to protect all types of piles when hard driving is expected and pile lugs used to increase the bearing capacity of steel piles shall be of the types shown on the plans and shall be used at the locations specied or ordered by the Engineer. Steel pile shoes shall be fabricated from cast steel conforming to ASTM A 27. Such pile shoes or lugs used at the option of the Contractor shall be of a type approved by the Engineer. 4.4.3 Driving Piles shall be driven to the minimum tip elevations and bearing capacity shown on the plans, specied in the special provisions or approved by the Engineer. Piles that heave more than 1 4 inch upward during the driving of adjacent piles shall be redriven. 4.4.3.1 Driving of Test Piles Test piles and piles for static load tests, when shown on the plans, shall be furnished to the lengths ordered and driven at the locations and to the elevations directed by the Engineer before other piles in the area represented by the test are ordered or driven. All test piles shall be driven
494
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
4.4.3.1
with impact hammers unless specically stated otherwise in the special provisions or on the plans. In general, the ordered length of test piles will be greater than the estimated length of production piles in order to provide for variation in soil conditions. The driving equipment used for driving test piles shall be identical to that which the Contractor proposes to use on the production piling. Approval of driving equipment shall conform with the requirements of these Specications. Unless otherwise permitted by the Engineer, the Contractor shall excavate the ground at each test pile to the elevation of the bottom of the footing before the pile is driven. Test piles shall be driven to a hammer blow count established by the Engineer at the estimated tip elevation. Test piles which do not attain the hammer blow count specied above at a depth of 1 foot above the estimated tip elevation shown on the plans shall be allowed to set up for a period of from 12 to 24 hours, as determined by the Engineer, before being redriven. When possible, the hammer shall be warmed up before redriving begins by applying at least 20 blows to another pile. If the specied hammer blow count is not attained on redriving, the Engineer may direct the Contractor to drive a portion or all of the remaining test pile length and repeat the set up redrive procedure. When ordered by the Engineer, test piles driven to plan grade and not having the hammer blow count required shall be spliced and driven until the required bearing is obtained. 4.4.3.2 Accuracy of Driving Piles shall be driven with a variation of not more than inch per foot from the vertical or from the batter shown on the plans, except that piles for trestle bents shall be so driven that the cap may be placed in its proper location without inducing excessive stresses in the piles. Foundation piles shall not be out of the position shown on the plan by more than 1 4 of their diameter or 6 inches, whichever is greater, after driving. Any increase in footing dimensions or reinforcing due to out-of-position piles shall be at the Contractors expense. 4.4.4 Determination of Bearing Capacity 4.4.4.1 General Piles shall be driven to the bearing capacity shown on the plans or specied in the special provisions. The bearing capacity of piles will be determined by the Engineer as provided in the special provisions using one or a combination of the following methods. Method A, Empirical Pile Formula, will be used in the absence of special provisions to the contrary.
4.4.4.2 Method AEmpirical Pile Formulas When not driven to practical refusal, the design bearing capacities of piles will be determined by an empirical pile formula. Unless otherwise provided in the special provisions, the following formulas (ENR) will be used. 2 WH S + 1.0 2E P= S + 0.1 P= where: P bearing capacity in pounds W weight, in pounds, of striking parts of the hammer H height of fall in feet E energy produced by the hammer per blow in foot/ pounds. Value based on actual hammer stroke or bounce chamber pressure observed (double acting diesel hammer) S the average penetration in inches per blow for the last 5 to 10 blows for gravity hammers and the last 10 to 20 blows for all other hammers. The above formulas are applicable only when: The hammer has a free fall (gravity and single-acting hammers only). The head of the pile is not broomed, crushed, or otherwise damaged. The penetration is reasonably quick and uniform. There is no appreciable rebound of the hammer. A follower is not used. The penetration per blow may be measured either during initial driving or by redriving with a warm hammer operated at full energy after a pile set period, as determined by the Engineer. In case water jets are used in connection with the driving, the bearing capacity shall be determined by the above formulas from the results of driving after the jets have been withdrawn. 4.4.4.3 Method BWave Equation Analysis When specied, ultimate bearing capacity of a pile will be determined by using a wave equation analysis. Soil, pile, and driving equipment properties to be used in this analysis will be as shown on the plans, as specied in the for drop (gravity) hammers for all other hammers (4 -1) (4 - 2)
1 4
4.4.4.3
495
special provisions or as determined by the Engineer using data obtained from the Contractor, test borings and, when used, dynamic pile tests (Method C). The design bearing capacity of a pile shall be 0.364 of the calculated ultimate bearing capacity as determined from a wave equation analysis alone. When the ultimate bearing capacity is determined from a wave equation analysis that has been calibrated to the results of a dynamic pile test, the design bearing capacity shall be 0.444 of the calculated ultimate bearing capacity. 4.4.4.4 Method CDynamic Load Tests Dynamic measurements will be taken by the Engineer during the driving of piles designated as dynamic load test piles. The ultimate capacity of the pile will be determined with the use of pile analyzer instruments. Prior to placement in the leads, the Contractor shall make each designated concrete and/or timber pile available for taking of wave speed measurements and shall predrill the required instrument attachment holes. Predriving wave speed measurements will not be required for steel piles. When wave speed measurements are made, the piling shall be supported off the ground in a horizontal position and not in contact with other piling. The Engineer will furnish the equipment, materials, and labor necessary for drilling holes in the piles for mounting the instruments. The Contractor shall either attach the instruments to the pile after the pile is placed in the leads, or provide the Engineer reasonable means of access to the pile for attaching instruments after the pile is placed in the leads. A platform with minimum size of 4 4 feet (16 square feet) designed to be raised to the top of the pile while the pile is located in the leads shall be provided by the Contractor. The Contractor shall furnish electric power for the dynamic test equipment. The power supply at the outlet shall be 10 amp, 115 volt, 55-60 cycle, A.C. only. Field generators used as the power source shall be equipped with functioning meters for monitoring voltage and frequency levels. The Contractor shall furnish a shelter to protect the dynamic test equipment from the elements. The shelter shall have a minimum floor size of 8 8 feet (64 square feet) and minimum roof height of 7 feet. The inside temperature of the shelter shall be maintained above 45. The shelter shall be located within 50 feet of the test location. The Contractor shall drive the pile to the depth at which the dynamic test equipment indicates that the design bearing capacity shown in the contract plans has been achieved, unless directed otherwise by the Engineer. If directed by the Engineer, the Contractor shall reduce the driv-
ing energy transmitted to the pile by using additional cushions or reducing the energy output of the hammer in order to maintain acceptable stresses in the piles. If nonaxial driving is indicated by dynamic test equipment measurements, the Contractor shall immediately realign the driving system. When directed by the Engineer, the Contractor shall wait up to 24 hours and, after the instruments are reattached, redrive the dynamic load test pile. The hammer shall be warmed up before redrive begins by applying at least 20 blows to another pile. The maximum amount of penetration required during redrive shall be 6 inches or the maximum total number of hammer blows required will be 50, whichever occurs rst. After redriving, the Engineer will either provide the cut-off elevation or specify additional pile penetration and testing. 4.4.4.5 Method DStatic Load Tests Load tests shall be performed by procedures set forth in ASTM D 1143 using the quick load compression test method except that the test shall be taken to plunging failure or three times design load or 1,000 tons whichever occurs rst. Testing equipment and measuring systems shall conform to ASTM D 1143. The Contractor shall submit to the Engineer for approval, detailed plans, prepared by a licensed professional engineer, of the proposed loading apparatus. The apparatus shall be constructed to allow the various increments of the load to be placed gradually without causing vibration to the test pile. When the approved method requires the use of tension (anchor) piles which will later be used as permanent piles in the work, such tension piles shall be of the same type and diameter as the production piles and shall be driven in the location of permanent piles when feasible. The design bearing capacity shall be dened as 50% of the failure load. The failure load of a pile tested under axial compressive load is that load which produces a settlement at failure of the pile head equal to: Sf S (0.15 0.008D) where: Sf Settlement at failure in inches D Pile diameter or width in inches S Elastic deformation of total unsupported pile length in inches The top elevation of the test pile shall be determined immediately after driving and again just before load test-
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4.4.4.5
ing to check for heave. Any pile which heaves more than 1 4 inch shall be redriven or jacked to the original elevation prior to testing. Unless otherwise specied in the contract, a minimum 3-day waiting period shall be observed between the driving of any anchor piles or the load test pile and the commencement of the load test. 4.4.5 Splicing of Piles 4.4.5.1 Steel Piles Full-length piles shall be used where practicable. If splicing is permitted, the method of splicing shall be as shown on the plans or as approved by the Engineer. The arc method of welding shall be preferred when splicing steel piles. Welding shall only be performed by certied welders. 4.4.5.2 Concrete Piles Concrete piles shall not be spliced, other than to produce short extensions as permitted herein, unless specically allowed by the plans, the special provisions, or by the Engineer in writing. Short extensions or build-ups may be added to the tops of reinforced concrete piles to correct for unanticipated events. After the driving is completed, the concrete at the end of the pile shall be cut away, leaving the reinforcing steel exposed for a length of 40 diameters. The nal cut of the concrete shall be perpendicular to the axis of the pile. Reinforcement similar to that used in the pile shall be securely fastened to the projecting steel and the necessary form work shall be placed, care being taken to prevent leakage along the pile. The concrete shall be of not less than the quality used in the pile. Just prior to placing concrete, the top of the pile shall be thoroughly ushed with water, allowed to dry, then covered with a thin coating of neat cement, mortar, or other suitable bonding material. The forms shall remain in place not less than 7 days and shall then be carefully removed and the entire exposed surface of the pile nished as previously specied. 4.4.5.3 Timber Piles Timber piles shall not be spliced unless specically allowed by the plans, special provisions, or by the Engineer in writing. 4.4.6 Defective Piles The procedure incident to the driving of piles shall not subject them to excessive and undue abuse producing
crushing and spalling of the concrete, injurious splitting, splintering and brooming of the wood, or excessive deformation of the steel. Manipulation of piles to force them into proper position, considered by the Engineer to be excessive, will not be permitted. Any pile damaged by reason of internal defects or by improper driving or driven out of its proper location or driven below the butt elevation xed by the plans or by the Engineer shall be corrected at the Contractors expense by one of the following methods approved by the Engineer for the pile in question: The pile shall be withdrawn and replaced by a new and, if necessary, a longer pile. A second pile shall be driven adjacent to the defective or low pile. The pile shall be spliced or built up as otherwise provided herein or a sufficient portion of the footing extended to properly embed the pile. All piles pushed up by the driving of adjacent piles or by any other cause shall be driven down again. All such remedial materials and work shall be furnished at the Contractors expense. 4.4.7 Pile Cut-off 4.4.7.1 General All piles shall be cutoff to a true plane at the elevations required and anchored to the structure, as shown on the plans. All cutoff lengths of piling shall remain the property of the Contractor and shall be properly disposed of. 4.4.7.2 Timber Piles Timber piles which support timber caps or grillage shall be sawed to conform to the plane of the bottom of the superimposed structure. In general, the length of pile above the elevation of cutoff shall be sufficient to permit the complete removal of all material injured by driving, but piles driven to very nearly the cutoff elevation shall be carefully adzed or otherwise freed from all broomed, splintered, or otherwise injured material. Immediately after making nal cutoff on treated timber foundation piles, the cut area shall be given two liberal applications of preservative followed by a heavy application of coal-tar roofing cement or other approved sealer. Treated timber piles which will have the cutoff exposed in the structure shall have the cut area treated with three coats of a compatible preservative material meeting the requirements of AWPA Standard M4. A minimum time period of 2 hours shall elapse between each application.
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497
4.5 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT 4.5.1 Method of Measurement 4.5.1.1 Timber, Steel, and Concrete Piles 4.5.1.1.1 Piles Furnished The quantities of each type of pile to be paid for will be the sum of the lengths in feet of the piles, of the types and lengths indicated on the plans or ordered in writing by the Engineer, furnished in compliance with the material requirements of these specications and stockpiled or, in the case of driven cast-in-place concrete piles, installed in good condition at the site of the work by the Contractor, and accepted by the Engineer. The footage of piles, including test piles, furnished by the Contractor to replace piles which were previously accepted by the Engineer, but were subsequently damaged prior to completion of the contract will not be included. When extensions of piles are necessary, the extension length ordered in writing by the Engineer will be included in the linear footage of piling furnished. 4.5.1.1.2 Piles Driven The quantities of driven piles of each type to be paid for will be the number of acceptable piles of each type that were driven. Preboring, jetting, or other methods used for facilitating pile driving procedures when either required or permitted will not be measured, and payment will be considered included in the unit price paid for the Piles Driven. 4.5.1.2 Pile Splices, Pile Shoes, and Pile Lugs When pile splices, protective pile tip shoes or soil shear lugs are shown on the plans, the number of pile splices, shoes, or lugs measured for payment will be those shown on the plans, or ordered in writing by the Engineer, and actually installed on piles used in the work. No payment will be made for splices, shoes, or lugs used at the option of the Contractor. When not shown on the plans or specied to be used, pile splices, shoes, or lugs ordered by the Engineer will be paid for as extra work. 4.5.1.3 Load Tests The quantity of load tests to be paid for will be the number of load tests completed and accepted, except that
load tests made at the option of the Contractor will not be included in the quantity measured for payment. Anchor and test piles for load tests, whether incorporated into the permanent structure or not, will be measured as provided for Piles Furnished and Piles Driven and will be paid for under the appropriate pay item. 4.5.2 Basis of Payment The quantities, determined as provided, will be paid for at the contract price per unit of measurement, respectively, for each of the general pay items listed below for each size and type of pile shown in the bid schedule. Pay Item Piles, Furnished Piles, Driven Test Piles, Furnished Test Piles, Driven Pile Load Test (Static) Pile Load Test (Dynamic) Splices Pile Shoes Pile Lugs Pay Unit Linear Foot Each Linear Foot Each Each Each Each Each Each
Payment for furnishing piles includes full compensation for all costs involved in the furnishing and delivery of all piles, including steel shells for cast-in-place driven piles, to the project site and all costs involved in the furnishing and placing of concrete and reinforcing steel for cast-in-place concrete piles. Payment for driving piles includes full compensation for all costs involved in the actual driving and cutting off of piles and pile shells, and for all costs for which compensation is not provided for under other pay items involved with the furnishing of labor, equipment, and materials used to construct the piles as shown on the plans and as specied or ordered. When mobilization of plant and equipment for the project is not paid for separately, payment for driving piles also includes full compensation for the cost of mobilization of all equipment needed for the handling and driving piles after the piles have been delivered to the project site. Payment for load tests includes full compensation for providing labor, equipment, and materials needed to perform the load tests as specied. Payment under the appropriate pay items for pile splices, shoes, and lugs includes full compensation for all costs involved with furnishing all materials and performing the work involved with attaching or installing splices, shoes, or lugs to the piles.
Section 5
DRILLED PILES AND SHAFTS
5.1 DESCRIPTION This work shall consist of constructing drilled foundation shafts, with or without bell footings, including the placing of reinforcing steel and concrete all in accordance with the plans, these specications and the special provisions. 5.2 SUBMITTALS 5.2.1 Contractor Qualications (Recommended where permitted by state law) (a) The Contractor shall have a minimum of 3 years experience in constructing shaft foundations of similar size, depth and site conditions within the past 5 years. Prior to shaft construction the Contractor shall submit written documentation of the three years experience to the Engineer for verication and acceptance. The submittal shall include at least three projects on which the Contractor has previously been engaged in shaft construction with satisfactory results. A brief description of each project and the owners contact persons name and current phone number shall be included for each project listed. (b) On-site supervisors shall have a minimum 2 years experience in construction of shaft foundations, and drill operators shall have a minimum 1 year experience. Prior to the start of work, the Contractor shall submit a list identifying the on-site supervisors and drill operators who will be assigned on the project. The list shall contain a summary of each individuals experience. (c) The Engineer will approve or reject the Contractors qualications and eld personnel within 10 working days after receipt of the submission. Work shall not be started on any shaft until the Contractors qualications are approved by the Engineer. The Engineer may suspend the shaft construction if the Contractor substitutes unqualied personnel. The Contractor shall be fully liable for the additional costs resulting from the suspension of work, and no adjustments in contract 499 time resulting from the suspension of work will be allowed. (d) A shaft preconstruction conference will be held with the Contractor and Sub-Contractor (if applicable) prior to the start of shaft construction to discuss construction and inspection procedures. This conference will be scheduled by the Engineer after the Contractors submittals are approved by the Engineer. 5.2.2 Working Drawings When required by the special provisions, at least four weeks before work on shafts is to begin, the Contractor shall submit to the Engineer for review and approval, an installation plan for the construction of drilled shafts. The submittal shall include the following: (a) List of proposed equipment to be used including cranes, drills, augers, bailing buckets, nal cleaning equipment, desanding equipment, slurry pumps, sampling equipment, tremies or concrete pumps, casing (including: casing dimensions, material and splice details), etc. (b) Details of overall construction operation sequence and the sequence of shaft construction in bents or groups. (c) Details of shaft excavation methods, and nal shaft dimensions. (d) When slurry is required, details of the method proposed to mix, circulate and desand slurry and disposal of slurry. (e) Details of methods to clean the shaft excavation, including the bottom of the shaft. (f) Details of reinforcement placement including support and centralization methods. (g) Details of concrete placement, curing and protection, that demonstrates contractors ability to perform concrete placement in the required time. (h) Other information shown on the plans or requested by the Engineer. (i) Concrete mixes, and mitigation of possible slump loss during placement at the site.
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HIGHWAY BRIDGES 5.4.3 General Methods and Equipment
5.2.2
The Contractor shall not start the construction of drilled shafts for which Contractor qualications and working drawings are required until such submittals have been approved by the Engineer. Such approval will not relieve the Contractor of responsibility for results obtained by use of these submittals or any other responsibilities under the contract. 5.3 MATERIALS 5.3.1 Concrete Concrete shall conform to the requirements of Section 8. The concrete shall be Class A unless otherwise specied. NOTE: The concrete mix for drilled shafts shall be uid, consolidate under self-weight, be resistant to segregation, and have a set time that will assure that uidity is maintained throughout the shaft concrete placement, and removal of temporary casing. The time for initial set of the shaft concrete should generally not exceed 12 hours. 5.3.2 Reinforcing Steel Reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of Section 9, Reinforcing Steel. 5.3.3 Casings Casings which are required to be incorporated as part of the permanent work shall conform to the requirements of Section 11, Steel Structures. Steel shall be AASHTO M 183 (ASTM A 36), AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade 36, or ASTM A 252, Grade 2 or 3 unless otherwise specied. 5.4 CONSTRUCTION 5.4.1 Protection of Existing Structures All precautions shall be taken to prevent damage to existing structures and utilities. These measures shall include but are not limited to, selecting construction methods and procedures that will prevent excessive caving of the shaft excavation, monitoring, and controlling the vibrations from the driving of casing or sheeting, drilling of the shaft or from blasting, if permitted. 5.4.2 Construction Sequence
Excavations required for shafts and bell footings shall be constructed to the dimensions and elevations shown on the plans. The methods and equipment used shall be suitable for the intended purpose and materials encountered. Generally either the dry method, wet method, temporary casing method, or permanent casing method will be used as necessary to produce sound, durable concrete foundation shafts free of defects. The permanent casing method shall be used only when required by the plans or authorized by the Engineer. When a particular method of construction is required on the plans, that method shall be used. If no particular method is specified for use, the Contractor shall select and use the method, as determined by site conditions, subject to approval of the Engineer, that is needed to properly accomplish the work. The excavation shall be completed in a continuous operation. If the excavation operation is stopped, the shaft cavity shall be protected by installation of a safety cover. It shall be the Contractors responsibility to ensure the safety of the shaft excavation, surrounding soil and the stability of the side walls. A temporary casing, slurry or other methods approved by the Engineer shall be used if necessary to ensure such safety and stability. Excavations shall not be left open overnight unless cased full depth. The Contractor shall use appropriate means such as a cleanout bucket or air lift to clean the bottom of the excavation of all shafts. When unexpected obstructions are encountered, the Contractor shall notify the Engineer promptly. The removal of such obstructions, and the construction of excavation shall be as directed by the Engineer. 5.4.4 Dry Construction Method The dry construction method shall be used only at sites where the groundwater table and site conditions are suitable to permit construction of the shaft in a relatively dry excavation, and where the sides and bottom of the shaft remain stable without any caving, sloughing or swelling and may be visually inspected prior to placing the concrete. The dry method consists of drilling the shaft excavation, removing accumulated water and loose material from the excavation, and placing the shaft concrete in a relatively dry excavation. 5.4.5 Wet Construction Method
Where drilled shafts are to be installed in conjunction with embankment placement, they shall be constructed after the placement of the ll and completion of any specied settlement periods unless shown otherwise in the plans.
The wet construction method shall be used at sites where a dry excavation cannot be maintained for placement of the shaft concrete. This method consists of using
5.4.5
501
water or mineral slurry to contain seepage, groundwater movement, and to maintain stability of the hole perimeter while advancing the excavation to nal depth, placing the reinforcing cage and shaft concrete. This procedure may require desanding and cleaning the slurry; nal cleaning of the excavation by means of a bailing bucket, air lift, submersible pump, cleanout bucket or other devices; and requires placing the shaft concrete with a tremie. Temporary surface casings shall be provided to aid shaft alignment and position, and to prevent sloughing of the top of the shaft excavation, unless it is demonstrated to the satisfaction of the Engineer that the surface casing is not required. Surface casing is dened as the amount of casing required from the ground surface to a point in the shaft excavation where sloughing of the surrounding soil does not occur. 5.4.6 Temporary Casing Construction Method The temporary casing construction method shall be used at all sites where the stability of the excavated hole and/or the effects of groundwater cannot be controlled by other means. Temporary casing may be installed by driving or vibratory procedures in advance of excavation to the lower limits of the caving material. Temporary casings shall be removed while the concrete remains workable (i.e., a slump of 4 inches or greater). As the casing is being withdrawn, a 5 foot minimum head of fresh concrete in the casing shall be maintained so that all the uid trapped behind the casing is displaced upward without contaminating the shaft concrete. The required minimum concrete head may have to be increased to counteract groundwater head outside the casing. Movement of the casing by rotating, exerting downward pressure and tapping to facilitate extraction or extraction with a vibratory hammer will be permitted. Casing extraction shall be at a slow, uniform rate with the pull in line with the shaft axis. 5.4.7 Permanent Casing Construction Method The permanent casing construction method shall be used only when required by the plans. This method generally consists of driving or drilling a casing to a prescribed depth before excavation begins. If full penetration cannot be attained, the Contractor may either excavate material within the embedded portion of the casing or excavate a pilot hole ahead of the casing until the casing reaches the desired penetration. The pilot hole shall be no larger than one-half the diameter of the shaft and shall be centered in the shaft. Overreaming to the outside diameter of the casing shall not be performed unless specically stated in the Plans or Special Provisions.
The casing shall be continuous between the elevations shown on the plans. Unless shown on the plans, the use of temporary casing in lieu of or in addition to the permanent casing shall not be used. After the installation of the casing and the excavation of the shaft is complete, the reinforcing steel shall be placed, followed by the placement of the shaft concrete. After the permanent casing has been lled with concrete, any voids between the shaft excavation and the casing shall be pressure grouted with cement grout. The method of pressure grouting the voids shall be submitted to the Engineer for approval. NOTE: Pressure grouting is required to assure contact (bearing) between the casing and any surrounding soil layer that is utilized for lateral support. 5.4.8 Alternative Construction Methods The Contractor may propose alternative methods to prevent caving and control ground water. Such proposals, accompanied by supporting technical data, shall be submitted in accordance with Article 5.2, and are subject to the approval of the Engineer. 5.4.9 Excavations
The bottom elevation of the drilled shaft shown on the plans may be adjusted during construction if the Engineer determines that the foundation material encountered during excavation is unsuitable or differs from that anticipated in the design of the drilled shaft. When specied or shown in the plans, the Contractor shall take soil samples or rock cores to determine the character of the material directly below the shaft excavation. The Engineer will inspect the samples or cores and determine the nal depth of required shaft excavation. Excavated materials which are removed from the shaft excavation and any drilled uids used shall be disposed of in accordance with the special provisions, and in compliance with federal and state laws. When bell footings are shown in the plans they shall be excavated to form a bearing area of the size and shape shown. 5.4.10 Casings Casings shall be metal, smooth, clean, watertight, and of ample strength to withstand both handling and driving stresses and the pressure of both concrete and the surrounding earth materials. The outside diameter of casing shall not be less than the specied diameter of the shaft. The inside diameter of the casing shall not be greater than the specied diameter of the shaft plus 6 inches unless otherwise approved by the Engineer. Where the minimum
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5.4.10
thickness of the casing is specied in the Plans, it is specied to satisfy structural design requirements only. The Contractor shall increase the casing thickness as necessary to satisfy the casing strength requirements for handling and driving stresses. Temporary casings may be corrugated and nonwatertight if conditions permit. 5.4.11 Slurry Slurry used in the drilling process shall be a mineral slurry. The slurry shall have both a mineral grain size that will remain in suspension and sufficient viscosity and gel characteristics to transport excavated material to a suitable screening system. The percentage and specic gravity of the material used to make the suspension shall be sufficient to maintain the stability of the excavation and to allow proper concrete placement. The level of the slurry shall be maintained at a height sufficient to prevent caving of the hole. The mineral slurry shall be premixed thoroughly with clean fresh water and adequate time allotted for hydration prior to introduction into the shaft excavation. Adequate slurry tanks will be required when specied. No excavated slurry pits will be allowed when slurry tanks are required on the project without written permission of the Engineer. Adequate desanding equipment will be required when specied. Steps shall be taken as necessary to prevent the slurry from setting up in the shaft excavation, such as, agitation, circulation, and adjusting the properties of the slurry. Control tests using suitable apparatus shall be carried out by the Contractor on the mineral slurry to determine density, viscosity, and pH. An acceptable range of values for those physical properties is shown in the following table: Range of Values (at 68F) Property (Units) Density (pcf) Viscosity (seconds per quart) pH Notes (a) Increase density values by 2 pcf in salt water. (b) If desanding is required; sand content shall not exceed 4% (by volume) at any point in the shaft excavation as determined by the American Petroleum Institute sand content test. Time of Time of Slurry Concreting Introduction (In Hole) 64.3 to 69.1 28 to 45 8 to 11 64.3 to 75.0 28 to 45 8 to 11 Test Method Density Balance Marsh Cone pH paper or meter
Tests to determine density, viscosity, and pH values shall be done before or during the shaft excavation to establish a consistent working pattern. Prior to placing shaft concrete, the Contractor shall use an approved slurry sampling tool to take slurry samples from the bottom and at midheight of the shaft. Any heavily contaminated slurry that has accumulated at the bottom of the shaft shall be eliminated. The mineral slurry shall be within specication requirements immediately before shaft concrete placement. 5.4.12 Excavation Inspection The Contractor shall provide equipment for checking the dimensions and alignment of each shaft excavation. The dimensions and alignment shall be determined by the Contractor under the direction of the Engineer. Final shaft depth shall be measured after nal cleaning. No more than 1 2 inch of loose or disturbed material shall be present at the bottom of the shaft just prior to placing the concrete for end bearing shafts. No more than 2 inches of loose or disturbed material shall be present for side friction shafts. End bearing shafts shall be assumed unless otherwise noted in the Plans. The excavated shaft shall have the approval of the Engineer prior to proceeding with construction. 5.4.13 Reinforcing Steel Cage Construction and Placement The reinforcing steel cage consisting of the steel shown on the plans plus cage stiffener bars, spacers, centralizers, and other necessary appurtenance shall be completely assembled and placed as a unit immediately after the shaft excavation is inspected and accepted and prior to shaft concrete placement. The reinforcing cage shall be rigidly braced to retain its conguration during handling and construction. Individual or loose bars shall not be used. The Contractor shall show bracing and any extra reinforcing steel required for fabrication of the cage on the shop drawings. The reinforcement shall be carefully positioned and securely fastened to provide the minimum clearances listed below, and to ensure that no displacement of the reinforcing steel bars occurs during placement of the concrete. Place bars as shown in the contract plans with concrete cover as shown in the table below: Concrete Cover Shaft Diameter 20 or less 30 40 50 or larger Uncased 3 3 4 6 Casing Casing Remains Withdrawn 3 3 4 6 4 4 4 6
5.4.13
503
Rolling spacers for reinforcing steel shall be used to minimize disturbance of the side walls of the shaft and to facilitate removal of the casing during concrete placement. Concrete spacers or other approved noncorrosive spacing devices shall be used at sufficient intervals not exceeding 5 feet along the shaft to insure concentric location of the cage within the shaft excavation. When the size of the longitudinal reinforcing steel exceeds one inch diameter, the maximum spacing of the spacing devices may be increased to 10 feet (maximum). Approved noncorrosive bottom supports shall be provided for the rebar cage to assure that the reinforcing is the proper distance above the base. Other types of spacers may be used if approved by the Engineer. The Contractor shall submit details of the proposed reinforcing cage spacers along with the shop drawings. Shaft excavation shall not be started until the Contractor has received approval from the Engineer for the Contractor-proposed spacers. 5.4.14 Concrete Placement, Curing, and Protection Concrete placement shall commence immediately after completion of excavation, inspection and setting of the reinforcing cage, and shall continue in one operation, to the top of the shaft, or to a construction joint identied on the plans. An unforeseen stoppage of work may require a horizontal construction joint during the shaft construction. For this reason, an emergency construction joint method shall be submitted to the Engineer for approval prior to starting shaft construction. Concrete to be placed in water or slurry shall be placed through a tremie using methods specied in Article 8.7.5, Underwater Placement. Before placing any new concrete against concrete deposited in water, the Contractor shall remove all scum, laitance, loose gravel and sediment on the upper surface of the concrete deposited in water and chip off any high spots on the upper surface of the existing concrete that would prevent any subsequent shaft reinforcing from being placed in the position required by the Plans. Concrete to be placed in dry shafts shall be placed and consolidated as specied in Article 4.3.2, Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles, and these Specications. For shafts less than 8 feet in diameter, the elapsed time from the beginning of concrete placement in the shaft to the completion of placement shall not exceed 2 hours unless a shaft concrete retarder is approved by the Engineer. For shafts 8 feet and greater in diameter, the concrete placing rate shall be not less than 30 feet of shaft height per each 2-hour period providing a 4 inch minimum slump is maintained throughout the concrete placement based on tests of a trial mix. The concrete mix shall be of such de-
sign that the concrete remains in workable plastic state throughout the 2-hour placement limit. When the top of shaft elevation is above ground, the portion of the shaft above ground shall be formed with a removable form or with a permanent casing, when specied. The shaft concrete shall be vibrated or rodded to a depth of 5 feet below the ground surface except where soft uncased soil or slurry remaining in the excavation will possibly mix with the concrete. After placement, the temporarily exposed surfaces of the shaft concrete shall be cured in accordance with the provisions in Article 8.11, Curing Concrete. For at least 48 hours after shaft concrete has been placed, no construction operations that would cause soil movement adjacent to the shaft, other than mild vibration, shall not be conducted. Mild vibration is dened as operation of light construction equipment adjacent to the shaft. Portions of drilled shafts exposed to a body of water shall be protected from the action of water by leaving the forms in place for a minimum of seven days after concrete placement or until the shaft concrete reaches a minimum strength of 2500 psi, whichever occurs rst. 5.4.15 Test Shafts and Bells Test shafts shall be constructed when required in the contract. The construction of test shafts will be used to determine if the methods, equipment, and procedures used by the Contractor are sufficient to produce a shaft excavation which meets the requirements of the plans and specications. Production shaft construction shall not be started until the required test shaft(s) has been successfully completed. The Contractor shall revise his methods and equipment as necessary at any time during the construction of the test shaft hole to satisfactorily complete the excavation. The location of the test shaft shall be as shown on the plans, or as directed by the Engineer. The diameter and depth of the test shaft excavation shall be the same diameter and depth as the production drilled shafts shown on the plans. The test shaft holes shall be lled with concrete in the same manner that production shafts will be constructed unless a different backll material is shown on the plans. When the Contractor fails to satisfactorily demonstrate the adequacy of his methods, procedures or equipment, additional test shafts shall be provided at no additional cost to the Department, until a successful test shaft has been constructed in accordance with the Engineerapproved construction methods. When shown on the plans, the reaming of bells at specied test shaft holes will be required to establish the feasibility of belling in a specic soil strata. 5.4.16 Construction Tolerances The following construction tolerances shall be maintained in constructing drilled shafts.
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5.4.16
(a) Shafts shall be constructed so that the center at the top of the shaft is within the following tolerances: Shaft Diameter 2-0 or less 3-0 4-0 5-0 or larger Tolerance 3 31 2 4 6
(b) Shafts shall be within 1.5% of plumb. For rock excavation, the allowable tolerance can be increased to 2% max. (c) After all the shaft concrete is placed, the portion of the shaft reinforcing steel cage embedded in the shaft shall be no more than 1 inch above and no more than 3 inches below plan position, and shall be at least 1 inch below the top of the shaft. (d) The minimum diameter of the drilled shaft shall be the diameter shown on the plans for diameters 24 inches or less, and not more than 1 inch less than the diameter shown on the plans for diameters greater than 24 inches. The maximum shaft diameter shall be the diameter shown in the plans, plus 6 inches. (e) The bearing area of bells shall be excavated to the plan bearing area as a minimum. All other dimensions for the bells shall be as shown on the approved working drawings. (f) The top elevation of the shaft shall be within 2 inches of the plan top of shaft elevation. (g) The bottom of the shaft excavation shall be normal to the axis of the shaft within 3 4 inch per foot of shaft diameter. During drilling or excavation of the shaft, the Contractor shall make frequent checks on the plumbness, alignment, and dimensions of the shaft. Any deviation exceeding the allowable tolerances shall be corrected with a procedure approved by the Engineer. Drilled shaft excavations constructed in such a manner that the concrete shaft cannot be completed within the required tolerances are unacceptable. Correction methods shall be submitted by the Contractor for the Engineers approval. Approval will be obtained before continuing with the drilled shaft construction. Materials and work necessary to effect correction for out-of-tolerance drilled shaft excavations shall be furnished at no additional cost to the Department. 5.4.17 Integrity Testing When called for in the special provisions, the completed shaft will be subjected to nondestructive testing to determine the extent of any defects that may be present in the shaft. Work and materials required for testing which are to be furnished by the Contractor shall be as shown on the plans or special provisions.
In the event testing discloses voids or discontinuities in the concrete which, as determined by the Engineer, indicate that the drilled shaft is not structurally adequate, the shaft shall be rejected. The Contractor shall repair, replace or supplement the defective work in a manner approved by the Engineer. The construction of additional drilled shafts shall be discontinued until the Contractor demonstrates the adequacy of the shaft construction method and any subsequent method changes to the satisfaction of the Engineer. Any additional work required as a result of shaft defects shall be at no additional cost to the Department. 5.5 DRILLED SHAFT LOAD TESTS When the contract documents include load testing, all tests shall be completed before construction of any production drilled shafts. The Contractor shall allow two weeks after the last load test for the analysis of the load test data by the Engineer before specied drilled shaft tip elevations will be provided for production shafts. The locations of load test shafts and reaction shafts, the maximum loads to be applied, the test equipment to be furnished by the Contractor, and the actual performance of the load testing shall be as shown on the plans or specied in the special provisions. After testing is completed, the test shafts and any reaction shafts, if not also to be used as production shafts, shall be cutoff at an elevation 3 feet below the nished ground surface. The portion of the shafts cutoff shall be disposed of by the Contractor in a manner approved by the Engineer. NOTE: Load tests should generally be performed as a separate contract in advance of the bridge construction. 5.6 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT 5.6.1 Measurement 5.6.1.1 Drilled Shaft Drilled shafts, complete in place, will be measured by the linear foot for each size of shaft listed in the schedule of bid items. Measurement will be along the centerline of the shaft based on the tip and shaft cut-off elevations shown on the plans or as ordered by the Engineer. 5.6.1.2 Bell Footings Bell footings will be measured by the cubic yard, computed by using the dimensions and shape specied on the plans or as revised by the Engineer. The bell shall consist of the volume outside the plan or authorized dimensions of the shaft, which will extend to the bottom of the bell for the purpose of measurement.
5.6.1.3 5.6.1.3 Test Shafts
505
equipment and incidentals necessary to complete the bell footings. 5.6.2.3 Test Shafts Test shafts of the specied diameter will be paid for at the contract unit price per linear foot for test shafts. Such payment shall be full compensation for excavation and concrete or backll material including all labor, materials, equipment, and incidentals necessary to complete the test shafts. 5.6.2.4 Test Bells Test bells of the diameter and shape specied or authorized and approved will be paid for at the contract unit price per cubic yard for test bells. Such payment shall be full compensation for excavation and concrete or backll material including all labor, materials, equipment, and incidentals necessary to complete the test bells, except for unexpected obstructions. 5.6.2.5 Exploration Holes When specied or shown in the plans, exploration holes for soil samples or rock cores will be paid for at the contract unit price per linear foot for exploration holes. Such payment shall be full compensation for drilling or coring the holes, extracting and packaging the samples or cores and delivering them to the Department and all other expenses necessary to complete the work. 5.6.2.6 Permanent Casing
Test shafts of the specied diameter will be measured from the elevation of the ground at the time drilling begins, by the linear foot of acceptable test shaft drilled. 5.6.1.4 Test Bells Test bells will be measured by the cubic yard computed by using the dimensions specied in Article 5.6.1.2. 5.6.1.5 Exploration Holes Exploration holes will be measured by the linear foot measured from the bottom of shaft elevation to the bottom of the exploration hole, for each authorized hole drilled. 5.6.1.6 Permanent Casing Permanent casing will be measured by the linear foot for each size of casing authorized to be used. Measurement will be along the casing from top of casing or top of shaft, whichever is lower, to the bottom of the casing at each shaft location where permanent casing is authorized and used. 5.6.1.7 Load Tests Load tests will be measured by the number of load tests performed for each designated pile load capacity. 5.6.2 Payment 5.6.2.1 Drilled Shaft Drilled shafts will be paid for at the contract price per lineal foot for drilled shaft of the diameter specied. Such payment shall be considered to be full compensation for all costs involved with shaft excavation, disposal of excavated material, and the furnishing and placing of concrete and reinforcing steel, including all labor, materials, equipment, temporary casing, and incidentals necessary to complete the drilled shafts, except for unexpected obstructions. 5.6.2.2 Bell Footings Bell footings constructed to the specied or authorized dimensions will be paid for at the contract unit price per cubic yard for bell footings. Such payment shall be full compensation for excavation, and concrete beyond the diameter of the drilled shaft including all labor, materials,
Permanent casing will be paid for at the contract unit price per linear foot for permanent casing. Such payment shall be full compensation for furnishing and placing the casing above the costs attributable to the work paid for under associated pay items. 5.6.2.7 Load Tests Load tests will be paid for at the contract unit price for each load test. Such payment shall be full compensation for all costs related to the performance of the load tests. 5.6.2.8 Unexpected Obstructions Removal of unexpected obstructions will be paid for by force account.
Section 6
GROUND ANCHORS
6.1 DESCRIPTION This work shall consist of designing, furnishing, installing, testing, and stressing permanent cement-grouted ground anchors in accordance with the plans, these specications, and the special provisions. 6.2 WORKING DRAWINGS At least 4 weeks before work is to begin, the Contractor shall submit to the Engineer for review and approval complete working drawings and design calculations describing the ground anchor system or systems intended for use. The submittal shall include the following: (1) A ground anchor schedule giving: (a) Ground anchor number, (b) Ground anchor design load, (c) Type and size of tendon, (d) Minimum total anchor length, (e) Minimum bond length, (f) Minimum tendon bond length, and (g) Minimum unbonded length. (2) A drawing of the ground anchor tendon and the corrosion protection system, including details for the following: (a) Spacers separating elements of tendon and their location, (b) Centralizers and their location, (c) Unbonded length corrosion protection system, (d) Bond length corrosion protection system, (e) Anchorage and trumpet, (f) Anchorage corrosion protection system, (g) Drilled or formed hole size, (h) Level of each stage of grouting, and (i) Any revisions to structure details necessary to accommodate the ground anchor system intended for use. (3) The grout mix design and procedures for placing the grout. The Engineer will approve or reject the Contractors working drawings within 4 weeks of receipt of a complete 507 submittal. No work on ground anchors shall begin until working drawings have been approved in writing by the Engineer. Such approval shall not relieve the Contractor of any responsibility under the contract for the successful completion of the work.
6.3 MATERIALS 6.3.1 Prestressing Steel Ground anchor tendons shall consist of single or multiple elements of prestressing steel, anchorage devices and, if required, couplers conforming to the requirements described in Section 10, Prestressing. The following materials are acceptable for use as ground anchor tendons: AASHTO Designation: M 203 (ASTM Designation A 416 - Uncoated, 7-wire strand) ASTM Designation: A 886/A 886M (Indented, 7-wire strand) ASTM Designation: A 882/A 882M (Epoxy coated, 7-wire strand) 6.3.2 Grout Cement shall be Type I, II, or III Portland Cement conforming to AASHTO M 85. Cement used for grouting shall be fresh and shall not contain any lumps or other indications of hydration or pack set. Aggregate shall conform to the requirements for ne aggregate described in Section 8, Concrete Structures. Admixtures may be used in the grout subject to the approval of the Engineer. Expansive admixtures may only be added to the grout used for lling sealed encapsulations, trumpets, and anchorage covers. Accelerators shall not be used. Water for mixing grout shall be potable, clean and free of injurious quantities of substances known to be harmful to Portland cement or prestressing steel.
508 6.3.3 Steel Elements
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
6.3.3
Bearing plates shall be fabricated from steel conforming to AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade 36 minimum, or be a ductile iron casting conforming to ASTM A 536. Trumpets used to provide a transition from the anchorage to the unbonded length corrosion protection shall be fabricated from a steel pipe or tube conforming to the requirements of ASTM A 53 for pipe or ASTM A 500 for tubing. Minimum wall thickness shall be 0.20 inches. Anchorage covers used to enclose exposed anchorages shall be fabricated from steel, steel pipe, steel tube, or ductile cast iron conforming to the requirements of AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade 36 for steel, ASTM A 53 for pipe, ASTM A 500 for tubing, and ASTM A 536 for ductile cast iron. Minimum thickness shall be 0.10 inches. 6.3.4 Corrosion Protection Elements Corrosion inhibiting grease shall conform to the requirements of the Post Tensioning Institutes Specications for Unbonded Single Strand Tendons, Section 3.2.5. Sheath for the unbonded length of a tendon shall consist of one of the following: (1) Seamless polyethylene (PE) tube having a minimum wall thickness of 60 mils plus or minus 10 mils. The polyethylene shall be cell classication 334413 by ASTM D 3350. (2) Seamless polypropylene tube having a minimum wall thickness of 60 mils plus or minus 10 mils. The polypropylene shall be cell classication PP210B55542-11 by ASTM D 4101. (3) Heat shrinkable tube consisting of a radiation crosslinked polyolen tube internally coated with an adhesive sealant. The minimum tube wall thickness before shrinking shall be 24 mils. The minimum adhesive sealant thickness shall be 20 mils. (4) Corrugated polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tube having a minimum wall thickness of 30 mils. Encapsulation for the tendon bond length shall consist of one of the following: (1) Corrugated high density polyethylene (HDPE) tube having a minimum wall thickness of 30 mils and conforming to AASHTO M 252 requirements. (2) Deformed steel tube or pipe having a minimum wall thickness of 25 mils. (3) Corrugated polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tube having a minimum wall thickness of 30 mils.
(4) Fusion-bonded epoxy conforming to the requirements of AASHTO M 284, except that it shall have a lm thickness of 15 mils. 6.3.5 Miscellaneous Elements Bondbreaker for a tendon shall consist of smooth plastic tube or pipe that is resistant to aging by ultra-violet light and that is capable of withstanding abrasion, impact and bending during handling and installation. Spacers for separation of elements of a multi-element tendon shall permit the free ow of grout. They shall be fabricated from plastic, steel, or material which is not detrimental to the prestressing steel. Wood shall not be used. Centralizers shall be fabricated from plastic, steel, or material which is not detrimental to either the prestressing steel or any element of the tendon corrosion protection. Wood shall not be used. The centralizer shall be able to maintain the position of the tendon so that a minimum of 0.5 inches of grout cover is obtained on the tendons, or over the encapsulation. 6.4 FABRICATION Tendons for ground anchors may be either shop or eld fabricated from materials conforming to the requirements of Article 6.3. Tendons shall be fabricated as shown on the approved working drawings. The tendon shall be sized so that the maximum test load does not exceed 80% of the minimum guaranteed ultimate strength of the tendon. 6.4.1 Bond Length and Tendon Bond Length The Contractor shall determine the bond length necessary to satisfy the load test requirements. The minimum bond length shall be 10 feet in rock, 15 feet in soil or the minimum length shown on the plans. The minimum tendon bond length shall be 10 feet. 6.4.1.1 Grout Protected Ground Anchor Tendon Spacers shall be placed along the tendon bond length of multi-element tendons so that the prestressing steel will bond to the grout. They shall be located at 10-foot maximum centers with the upper one located a maximum of 5 feet from the top of the tendon bond length and the lower one located a maximum of 5 feet from the bottom of the tendon bond length. Centralizers shall be placed along the bond length. They shall be located at 10-foot maximum centers with the upper one located a maximum of 5 feet from the top of the bond length and the lower one located 1 foot from the bot-
6.4.1.1
509
tom of the bond length. Centralizers are not required on tendons installed utilizing a hollow-stem auger if it is grouted through the auger and the drill hole is maintained full of a stiff grout (9-inch slump or less) during extraction of the auger. A combination centralizer-spacer may be used. Centralizers are not required on tendons installed utilizing a pressure injection system in coarse-grained soils using grouting pressures greater than 150 psi. 6.4.1.2 Encapsulation Protected Ground Anchor Tendon The tendon bond length shall be encapsulated by a grout-lled corrugated plastic or deformed steel tube, or by a fusion-bonded epoxy coating. The tendon can be grouted inside the encapsulation prior to inserting the tendon in the drill hole or after the tendon has been placed in the drill hole. Punching holes in the encapsulation and allowing the grout to ow from the encapsulation to the drill hole, or vice versa, will not be permitted. The tendon shall be centralized within the encapsulation and the tube sized to provide an average of 0.20 inches of grout cover for the prestressing steel. Spacers and centralizers shall be used to satisfy the same requirements specied in Article 6.4.1.1 for grout protected ground anchor tendons. The anchorage device of tendons protected with fusion-bonded epoxy shall be electrically isolated from the structure. 6.4.2 Unbonded Length The unbonded length of the tendon shall be a minimum of 15 feet or as indicated on the plans or approved working drawings. Corrosion protection shall be provided by a sheath completely lled with corrosion inhibiting grease or grout, or a heat shrinkable tube. If grease is used to ll the sheath, provisions shall be made to prevent it from escaping at the ends. The grease shall completely coat the tendon and ll the interstices between the wires of sevenwire strands. Continuity of corrosion protection shall be provided at the transition from the bonded length to unbonded length of the tendon. If the sheath provided is not a smooth tube, then a separate bondbreaker must be provided to prevent the tendon from bonding to the anchor grout surrounding the unbonded length. 6.4.3 Anchorage and Trumpet Nonrestressable anchorages may be used unless restressable anchorages are designated on the plans or spec-
ied in the special provisions. Bearing plates shall be sized so that the bending stresses in the plate and average bearing stress on the concrete, if applicable, do not exceed the allowable stresses described in Division I, Article 9.21.7.2, Bearing Strength. The size of bearing plates shall not be less than that shown on the plans or on the approved working drawings. The trumpet shall be welded to the bearing plate. The trumpet shall have an inside diameter at least 0.25 inches greater than the diameter of the tendon at the anchorage. The trumpet shall be long enough to accommodate movements of the structure during testing and stressing. For strand tendons with encapsulation over the unbonded length, the trumpet shall be long enough to enable the tendons to make a transition from the diameter of the tendon in the unbonded length to the diameter of the tendon at the anchorhead without damaging the encapsulation. Trumpets lled with corrosion-inhibiting grease shall have a permanent Buna-N rubber or approved equal seal provided between the trumpet and the unbonded length corrosion protection. Trumpets lled with grout shall have a temporary seal provided between the trumpet and the unbonded length corrosion protection. 6.4.4 Tendon Storage and Handling Tendons shall be stored and handled in such a manner as to avoid damage or corrosion. Damage to tendon prestressing steel as a result of abrasions, cuts, nicks, welds and weld splatter will be cause for rejection by the Engineer. Grounding of welding leads to the prestressing steel is not permitted. A slight rusting, provided it is not sufficient to cause pits visible to the unaided eye, shall not be cause for rejection. Prior to inserting a tendon into the drilled hole, its corrosion protection elements shall be examined for damage. Any damage found shall be repaired in a manner approved by the Engineer. 6.5 INSTALLATION The Contractor shall select the drilling method, the grouting procedure and grouting pressure to be used for the installation of the ground anchor as necessary to satisfy the load test requirements. 6.5.1 Drilling The drilling method used may be core drilling, rotary drilling, percussion drilling, auger drilling or driven casing. The method of drilling used shall prevent loss of ground above the drilled hole that may be detrimental to
510
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
6.5.1
the structure or existing structures. Casing for anchor holes, if used, shall be removed, unless permitted by the Engineer to be left in place. The location, inclination, and alignment of the drilled hole shall be as shown on the plans. Inclination and alignment shall be within plus or minus 3 of the planned angle at the bearing plate, and within plus or minus 12 inches of the planned location at the ground surface (point of entry). 6.5.2 Tendon Insertion The tendon shall be inserted into the drilled hole to the desired depth without difficulty. When the tendon cannot be completely inserted it shall be removed and the drill hole cleaned or redrilled to permit insertion. Partially inserted tendons shall not be driven or forced into the hole. 6.5.3 Grouting A neat cement grout or sand-cement grout conforming to Article 6.3.2 shall be used. Admixtures, if used, shall be mixed in quantities not to exceed the manufacturers recommendations. The grouting equipment shall produce a grout free of lumps and undispersed cement. A positive displacement grout pump shall be used. The pump shall be equipped with a pressure gauge to monitor grout pressures. The pressure gauge shall be capable of measuring pressures of at least 150 psi or twice the actual grout pressures used, whichever is greater. The grouting equipment shall be sized to enable the grout to be pumped in one continuous operation. The mixer shall be capable of continuously agitating the grout. The grout shall be injected from the lowest point of the drill hole. The grout may be pumped through grout tubes, casing, hollow-stem augers or drill rods. The grout may be placed before or after insertion of the tendon. The quantity of the grout and the grout pressures shall be recorded. The grout pressures and grout takes shall be controlled to prevent excessive heave of the ground or fracturing of rock formations. Except where indicated below, the grout above the top of the bond length may be placed at the same time as the bond length grout, but it shall not be placed under pressure. The grout at the top of the drill hole shall stop 6 inches from the back of the structure or from the bottom of the trumpet, whichever is lowest. If the ground anchor is installed in a ne-grained soil using a drilled hole larger than 6 inches in diameter, then the grout above the top of the bond length shall be placed after the ground anchor has been load tested. The entire drill hole may be grouted at the same time if it can be
demonstrated that the ground anchor system does not derive a signicant portion of its load resistance from the soil above the bond length portion of the ground anchor. If grout protected tendons are used for ground anchors anchored in rock, then pressure grouting techniques shall be utilized. Pressure grouting requires that the drill hole be sealed and that the grout be injected until a 50-psi grout pressure can be maintained on the grout within the bond length for a period of 5 minutes. Upon completion of grouting, the grout tube may remain in the drill hole provided it is lled with grout. After grouting, the tendon shall not be loaded for a minimum of 3 days. 6.5.4 Trumpet and Anchorage The corrosion protection surrounding the unbonded length of the tendon shall extend into the trumpet a minimum of 6 inches beyond the bottom seal in the trumpet. The corrosion protection surrounding the unbonded length of the tendon shall not contact the bearing plate or the anchorhead during load testing or stressing. The bearing plate and anchorhead shall be placed perpendicular to the axis of the tendon. The trumpet shall be completely lled with corrosion inhibiting grease or grout. The grease may be placed any time during construction. The grout shall be placed after the ground anchor has been load tested. The Contractor shall demonstrate that the procedures selected for placement of either grease or grout will produce a completely lled trumpet. Anchorages not encased in concrete shall be covered with a corrosion inhibiting grease-lled or grout-lled steel enclosure. 6.5.5 Testing and Stressing Each ground anchor shall be load tested by the Contractor. No load greater than 10% of the design load may be applied to the ground anchor prior to load testing. The test load shall be simultaneously applied to the entire tendon. 6.5.5.1 Testing Equipment A dial gauge or vernier scale capable of measuring displacements to 0.001 inches shall be used to measure ground anchor movement. It shall have adequate travel so total ground anchor movement can be measured without resetting the device. A hydraulic jack and pump shall be used to apply the test load. The jack and a calibrated pressure gauge shall be used to measure the applied load. The pressure gauge
6.5.5.1
DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION 0.25DL 0.50DL 0.75DL* AL 0.25DL 0.50DL 0.75DL 1.00DL* AL 0.25DL 0.50DL 0.75DL 1.00DL 1.20DL 1.33DL* (Max. test load) Reduce to lock-off load (Art. 6.5.5.6)
511
shall be graduated in 100-psi increments or less. When the theoretical elastic elongation of the total anchor length at the maximum test load exceeds the ram travel of the jack, the procedure for recycling the jack ram shall be included in the working drawings. Each increment of test load shall be applied as rapidly as possible. A calibrated reference pressure gauge shall be available at the site. The reference gauge shall be calibrated with the test jack and pressure gauge. An electrical resistance load cell and readout shall be provided when performing a creep test. The stressing equipment shall be placed over the ground anchor tendon in such a manner that the jack, bearing plates, load cell and stressing anchorage are axially aligned with the tendon and the tendon is centered within the equipment. 6.5.5.2 Performance Test Five percent of the ground anchors or a minimum of three ground anchors, whichever is greater shall be performance tested in accordance with the following procedures. The Engineer shall select the ground anchors to be performance tested. The remaining anchors shall be tested in accordance with the proof test procedures. The performance test shall be made by incrementally loading and unloading the ground anchor in accordance with the following schedule unless a different maximum test load and schedule are indicated on the plans. The load shall be raised from one increment to another immediately after recording the ground anchor movement. The ground anchor movement shall be measured and recorded to the nearest 0.001 inches with respect to an independent xed reference point at the alignment load and at each increment of load. The load shall be monitored with a pressure gauge. The reference pressure gauge shall be placed in series with the pressure gauge during each performance test. If the load determined by the reference pressure gauge and the load determined by the pressure gauge differ by more than 10%, the jack, pressure gauge and reference pressure gauge shall be recalibrated. At load increments other than the maximum test load, the load shall be held just long enough to obtain the movement reading. Performance Test Schedule Load AL 0.25DL* AL 0.25DL 0.50DL* AL Load AL 0.25DL 0.50DL 0.75DL 1.00DL 1.20DL*
Where: AL Alignment load DL Design load for ground anchor * Graph required. See last paragraph in this Article 6.5.5.2. The maximum test load in a performance test shall be held for 10 minutes. The jack shall be repumped as necessary in order to maintain a constant load. The load-hold period shall start as soon as the maximum test load is applied and the ground anchor movement shall be measured and recorded at 1 minute, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 10 minutes. If the ground anchor movements between 1 minute and 10 minutes exceeds 0.04 inches, the maximum test load shall be held for an additional 50 minutes. If the load hold is extended, the ground anchor movement shall be recorded at 15 minutes, 20, 25, 30, 45, and 60 minutes. A graph shall be constructed showing a plot of ground anchor movement versus load for each load increment marked with an asterisk (*) in the performance test schedule and a plot of the residual ground anchor movement of the tendon at each alignment load versus the highest previously applied load. Graph format shall be approved by the Engineer prior to use.
6.5.5.3 Proof Test The proof test shall be performed by incrementally loading the ground anchor in accordance with the following schedule unless a different maximum test load and schedule are indicated on the plans. The load shall be raised from one increment to another immediately after recording the ground anchor movement. The ground anchor movement shall be measured and recorded to the nearest 0.001 inches with respect to an independent xed reference point at the alignment load and at each increment of load. The load shall be monitored with a pressure gauge. At load increments other than the maximum test load, the load shall be held just long enough to obtain the movement reading.
512 Proof Test Schedule Load AL 0.25DL 0.50DL 0.75DL Load 1.00DL 1.20DL 1.33DL (Max. test load) Reduce to lock-off load
HIGHWAY BRIDGES Creep Test Schedule Observation Period (Minutes) AL 0.25 DL 0.50DL 0.75DL 1.00DL 1.20DL 1.33DL 10 30 30 45 60 300
6.5.5.3
where: AL Alignment load DL Design load for ground anchor The maximum test load in a proof test shall be held for 10 minutes. The jack shall be repumped as necessary in order to maintain a constant load. The loadhold period shall start as soon as the maximum test load is applied and the ground anchor movement shall be measured and recorded at 1 minute, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 10 minutes. If the ground anchor movement between 1 minute and 10 minutes exceeds 0.04 inches, the maximum test load shall be held for an additional 50 minutes. If the load hold is extended, the ground anchor movement shall be recorded at 15 minutes, 20, 30, 45, and 60 minutes. A graph shall be constructed showing a plot of ground anchor movement versus load for each load increment in the proof test. Graph format shall be approved by the Engineer prior to use.
A graph shall be constructed showing a plot of the ground anchor movement and the residual movement measured in a creep test as described for the performance test. Also, a graph shall be constructed showing a plot of the ground anchor creep movement for each load hold as a function of the logarithm of time. Graph formats shall be approved by the Engineer prior to use. 6.5.5.5 Ground Anchor Load Test Acceptance Criteria A performance-tested or proof-tested ground anchor with a 10-minute load hold is acceptable if the: (1) Ground anchor resists the maximum test load with less than 0.04 inches of movement between 1 minute and 10 minutes; and (2) Total movement at the maximum test load exceeds 80% of the theoretical elastic elongation of the unbonded length. (3) Total movement at the maximum test load may not exceed the theoretical elastic elongation of the unbonded length plus 50% of the theoretical elastic elongation of the bonded length. [Criterion (3) applies only for a performance-tested ground anchor in competent rock.] A performance-tested or proof-tested ground anchor with a 60-minute load hold is acceptable if the: (1) Ground anchor resists the maximum test load with a creep rate that does not exceed 0.08 inches in the last log cycle of time; and (2) Total movement at the maximum test load exceeds 80% of the theoretical elastic elongation of the unbonded length. (3) Total movement at the maximum test load may not exceed the theoretical elastic elongation of the unbonded length plus 50% of the theoretical elastic elongation of the bonded length. [Criterion (3) applies only for a performance-tested ground anchor in competent rock.]
6.5.5.4 Creep Test Creep tests shall be performed if required by the plans or special provisions. The Engineer shall select the ground anchors to be creep tested. The creep test shall be made by incrementally loading and unloading the ground anchor in accordance with the performance test schedule used. At the end of each loading cycle, the load shall be held constant for the observation period indicated in the creep test schedule below unless a different maximum test load is indicated on the plans. The times for reading and recording the ground anchor movement during each observation period shall be 1 minute, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 100, 120, 150, 180, 210, 240, 270, and 300 minutes as appropriate. Each load-hold period shall start as soon as the test load is applied. In a creep test the pressure gauge and reference pressure gauge will be used to measure the applied load, and the load cell will be used to monitor small changes of load during a constant load-hold period. The jack shall be repumped as necessary in order to maintain a constant load.
6.5.5.5
513
A creep-tested ground anchor is acceptable if the: (1) Ground anchor carries the maximum test load with a creep rate that does not exceed 0.08 inches in the last log cycle of time; and (2) Total movement at the maximum test load exceeds 80% of the theoretical elastic elongation of the unbonded length. (3) Total movement at the maximum test load may not exceed the theoretical elastic elongation of the unbonded length plus 50% of the theoretical elastic elongation of the bonded length. [Criterion (3) applies only for a performance-tested ground anchor in competent rock.] If the total movement of the ground anchor at the maximum test load does not exceed 80% of the theoretical elastic elongation of the unbonded length, the ground anchor shall be replaced at the Contractors expense. A ground anchor which has a creep rate greater than 0.08 inches per log cycle of time can be incorporated into the structure at a design load equal to one-half of its failure load. The failure load is the load resisted by the ground anchor after the load has been allowed to stabilize for 10 minutes. When a ground anchor fails, the Contractor shall modify the design and/or the installation procedures. These modications may include, but are not limited to, installing a replacement ground anchor, reducing the design load by increasing the number of ground anchors, modifying the installation methods, increasing the bond length or changing the ground anchor type. Any modication which requires changes to the structure shall be approved by the Engineer. Any modications of design or con-
struction procedures shall be without additional cost to the Department and without extension of contract time. Retesting of a ground anchor will not be permitted, except that regrouted ground anchors may be retested. 6.5.5.6 Lock Off Upon successful completion of the load testing, the ground anchor load shall be reduced to the lock-off load indicated on the plans and transferred to the anchorage device. The ground anchor may be completely unloaded prior to lock-off. After transferring the load and prior to removing the jack, a lift-off load reading shall be made. The lift-off load shall be within 10% of the specied lock-off load. If the load is not within 10% of the specied lock-off load, the anchorage shall be reset and another lift-off load reading shall be made. This process shall be repeated until the desired lock-off load is obtained. 6.6 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT Ground anchors will be measured and paid for by the number of units installed and accepted as shown on the plans or ordered by the Engineer. No change in the number of ground anchors to be paid for will be made because of the use by the Contractor of an alternative number of ground anchors. The contract unit price paid for ground anchors shall include full compensation for furnishing all labor, materials, tools, equipment, and incidentals, and for doing all the work involved in installing the ground anchors (including testing), complete in place, as shown on the plans and as specied in these specications and the special provisions, and as directed by the Engineer.
Section 7
EARTH RETAINING SYSTEMS
7.1 DESCRIPTION This work shall consist of furnishing and installing earth retaining systems in accordance with the plans, these specications, and the special provisions. Earth retaining systems include concrete and masonry gravity walls, reinforced concrete retaining walls, sheet pile and soldier pile walls (with and without ground anchors or other anchorage systems), crib and cellular walls, and mechanically stabilized earth walls. 7.2 WORKING DRAWINGS Working drawings and design calculations shall be submitted to the Engineer for review and approval at least 4 weeks before work is to begin. Such submittals shall be required (1) for each alternative proprietary or nonproprietary earth retaining system proposed as permitted or specied in the contract, (2) when complete details for the system to be constructed are not included in the plans, and (3) when otherwise required by the special provisions or these specications. Working drawings and design calculations shall include the following: (a) Existing ground elevations that have been veried by the Contractor for each location involving construction wholly or partially in original ground. (b) Layout of wall that will effectively retain the earth but not less in height or length than that shown for the wall system in the plans. (c) Complete design calculations substantiating that the proposed design satises the design parameters in the plans and in the special provisions. (d) Complete details of all elements required for the proper construction of the system, including complete material specications. (e) Earthwork requirements including specications for material and compaction of backll. (f) Details of revisions or additions to drainage systems or other facilities required to accommodate the system. (g) Other information required in the plans or special provisions or requested by the Engineer. 515 The Contractor shall not start work on any earth retaining system for which working drawings are required until such drawings have been approved by the Engineer. Approval of the Contractors working drawings shall not relieve the Contractor of any of his responsibility under the contract for the successful completion of the work. 7.3 MATERIALS 7.3.1 Concrete 7.3.1.1 Cast-in-Place Cast-in-place concrete shall conform to the requirements of Section 8, Concrete Structures. The concrete shall be Class A unless otherwise indicated in the contract documents. 7.3.1.2 Pneumatically Applied Mortar Pneumatically applied mortar shall conform to the requirements of Section 24, Pneumatically Applied Mortar. 7.3.1.3 Precast Elements The materials, manufacturing, storage, handling, and erection of precast concrete elements shall conform to the requirements in Article 8.13, Precast Concrete Members. Unless otherwise shown on the plans or on the approved working drawings, Portland cement concrete used in precast elements shall conform to Class A (AE) with a minimum compressive strength at 28 days of 4,000 psi. 7.3.1.4 Segmental Concrete Facing Blocks Masonry concrete blocks used as wall facing elements shall have a minimum compressive strength of 4,000 psi and a water absorption limit of 5%. In areas of repeated freeze-thaw cycles, the facing blocks shall be tested in accordance with ASTM C 1262 to demonstrate durability. The facing blocks shall meet the requirements of ASTM
516
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 7.3.6 Structure Backll Material 7.3.6.1 General
7.3.1.4
C 1372, except that acceptance regarding durability under this testing method shall be achieved if the weight loss of each of 4 of the 5 specimens at the conclusion of 150 cycles does not exceed 1% of its initial weight. Blocks shall also meet the additional requirements of ASTM C 140. Facing blocks directly exposed to spray from deiced pavements shall be sealed after erection with a water resistant coating or be manufactured with a coating or additive to increase freeze-thaw resistance. 7.3.2 Reinforcing Steel Reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of Section 9, Reinforcing Steel. 7.3.3 Structural Steel Structural steel shall conform to AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade 36 unless otherwise specied. 7.3.4 Timber Timber shall conform to the requirements of Section 16, Timber Structures and Article 4.2.2, Timber Piles. 7.3.5 Drainage Elements 7.3.5.1 Pipe and Perforated Pipe Pipe and perforated pipe shall conform to subsections 708 and 709 of the AASHTO Guide Specications for Highway Construction. 7.3.5.2 Geotextile Geotextile shall conform to AASHTO M 288. 7.3.5.3 Permeable Material Permeable material shall conform to subsection 704 of the AASHTO Guide Specications for Highway Construction unless otherwise specied in the contract or the approved working drawings. 7.3.5.4 Geocomposite Drainage Systems Geocomposite drainage systems shall conform to the requirements specied in the special provisions or the approved working drawings.
All structure backll material shall consist of material free from organic material or other unsuitable material as determined by the Engineer. Gradation will be determined by AASHTO T 27. Grading shall be as follows unless otherwise specied. Sieve Size 3 in. No. 4 No. 30 No. 200 Percent Passing 100 35100 20100 015
7.3.6.2 Crib and Cellular Walls Structure backll material for crib and cellular walls shall be of such character that it will not sift or ow through openings in the wall. For wall heights over 20 feet (6 meters), the following grading shall be required: Sieve Size 3 in. No. 4 No. 30 No. 200 Percent Passing 100 2570 520 050
7.3.6.3 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls Structure backll material for MSE walls shall consist of material free from organic material or other unsuitable material as determined by the Engineer. Gradation shall be determined by AASHTO T 27. Grading shall be as follows unless otherwise specied: Sieve Size 4 in. No. 40 No. 200

Percent Passing 100 060 015*
For the soil to be considered to be nonaggressive, the maximum soil particle size for geosynthetic reinforcement shall be 0.75 inches unless full scale installation damage tests are conducted in accordance with ASTM D 5818, or if epoxy coatings are used for steel reinforcements. *Plasticity index (PI), as determined by AASHTO T 90, shall not exceed 6. The material shall exhibit an angle of internal friction of not less than 34, as determined by the standard Di-
7.3.6.3
517
rect Shear Test, AASHTO T 236, on the portion finer than the No. 10 sieve, utilizing a sample of the material compacted to 95% of AASHTO T 99, Methods C or D (with oversized correction as outlined in Note 7) at optimum moisture content. No testing is required for backfills where 80% of the sizes are greater than 0.75 inches. The materials shall be substantially free of shale or other soft, poor durability particles. The material shall have a magnesium sulfate soundness loss of less than 30% after four cycles or a sodium sulfate soundness loss of less than 15% after ve cycles determined in accordance with AASHTO T 104. The soil shall also have an organic content of less than or equal to 1% measured in accordance with AASHTO T 267 for material ner than the No. 10 sieve. The soil backll electrochemical requirements for steel soil reinforcement are as follows: pH of 5 to 10 Resistivity of not less than 3,000 ohm-cm Chlorides not greater than 100 ppm Sulfates not greater than 200 ppm If the resistivity is greater than or equal to 5,000 ohm-cm, the chlorides and sulfates requirements may be waived. The soil backll electrochemical requirements for permanent geosynthetic reinforcement are as follows: pH of 4.5 to 9 for permanent structures 3 to 10 for temporary structures Recommended test methods for soil chemical property determination include AASHTO T 289 for pH, AASHTO T 288 for resistivity, AASHTO T 291 for chlorides, and AASHTO T 290 for sulfates. 7.4 EARTHWORK 7.4.1 Structure Excavation Structure excavation for earth retaining systems shall conform to the requirements of Section 1, Structure Excavation and Backll, and as provided below. 7.4.2 Foundation Treatment Foundation treatment shall conform to the requirements of Article 1.4.2, Foundation Preparation and Control of Water unless otherwise specified or included in the approved working drawings. If subexcavation of
foundation material is indicated, the Contractor shall perform the excavation to the limits shown. Materials excavated shall be replaced with structure backfill material meeting the requirements for the particular earth retaining system to be constructed unless a different material is specified in the special provisions. The material shall be compacted to a density not less than 95% of the maximum density as determined by AASHTO T 99, Methods C or D (with oversize correction as outlined in Note 7). 7.4.3 Structure Backll Placement of structure backll material shall conform to the requirements of Articles 1.4.3 and 7.6. Material used shall conform to the requirements of Article 7.3.6.
7.5 DRAINAGE Drainage facilities shall be constructed in accordance with the details shown on the plans or approved working drawings, the special provisions, and these Specications. 7.5.1 Concrete Gutters Concrete gutters shall be constructed to the prole indicated on the plans or the approved working drawings. Pneumatically applied mortar shall conform to the requirements of Section 24, Pneumatically Applied Mortar. Outlet works shall be provided at sags in the prole, at the low ends of the gutter, and at other indicated locations. 7.5.2 Weep Holes Weep holes, if specied, shall be constructed at the locations shown on the plans or the approved working drawings. A minimum of 2 cubic feet of permeable material encapsulated with geotextile shall be placed at each weep hole. Joints between precast concrete retaining wall face panels which function as weep holes shall be covered with geotextile. The geotextile shall be bonded to the face panels with adhesive conforming to Federal Specication MMM-A-121. The face panels which are to receive the geotextile shall be dry and thoroughly cleaned of dust and loose materials.
518 7.5.3 Drainage Blankets
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 7.6 CONSTRUCTION
7.5.3
Drainage blankets consisting of permeable material encapsulated in geotextile, collector pipes, outlet pipes and clean out pipes shall be constructed as shown on the plans or the approved working drawings. The subgrade to receive the geotextile shall conform to the compaction and elevation tolerance specied and shall be free of loose or extraneous material and sharp objects that may damage the geotextile during installation. The geotextile shall be stretched, aligned, and placed in a wrinkle-free manner. Adjacent borders of the geotextile shall be overlapped from 12 to 18 inches. Should the geotextile be damaged, the torn or punctured section shall be repaired by placing a piece of geotextile that is large enough to cover the damaged area and to meet the overlap requirement. The permeable material shall be placed in horizontal layers and thoroughly consolidated along with and by the same methods specified for structure backfill. Ponding and jetting of permeable material or structure backfill material adjacent to permeable material will not be permitted. During spreading and compaction of the permeable material and structure backll or embankment material, a minimum of 6 inches of such material shall be maintained between the geotextile and the Contractors equipment. The perforated collector pipe shall be placed within the permeable material to the flow line elevations shown. Outlet pipes shall be placed at sags in the ow line, at the low end of the collector pipe, and at other locations shown or specied. Rock slope protection, when required at the end of outlet pipes, shall conform to the details on the plans or approved working drawings and the requirements in Section 22, Slope Protection. Cleanout pipes shall be placed at the high ends of collector pipes and at other locations as specied.
The construction of earth retaining systems shall conform to the lines and grades indicated on the plans or working drawings or as directed by the Engineer. 7.6.1 Concrete and Masonry Gravity Walls, Reinforced Concrete Retaining Walls Stone masonry construction shall conform to the requirements of Section 14, Stone Masonry. Concrete construction shall conform to the requirements of Section 8, Concrete Structures. Reinforced concrete block masonry shall conform to the requirements of Section 15, Concrete Block and Brick Masonry. Vertical precast concrete wall elements with cast-inplace concrete footing support shall be adequately supported and braced to prevent settlement or lateral displacement until the footing concrete has been placed and has achieved sufficient strength to support the wall elements. The exposed face of concrete walls shall receive a Class 1 nish as specied in Section 8, Concrete Structures, unless a special architectural treatment is specied on the plans, the special provisions, or the approved working drawings. 7.6.2 Sheet Pile and Soldier Pile Walls This work shall consist of constructing continuous walls of timber, steel or concrete sheet piles, and the constructing of soldier pile walls with horizontal facing elements of timber, steel or concrete. 7.6.2.1 Sheet Pile Walls Steel sheet piles shall be of the type and weight indicated on the plans or designated in the special provisions. Steel sheet piles shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 202 (ASTM A 328), AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade 50, or to the specications for Piling for use in Marine Environments in ASTM A 690. Painting of steel sheet piles, when required, shall conform to Article 13.2. Timber sheet piles, unless otherwise specied or permitted, shall be treated in accordance with Section 17, Preservative Treatment of Wood. The piles shall be of the dimensions, species, and grade of timber shown on the plans. The piles may be either cut from solid material or made by building up with three planks securely fastened
7.5.4 Geocomposite Drainage Systems Geocomposite drainage systems shall be installed at the locations shown on the plans or the approved working drawings. The geocomposite drainage material shall be placed and secured tightly against the excavated face, lagging or back of wall as specied. When concrete is to be placed against geocomposite drainage materials, the drainage material shall be protected against physical damage and grout leakage.
7.6.2.1
519
together. The piles shall be drift sharpened at their lower ends so as to wedge adjacent piles tightly together during driving. Concrete sheet piles shall conform to the details shown on the plans or the approved working drawings. The manufacture and installation shall conform, in general, to the requirements for precast concrete bearing piles in Section 4, Driven Foundation Piles. Concrete sheet piles detailed to have a tongue and groove joint on the portion below ground and a double-grooved joint on the exposed portion shall, after installation, have the upper grooves cleaned of all sand, mud or debris, and grouted full. Unless otherwise provided in the special provisions or approved in writing by the Engineer, grout shall be composed of one part cement and two parts of sand. The grout shall be deposited through a grout pipe placed within a watertight plastic sheath extending the full depth of the grout slot formed by the grooves in two adjacent pilings and which, when lled, completely lls the slot. Sheet piles shall be driven to the specied penetration or bearing capacity in accordance with the requirements of Section 4, Driven Foundation Piles. After driving, the tops of sheet piles shall be neatly cut off in a workmanlike manner to a straight line at the elevation shown on the plans, indicated in the special provisions or as directed by the Engineer. Sheet pile walls shall be braced by wales or other bracing system as shown on the plans, indicated in the special provisions or directed by the Engineer. Timber waling strips shall be properly lapped and joined at all splices and corners. The wales shall preferably be in one length between corners and shall be bolted near the tops of the piles. Reinforced concrete caps, when indicated on the plans or the approved working drawings, shall be constructed in accordance with Section 8, Concrete Structures. 7.6.2.2 Soldier Pile Walls Soldier piles shall be either driven piles or piles constructed in a drilled shaft excavation to the specied penetration or bearing capacity indicated on the plans. Driven piles shall be furnished and installed in accordance with the requirements of Section 4, Driven Foundation Piles. The piles shall be of the type indicated on the plans. Piles constructed in a drilled shaft excavation shall conform to the details shown on the plans. Construction of the shaft excavation and placement of concrete or lean
concrete backfill shall be in accordance with Section 5, Drilled Piles and Shafts. The structural component of the soldier pile placed in the shaft excavation shall be as specied on the plans. Reinforced concrete, either castin-place or precast, shall conform to the requirements of Section 8, Concrete Structures. Timber members shall conform to the requirements of Section 16, Timber Structures, and Section 17, Preservative Treatment of Wood. Steel members shall conform to the requirements of Section 11, Steel Structures. Painting of steel members, if required, shall conform to Section 13, Painting. Concrete backll placed around precast concrete, timber or steel pile members in the drilled shaft excavation shall be commercially available Portland cement concrete with a cement content not less than ve sacks per cubic yard. Lean concrete backll shall consist of commercial quality concrete sand, water and not greater than one sack of Portland cement per cubic yard. The limits for placement of concrete and lean concrete shall be as indicated on the plans. The facing spanning horizontally between soldier piles shall conform to the materials and details shown on the plans or the approved working drawings. Timber lagging shall conform to the requirements in Section 16, Timber Structures and Section 17, Preservative Treatment of Wood. Precast concrete lagging or facing panels and cast-in-place concrete facing shall conform to the requirements in Section 8, Concrete Structures. Concrete anchors, welded connections and bolted connections for securing facing elements to the soldier piles shall conform to the details on the plans and the requirements in the special provisions. The exposed surface of concrete wall facing shall receive a Class 1 nish as specied in Section 8, Concrete Structures, unless a special architectural treatment is specied on the plans, the special provisions, or the approved working drawings. 7.6.2.3 Anchored Sheet Pile and Soldier Pile Walls 7.6.2.3.1 General The construction of anchored walls shall consist of constructing sheet pile and soldier pile walls anchored with a tie-rod and concrete anchor system or with ground anchors. Sheet pile and soldier pile wall construction shall conform to the requirements of Articles 7.6.2.1 and 7.6.2.2, respectively.
520 7.6.2.3.2 Wales
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
7.6.2.3.2
Wales consisting of either timber, steel or concrete shall conform to the details on the plans or the approved working drawings. The alignment of wales shall be such that tie-rods or ground anchors can be installed without bending. Timber wales shall conform to the requirements of Section 16, Timber Structures, and Section 17, Preservative Treatments of Wood. Steel wales shall conform to the requirements of Section 11, Steel Structures. Concrete wales shall conform to the requirements of Section 8, Concrete Structures. 7.6.2.3.3 Concrete Anchor Systems Concrete anchor systems, consisting of either drilled shafts or reinforced concrete shapes placed within the limits of soil or rock excavation, with or without pile support, shall conform to the details on the plans or the approved working drawings. Battered anchor piles shall be driven to the proper batter shown. The tension anchor piles shall be furnished with adequate means of anchorage to the concrete anchor block. Drilled shaft concrete anchors shall conform to the details on the plans or approved working drawings, and be constructed in conformance with Section 5, Drilled Piles and Shafts. 7.6.2.3.4 Tie-rods Tie-rods shall be round steel bars conforming to AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade 36 unless otherwise specied on the plans or in the special provisions. Corrosion protection shall be provided as specied in the special provisions. Care shall be taken in the handling and backlling operations to prevent damage to the corrosion protection or bending of the tie-rod itself. The connection of the tie-rods to the soldier piles, wales, wall face and concrete anchor shall conform to the details specied. 7.6.2.3.5 Ground Anchors
Unless otherwise specied or permitted, excavation in front of the wall shall not proceed more than 3 feet below a level of tie-rods or ground anchors until such tie-rods and anchors or ground anchors are complete and accepted by the Engineer. Placement of lagging shall closely follow excavation in front of the wall such that loss of ground is minimized. 7.6.3 Crib Walls and Cellular Walls This work shall consist of constructing timber, concrete or steel crib walls, and concrete monolithic cell walls complete with backll material within the cells formed by the members. 7.6.3.1 Foundation In addition to the requirements of Article 7.4.2, the foundation or bed course material shall be nished to exact grade and cross slope so that the vertical or battered face alignment will be achieved. When required, timber mud sills, concrete leveling pads or concrete footings shall conform to the details on the plans. Timber mud sills shall be rmly and evenly bedded in the foundation material. Concrete for leveling pads or footings shall be placed against the sides of excavation in the foundation material. 7.6.3.2 Crib Members Timber header and stretcher members shall conform to the requirements of Section 16, Timber Structures, and unless otherwise specied shall be the same as for caps, posts, and sills. Preservative treatment shall conform to the requirements of Section 17, Preservative Treatment of Wood. The size of the members shall be as shown on the plans. Concrete header and stretcher members shall conform to the requirements of Section 8, Concrete Structures, for precast concrete members. The dimensions of the members and minimum concrete strength shall be as indicated on the plans or the approved working drawings. Steel crib members consisting of base plates, columns, stretchers and spacers shall be fabricated from sheet steel conforming to AASHTO M 218. Thickness of members shall be as specied. Crib members shall be so fabricated that members of the same nominal size and thickness shall be fully interchangeable. No drilling, punching, or drifting to correct defects in manufacture shall be permitted. Any members having holes improperly punched
Ground anchors shall be constructed in conformance with the requirements of Section 6, Ground Anchors. The connection of ground anchors to soldier piles, wales, or wall face shall conform to the details on the plans or the approved working drawings. 7.6.2.3.6 Earthwork Earthwork shall conform to the requirements in Article 7.4.
7.6.3.2
521
shall be replaced. Bolts, nuts, and miscellaneous hardware shall be galvanized in accordance with ASTM A 153. 7.6.3.3 Concrete Monolithic Cell Members Concrete monolithic cell members consisting of foursided cells of uniform height and various depths shall be cast in conformance with the requirements set forth for precast members in Section 8, Concrete Structures. The minimum concrete compressive strength shall be 28 MPa. The exposed cell face shall have a Class 1 nish; faces not exposed to view shall have a uniform surface nish free of open pockets of aggregate or surface distortions in excess of 0.25 inch. The protruding keys and recesses for keys on the tops and bottoms of the side walls of the cells shall be accurately located. 7.6.3.4 Member Placement Timber and concrete crib members shall be placed in successive tiers at spacings conforming to the specied details for the particular height of wall being constructed. Drift bolts at the intersection of timber header and stretcher members shall be accurately installed so that minimum edge distances are maintained. At the intersection of concrete header and stretcher members asphalt felt shims or other approved material shall be used to obtain uniform bearing between the members. Steel column sections, stretchers and spacers shall conform to the proper length and weight as specied. These members shall be accurately aligned to permit completing the bolted connections without distorting the members. Bolts at the connections shall be torqued to not less than 25 foot-pounds. Concrete monolithic cell members of the proper sizes shall be successively stacked in conformance with the layout shown on the plans or the approved working drawings. Care shall be exercised in placing the members to prevent damage to the protruding keys. Damaged or illtting keys shall be repaired using a method approved by the Engineer. 7.6.3.5 Backlling The cells formed by the wall members shall be backlled with structure backll material conforming to the requirements in Article 7.3.6. Backlling shall progress simultaneously with the erection of the members forming the cells. Backll material shall be so placed and compacted as to not disturb or damage the members. Placement of backll shall be in uniform layers not exceeding
300 millimeters (1 foot) in thickness unless otherwise proposed by the Contractor and approved by the Engineer. Compaction shall be to a density of at least 95% of the maximum density as determined by AASHTO T 99, Method C. Backlling behind the wall to the limits of excavation shall conform to the same requirements unless otherwise indicated or approved. 7.6.4 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls The construction of mechanically stabilized earth walls shall consist of constructing a facing system to which steel or polymeric soil reinforcement is connected and the placing of structure backll material surrounding the soil reinforcement. 7.6.4.1 Facing
Facing consisting of either precast concrete panels, cast-in-place concrete panels, pneumatically-applied mortar, segmental concrete blocks, or welded wire fabric shall conform to the details and materials indicated on the plans, in the special provisions, or on the approved working drawings. Precast concrete panels shall be cast in conformance with the requirements set forth for precast members in Section 8, Concrete Structures. The concrete compressive strength shall be that specified or 4,000 psi, whichever is greater. The exposed face shall have a Class 1 finish or the architectural treatment indicated on the plans, in the special provisions, or the approved working drawings. The face not exposed to view shall have a uniform surface finish free of open pockets of aggregate or surface distortions in excess of 0.25 inch. Soil reinforcement connection hardware shall be accurately located and secured during concrete placement and shall not contact the panel reinforcing steel. Joint filler, bearing pads, and joint cover material shall be as specified. Cast-in-place concrete facing shall be constructed in conformance with the requirements in Section 8, Concrete Structures. Soil reinforcement extending beyond the temporary facing shall be embedded in the facing concrete the minimum dimensions shown on the plans or the approved working drawings. Welded wire facing, either temporary or permanent, shall be formed by a 90 bend of the horizontal soil reinforcement. The vertical portion of the soil reinforcement forming the face shall be connected to the succeeding upper level of soil reinforcement. A separate backing mat and hardware cloth shall be placed immediately behind
522
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
7.6.4.1
the vertical portion of soil reinforcement. Its wire size and spacing shall be as specied. 7.6.4.2 Soil Reinforcement All steel soil reinforcement and any steel connection hardware shall be galvanized in accordance with ASTM A 123. Steel strip reinforcement shall be hot rolled to the required shape and dimensions. The steel shall conform to AASHTO M 223 (ASTM A 572) Grade 65 unless otherwise specied. Welded wire fabric reinforcement shall be shop fabricated from cold-drawn wire of the sizes and spacings shown on the plans or the approved working drawings. The wire shall conform to the requirements of ASTM A 82, fabricated fabric shall conform to the requirements of ASTM A 185. Geosynthetic reinforcement shall be of the type and size designated on the plans or the approved working drawings and shall conform to the specied material and manufacturing requirements. Connection hardware shall conform to the details on the plans and the requirements in the special provisions or the approved working drawings. The installation of instrumentation for monitoring corrosion shall conform to the requirements specied. 7.6.4.3 Construction When required, a precast reinforced or a cast-in-place concrete leveling pad shall be provided at each panel foundation level. Prior to placing the leveling pads, the foundation material shall conform to the requirements of Article 7.4.2. Precast concrete panels, segmental concrete blocks, timber, and welded wire fabric facing shall be placed and supported as necessary so that their nal position is vertical or battered as shown on the plans or the approved working drawings within a tolerance acceptable to the Engineer. Joint ller, bearing pads and joint covering material shall be installed concurrent with face panel placement. Backfill material conforming to the requirement in Article 7.3.6 shall be placed and compacted simultaneously with the placement of facing and soil reinforcement. Placement and compaction shall be accomplished without distortion or displacement of the facing or soil reinforcement. Sheepsfoot or grid-type rollers shall not be used for compacting backfill within the limits of the soil reinforcement. At each level of soil reinforce-
ment, the backfill material shall be roughly leveled to an elevation approximately 0.1 foot above the level of connection at the facing before placing the soil reinforcement. All soil reinforcement shall be uniformly tensioned to remove any slack in the connection or material.
7.7 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT Unless otherwise designated in the special provisions, earth retaining systems will be measured and paid for by the square foot. The square meter (square foot) area for payment will be based on the vertical height and length of each section built except in the case when alternative earth retaining systems are permitted in the contract documents. When alternative earth retaining systems are permitted, the square meter (square foot area) for payment will be based on the vertical height and length of each section of the system type designated as the basis of payment whether or not it is actually constructed. The vertical height of each section will be taken as the difference in elevation on the outer face from the bottom of the lowermost face element for systems without footings, and from the top of footing for systems with footings, to the top of the wall, excluding any barrier. The contract price paid per square meter (square foot) for earth retaining systems shall include full compensation for furnishing all labor, materials, tools, equipment, and incidentals, and for doing all the work involved in constructing the earth retaining systems includingbut not limited to earthwork, piles, footings, and drainage systems, complete in place as shown on the plans, as specified in these specifications and as directed by the Engineer. Full compensation for revisions to drainage system, or other facilities made necessary by the use of an alternative earth retaining system shall be considered as included in the contract price paid per square meter (square foot) for earth retaining system and no adjustment in compensation will be made therefore.
REFERENCES Elias, V., 1996, Corrosion/Degradation of Soil Reinforcements for Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes, Federal Highway Administration, No. FHWA-DP.82-2. Elias, V., and Christopher, B.R., 1996, Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design
7.7
523
and Construction Guidelines, Federal Highway Administration, No. FHWA-DP.82.1. Federal Highway Administration, 1991, Scour at Bridges, Technical Advisory, T 5150.20, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, 64 p.
Simac, M. R., Bathurst, R. J., Berg, R. R., and Lothspeich, S. E., 1993, Design Manual for Segmental Retaining Walls (Modular Concrete Block Retaining Wall Systems), First Edition, NCMA, Herndon, Virginia.
Section 8
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
8.1 GENERAL 8.1.1 Description This work shall consist of furnishing, placing, nishing, and curing concrete in bridges, culverts, and miscellaneous structures in accordance with these specications and conforming to the lines, grades, and dimensions shown on the plans. The work includes elements of structures constructed by cast-in-place and precast methods using either plain (unreinforced), reinforced, or prestressed concrete or any combination thereof. The requirements of this section are not applicable to precast box culvert structures, which are addressed in Section 27. 8.1.2 Related Work 8.2.3 Lightweight Concrete Other work involved in the construction of concrete structures shall be as specied in the applicable sections of this Specication. Especially applicable are Section 3 for forms and falsework, Section 9 for reinforcing steel, and Section 10 for prestressing. 8.1.3 Construction Methods 8.3 MATERIALS Whenever the specications permit the Contractor to select the method or equipment to be used for any operation, it shall be the Contractors responsibility to employ methods and equipment which will produce satisfactory work under the conditions encountered and which will not damage any partially completed portions of the work. Falsework and forms shall conform to the requirements of Section 3, Temporary Works. Generally, all concrete shall be fully supported until the required strength and age has been reached. However, the slip form method will be permitted for the construction of pier shafts and railings providing the Contractors plan assures that: (1) the results will be equal in all respect to those obtained by the use of xed forms, and (2) ade525 8.3.1 Cements Portland cements shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 85 (ASTM C 150) and Blended Hydraulic cements shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 240 (ASTM C 595). For Type 1P Portland-pozzolan cement, the pozzolan constituent shall not exceed 20% of the weight of the blend and the loss on ignition of the pozzolan shall not exceed 5%. Unless otherwise specied, only Type I, II, or III Portland Cement, Types IA, IIA, or IIIAAir Entrained Portland Cement, or Types IP or IS Blended Hydraulic cements shall be used. Types IA, IIA, and IIIA cements may be used only in concrete where air entrainment is required. Lightweight concrete shall conform to the requirements specied in the special provisions or shown on the plans. When the special provisions require the use of natural sand for a portion or all of the ne aggregate, the natural sand shall conform to AASHTO M 6. 8.2 CLASSES OF CONCRETE 8.2.1 General The class of concrete to be used in each part of the structure shall be as specied or shown on the plans. If not shown or specied, the Engineer will designate the class of concrete to be used. 8.2.2 Normal Weight Concrete Eight classes of normal weight concrete are provided for in these Specications as listed in Table 8.2. quate arrangements will be provided for curing, nishing, and protecting the concrete.
526
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
TABLE 8.2
8.3.1
Low-alkali cements conforming to the requirements of AASHTO M 85 for low-alkali cement shall be used when specied or when ordered by the Engineer as a condition of use for aggregates of limited alkali-silica reactivity. Unless otherwise permitted, the product of only one mill of any one brand and type of cement shall be used for like elements of a structure that are exposed to view, except when cements must be blended for reduction of any excessive air-entrainment where air-entraining cement is used. 8.3.2 Water Water used in mixing and curing of concrete shall be subject to approval and shall be reasonably clean and free of oil, salt, acid, alkali, sugar, vegetable, or other injurious substances. Water will be tested in accordance with, and shall meet the suggested requirements of AASHTO T 26. Water known to be of potable quality may be used without test. Where the source of water is relatively shallow, the intake shall be so enclosed as to exclude silt, mud, grass, or other foreign materials. Mixing water for concrete in which steel is embedded shall not contain a chloride ion concentration in excess of 1,000 ppm or sulphates as SO4 in excess of 1,300 ppm.
8.3.3 Fine Aggregate Fine aggregate for concrete shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 6. 8.3.4 Coarse Aggregate Coarse aggregate for concrete shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 80. 8.3.5 Lightweight Aggregate Lightweight aggregate for concrete shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 195 (ASTM C 330). 8.3.6 Air-Entraining and Chemical Admixtures Air-entraining admixtures shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 154 (ASTM C 260). Chemical admixtures shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 194 (ASTM C 494). Unless otherwise specied, only Type A (Water-reducing), Type B (Retarding), Type D (Water-reducing and retarding), Type F (Water-reducing, high range) or Type G (Water-reducing, high range and retarding) shall be used.
8.3.6
527
Admixtures containing chloride ion (C1) in excess of 1% by weight of the admixture shall not be used in reinforced concrete. Admixtures in excess of 0.1% shall not be used in prestressed concrete. A Certicate of Compliance signed by the manufacturer of the admixture shall be furnished to the Engineer for each shipment of admixture used in the work. Said Certicate shall be based upon laboratory test results from an approved testing facility and shall certify that the admixture meets the above specications. If more than one admixture is used, the admixtures shall be compatible with each other and shall be incorporated into the concrete mix in correct sequence so that the desired effects of all admixtures are obtained. Air-entraining and chemical admixtures shall be incorporated into the concrete mix in a water solution. The water so included shall be considered to be a portion of the allowed mixing water. 8.3.7 Mineral Admixtures Fly ash pozzolans and calcined natural pozzolans for use as mineral admixtures in concrete shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 295 (ASTM C 618). The use of y ash as produced by plants that utilize the limestone injection process or use compounds of sodium, ammonium or sulphur, such as soda ash, to control stack emissions shall not be used in concrete. A Certicate of Compliance, based on test results and signed by the producer of the mineral admixture certifying that the material conforms to the above specications, shall be furnished for each shipment used in the work. 8.3.8 Steel Materials and installation of reinforcing and prestressing steel shall conform to the requirements of Sections 9, Reinforcing Steel, and 10, Prestressing, respectively. 8.4 PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE 8.4.1 Mix Design 8.4.1.1 Responsibility and Criteria The Contractor shall design and be responsible for the performance of all concrete mixes used in structures. The mix proportions selected shall produce concrete that is sufficiently workable and nishable for all uses intended and shall conform to the requirements in Table 8.2 and all other requirements of this section.
For normal weight concrete the absolute volume method, such as described in American Concrete Institute Publication 211.1, shall be used in selecting mix proportions. For structural lightweight concrete, the mix proportions shall be selected on the basis of trial mixes with the cement factor rather than the water/cement ratio being determined by the specied strength using methods such as those described in American Concrete Institute Publication 211.2. The mix design shall be based upon obtaining an average concrete strength sufficiently above the specied strength so that, considering the expected variability of the concrete and test procedures, no more than 1 in 10 strength tests will be expected to fall below the specied strength. Mix designs shall be modied during the course of the work when necessary to ensure compliance with strength and consistency requirements. 8.4.1.2 Trial Batch Tests For classes A, A(AE) and P concrete, for lightweight concrete, and for other classes of concrete when specied or ordered by the Engineer, satisfactory performance of the proposed mix design shall be veried by laboratory tests on trial batches. The results of such tests shall be furnished to the Engineer by the Contractor or the manufacturer of precast elements at the time the proposed mix design is submitted. For mix design approval, the strengths of a minimum of ve test cylinders taken from a trial batch shall average at least 800 psi greater than the specied strength. If materials and a mix design identical to those proposed for use have been used on other work within the previous year, certied copies of concrete test results from this work which indicate full compliance with these specications may be substituted for such laboratory tests. If the results of more than 10 such strength tests are available from historical records for the past year, average strength for these tests shall be at least 1.28 standard deviations above the specied strength. 8.4.1.3 Approval All mix designs, and any modications thereto, shall be approved by the Engineer prior to use. Mix design data provided to the Engineer for each class of concrete required shall include the name, source, type, and brand of each of the materials proposed for use and the quantity to be used per cubic yard of concrete. 8.4.2 Water Content For calculating the water/cement ratio of the mix, the weight of the water shall be that of the total free water in
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8.4.2
the mix which includes the mixing water, the water in any admixture solutions and any water in the aggregates in excess of that needed to reach a saturated-surface-dry condition. The amount of water used shall not exceed the limits listed in Table 8.2 and shall be further reduced as necessary to produce concrete of the consistencies listed in Table 8.3 at the time of placement:
TABLE 8.3
(AASHTO M 85) cements are used and mineral admixtures are neither specied nor prohibited, the Contractor will be permitted to replace up to 20% of the required Portland cement with a mineral admixture. The weight of the mineral admixture used shall be equal to or greater than the weight of the Portland cement replaced. In calculating the water/cement ratio of the mix, the weight of the cement shall be considered to be the sum of the weights of the Portland cement and the mineral admixture. 8.4.5 Air-Entraining and Chemical Admixtures Air-entraining and chemical admixtures shall be used as specied. Otherwise, such admixtures may be used, at the option and expense of the Contractor when permitted by the Engineer, to increase the workability or alter the time of set of the concrete. 8.5 MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE The production of ready-mixed concrete shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 157 (ASTM C 94) and the requirements of this Article 8.5. The production of concrete with stationary mixers shall conform to the applicable requirements of AASHTO M 157 (ASTM C 94) and the requirements of this article. 8.5.1 Storage of Aggregates The handling and storage of concrete aggregates shall be such as to prevent segregation or contamination with foreign materials. The methods used shall provide for adequate drainage so that the moisture content of the aggregates is uniform at the time of batching. Different sizes of aggregate shall be stored in separate stock piles sufficiently removed from each other to prevent the material at the edges of the piles from becoming intermixed. When specied in Table 8.2 or in the special provisions, the coarse aggregate shall be separated into two or more sizes in order to secure greater uniformity of the concrete mixture. 8.5.2 Storage of Cement The Contractor shall provide suitable means for storing and protecting cement against dampness. Cement which for any reason has become partially set or which contains lumps of caked cement will be rejected. Cement held in storage for a period of over 3 months if bagged or 6 months if bulk, or cement which for any reason the Engineer may suspect of being damaged, shall be subject to a retest before being used in the work.
When Type F or G high range water reducing admixtures are used, the above listed slump limits may be exceeded as permitted by the Engineer. When the consistency of the concrete is found to exceed the nominal slump, the mixture of subsequent batches shall be adjusted to reduce the slump to a value within the nominal range. Batches of concrete with a slump exceeding the maximum specied shall not be used in the work. If concrete of adequate workability cannot be obtained by the use of the minimum cement content allowed, the cement and water content shall be increased without exceeding the specied water/cement ratio, or an approved admixture shall be used. 8.4.3 Cement Content The minimum cement content shall be as listed in Table 8.2 or otherwise specied. The maximum cement or cement plus mineral admixture content shall not exceed 800 pounds per cubic yard of concrete. The actual cement content used shall be within these limits and shall be sufcient to produce concrete of the required strength and consistency. 8.4.4 Mineral Admixtures Mineral admixtures shall be used in the amounts specied. In addition, when either Types I, II, IV, or V
8.5.2
529
Copies of cement records shall be furnished to the Engineer, showing, in such detail, as he may reasonably require, the quantity used during the day or run at each part of the work. 8.5.3 Measurement of Materials Materials shall be measured by weighing, except as otherwise specied or where other methods are specically authorized. The apparatus provided for weighing the aggregates and cement shall be suitably designed and constructed for this purpose. Each size of aggregate and the cement shall be weighed separately. The accuracy of all weighing devices shall be such that successive quantities can be measured to within 1% of the desired amount. Cement in standard packages (sack) need not be weighed, but bulk cement shall be weighed. The mixing water shall be measured by volume or by weight. The accuracy of measuring the water shall be within a range of error of not over 1%. All measuring devices shall be subject to approval and shall be tested, at the Contractors expense, when deemed necessary by the Engineer. When volumetric measurements are authorized for projects, the weight proportions shall be converted to equivalent volumetric proportions. In such cases, suitable allowance shall be made for variations in the moisture condition of the aggregates, including the bulking effect in the ne aggregate. When sacked cement is used, the quantities of aggregates for each batch shall be exactly sufficient for one or more full sacks of cement and no batch requiring fractional sacks of cement will be permitted. 8.5.4 Batching and Mixing Concrete 8.5.4.1 Batching The size of the batch shall not exceed the capacity of the mixer as guaranteed by the manufacturer or as determined by the Standard Requirements of the Associated General Contractors of America. The measured materials shall be batched and charged into the mixer by means that will prevent loss of any materials due to effects of wind or other causes. 8.5.4.2 Mixing
For other than transit mixed concrete, the rst batch of concrete materials placed in the mixer shall contain a sufcient excess of cement, sand, and water to coat the inside of the drum without reducing the required mortar content of the mix. When mixer performance tests, as described in AASHTO M 157, are not made, the required mixing time for stationary mixers shall be not less than 90 seconds nor more than 5 minutes. The minimum drum revolutions for transit mixers at the mixing speed recommended by the manufacturer shall not be less than 70 and not less than that recommended by the manufacturer. The timing device on stationary mixers shall be equipped with a bell or other suitable warning device adjusted to give a clearly audible signal each time the lock is released. In case of failure of the timing device, the Contractor will be permitted to operate while it is being repaired, provided he furnishes an approved timepiece equipped with minute and second hands. If the timing device is not placed in good working order within 24 hours, further use of the mixer will be prohibited until repairs are made. For small quantities of concrete needed in emergencies or for small noncritical elements of the work, concrete may be hand-mixed using methods approved by the Engineer. Between uses, any mortar coating inside of mixing equipment which sets or dries shall be cleaned from the mixer before use is resumed. 8.5.5 Delivery The organization supplying concrete shall have sufficient plant capacity and transporting apparatus to ensure continuous delivery at the rate required. The rate of delivery of concrete during concreting operations shall be such as to provide for the proper handling, placing, and nishing of the concrete. The rate shall be such that the interval between batches shall not exceed 20 minutes and shall be sufficient to prevent joints within a monolithic pour caused by placing fresh concrete against concrete in which initial set has occurred. The methods of delivering and handling the concrete shall be such as will facilitate placing with the minimum of rehandling and without damage to the structure or the concrete. 8.5.6 Sampling and Testing Compliance with the requirements indicated in this Section shall be determined in accordance with the following standard methods of AASHTO or ASTM:
The concrete shall be mixed only in the quantity required for immediate use. Mixing shall be sufficient to thoroughly intermingle all mix ingredients into a uniform mixture. Concrete that has developed an initial set shall not be used. Retempering concrete by adding water will not be permitted.
530
HIGHWAY BRIDGES Sampling Fresh Concrete, AASHTO T 141 (ASTM C 172) Weight Per Cubic Foot, Yield and Air Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete, AASHTO T 121 (ASTM C 138) Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregate, AASHTO T 27 Slump of Portland Cement Concrete, AASHTO T 119 (ASTM C 143) Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure Method, AASHTO T 152 (ASTM C 231) Specic Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate, AASHTO T 84 (ASTM C 128) Specic Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate, AASHTO T 85 (ASTM C 127) Unit Weight of Structural Lightweight Concrete, ASTM C 567 Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Laboratory, AASHTO T 126 (ASTM C 192) Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field, AASHTO T 23 (ASTM C 31) Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens, AASHTO T 22 (ASTM C 39) 8.5.7.3 For Acceptance of Concrete
8.5.6
For determining compliance of concrete with a specied 28-day strength, test cylinders shall be cured under controlled conditions as described in Article 9.3 of AASHTO T 23 and tested at the age of 28 days. Samples for acceptance tests for each class of concrete shall be taken not less than once a day nor less than once for each 150 cubic yards of concrete or once for each major placement. Any concrete represented by a test which indicates a strength which is less than the specied 28-day compressive strength by more than 500 psi will be rejected and shall be removed and replaced with acceptable concrete. Such rejection shall prevail unless either: (1) The Contractor, at own expense, obtains and submits evidence of a type acceptable to the Engineer that the strength and quality of the rejected concrete is acceptable. If such evidence consists of cores taken from the work, the cores shall be obtained and tested in accordance with the standard methods of AASHTO T 24 (ASTM C 42) or, (2) The Engineer determines that said concrete is located where it will not create an intolerable detrimental effect on the structure and the Contractor agrees to a reduced payment to compensate the Department for loss of durability and other lost benets. 8.5.7.4 For Control of Mix Design Whenever the average of three consecutive tests, which were made to determine acceptability of concrete, falls to less than 150 psi above the specied strength or any single test falls more than 200 psi below the specied strength, the Contractor shall, at own expense, make corrective changes in the materials, mix proportions or in the concrete manufacturing procedures before placing additional concrete of that class. Such changes must be approved by the Engineer prior to use. 8.5.7.5 Steam and Radiant Heat-Cured Concrete When a precast concrete member is steam or radiant heat-cured, the compressive strength test cylinders made for any of the above purposes shall be cured under conditions similar to the member. Such concrete will be considered to be acceptable whenever a test indicates that the concrete has reached the specied 28-day compressive strength provided such strength is reached not more than 28 days after the member is cast.
8.5.7 Evaluation of Concrete Strength 8.5.7.1 Tests A strength test shall consist of the average strength of two compressive strength test cylinders fabricated from material taken from a single randomly selected batch of concrete, except that, if any cylinder should show evidence of improper sampling, molding, or testing, said cylinder shall be discarded and the strength test shall consist of the strength of the remaining cylinder. 8.5.7.2 For Controlling Construction Operations For determining adequacy of cure and protection, and for determining when loads or stresses can be applied to concrete structures, test cylinders shall be cured at the structure site under conditions that are not more favorable than the most unfavorable conditions for the portions of the structure which they represent as described in Article 9.4 of AASHTO T 23. Sufficient test cylinders shall be made and tested at the appropriate ages to determine when operations such as release of falsework, application of prestressing forces or placing the structure in service can occur.
8.6
531
8.6 PROTECTION OF CONCRETE FROM ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS 8.6.1 General Precautions shall be taken as needed to protect concrete from damage due to weather or other environmental conditions during placing and curing operations. Concrete that has been frozen or otherwise damaged by weather conditions shall be either repaired to an acceptable condition or removed and replaced. The temperature of the concrete mixture immediately before placement shall be between 50F and 90F, except as otherwise provided herein. 8.6.2 Rain Protection Under conditions of rain, the placing of concrete shall not commence or shall be stopped unless adequate protection is provided to prevent damage to the surface mortar or damaging ow or wash of the concrete surface. 8.6.3 Hot Weather Protection When the ambient temperature is above 90F, the forms, reinforcing steel, steel beam anges, and other surfaces which will come in contact with the mix shall be cooled to below 90F by means of a water spray or other approved methods. The temperature of the concrete at time of placement shall be maintained within the specied temperature range by any combination of the following: Shading the materials storage areas or the production equipment. Cooling the aggregates by sprinkling with water which conforms to the requirements of Article 8.3.2. Cooling the aggregates or water by refrigeration or replacing a portion or all of the mix water with ice that is aked or crushed to the extent that the ice will completely melt during mixing of the concrete. Liquid nitrogen injection. 8.6.4 Cold Weather Protection 8.6.4.1 Protection During Cure When there is a probability of air temperatures below 35F during the cure period, the Contractor shall submit for approval by the Engineer prior to concrete placement, a cold weather concreting and curing plan detailing the methods and equipment which will be used to assure that the required concrete temperatures are maintained. The
concrete shall be maintained at a temperature of not less than 45F for the rst six days after-placement except that when pozzolan cement or y ash cement is used, this period shall be as follows:
The above requirement for an extended period of controlled temperature may be waived if a compressive strength of 65% of the specied 28-day design strength is achieved in 6 days. If external heating is employed, the heat shall be applied and withdrawn gradually and uniformly so that no part of the concrete surface is heated to more than 90F or caused to change temperature by more than 20F in 8 hours. When requested by the Engineer, the Contractor shall provide and install two maximum-minimum type thermometers at each structure site. Such thermometers shall be installed as directed by the Engineer so as to monitor the temperature of the concrete and the surrounding air during the cure period. 8.6.4.2 Mixing and Placing When the air temperature is below 35F, the temperature of the concrete at the time of placement in sections less than 12 inches thick shall be not less than 60F. Regardless of air temperature, aggregates shall be free of ice, frost and frozen lumps when batched and concrete shall not be placed against any material whose temperature is 32F or less. 8.6.4.3 Heating of Mix When necessary in order to produce concrete of the specied temperature, either the mix water or the aggregates, or both, shall be heated prior to batching. Heating shall be done in a manner which is not detrimental to the mix and does not prevent the entrainment of the required amount of air. The methods used shall heat the materials uniformly. Aggregates shall not be heated directly by gas or oil ame or on sheet metal over re. Neither aggregates nor water shall be heated to over 150F. If either are heated to over 100F, they shall be mixed together prior to the addition of the cement so that the cement does not come into contact with materials which are in excess of 100F.
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HIGHWAY BRIDGES
8.6.5
8.6.5 Special Requirements for Bridge Decks During periods of low humidity, wind or high temperatures and prior to the application of curing materials, concrete being placed and nished for bridge decks shall be protected from damage due to rapid evaporation. Such protection shall be adequate to prevent premature crusting of the surface or an increase in drying cracking. Such protection shall be provided by raising the humidity of the surrounding air with fog sprayers operated upwind of the deck, the use of wind-breaks or sun-shades, additionally reducing of the temperature of the concrete, scheduling placement during the cooler times of days or nights, or any combination thereof. For bridge decks that are located over or adjacent to salt water or when specied, the maximum temperature of the concrete at time of placement shall be 80F. 8.6.6 Concrete Exposed to Salt Water Unless otherwise specically provided, concrete for structures exposed to salt or brackish water shall be Class S for concrete placed under water and Class A for other work. Such concrete shall be mixed for a period of not less than 2 minutes and the water content of the mixture shall be carefully controlled and regulated so as to produce concrete of maximum impermeability. The concrete shall be thoroughly consolidated as necessary to produce maximum density and a complete lack of rock pockets. Unless otherwise indicated on the plans, the clear distance from the face of the concrete to the reinforcing steel shall be not less than 4 inches. No construction joints shall be formed between levels of extreme low water and extreme high water or the upper limit of wave action as determined by the Engineer. Between these levels the forms shall not be removed, or other means provided, to prevent salt water from coming in direct contact with the concrete for a period of not less than 30 days after placement. Except for the repair of any rock pockets and the plugging of form tie holes, the original surface as the concrete comes from the forms shall be left undisturbed. Special handling shall be provided for precast members to avoid even slight deformation cracks. 8.6.7 Concrete Exposed to Sulfate Soils or Water When the special provisions identify the area as containing sulfate soils or water, the concrete that will be in contact with such soil or water shall be mixed, placed, and protected from contact with soil or water as required for concrete exposed to salt water except that the protection period shall be not less than 72 hours.
8.7 HANDLING AND PLACING CONCRETE 8.7.1 General Concrete shall be handled, placed, and consolidated by methods that will not cause segregation of the mix and will result in a dense homogeneous concrete which is free of voids and rock pockets. The methods used shall not cause displacement of reinforcing steel or other materials to be embedded in the concrete. Concrete shall be placed and consolidated prior to initial set and in no case more than 11 2 hours after the cement was added to the mix. Retempering the concrete by adding water to the mix shall not be done. Concrete shall not be placed until the forms, all materials to be embedded and, for spread footings, the adequacy of the foundation material have been inspected and approved by the Engineer. All mortar from previous placements, debris, and foreign material shall be removed from the forms and steel prior to commencing placement. The forms and subgrade shall be thoroughly moistened with water immediately before concrete is placed against them. Temporary form spreader devices may be left in place until concrete placement precludes their need, after which they shall be removed. Placement of concrete for each section of the structure shall be done continuously without interruption between planned construction or expansion joints. The delivery rate, placing sequence and methods shall be such that fresh concrete is always placed and consolidated against previously placed concrete before initial set has occurred in the previously placed concrete. During and after placement of concrete, care shall be taken not to injure the concrete or break the bond with reinforcing steel. Workmen shall not walk in fresh concrete. Platforms for workmen and equipment shall not be supported directly on any reinforcing steel. Once the concrete is set, forces shall not be applied to the forms or to reinforcing bars, which project from the concrete, until the concrete is of sufficient strength to resist damage. 8.7.2 Sequence of Placement Whenever a concrete placement plan or schedule is specied or approved, the sequence of placement shall conform to the plan. Unless otherwise specically permitted by such a placement plan, the requirements of the following paragraphs shall apply. 8.7.2.1 Vertical Members Concrete for columns, substructure and culvert walls, and other similar vertical members shall be placed and al-
8.7.2.1
533
lowed to set and settle for a period of time before concrete for integral horizontal members, such as caps, slabs, or footings is placed. Such period shall be adequate to allow completion of settlement due to loss of bleed water and shall be not less than 12 hours for vertical members over 15 feet in height and not less than 30 minutes for members over 5 feet but not over 15 feet in height. When friction collars or falsework brackets are mounted on such vertical members and unless otherwise approved, the vertical member shall have been in place at least 7 days and shall have attained its specied strength before loads from horizontal members are applied. 8.7.2.2 Superstructures
the culvert is constructed. For culverts whose wall height is 5 feet or less, the sidewalls and top slab may be placed in one continuous operation. For higher culvert walls the requirements for vertical members shall apply. 8.7.2.5 Precast Elements The sequence of placement for concrete in precast elements shall be such that sound well-consolidated concrete which is free of settlement or shrinkage cracks is produced throughout the member. 8.7.3 Placing Methods 8.7.3.1 General
Unless otherwise permitted, no concrete shall be placed in the superstructure until substructure forms have been stripped sufficiently to determine the character of the supporting substructure concrete. Concrete for T-beam or deck girder spans whose depth is less than 4 feet may be placed in one continuous operation or may be placed in two separate operations; rst, to the top of the girder stems, and second, to completion. For T-beam or deck girder spans whose depth is 4 feet or more and, unless the falsework is nonyielding, such concrete shall be placed in two operations and at least 5 days shall elapse after placement of stems before the top deck slab is placed. Concrete for box girders may be placed in two or three separate operations consisting of bottom slab, girder stems and top slab. In either case the bottom slab shall be placed rst and, unless otherwise permitted by the Engineer, the top slab shall not be placed until the girder stems have been in place for at least 5 days. 8.7.2.3 Arches
Concrete shall be placed as nearly as possible in its nal position and the use of vibrators for extensive shifting of the mass of fresh concrete will not be permitted. Concrete shall be placed in horizontal layers of a thickness not exceeding the capacity of the vibrator to consolidate the concrete and merge it with the previous lift. In no case shall the depth of a lift exceed 2 feet. The rate of concrete placement shall not exceed that assumed for the design of the forms as corrected for the actual temperature of the concrete being placed. When placing operations would involve dropping the concrete more than 5 feet, the concrete shall be dropped through a tube tted with a hopper head, or through other approved devices, as necessary to prevent segregation of the mix and spattering of mortar on steel and forms above the elevation of the lift being placed. This requirement shall not apply to cast-in-place piling when concrete placement is completed before initial set occurs in the rstplaced concrete. 8.7.3.2 Equipment
The concrete in arch rings shall be placed in such a manner as to load the centering uniformly and symmetrically. Arch rings shall be cast in transverse sections of such size that each section can be cast in a continuous operation. The arrangement of the sections and the sequence of placing shall be as approved and shall be such as to avoid the creation of initial stress in the reinforcement. The sections shall be bonded together by suitable keys or dowels. Arch barrels for culverts and, unless prohibited by the special provisions, other arches may be cast in a single continuous operation. 8.7.2.4 Box Culverts In general, the base slab or footings of box culverts shall be placed and allowed to set before the remainder of
All equipment used to place concrete shall be of adequate capacity and designed and operated so as to prevent segregation of the mix or loss of mortar. Such equipment shall not cause vibrations that might damage the freshly placed concrete. No equipment shall have aluminum parts which come in contact with the concrete. Between uses, the mortar coating inside of placing equipment which sets or dries out shall be cleaned from the equipment before use is resumed. Chutes shall be lined with smooth watertight material and, when steep slopes are involved, shall be equipped with baffles or reverses. Concrete pumps shall be operated such that a continuous stream of concrete without air pockets is produced. When pumping is completed, the concrete remaining in
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8.7.3.2
the pipeline, if it is to be used, shall be ejected in such a manner that there will be no contamination of the concrete or separation of the ingredients. Conveyor belt systems shall not exceed a total length of 550 lineal feet, measured from end to end of the total assembly. The belt assembly shall be so arranged that each section discharges into a vertical hopper arrangement to the next section. To keep segregation to a minimum, scrapers shall be situated over the hopper of each section so as to remove mortar adhering to the belt and to deposit it into the hopper. The discharge end of the conveyor belt system shall be equipped with a hopper, and a chute or suitable deectors to cause the concrete to drop vertically to the deposit area. 8.7.4 Consolidation All concrete, except concrete placed under water and concrete otherwise exempt, shall be consolidated by mechanical vibration immediately after placement. The vibration shall be internal except that external form vibrators may be used for thin sections when the forms have been designed for external vibration. Vibrators shall be of approved type and design and of a size appropriate for the work. They shall be capable of transmitting vibration to the concrete at frequencies of not less than 4,500 impulses per minute. The Contractor shall provide a sufficient number of vibrators to properly compact each batch immediately after it is placed in the forms. The Contractor shall also have at least one spare vibrator immediately available in case of breakdown. Vibrators shall be manipulated so as to thoroughly work the concrete around the reinforcement and imbedded xtures and into the corners and angles of the forms. Vibration shall be applied at the point of deposit and in the area of freshly deposited concrete. The vibrators shall be inserted and withdrawn out of the concrete slowly. The vibration shall be of sufficient duration and intensity to thoroughly consolidate the concrete, but shall not be continued so as to cause segregation. Vibration shall not be continued at any one point to the extent that localized areas of grout are formed. Application of vibrators shall be at points uniformly spaced and not farther apart than 1.5 times the radius over which the vibration is visibly effective. Vibration shall not be applied directly to, or through the reinforcement to sections or layers of concrete which have hardened to the degree that the concrete ceases to be plastic under vibration. Vibrators shall not be used to transport concrete in the forms. When immersion-type vibrators are used to consolidate concrete around epoxy-coated reinforcement, the vibrators shall be equipped with rubber or other nonmetallic coating.
Vibration shall be supplemented by such spading as is necessary to ensure smooth surfaces and dense concrete along form surfaces and in corners and locations impossible to reach with the vibrators. When approved by the Engineer, concrete for small noncritical elements may be consolidated by the use of suitable rods and spades. 8.7.5 Underwater Placement 8.7.5.1 General Only concrete used in cofferdams to seal out water may be placed under water unless otherwise specied or specically approved by the Engineer. If other than Class S concrete is to be placed under water, the minimum cement content of the mix shall be increased by 10% to compensate for loss due to wash. To prevent segregation, concrete placed under water shall be carefully placed in a compact mass, in its nal position, by means of a tremie, concrete pump, or other approved method, and shall not be disturbed after being deposited. Still water shall be maintained at the point of deposit and the forms under water shall be watertight. Cofferdams shall be vented during the placement and cure of concrete to equalize the hydrostatic pressure and thus prevent ow of water through the concrete. Concrete placed under water shall be placed continuously from start to nish. The surface of the concrete shall be kept as nearly horizontal as practicable. To ensure thorough bonding, each succeeding layer of seal shall be placed before the preceding layer has taken initial set. For large pours, more than one tremie or pump shall be used to ensure compliance with this requirement. 8.7.5.2 Equipment A tremie shall consist of a watertight tube having a diameter of not less than 10 inches and tted with a hopper at the top. The tremies shall be supported so as to permit free movement of the discharge end over the entire top surface of the work and so as to permit rapid lowering when necessary to retard or stop the ow of concrete. The discharge end shall be sealed closed at the start of work so as to prevent water from entering the tube before the tube is lled with concrete. After placement has started the tremie tube shall be kept full of concrete to the bottom of the hopper. If water enters the tube after placement is started, the tremie shall be withdrawn, the discharge end resealed, and the placement restarted. When a batch is dumped into the hopper, the ow of concrete shall be induced by slightly raising the discharge end, always keep-
8.7.5.2
535
ing it in the deposited concrete. The ow shall be continuous until the work is completed. When cofferdam struts prevent lateral movement of tremies, one tremie shall be used in each bay. Concrete pumps used to place concrete under water shall include a device at the end of the discharge tube to seal out water while the tube is rst being lled with concrete. Once the ow of concrete is started, the end of the discharge tube shall be kept full of concrete and below the surface of the deposited concrete until placement is completed. 8.7.5.3 Cleanup Dewatering may proceed after test specimens cured under similar conditions indicate that the concrete has sufcient strength to resist the expected loads. All laitance or other unsatisfactory materials shall be removed from the exposed surface by scraping, chipping, or other means which will not injure the surface of the concrete before placing foundation concrete. 8.8 CONSTRUCTION JOINTS 8.8.1 General Construction joints shall be made only where located on plans, or shown in the pouring schedule, unless otherwise approved. All planned reinforcing steel shall extend uninterrupted through joints. In the case of emergency, construction joints shall be placed as directed by the Engineer and, if directed, additional reinforcing steel dowels shall be placed across the joint. Such additional steel shall be furnished and placed at the Contractors expense. 8.8.2 Bonding Unless otherwise shown on the plans, horizontal joints may be made without keys and vertical joints shall be constructed with shear keys. Surfaces of fresh concrete at horizontal construction joints shall be rough oated sufficiently to thoroughly consolidate the surface and intentionally left in a roughened condition. Shear keys shall consist of formed depressions in the surface covering approximately one-third of the contact surface. The forms for keys shall be beveled so that removal will not damage the concrete. All construction joints shall be cleaned of surface laitance, curing compound and other foreign materials before fresh concrete is placed against the surface of the joint. Abrasive blast or other approved methods shall be used to clean horizontal construction joints to the
extent that clean aggregate is exposed. All construction joints shall be ushed with water and allowed to dry to a surface dry condition immediately prior to placing concrete. 8.8.3 Bonding and Doweling to Existing Structures When new concrete is shown on the plans to be bonded to existing concrete structures, the existing concrete shall be cleaned and flushed as specified above. When the plans show reinforcing dowels grouted into holes drilled in the existing concrete at such construction joints, the holes shall be drilled by methods that will not shatter or damage the concrete adjacent to the holes. The diameters of the drilled holes shall be 1 4 inch larger than the nominal diameter of the dowels unless shown otherwise on the plans. The grout shall be a neat cement paste of Portland cement and water. The water content shall be not more than 4 gallons per 94 pounds of cement. Retempering of grout will not be permitted. Immediately prior to placing the dowels, the holes shall be cleaned of dust and other deleterious materials, shall be thoroughly saturated with water, have all free water removed and the holes shall be dried to a saturated surface dry condition. Sufficient grout shall be placed in the holes so that no voids remain after the dowels are inserted. Grout shall be cured for a period of at least 3 days or until dowels are encased in concrete. When specied or approved by the Engineer, epoxy may be used in lieu of Portland cement grout for the bonding of dowels in existing concrete. When used, epoxy shall be mixed and placed in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations. 8.8.4 Forms at Construction Joints When forms at construction joints overlap previously placed concrete, they shall be retightened before depositing new concrete. The face edges of all joints that are exposed to view shall be neatly formed with straight bulkheads or grade strips, or otherwise carefully nished true-to-line and elevation. 8.9 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION JOINTS 8.9.1 General Expansion and contraction joints shall be constructed at the locations and in accordance with the details shown on the plans. Such joints include open joints, lled joints, joints sealed with sealants or waterstops, joints reinforced with steel armor plates or shapes and joints with combinations of these features.
536
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
8.9.1
When preformed elastomeric compression joint seals or bridge deck joint seal assemblies are required, they shall conform to the requirements of Section 19, Bridge Deck Joint Seals. 8.9.2 Materials 8.9.2.1 Premolded Expansion Joint Fillers
cone rubber type with an ultimate elongation of 1,200%. Polyethylene foam strip, for use when shown on the plans, shall be of commercial quality with a continuous impervious glazed top surface, suitable for retaining the liquid sealant at the proper elevation in the joint while hardening. 8.9.2.5 Metal Armor
Premolded llers shall conform to one of the following specications: Specication for Preformed Expansion Joint Fillers for Concrete Paving and Structural Construction, AASHTO M 213 (ASTM 1751). Specication for Preformed Sponge Rubber and Cork Expansion Joint Fillers for Concrete Paving and Structural Construction, AASHTO M 153 (ASTM D 1752). Type II (cork) shall not be used when resiliency is required. Specication for Preformed Expansion Joint Filler for Concrete, AASHTO M 33 (ASTM D 994). 8.9.2.2 Polystyrene Board Fillers Board llers shall be expanded polystyrene with a minimum exural strength of 35 pounds per square inch, as determined by ASTM C 203, and a compressive yield strength of between 16 and 40 pounds per square inch at 5% compression. When shown on the plans, or required to prevent damage during concrete placement, the surface of polystyrene board shall be faced with 1 8-inch thick hardboard conforming to Federal Specication LLL-B810. 8.9.2.3 Contraction Joint Material Material placed in contraction joints shall consist of asphalt saturated felt paper or other approved bond-breaking material. 8.9.2.4 Pourable Joint Sealants Pourable sealants for placement along the top edges of contraction or lled expansion joints shall conform to the following: Hot-poured sealants shall conform to ASTM D 3406, except that when the sealant will be in contact with asphaltic material, it shall conform to ASTM D 3405. Cold-poured sealant shall be silicone type conforming to Federal Specication TT-S-1543, Class A. The sealant shall be a one-part, low-modulus sili-
Expansion joint armor assemblies shall be fabricated from steel in conformance with the requirements of Section 23, Miscellaneous Metal. Assemblies shall be accurately fabricated and straightened at the shop after fabrication and galvanizing, as necessary to conform to the concrete section. 8.9.2.6 Waterstops Waterstops shall be of the type, size, and shape shown on the plans. They shall be dense, homogeneous, and without holes or other defects. 8.9.2.6.1 Rubber Waterstops Rubber waterstops shall be formed from synthetic rubber made exclusively from neoprene, reinforcing carbon black, zinc oxide, polymerization agents, and softeners. This compound shall contain not less than 70% by volume of neoprene. The tensile strength shall not be less than 2,750 pounds per square inch with an elongation at breaking of 600%. The Shore Durometer indication (hardness) shall be between 50 and 60. After seven days in air at temperature of 158 (2)F or after 4 days in oxygen at 158 (2)F and 300 pounds per square inch pressure, the tensile strength shall not be less than 65% of the original. Rubber waterstops shall be formed with an integral cross section in suitable molds, so as to produce a uniform section with a permissible variation in dimension of 1 32 inch plus or minus. No splices will be permitted in straight strips. Strips and special connection pieces shall be well cured in a manner such that any cross section shall be dense, homogeneous, and free from all porosity. Junctions in the special connection pieces shall be full molded. During the vulcanizing period, the joints shall be securely held by suitable clamps. The material at the splices shall be dense and homogeneous throughout the cross section. 8.9.2.6.2 Polyvinylchloride Waterstops Polyvinylchloride waterstops shall be manufactured by the extrusion process from an elastomeric plastic com-
8.9.2.6.2
537
pound, the basic resin of which shall be polyvinylchloride (PVC). The compound shall contain any additional resins, plasticizers, stabilizers, or other materials needed to ensure that, when the material is compounded, it will meet the performance requirements given in this Specication. No reclaimed PVC or other material shall be used. The material shall comply with the following physical requirements when tested under the indicated ASTM test method:
to prevent it from working out of the joint but not interfere with the compression of the material. 8.9.3.3 Sealed Joints Prior to installation of pourable joint sealants, all foreign material shall be removed from the joint, the ller material shall be cut back to the depth shown or approved and the surface of the concrete which will be in contact with the sealant cleaned by light sand blasting. When required, a polyethylene foam strip shall be placed in the joint to retain the sealant and isolate it from the ller material. The sealant materials shall then be mixed and installed in accordance with the manufacturers directions. Any material that fails to bond to the sides of the joint within 24 hours after placement shall be removed and replaced. 8.9.3.4 Waterstops Adequate waterstops of metal, rubber, or plastic shall be placed as shown on the plans. Where movement at the joint is provided for, the waterstops shall be of a type permitting such movement without injury. They shall be spliced, welded, or soldered, to form continuous watertight joints. Precautions shall be taken so that the waterstops shall be neither displaced nor damaged by construction operations or other means. All surfaces of the waterstops shall be kept free from oil, grease, dried mortar, or any other foreign matter while the waterstop is being embedded in concrete. Means shall be used to insure that all portions of the waterstop designed for embedment shall be tightly enclosed by dense concrete. 8.9.3.5 Expansion Joint Armor Assemblies Armor assemblies shall be installed so that their top surface matches the plane of the adjacent nished concrete surface throughout the length of the assembly. Positive methods shall be employed in placing the assemblies to keep them in correct position during the placing of the concrete. The opening at expansion joints shall be that designated on the plans at normal temperature or as directed by the Engineer for other temperatures, and care shall be taken to avoid impairment of the clearance in any manner. 8.10 FINISHING PLASTIC CONCRETE 8.10.1 General Unless otherwise specied, after concrete has been consolidated and prior to the application of cure, all surfaces
8.9.2.6.3 Copper Waterstops Sheet copper shall conform to the Specications for Copper Sheet, Strip, Plate, and Rolled Bar, AASHTO M 138 (ASTM B 152) and shall meet the Embrittlement Test of Section 10 of AASHTO M 138. 8.9.2.6.4 Testing of Waterstop Material The manufacturer shall be responsible for the testing, either in his own or in a recognized commercial laboratory, of all waterstop materials, and shall submit three certied copies of test results to the Engineer. 8.9.3 Installation 8.9.3.1 Open Joints Open joints shall be constructed by the insertion and subsequent removal of a wood strip, metal plate, or other approved material. The insertion and removal of the template shall be accomplished without chipping or breaking the corners of the concrete. When not protected by metal armor, open joints in decks and sidewalks shall be nished with an edging tool. Upon completion of concrete nishing work, all mortar and other debris shall be removed from open joints. 8.9.3.2 Filled Joints When lled joints are shown on the plans, premoldedtype llers shall be used unless polystyrene board is specifically called for. Filler for each joint shall consist of as few pieces of material as possible. Abutting edges of ller material shall be accurately held in alignment with each other and tightly t or taped as necessary to prevent the intrusion of grout. Joint ller material shall be anchored to one side of the joint by waterproof adhesive or other methods so as
538
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
8.10.1
of concrete which are not placed against forms shall be struck-off to the planned elevation or slope and the surface nished by oating with a wooden oat sufficiently to seal the surface. While the concrete is still in a workable state, all construction and expansion joints shall be carefully tooled with an edger. Joint ller shall be left exposed. 8.10.2 Roadway Surface Finish All bridge decks, approach slabs, and other concrete surfaces for use by traffic shall be nished to a smooth skid-resistant surface in accordance with this article. During nishing operations the contractor shall provide suitable and adequate work bridges for proper performance of the work, including the application of fog sprays and curing compound, and for inspecting the work. 8.10.2.1 Striking Off and Floating After the concrete is placed and consolidated according to Article 8.7, bridge decks or top slabs of structures serving as nished pavements shall be nished using approved power-driven nishing machines. Handnishing methods may be used if approved by the Engineer for short bridges 50 feet or less in length or for irregular areas where the use of a machine would be impractical. All surfaces shall be struck-off by equipment supported by and traveling on rails or headers. The rails, headers, and strike-off equipment shall be of sufficient strength and be adjusted so that the concrete surface after strike-off will conform to the planned prole and cross section. The rails or headers shall be set on nonyielding supports and shall be completely in place and rmly secured for the scheduled length for concrete placement before placing of concrete will be permitted. Rails for nishing machines shall extend beyond both ends of the scheduled length for concrete placement a sufficient distance that will permit the oat of the nishing machine to fully clear the concrete to be placed. Rails or headers shall be adjustable for elevation and shall be set to allow for anticipated settlement, camber, and deection of falsework, as necessary to obtain a nished surface true to the required grade and cross section. Rails or headers shall be of a type and shall be so installed that no springing or deection will occur under the weight of the nishing equipment and shall be so located that nishing equipment may operate without interruption over the entire surface being nished. Rails or headers shall be adjusted as necessary to correct for unanticipated settlement or deection that may occur during nishing operations. If rail supports are located within the area where concrete is being placed, as soon as they are no longer needed they shall be removed to at least 2 inches below the nished surface and the void lled with fresh concrete.
Before the delivery of concrete is begun, the nishing machine or, if used, the hand-operated strike-off tool shall be operated over the entire area to be nished to check for excessive rail deections, for proper deck thickness, and cover on reinforcing steel, and to verify operation of all equipment. Any necessary corrections shall be made before concrete placement is begun. The nishing machine shall go over each area of the surface as many times as it is required to obtain the required prole and cross section. A slight excess of concrete shall be kept in front of the cutting edge of the screed at all times. This excess of concrete shall be carried all the way to the edge of the pour or form and shall not be worked into the slab, but shall be wasted. After strike-off, the surface shall be nished with a oat, roller, or other approved device as necessary to remove any local irregularities and to leave sufficient mortar at the surface of the concrete for later texturing. During nishing operations, excess water, laitance, or foreign materials brought to the surface during the course of the nishing operations shall not be reworked into the slab, but shall be removed immediately upon appearance by means of a squeegee or straightedge drawn from the center of the slab towards either edge. The addition of water to the surface of the concrete to assist in nishing operations will not be permitted. 8.10.2.2 Straightedging After nishing as described above, the entire surface shall be checked by the Contractor with a 10-foot metal straightedge operated parallel to the center line of the bridge and shall show no deviation in excess of 1 8 inch from the testing edge of the straightedge. For deck surfaces that are to be overlaid with 1 inch or more of another material, such deviation shall not exceed 3 8 inch in 10 feet. Deviations in excess of these requirements shall be corrected before the concrete sets. The checking operation shall progress by overlapping the straightedge at least one-half the length of the preceding pass. 8.10.2.3 Texturing The surface shall be given a skid-resistant texture by either burlap or carpet dragging, brooming, tining, or by a combination of these methods. The method employed shall be as specied or as approved by the Engineer. Surfaces that are to be covered with a waterproong membrane deck seal shall not be coarse textured. They shall be nished to a smooth surface, free of mortar ridges and other projections. This operation shall be done after oating and at such time and in such manner that the desired texture will be achieved while minimizing displacement of the larger aggregate particles.
8.10.2.3.1 8.10.2.3.1 Dragged
DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION 8.10.3 Pedestrian Walkway Surface Finish
539
If the surface texture is to be a drag nish, the surface shall be nished by dragging a seamless strip of damp burlap over the full width of the surface. The burlap drag shall consist of sufficient layers of burlap and have sufficient length in contact with the concrete to slightly groove the surface and shall be moved forward with a minimum bow of the lead edge. The drag shall be kept damp, clean, and free of particles of hardened concrete. As an alternative to burlap, the Engineer may approve or direct that carpet or articial turf of approved type and size be substituted. 8.10.2.3.2 Broomed If the surface texture is to be a broom nish, the surface shall be broomed when the concrete has hardened sufficiently. The broom shall be of an approved type. The strokes shall be square across the slab, from edge to edge, with adjacent strokes slightly overlapped, and shall be made by drawing the broom without tearing the concrete, but so as to produce regular corrugations not over 1 8 of an inch in depth. The surface as thus nished shall be free from porous spots, irregularities, depressions, and small pockets or rough spots such as may be caused by the accidental disturbing of particles of coarse aggregate embedded near the surface during the nal brooming operation. 8.10.2.3.3 Tined
After the concrete for sidewalks and decks of pedestrian structures has been deposited in place, it shall be consolidated and the surface shall be struck off by means of a strike board and oated with wooden or cork oat. If directed, the surface shall then be lightly broomed in a transverse direction. An edging tool shall be used on edges and expansion joints. The surface shall not vary more than 1 8 inch under a 5-foot straightedge. The surface shall have a granular or matte texture that will not be slippery when wet. Sidewalk surfaces shall be laid out in blocks with an approved grooving tool as shown on the plans or as directed. 8.10.4 Troweled and Brushed Finish Surfaces which are shown on the plans or specied to be troweled shall rst be nished as specied under Article 8.10.1 then, after the concrete is partially set, the surface shall be nished to a smooth surface by troweling with a steel trowel until a slick surface free of bleed water is produced. The surface shall then be brushed with a ne brush using parallel strokes. 8.10.5 Surface Under Bearings When metallic masonry plates are to be placed directly on the concrete or on ller material less than 1 8-inch thick, the surface shall rst be nished with a oat nish. After the concrete has set, the area which will be in contact with the masonry plate shall be ground as necessary to provide full and even bearing. When such plates are to be set on ller material between 1 8 and 1 2-inch thick, the concrete surface shall be steel-trowel nished without brushing and the atness of the nished surface shall not vary from a straightedge laid on the surface in any direction within the limits of the masonry plate by more than 1 16 inch. Surfaces which fail to conform to the required atness shall be ground until acceptable. Surfaces under elastomeric bearings and under metallic masonry plates which are supported on mortar or ller pads 1 2 inch or greater in thickness shall be nished by wood oating to a at and even surface free of ridges. 8.11 CURING CONCRETE 8.11.1 General All newly placed concrete shall be cured so as to prevent loss of water by use of one or more of the methods specied herein. Curing shall commence immediately
If the surface is to be tined, the tining shall be in a transverse direction using a wire broom, comb or nned oat having a single row of tines or ns. The tining grooves shall be between 1 16 inch and 3 16 inch wide and between 1 8 inch and 3 16 inch deep, spaced 1 2 to 3 4 inch on centers. Tining shall be discontinued 12 inches from the curb line on bridge decks. The area adjacent to the curbs shall be given a light broom nish longitudinally. As an alternative, tining may be achieved using an approved machine designed specically for tining or grooving concrete pavements. 8.10.2.4 Surface Testing and Correction After the concrete has hardened, an inspection of nished deck roadway surfaces, which will not be overlaid with a wearing surface, will be made by the Engineer. Any variations in the surface which exceed 1 8 inch from a 10foot straightedge will be marked. The Contractor shall correct such irregularities by the use of concrete planing or grooving equipment which produces a textured surface equal in roughness to the surrounding unground concrete without shattering or otherwise damaging the remaining concrete.
540
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
8.11.1
after the free water has left the surface and nishing operations are completed. If the surface of the concrete begins to dry before the selected cure method can be applied, the surface of the concrete shall be kept moist by a fog spray applied so as not to damage the surface. Curing by other than steam or radiant heat methods shall continue uninterrupted for 7 days except that when pozzolans in excess of 10%, by weight, of the Portland cement are used in the mix. When such pozzolans are used, the curing period shall be 10 days. For other than top slabs of structures serving as nished pavements, the above curing periods may be reduced and curing terminated when test cylinders cured under the same conditions as the structure indicate that concrete strengths of at least 70% of that specied have been reached. When deemed necessary by the Engineer during periods of hot weather, water shall be applied to concrete surfaces being cured by the liquid membrane method or by the forms-in-place method, until the Engineer determines that a cooling effect is no longer required. Such application of water will be paid for as extra work. 8.11.2 Materials 8.11.2.1 Water Water shall conform to the requirements of Article 8.3.2. 8.11.2.2 Liquid Membranes Liquid membrane-forming compounds for curing concrete shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 148 (ASTM C 309). 8.11.2.3 Waterproof Sheet Materials Waterproof paper, polyethylene lm, and white burlap polyethylene sheet shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 171 (ASTM C 171). 8.11.3 Methods 8.11.3.1 Forms-In-Place Method Formed surfaces of concrete may be cured by retaining the forms in place without loosening for the required time. 8.11.3.2 Water Method Concrete surface shall be kept continuously wet by ponding, spraying or covering with materials that are kept continuously and thoroughly wet. Such materials may
consist of cotton mats, multiple layers of burlap or other approved materials which do not discolor or otherwise damage the concrete. 8.11.3.3 Liquid Membrane Curing Compound Method The liquid membrane method shall not be used on surfaces where a rubbed nish is required or on surfaces of construction joints unless it is removed by sand blasting prior to placement of concrete against the joint. Type 2, white pigmented, liquid membranes may be used only on the surfaces of bridge decks, on surfaces that will not be exposed to view in the completed work or on surfaces where their use has been approved by the Engineer. When membrane curing is used, the exposed concrete shall be thoroughly sealed immediately after the free water has left the surface. Formed surfaces shall be sealed immediately after the forms are removed and necessary nishing has been done. The solution shall be applied by power-operated atomizing spray equipment in one or two separate applications. Hand-operated sprayers may be used for coating small areas. Membrane solutions containing pigments shall be thoroughly mixed prior to use and agitated during application. If the solution is applied in two increments, the second application shall follow the rst application within 30 minutes. Satisfactory equipment shall be provided, together with means to properly control and assure the direct application of the curing solution on the concrete surface so as to result in a uniform coverage at the rate of 1 gallon for each 150 square feet of area. If rain falls on the newly coated concrete before the lm has dried sufficiently to resist damage, or if the lm is damaged in any other manner during the curing period, a new coat of the solution shall be applied to the affected portions equal in curing value to that above specied. 8.11.3.4 Waterproof Cover Method This method shall consist of covering the surface with a waterproof sheet material so as to prevent moisture loss from the concrete. This method may be used only when the covering can be secured adequately to prevent moisture loss. The concrete shall be wet at the time the cover is installed. The sheets shall be of the widest practicable width and adjacent sheets shall overlap a minimum of 6 inches and shall be tightly sealed with pressure sensitive tape, mastic, glue, or other approved methods to form a complete waterproof cover of the entire concrete surface. The paper shall be secured so that wind will not displace it. Should any portion of the sheets be broken or
8.11.3.4
541
damaged before expiration of the curing period, the broken or damaged portions shall be immediately repaired. Sections that have lost their waterproof qualities shall not be used. 8.11.3.5 Steam or Radiant Heat Curing Method This method may be used only for precast concrete members manufactured in established plants. Steam curing or radiant heat curing shall be done under a suitable enclosure to contain the live steam or the heat. Steam shall be low pressure and saturated. Temperature recording devices shall be employed as necessary to verify that temperatures are uniform throughout the enclosure and within the limits specied. The initial application of the steam or of the heat shall be from 2 to 4 hours after the nal placement of concrete to allow the initial set of the concrete to take place. If retarders are used, the waiting period before application of the steam or of the radiant heat shall be increased to between 4 and 6 hours after placement. The time of initial set may be determined by the Standard Method of Test for Time of Setting of Concrete Mixtures by Penetration Resistance, AASHTO T 197 (ASTM C 403), and the time limits described above may then be waived. During the waiting period, the temperature within the curing chamber shall not be less than 50F and live steam or radiant heat may be used to maintain the curing chamber at the proper minimum temperature. During this period the concrete shall be kept wet. Application of live steam shall not be directed on the concrete or on the forms so as to cause localized high temperatures. During the initial application of live steam or of radiant heat, the ambient temperature within the curing enclosure shall increase at an average rate not exceeding 40F per hour until the curing temperature is reached. The maximum curing temperature within the enclosure shall not exceed 160F. The maximum temperature shall be held until the concrete has reached the desired strength. In discontinuing the steam application, the ambient air temperature shall not decrease at a rate to exceed 40F per hour until a temperature 20F above the temperature of the air to which the concrete will be exposed has been reached. Radiant heat may be applied by means of pipes circulating steam, hot oil or hot water, or by electric heating elements. Radiant heat curing shall be done under a suitable enclosure to contain the heat, and moisture loss shall be minimized by covering all exposed concrete surfaces with a plastic sheeting or by applying an approved liquid membrane-curing compound to all exposed concrete surfaces. Top surfaces of concrete members to be used in composite construction shall be clear of residue of the membrane
curing compound so as not to reduce bond below design limits. Surfaces of concrete members to which other materials will be bonded in the nished structure shall be clear of residue of the membrane curing compound so as not to reduce bond below design limits. Unless the ambient temperature is maintained above 60F, for prestressed members the transfer of the stressing force to the concrete shall be accomplished immediately after the steam curing or the heat curing has been discontinued. 8.11.4 Bridge Decks The top surfaces of bridge decks shall be cured by a combination of the liquid membrane curing compound method and the water method. The liquid membrane shall be Type 2, white pigmented, and shall be applied from nishing bridges progressively and immediately after nishing operations are complete on each portion of the deck. The water cure shall be applied not later than 4 hours after completion of deck nishing or, for portions of the decks on which nishing is completed after normal working hours, the water cure shall be applied not later than the following morning. 8.12 FINISHING FORMED CONCRETE SURFACES 8.12.1 General Surface nishes for formed concrete surfaces shall be classied as follows: Class 1. Ordinary Surface Finish Class 2. Rubbed Finish Class 3. Tooled Finish Class 4. Sandblast Finish Class 5. Wire Brush, or Scrubbed Finish All concrete shall be given a Class 1, Ordinary Surface Finish, and in addition if further nishing is required, such other type of nish as is specied. If not otherwise specied, exposed surfaces except the soffits of superstructures and the interior faces and bottoms of concrete girders shall also be given a Class 2, Rubbed Finish. Class 3, 4, or 5 type surface nishes shall be applied only where shown on the plans or specied. 8.12.2 Class 1Ordinary Surface Finish Immediately following the removal of forms, ns, and irregular projections shall be removed from all surfaces
542
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
8.12.2
which are to be exposed or waterproofed. Bulges and offsets in such surfaces shall be removed with carborundum stones or discs. Localized poorly bonded rock pockets or honeycombed concrete shall be removed and replaced with sound concrete or packed mortar as specied in Article 8.14. If rock pockets, in the opinion of the Engineer, are of such an extent or character as to affect the strength of the structure materially or to endanger the life of the steel reinforcement, he or she may declare the concrete defective and require the removal and replacement of the portions of the structure affected. On all surfaces, the cavities produced by form ties and all other holes, broken corners or edges, and other defects shall be thoroughly cleaned, and after having been thoroughly saturated with water shall be carefully pointed and trued with a mortar conforming to Article 8.14. For exposed surfaces, white cement shall be added to the mortar in an amount sufficient to result in a patch which, when dry, matches the surrounding concrete. Mortar used in pointing shall be not more than 1 hour old. The concrete shall then be rubbed if required or the cure continued as specied under Article 8.10. Construction and expansion joints in the completed work shall be left carefully tooled and free of mortar and concrete. The joint ller shall be left exposed for its full length with clean and true edges. The resulting surfaces shall be true and uniform. Repaired surfaces, the appearance of which is not satisfactory, shall be rubbed as specied under Class 2, Rubbed Finish. 8.12.3 Class 2Rubbed Finish After removal of forms, the rubbing of concrete shall be started as soon as its condition will permit. Immediately before starting this work, the concrete shall be thoroughly saturated with water. Sufficient time shall have elapsed before the wetting down to allow the mortar used in the pointing of rod holes and defects to thoroughly set. Surfaces to be nished shall be rubbed with a medium coarse carborundum stone, using a small amount of mortar on its face. The mortar shall be composed of cement and ne sand mixed in proportions used in the concrete being nished. Rubbing shall be continued until form marks, projections, and irregularities have been removed, voids have been lled, and a uniform surface has been obtained. The paste produced by this rubbing shall be left in place. After other work which could effect the surface has been completed, the nal nish shall be obtained by rubbing with a ne carborundum stone and water. This rubbing shall be continued until the entire surface is of a smooth texture and uniform color.
After the nal rubbing is completed and the surface has dried, it shall be rubbed with burlap to remove loose powder and shall be left free from all unsound patches, paste, powder, and objectionable marks. When metal forms, ber forms, lined forms or plywood forms in good condition are used, the requirement for a Class 2, Rubbed Finish may be waived by the Engineer when the uniformity of color and texture obtained with Class 1 nishing are essentially equal to that which could be attained with the application of a Class 2, Rubbed Finish. In such cases, grinding with powered disc grinders or light sandblasting with ne sand or other means approved by the Engineer may be utilized in conjunction with Class 1 nishing. 8.12.4 Class 3Tooled Finish Finish of this character for panels and other like work may be secured by the use of a bushhammer, pick, crandall, or other approved tool. Air tools, preferably, shall be employed. No tooling shall be done until the concrete has set for at least 14 days and as much longer as may be necessary to prevent the aggregate particles from being picked out of the surface. The nished surface shall show a grouping of broken aggregate particles in a matrix of mortar, each aggregate particle being in slight relief. 8.12.5 Class 4Sandblasted Finish The thoroughly cured concrete surface shall be sandblasted with hard, sharp sand to produce an even negrained surface in which the mortar has been cut away, leaving the aggregate exposed. 8.12.6 Class 5Wire Brushed or Scrubbed Finish As soon as the forms are removed and while the concrete is yet comparatively green, the surface shall be thoroughly and evenly scrubbed with stiff wire or ber brushes, using a solution of muriatic acid in the proportion of one part acid to four parts water until the cement lm or surface is completely removed and the aggregate particles are exposed, leaving an even-pebbled texture presenting an appearance grading from that of ne granite to coarse conglomerate, depending upon the size and grading of aggregate used. When the scrubbing has progressed sufficiently to produce the texture desired, the entire surface shall be thoroughly washed with water to which a small amount of ammonia has been added, to remove all traces of acid.
8.13
543
8.13 PRECAST CONCRETE MEMBERS 8.13.1 General Precast concrete members shall be constructed and placed in the work in conformance with the details shown on the plans, specied or shown on the approved working drawings. If approved by the Engineer, the use of precasting methods may be used for elements of the work which are otherwise indicated to be constructed by the cast-in-place method. When such precasting is proposed, the Contractor shall submit working drawings showing construction joint details and any other information required by the Engineer. 8.13.2 Working Drawings Whenever specied or requested by the Engineer, the Contractor shall provide working drawings for precast members. Such drawings shall include all details not provided in the plans for the construction and the erection of the members and shall be approved before any members are cast. Such approval shall not relieve the Contractor of any responsibility under the contract for the successful completion of the work. 8.13.3 Materials and Manufacture The materials and manufacturing processes used for precast concrete members shall conform to the requirements of the other articles in this section except as those requirements are modied or supplemented by the provisions that follow. When precast members are manufactured in established casting yards, the manufacturer shall be responsible for the continuous monitoring of the quality of all materials and concrete strengths. Tests shall be performed in accordance with appropriate AASHTO or ASTM methods. The Engineer shall be allowed to observe all sampling and testing and the results of all tests shall be made available to the Engineer. Established, Precast Concrete Manufacturing Plants shall be certied under the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) Certication Program or alternative equivalent program for the category of work being manufactured. Plant Quality Control personnel shall be certified in the PCI Quality Control Personnel Certication Program, Level II. Plant Quality Control Managers shall be certied PCI Level III. These requirements may be met by alternative experience and certification considered to be equivalent.
Precast members shall be cast on unyielding beds or pallets. Special care shall be used in casting the bearing surfaces so that they will join properly with other elements of the structure. For prestressed precast units, several units may be cast in one continuous line and stressed at one time. Sufficient space shall be left between ends of units to permit access for cutting of tendons after the concrete has attained the required strength. The side forms may be removed as soon as their removal will not cause distortion of the concrete surface, providing that curing is not interrupted. Members shall not be lifted from casting beds until their strength is sufcient to prevent damage. When cast-in-place concrete will later be cast against the top surfaces of precast beams or girders, these surfaces shall be nished to a coarse texture by brooming with a stiff coarse broom. Prior to shipment, such surfaces shall be cleaned of laitance or other foreign material by sandblasting or other approved methods. When precast members are designed to be abutted together in the nished work, each member shall be matchcast with its adjacent segments to ensure proper t during erection. As the segments are match-cast they must be precisely aligned to achieve the nal structure geometry. During the alignment, adjustments to compensate for deections shall be made. 8.13.4 Curing Unless otherwise permitted, precast members shall be cured by either the water method or the steam or radiant heat method. 8.13.5 Storage and Handling Extreme care shall be exercised in handling and moving precast prestressed concrete members. Precast girders shall be transported in an upright position and the points of support and directions of the reactions with respect to the member shall be approximately the same during transportation and storage as when the member is in its nal position. Prestressed concrete members shall not be shipped until tests on concrete cylinders, manufactured of the same concrete and cured under the same conditions as the girders, indicate that the concrete of the particular member has attained a compressive strength equal to the specied design compressive strength of the concrete in the member. Care shall be taken during storage, hoisting, and handling of the precast units to prevent cracking or damage. Units damaged by improper storage or handling shall be replaced at the Contractors expense.
544 8.13.6 Erection
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The Contractor shall be responsible for the safety of precast members during all stages of construction. Lifting devices shall be used in a manner that does not cause damaging bending or torsional forces. After a member has been erected and until it is secured to the structure, temporary braces shall be provided as necessary to resist wind or other loads. Precast deck form panels shall be erected and placed so that the t of mating surfaces shall be such that excessive grout leakage will not occur. If such t is not provided, joints shall be dry-packed or sealed with an acceptable caulking compound prior to placing the cast-in-place concrete. End panels for skewed structures may be sawed to t the skew. 8.13.7 Epoxy Bonding Agents for Precast Segmental Box Girders 8.13.7.1 Materials Epoxy bonding agents for match cast joints shall be thermosetting 100% solid compositions that do not contain solvent or any nonreactive organic ingredient except for pigments required for coloring. Epoxy bonding agents shall be of two components, a resin and a hardener. The two components shall be distinctly pigmented, so that mixing produces a third color similar to the concrete in the segments to be joined, and shall be packaged in preportioned, labeled, ready-to-use containers. Epoxy bonding agents shall be formulated to provide application temperature ranges that will permit erection of match cast segments at substrate temperatures from 40F to 115F. If two surfaces to be bonded have different substrate temperatures, the adhesive applicable at the lower temperature shall be used. Epoxy bonding agents shall be insensitive to damp conditions during application and, after curing, shall exhibit high bonding strength to cured concrete, good water resistivity, low creep characteristics, and tensile strength greater than the concrete. In addition, the epoxy bonding agents shall function as a lubricant during the joining of the match cast segments, as a ller to accurately match the surface of the segments being joined, and as a durable, watertight bond at the joint. Epoxy bonding agents shall be tested to determine their workability, gel time, open time, bond and compression strength, shear, and working temperature range. The frequency of the tests shall be as stated in the Special Provisions of the Contract. The Contractor shall furnish the Engineer with samples of the material for quality assurance testing, and a certi-
cation from a reputable independent laboratory indicating that the material has passed the required tests. Specic properties of epoxy and the test procedures to be used to measure these properties shall be as described in the following subarticles. 8.13.7.1.1 Test 1Sag Flow of Mixed Epoxy Bonding Agent This test measures the application workability of the bonding agent. Testing Method: ASTM D 2730 for the designated temperature range. Specication: Mixed epoxy bonding agent must not sag ow at 1 8-inch minimum thickness at the designated minimum and maximum application temperature range for the class of bonding agents used. 8.13.7.1.2 Test 2Gel Time of Mixed Epoxy Bonding Agent Gel time is determined on samples mixed as specied in the testing method. It provides a guide for the period of time the mixing bonding agent remains workable in the mixing container during which it must be applied to the match-cast joint surfaces. Testing Method: ASTM D 2471 (except that 1 quart and 1 gallon quantities shall be tested). Specication: 30 minutes minimum on 1 quart and 1 gallon quantities at the maximum temperature of the designated application temperature range. (Note: Gel time is not to be confused with open time specied in Test 3.) 8.13.7.1.3 Test 3Open Time of Bonding Agent This test measures workability of the epoxy bonding agent for the erection and post-tensioning operations. As tested here, open time is dened as the minimum allowable period of elapsed time from the application of the mixed epoxy bonding agent to the precast segments until the two segments have been assembled together and temporarily post-tensioned. Testing Method: Open time is determined using test specimens as detailed in the Tensile Bending Test (Test 4). The epoxy bonding agent, at the highest specied application temperature, is mixed together and applied as instructed in Test 4 to the concrete prisms, which shall also be at the highest specied application temperature. The adhesive coated prisms shall be maintained for 60 minutes
8.13.7.1.3
545
at the highest specied application temperature with the adhesive coated surface or surfaces exposed and uncovered before joining together. The assembled prisms are then curved and tested as instructed in Test 4. Specication: The epoxy bonding agent is acceptable for the specied application temperature only when essentially total fracturing of concrete paste and aggregate occurs with no evidence of adhesive failure. Construction situations may sometimes require application of the epoxy bonding agent to the precast section prior to erecting, positioning, and assembling. This operation may require epoxy bonding agents having prolonged open time. In general, where the erection conditions are such that the sections to be bonded are prepositioned prior to epoxy application, the epoxy bonding agent shall have a minimum open time of 60 minutes within the temperature range specied for its application. 8.13.7.1.4 Test 4Three-Point Tensile Bending Test This test, performed on a pair of concrete prisms bonded together with epoxy bonding agent, determines the bonding strength between the bonding agent and concrete. The bonded concrete prisms are compared to a reference test beam of concrete 6 6 18 inches. Testing Method: 6 6 9-inch concrete prisms of 6,000-psi compressive strength at 28 days shall be sandblasted on one 6 6-inch side to remove mold release agent, laitance, etc., and submerged in clean water at the lower temperature of the specified application temperature range for 72 hours. Immediately on removing the concrete prisms from the water, the sandblasted surfaces shall be air-dried for 1 hour at the same temperature and 50% relative humidity and each shall be coated with approximately a 1 16-inch layer of the mixed bonding agent. The adhesive coated faces of two prisms shall then be placed together and held with a clamping force normal to the bonded interface of 50 psi. The assembly shall then be wrapped in a damp cloth which is kept wet during the curing period of 24 hours at the lower temperature of the specified application temperature range. After 24 hours curing at the lower temperature of the application temperature range specified for the epoxy bonding agent, the bonded specimen shall be unwrapped, removed from the clamping assembly and immediately tested. The test shall be conducted using the standard AASHTO T 97 (ASTM C 78) test for exural strength with third point loading and the standard MR unit. At the same time the two prisms are prepared and cured, a companion test beam shall be prepared of the
same concrete, cured for the same period, and tested following AASHTO T 97 (ASTM C 78). Specication: The epoxy bonding agent is acceptable if the load on the prisms at failure is greater than 90% of the load on the reference test beam at failure. 8.13.7.1.5 Test 5Compression Strength of Cured Epoxy Bonding Agent This test measures the compressive strength of the epoxy bonding agent. Testing Method: ASTM D 695. Specication: Compressive strength at 77F shall be 2,000 psi minimum after 24 hours cure at the minimum temperature of the designated application temperature range and 6,000 psi at 48 hours. 8.13.7.1.6 Test 6Temperature Deection of Epoxy Bonding Agent This test determines the temperature at which an arbitrary deection occurs under arbitrary testing conditions in the cured epoxy bonding agent. It is a screening test to establish performance of the bonding agent throughout the erection temperature range. Testing Method: ASTM D 648. Specication: A minimum deection temperature of 122F at ber stress loading of 264 psi is required on test specimens cured 7 days at 77F. 8.13.7.1.7 Test 7Compression and Shear Strength of Cured Epoxy Bonding Agent This test is a measure of the compressive strength and shear strength of the epoxy bonding agent compared to the concrete to which it bonds. The slant cylinder specimen with the epoxy bonding agent is compared to a reference test cylinder of concrete only. Testing Method: A test specimen of concrete is prepared in a standard 6 12-inch cylinder mold to have a height at midpoint of 6 inches and an upper surface with a 30 slope from the vertical. The upper and lower portions of the specimen with the slant surfaces may be formed through the use of an elliptical insert or by sawing a full-sized 6 12-inch cylinder. If desired, 3 6inch or 4 8-inch specimens may be used. After the
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specimens have been moist cured for 14 days, the slant surfaces shall be prepared by light sandblasting, stoning, or acid etching, then washing and drying the surfaces, and finally coating one of the surfaces with a 10-mil. thickness of the epoxy bonding agent under test. The specimens shall then be pressed together and held in position for 24 hours. The assembly shall then be wrapped in a damp cloth which shall be kept wet during an additional curing period of 24 hours at the minimum temperature of the designated application temperature range. The specimen shall then be tested at 77F following AASHTO T 22 (ASTM C 39) procedures. At the same time as the slant cylinder specimens are made and cured, a companion standard test cylinder of the same concrete shall be made, cured for the same period, and tested following AASHTO T 22 (ASTM C 39). Specication: The epoxy bonding agent is acceptable for the designated application temperature range if the load on the slant cylinder specimen is greater than 90% of the load on the companion cylinder. 8.13.7.2 Mixing and Installation of Epoxy Instructions furnished by the supplier for the safe storage, mixing, and handling of the epoxy bonding agent shall be followed. The epoxy shall be thoroughly mixed until it is of uniform color. Use of a proper-sized mechanical mixer operating at no more than 600 RPM will be required. Contents of damaged or previously opened containers shall not be used. Surfaces to which the epoxy material is to be applied shall be at least 40F and shall be free from oil, laitance, form release agent, or any other material that would prevent the epoxy from bonding to the concrete surface. All laitance and other contaminants shall be removed by light sandblasting or by high pressure water blasting with a minimum pressure of 5,000 psi. Wet surfaces shall be dried before applying epoxy bonding agents. The surface shall be at least the equivalent of saturated surface dry (no visible water). Mixing shall not start until the segment is prepared for installation. Application of the mixed epoxy bonding agent shall be according to the manufacturers instructions using trowel, rubber glove, or brush on one or both surfaces to be joined. The coating shall be smooth and uniform and shall cover the entire surface with a minimum thickness of 1 16 inch applied on both surfaces or 1 8 inch if applied on one surface. Epoxy should not be placed within 3 8 inch of prestressing ducts to minimize flow into the ducts. A discernible bead line must be observed on all exposed contact areas after temporary post-tensioning. Erection operations shall be coordinated and conducted so as to complete the operations of apply-
ing the epoxy bonding agent to the segments, erection, assembling, and temporary post-tensioning of the newly joined segment within 70% of the open time period of the bonding agent. The epoxy material shall be applied to all surfaces to be joined within the rst half of the gel time, as shown on the containers. The segments shall be joined within 45 minutes after application of the rst epoxy material placed and a minimum average temporary prestress of 40 psi over the cross section should be applied within 70% of the open time of the epoxy material. At no point of the cross section shall the temporary prestress be less than 30 psi. The joint shall be checked immediately after erection to verify uniform joint width and proper t. Excess epoxy from the joint shall be removed where accessible. All tendon ducts shall be swabbed immediately after stressing, while the epoxy is still in the nongelled condition, to remove or smooth out any epoxy in the conduit and to seal any pockets or air bubble holes that have formed at the joint. If the jointing is not completed within 70% of the open time, the operation shall be terminated and the epoxy bonding agent shall be completely removed from the surfaces. The surfaces must be prepared again and fresh epoxy shall be applied to the surface before resuming jointing operations. As general instructions cannot cover all situations, specic recommendations and instructions shall be obtained in each case from the Engineer in charge. 8.14 MORTAR AND GROUT 8.14.1 General This work consists of the making and placing of mortar and grout for use in concrete structures other than in prestressing ducts. Such uses include mortar for lling under masonry plates and for lling keyways between precast members where shown on the plans, mortar used to ll voids and repair surface defects, grout used to ll sleeves for anchor bolts, and mortar and grout for other such uses where required or approved. 8.14.2 Materials and Mixing Materials for mortar and grout shall conform to the requirements of Article 8.3. The grading of sand for use in grout or for use in mortar when the width or depth of the void to be lled is less than 3 4 inch shall be modied so that all material passes the No. 8 sieve. Type 1A, air entraining, Portland cement shall be used when air entrainment is required for the concrete against which the grout or mortar is to be placed.
8.14.2
DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION 8.15.2 Earth Loads
547
Unless otherwise specied or ordered by the Engineer, the proportion of cement to sand for mortar shall be one to two and for grout shall be one to one. Proportioning shall be by loose volume. When nonshrink mortar or grout is specied, either a nonshrink admixture or an expansive hydraulic cement conforming to ASTM C 845 of a type approved by the Engineer, shall be used. Only sufficient water shall be used to permit placing and packing. For mortar, only enough water shall be used so that the mortar will form a ball when squeezed gently in the hand. Mixing shall be done by either hand methods or with rotating paddle-type mixing machines and shall be continued until all ingredients are thoroughly mixed. Once mixed, mortar or grout shall not be retempered by the addition of water and shall be placed within 1 hour. 8.14.3 Placing and Curing Concrete areas to be in contact with the mortar or grout shall be cleaned of all loose or foreign material that would in any way prevent bond and the concrete surfaces and shall be ushed with water and allowed to dry to a surface dry condition immediately prior to placing the mortar or grout. The mortar or grout shall completely ll and shall be tightly packed into recesses and holes, on surfaces, under structural members, and at other locations specied. After placing, all surfaces of mortar or grout shall be cured by the water method as provided in Article 8.11 for a period of not less than 3 days. Keyways, spaces between structural members, holes, spaces under structural members, and other locations where mortar could escape shall be mortar-tight before placing mortar. No load shall be allowed on mortar that has been in place less than 72 hours, unless otherwise permitted by the Engineer. All improperly cured or otherwise defective mortar or grout shall be removed and replaced by the Contractor at own expense. 8.15 APPLICATION OF LOADS 8.15.1 General Loads shall not be applied to concrete structures until the concrete has attained sufficient strength and, when applicable, sufficient prestressing has been completed, so that damage will not occur.
Whenever possible the sequence of placing backll around structures shall be such that overturning or sliding forces are minimized. When the placement of backll will cause exural stresses in the concrete, and unless otherwise permitted by the Engineer, the placement shall not begin until the concrete has reached not less than 80% of its specied strength. 8.15.3 Construction Loads Light materials and equipment may be carried on bridge decks only after the concrete has been in place at least 24 hours, providing curing is not interfered with and the surface texture is not damaged. Vehicles needed for construction activities and weighing between 1,000 and 4,000 pounds, and comparable materials and equipment loads, will be allowed on any span only after the last placed deck concrete has attained a compressive strength of at least 2,400 pounds per square inch. Loads in excess of the above shall not be carried on bridge decks until the deck concrete has reached its specied strength. In addition, for post-tensioned structures, vehicles weighing over 4,500 pounds, and comparable materials and equipment loads, will not be allowed on any span until the prestressing steel for that span has been tensioned. Precast concrete or steel girders shall not be placed on substructure elements until the substructure concrete has attained 70% of its specied strength. Otherwise, loads imposed on existing, new or partially completed portions of structures due to construction operations shall not exceed the load-carrying capacity of the structure, or portion of structure, as determined by the Load Factor Design methods of AASHTO using Load Group IB. The compressive strength of concrete (fc) to be used in computing the load-carrying capacity shall be the smaller of the actual compressive strength at the time of loading or the specied compressive strength of the concrete. 8.15.4 Traffic Loads Traffic will not be permitted on concrete decks until at least 14 days after the last placement of deck concrete and until such concrete has attained its specied strength. 8.16 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT 8.16.1 Measurement Except for concrete in components of the work for which payment is made under other bid items, all concrete for structures will be measured by either the cubic yard for each class of concrete included in the schedule of bid
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items or by the unit for each type of precast concrete member listed in the schedule of bid items. When measured by the cubic yard, the quantity of concrete will be computed from the dimensions shown on the plans or authorized in writing by the Engineer with the following exceptions: The quantity of concrete involved in llets, scorings and chamfers 1 square inch or less in cross-sectional area will not be included or deducted. Deductions for the volume of concrete displaced by concrete and timber piles embedded in the concrete will be made. Deductions for other embedded materials including reinforcing, structural and prestressing steel, expansion joint ller material, waterstops and deck drains will not be made. The volume of timber piles will be assumed to be 0.8 cubic foot per linear foot of pile. When there is a bid item for concrete to be used as a seal course in cofferdams, the quantity of such concrete to be paid for shall include the actual volume of concrete seal course in place, but in no case shall the total volume to be paid for exceed the cubical contents contained between the vertical surfaces 1 foot outside the neat lines of the seal course as shown on the plans. The thickness of seal course to be paid for shall be the thickness shown on the plans or ordered in writing by the Engineer. The number of precast concrete members of each type listed in the schedule of bid items will be the number of acceptable members of each type furnished and installed in the work. Expansion joint armor assemblies will be measured and paid for as provided for in Section 23, Miscellaneous Metal.
Whenever an alternative or option is shown on the plans or permitted by the specications, the quantities of concrete will be computed on the basis of the dimensions shown on the plans and no change in quantities measured for payment will be made because of the use by the Contractor of such alternatives or options. 8.16.2 Payment The cubic yards of concrete and the number of precast concrete members, as measured above for each type or class listed in the schedule of bid items, will be paid for at the contract prices per cubic yard or the contract prices per each member. Payment for concrete of the various classes and for precast concrete members of the various types shall be considered to be full compensation for the cost of furnishing all labor, materials, equipment, and incidentals, and for doing all the work involved in constructing the concrete work complete in place, as shown on the plans and specied. Such payment includes full compensation for furnishing and placing expansion joint llers, sealed joints, waterstops, drains, vents, miscellaneous metal devices and the drilling of holes for dowels and the grouting of dowels in drilled holes, unless payment for such work is specied to be included in another bid item. In addition, payment for precast concrete members shall be considered to be full compensation for the cost of all reinforcing steel, prestressing materials and other items embedded in the member, and for the erection of the members.
Section 9
REINFORCING STEEL
9.1 DESCRIPTION This work shall consist of furnishing and placing reinforcing steel in accordance with these Specications and in conformity with the plans. 9.2 MATERIAL All reinforcing bars shall be deformed except that plain bars may be used for spirals and ties. Reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of the following specications. 9.2.1 Uncoated Reinforcing Steel Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete ReinforcementAASHTO M 31 (ASTM A 615). Grade 60 shall be used unless otherwise shown or specied. Low-Alloy Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete ReinforcementASTM A 706. Rail-Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete ReinforcementAASHTO M 42 including Supplementary Requirement S1 (ASTM A 616 including Supplementary Requirement S1). Grade 60 steel shall be used unless otherwise shown or specied. Deformed Steel Wire for Concrete Reinforcement AASHTO M 225 (ASTM A 496). Welded Plain Steel Wire Fabric for Concrete ReinforcementAASHTO M 55 (ASTM A 185). Plain Steel Wire for Concrete Reinforcement AASHTO M 32 (ASTM A 82). Welded Deformed Steel Wire Fabric for Concrete ReinforcementAASHTO M 221 (ASTM A 497). 9.2.2 Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Steel The reinforcing steel to be epoxy coated shall conform to Article 9.2.1. When epoxy coating of reinforcing bars is required, the coating materials and process, the fabrication, handling, identication of the bars, and the repair of damaged coating material that occurs during fabrication and handling to 549 the point of shipment to the jobsite shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 284 (ASTM D 3963) or ASTM A 934, as specied in the contract documents. Epoxy-coated reinforcing bars shall be coated in a certied epoxy coating applicator plant in accordance with the Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institutes Voluntary Certication Program for Fusion-Bonded Epoxy Coated Applicator Plants, or equivalent. Epoxy-coated steel wire and welded wire fabric for reinforcement shall conform to the requirements of ASTM A 884, Class A. Each shipment of epoxy-coated reinforcing steel shall be accompanied with a Certicate of Compliance signed by the applicator of the coating certifying that the epoxycoated reinforcing bars conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 284 or ASTM A 934 or that the epoxycoated wire or welded wire fabric conforms to ASTM A 884, Class A. 9.2.3 Stainless Steel Reinforcing Bars When required by the contract documents, deformed or plain stainless steel reinforcing bars shall conform to the requirements of ASTM A 955 M. 9.2.4 Mill Test Reports Whenever steel reinforcing bars, other than bars conforming to ASTM A 706, are to be spliced by welding or when otherwise requested, a certied copy of the mill test report showing physical and chemical analysis for each heat or lot of reinforcing bars delivered shall be provided to the Engineer. 9.3 BAR LISTS AND BENDING DIAGRAMS When the plans do not include detailed bar lists and bending diagrams, the Contractor shall provide such lists and diagrams to the Engineer for review and approval. Fabrication of material shall not begin until such lists have been approved. The approval of bar lists and bending diagrams shall in no way relieve the Contractor of responsi-
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bility for the correctness of such lists and diagrams. Any expense incident to the revision of material furnished in accordance with such lists and diagrams to make it comply with the design drawings shall be borne by the Contractor. 9.4 FABRICATION 9.4.1 Bending Bar reinforcement shall be cut and bent to the shapes shown on the plans. Fabrication tolerances shall be in accordance with ACI 315. All bars shall be bent cold, unless otherwise permitted. Bars partially embedded in concrete shall not be eld bent except as shown on the plans or specically permitted. 9.4.2 Hooks and Bend Dimensions The dimensions of hooks and the diameters of bends measured on the inside of the bar shall be as shown on the plans. When the dimensions of hooks or the diameter of bends are not shown, they shall be in accordance with Division I, Article 8.23 or ACI 318, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete. 9.4.3 Identication Bar reinforcement shall be shipped in standard bundles, tagged and marked in accordance with the Manual of Standard Practice of the Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute. 9.5 HANDLING, STORING, AND SURFACE CONDITION OF REINFORCEMENT Steel reinforcement shall be stored above the surface of the ground on platforms, skids, or other supports and shall be protected from mechanical injury and surface deterioration caused by exposure to conditions producing rust. When placed in the work, reinforcement shall be free from dirt, loose rust or scale, mortar, paint, grease, oil, or other nonmetallic coatings that reduce bond. Epoxy coatings of reinforcing steel in accord with standards in this article shall be permitted. Reinforcement shall be free from injurious defects such as cracks and laminations. Bonded rust, surface seams, surface irregularities, or mill scale will not be cause for rejection, provided the minimum dimensions, cross-sectional area, and tensile properties of a hand wire brushed specimen meet the physical requirements for the size and grade of steel specied. Epoxy-coated reinforcing steel shall be handled and stored by methods that will not damage the epoxy coat-
ing. All systems for handling epoxy-coated reinforcement bars shall have adequately padded contact areas. All bundling bands shall be padded and all bundles shall be lifted with a strong back, multiple supports, or platform bridge so as to prevent bar-to-bar abrasion from sags in the bundle. Bars or bundles shall not be dropped or dragged. Epoxy-coated reinforcing steel shall be stored on wooden or padded supports. Epoxy-coated reinforcing steel shall be protected from sunlight, salt spray, and weather exposure. Provisions shall be made for air circulation around the coated reinforcement to minimize condensation under the protective covering. 9.6 PLACING AND FASTENING 9.6.1 General Steel reinforcement shall be accurately placed as shown on the plans and rmly held in position during the placing and consolidation of concrete. Bars shall be tied at all intersections around the perimeter of each mat and at not less than 2-foot centers or at every intersection, whichever is greater, elsewhere. Bundled bars shall be tied together at not more than 6-foot centers. For fastening epoxy-coated reinforcement, tie wire and metal clips shall be plastic-coated or epoxy-coated. If uncoated welded wire fabric is shipped in rolls, it shall be straightened into at sheets before being placed. Welding of crossing bars (tack welding) will not be permitted for assembly of reinforcement unless authorized in writing by the Engineer. 9.6.2 Support Systems Reinforcing steel shall be supported in its proper position by use of precast concrete blocks, wire bar supports, supplementary bars or other approved devices. Such reinforcement supports or devices shall be of such height and placed at sufficiently frequent intervals so as to maintain the distance between the reinforcing steel and the formed surface or the top surface of deck slabs within 1 4 inch of that indicated on the plans. Platforms for the support of workers and equipment during concrete placement shall be supported directly on the forms and not on the reinforcing steel. 9.6.3 Precast Concrete Blocks Precast concrete blocks shall have a compressive strength not less than that of the concrete in which they
9.6.3
551
are to be embedded. The face of blocks in contact with forms for exposed surfaces shall not exceed 2 inches by 2 inches in size and shall have a color and texture that will match the concrete surface. When used on vertical or sloping surfaces, such blocks shall have an embedded wire for securing the block to the reinforcing steel. When used in slabs, either such a tie wire or, when the weight of the reinforcing steel is sufficient to firmly hold the blocks in place, a groove in the top of the block may be used. For epoxy-coated bars, such tie wires shall be plastic-coated or epoxy-coated. 9.6.4 Wire Bar Supports Wire bar supports, such as ferrous metal chairs and bolsters, shall conform to industry practice as described in the Manual of Standard Practice of the Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute. Such chairs or bolsters which bear against the forms for exposed surfaces shall be either Class 1Maximum Protection (Plastic Protected) or Class 2, Type B-Moderate Protection (Stainless Steel Tipped) for which the stainless steel conforms to ASTM A 493, Type 430. For epoxy-coated reinforcement, all wire bar supports and bar clips shall be plastic-coated or epoxy-coated. 9.6.5 Adjustments Nonprestressed reinforcement used in post-tensioned concrete shall be adjusted or relocated during the installation of prestressing ducts or tendons, as required to provide planned clearances to the prestressing tendons, anchorages and stressing equipment, as approved by the Engineer. 9.6.6 Repair of Damaged Epoxy Coating In addition to the requirements of Article 9.2.2, damaged coating on epoxy-coated reinforcing steel that occurs during shipment, handling and placement of the reinforcing steel shall be repaired. The maximum amount of repaired damaged areas shall not exceed 2% of the surface area in any linear foot of each bar. Should the amount of damaged coating incurred during shipment, handling and placing exceed 2% of the surface area in any linear foot of each bar, that bar shall be removed and replaced with an acceptable epoxy-coated bar. The sum of the areas covered with patching material applied during repairs at all stages of the work shall not exceed 5% of the total surface area of any bar. The patching material shall be prequalied as required for the coating material and shall be either identied on the container as meeting the requirements of Annex A1 of AASHTO M 284 or
Annex A1 of ASTM A 934, or shall be accompanied by a Certificate of Compliance certifying that the material meets the requirements of said Annexes A1. Patching of damaged areas shall be performed in accordance with the patching material manufacturers recommendations. Patches shall be allowed to cure before placing concrete over the coated bars. 9.7 SPLICING OF BARS 9.7.1 General All reinforcement shall be furnished in the full lengths indicated on the plans unless otherwise permitted. Except for splices shown on the plans and lap splices for No. 5 or smaller bars, splicing of bars will not be permitted without written approval. Splices shall be staggered as far as possible. 9.7.2 Lap Splices Lap splices shall be of the lengths shown on the plans. If not shown on the plans, the length of lap splices shall be in accordance with Division I, Article 8.32, or as approved by the Engineer. In lap splices, the bars shall be placed and tied in such a manner as to maintain the minimum distance to the surface of the concrete shown on the plans. Lap splices shall not be used for Nos. 14 and 18 bars except as provided in Division I, Articles 4.4.11.5.7 and 8.32.4.1. 9.7.3 Welded Splices Welded splices of reinforcing bars shall be used only if detailed on the plans or if authorization is made by the Engineer in writing. Welding shall conform to the Structural Welding Code, Reinforcing Steel, ANSI AWS D1.4 of the American Welding Society and applicable special provisions in the contract documents. Welded splices shall not be used on epoxy-coated bars. To avoid heating of the coating, no welding shall be performed in close proximity to epoxy-coated bars. 9.7.4 Mechanical Splices Mechanical splices shall be used only if preapproved or detailed on the plans or authorized in writing by the Engineer. Such mechanical splices shall develop in tension or compression, as required, at least 125% of the specied yield strength of the bars being spliced. When requested by the Engineer, up to two eld splices out of each 100, or portion thereof, placed in the
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9.7.4
work and chosen at random by the Engineer, shall be removed by the Contractor and tested by the Engineer for compliance to 125% of the specied yield strength of the bars being spliced. 9.8 SPLICING OF WELDED WIRE FABRIC Sheets of welded wire fabric shall be spliced by overlapping each other sufficiently to maintain a uniform strength and shall be securely fastened at the ends and edges. The edge lap shall not be less than one mesh in width plus 2 inches. 9.9 SUBSTITUTIONS Substitution of different size reinforcing bars will be permitted only when authorized by the Engineer. The substituted bars shall have an area equivalent to the design area, or larger, and shall conform to the requirements of Division I, Article 8.16.8.4. 9.10 MEASUREMENT Steel reinforcement incorporated in the concrete will be measured in pounds based on the total computed weight for the sizes and lengths of bars, wire or welded wire fabric shown on the plans or authorized for use in the work. The weight of bars will be computed using the following weights: Bar Size No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6 No. 7 No. 8 No. 9 No. 10 No. 11 No. 14 No. 18 Weight lbs. per lin. feet 0.376 0.668 1.043 1.502 2.044 2.670 3.400 4.303 5.313 7.65 13.60
The weight of wire, welded wire fabric and plain bars of sizes other than those listed above, will be computed from tables of weights published by CRSI or computed using nominal dimensions and an assumed unit weight of 0.2833-pound per cubic inch. The cross-sectional area of wire in hundredths of square inches will be assumed to be equal to its W or D-Size Number. If the weight per square foot of welded wire fabric is given on the plans, that weight will be used. The weight of reinforcement used in items such as railings and precast members, where payment for the reinforcement is included in the contract price for the item, will not be included. Threaded bars or dowels placed after the installation of precast members in the work and used to attach such members to cast-in-place concrete will be included. No allowance will be made for clips, wire, separators, wire chairs, and other material used in fastening the reinforcement in place. If bars are substituted upon the Contractors request and as a result more reinforcing steel is used than specied, only the amount specied will be included. The additional reinforcing steel required for splices that are not shown on the plans but are authorized as provided herein, will not be included. No allowance will be made for the weight of epoxy coating in computing the weight of epoxy-coated reinforcing steel. 9.11 PAYMENT Payment for the quantity of reinforcement determined under measurement for each class of reinforcing steel shown in the bid schedule will be made at the contract price per pound. Payment shall be considered to be full compensation for furnishing, fabricating, splicing, and placing of the reinforcing steel including all incidental work and materials required.
Section 10
PRESTRESSING
10.1 GENERAL 10.1.1 Description This work shall consist of prestressing precast or castin-place concrete by furnishing, placing, and tensioning of prestressing steel in accordance with details shown on the plans, and as specied in these specications and the special provisions. It includes prestressing by either the pretensioning or post-tensioning methods or by a combination of these methods. This work shall include the furnishing and installation of any appurtenant items necessary for the particular prestressing system to be used, including but not limited to ducts, anchorage assemblies and grout used for pressure grouting ducts. For cast-in-place prestressed concrete, the term member as used in this section shall be considered to mean the concrete which is to be prestressed. When members are to be constructed with part of the reinforcement pretensioned and part post-tensioned, the applicable requirement of this Specication shall apply to each method. 10.1.2 Details of Design When the design for the prestressing work is not fully detailed on the plans, the Contractor shall determine the details or type of prestressing system for use and select materials and details conforming to these Specications as needed to satisfy the prestressing requirements specied. The system selected shall provide the magnitude and distribution of prestressing force and ultimate strength required by the plans without exceeding allowable temporary stresses. Unless otherwise shown on the plans, all design procedures, coefficients and allowable stresses, friction and prestress losses as well as tendon spacing and clearances shall be in accordance with the Division I, Design, of the AASHTO Standard Specications for Highway Bridges. The prestressing may be performed by either pretensioning or post-tensioning methods unless the plans show 553 only pretensioning details. If the plans show only pretensioning details, the use of a post-tensioning system will be allowed only if complete details of any necessary modications are approved by the Engineer. When the effective or working force or stress is shown on the plans, it shall be considered to be the force or stress remaining in the prestressing steel after all losses, including creep and shrinkage of concrete, elastic shortening of concrete, relaxation of steel, friction and take up or seating of anchorages, and all other losses peculiar to the method or system of prestressing have taken place or have been provided for. When the jacking force is shown on the plans, it shall be considered to be the force applied to the tendon prior to anchorage and the occurrence of any losses, including the anchor set loss. 10.2 SUPPLEMENTARY DRAWINGS 10.2.1 Working Drawings Whenever the plans do not include complete details for a prestressing system and its method of installation, or when complete details are provided in the plans and the Contractor wishes to propose any change, the Contractor shall prepare and submit to the Engineer working drawings of the prestressing system proposed for use. Fabrication or installation of prestressing material shall not begin until the Engineer has approved the drawings. The working drawings of the prestressing system shall show complete details and substantiating calculations of the method, materials and equipment the Contractor proposes to use in the prestressing operations, including any additions or rearrangement of reinforcing steel and any revision in concrete dimensions from that shown on the plans. Such details shall outline the method and sequence of stressing and shall include complete specications and details of the prestressing steel and anchoring devices, working stresses, anchoring stresses, tendon elongations, type of ducts, and all other data pertaining to the prestressing operation, including the proposed arrangement of the prestressing steel in the members. Working drawings shall be submitted sufficiently in advance of the start of the affected work to allow time for
554
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 10.3.1.3 Bars
10.2.1
review by the Engineer and correction by the Contractor of the drawings without delaying the work. 10.2.2 Composite Placing Drawings When required by the special provisions, in addition to all required working drawings, the Contractor shall prepare composite placing drawings to scale and in sufficient detail to show the relative positions of all items that are to be embedded in the concrete, and their embedment depth, for the portions of the structure that are to be prestressed. Such embedded items include the prestressing ducts, vents, anchorage reinforcement and hardware, reinforcing steel, anchor bolts, earthquake restrainers, deck joint seal assemblies, drainage systems, utility conduits and other such items. Such drawings shall be adequate to ensure that there will be no conict between the planned positions of any embedded items and that concrete cover will be adequate. If during the preparation of such drawings conflicts are discovered, the Contractor shall revise his or her working drawing for one or more of the embedded items or propose changes in the dimensions of the work as necessary to eliminate the conicts or provide proper cover. Any such revisions shall be approved by the Engineer before work on any affected item is started. All costs involved with the preparation of such drawings and with making the necessary modications to the work resulting therefrom shall be borne by the Contractor. 10.3 MATERIALS 10.3.1 Prestressing Steel and Anchorages Prestressing reinforcement shall be high-strength seven-wire strand, high-strength steel wire, or highstrength alloy bars of the grade and type called for on the plans or in the special provisions and shall conform to the requirements of the following specications. 10.3.1.1 Strand
Uncoated high-strength bars shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 275 (ASTM A 722). Bars with greater minimum ultimate strength, but otherwise produced and tested in accordance with AASHTO M 275 (ASTM A 722), may be used provided they have no properties that make them less satisfactory than the specied material. 10.3.2 Post-Tensioning Anchorages and Couplers All anchorages and couplers shall develop at least 95% of the actual ultimate strength of the prestressing steel, when tested in an unbonded state, without exceeding anticipated set. The coupling of tendons shall not reduce the elongation at rupture below the requirements of the tendon itself. Couplers and/or coupler components shall be enclosed in housings long enough to permit the necessary movements. Couplers for tendons shall be used only at locations specically indicated and/or approved by the Engineer. Couplers shall not be used at points of sharp tendon curvature. 10.3.2.1 Bonded Systems Bond transfer lengths between anchorages and the zone where full prestressing force is required under service and ultimate loads shall normally be sufficient to develop the minimum specied ultimate strength of the prestressing steel. When anchorages or couplers are located at critical sections under ultimate load, the ultimate strength required of the bonded tendons shall not exceed the ultimate capacity of the tendon assembly, including the anchorage or coupler, tested in an unbonded state. Housings shall be designed so that complete grouting of all of the coupler components will be accomplished during grouting of tendons. 10.3.2.2 Unbonded Systems For unbonded tendons, a dynamic test shall be performed on a representative anchorage and coupler specimen and the tendon shall withstand, without failure, 500,000 cycles from 60% to 66% of its minimum specied ultimate strength, and also 50 cycles from 40% to 80% of its minimum specied ultimate strength. The period of each cycle involves the change from the lower stress level to the upper stress level and back to the lower. The specimen used for the second dynamic test need not be the same used for the rst dynamic test. Systems utilizing multiple strands, wires, or bars may be tested utilizing a test tendon of smaller capacity than the full-sized tendon. The test ten-
Uncoated seven-wire strand shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 203 (ASTM A 416). Supplement S1 (Low-Relaxation) shall apply when specied. 10.3.1.2 Wire
Uncoated stress-relieved steel wire shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 204 (ASTM A 421).
10.3.2.2
555
don shall duplicate the behavior of the full-sized tendon and generally shall not have less than 10% of the capacity of the full-sized tendon. Dynamic tests are not required on bonded tendons, unless the anchorage is located or used in such manner that repeated load applications can be expected on the anchorage. Anchorages for unbonded tendons shall not cause a reduction in the total elongation under ultimate load of the tendon to less than 2% measured in a minimum gauge length of 10 feet. All the coupling components shall be completely protected with a coating material prior to nal encasement in concrete. 10.3.2.3 Special Anchorage Device Acceptance Test 10.3.2.3.1 The test block shall be a rectangular prism. It shall contain those anchorage components which will also be embedded in the structures concrete. Their arrangement has to comply with the practical application and the suppliers specications. The test block shall contain an empty duct of size appropriate for the maximum tendon size which can be accommodated by the anchorage device. 10.3.2.3.2 The dimensions of the test block perpendicular to the tendon in each direction shall be the smaller of the minimum edge distance or the minimum spacing specied by the anchorage device supplier, with the stipulation that the cover over any conning reinforcing steel or supplementary skin reinforcement be appropriate for the particular application and environment. The length of the block along the axis of the tendon shall be at least two times the larger of the cross-section dimensions. 10.3.2.3.3 The conning reinforcing steel in the local zone shall be the same as that specied by the anchorage device supplier for the particular system. 10.3.2.3.4 In addition to the anchorage device and its specied conning reinforcement steel, supplementary skin reinforcement may be provided throughout the specimen. This supplementary skin reinforcement shall be specied by the anchorage device supplier but shall not exceed a volumetric ratio of 0.01. 10.3.2.3.5 The concrete strength at the time of stressing shall be greater than the concrete strength of the test specimen at time of testing. 10.3.2.3.6 Either of three test procedures is acceptable: cyclic loading described in Article 10.3.2.3.7,
sustained loading described in Article 10.3.2.3.8, or monotonic loading described in Article 10.3.2.3.9. The loads specified for the tests are given in fractions of the ultimate load Fpu of the largest tendon that the anchorage device is designed to accommodate. The specimen shall be loaded in accordance with normal usage of the device in post-tensioning applications except that load can be applied directly to the wedge plate or equivalent area. 10.3.2.3.7 Cyclic Loading Test 10.3.2.3.7.1 In a cyclic loading test, the load shall be increased to 0.8Fpu. The load shall then be cycled between 0.1Fpu and 0.8Fpu until crack widths stabilize, but for not less than 10 cycles. Crack widths are considered stabilized if they do not change by more than 0.001 inch over the last three readings. Upon completion of the cyclic loading the specimen shall be preferably loaded to failure or, if limited by the capacity of the loading equipment, to at least 1.1Fpu. 10.3.2.3.7.2 Crack widths and crack patterns shall be recorded at the initial load of 0.8Fpu, at least at the last three consecutive peak loadings before termination of the cyclic loading, and at 0.9Fpu. The maximum load shall also be reported. 10.3.2.3.8 Sustained Loading Test
10.3.2.3.8.1 In a sustained loading test, the load shall be increased to 0.8Fpu and held constant until crack widths stabilize but for not less than 48 hours. Crack widths are considered stabilized if they do not change by more than 0.001 inch over the last three readings. After sustained loading is completed, the specimen shall be preferably loaded to failure or, if limited by the capacity of the loading equipment, to at least 1.1Fpu. 10.3.2.3.8.2 Crack widths and crack patterns shall be recorded at the initial load of 0.8Fpu, at least three times at intervals of not less than 4 hours during the last 12 hours before termination of the sustained loading, and during loading to failure at 0.9Fpu. The maximum load shall also be reported. 10.3.2.3.9 Monotonic Loading Test 10.3.2.3.9.1 In a monotonic loading test, the load shall be increased to 0.9Fpu and held constant for 1 hour. The specimen shall then be preferably loaded to failure or,
556
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 10.4
10.3.2.3.9.1
if limited by the capacity of the loading equipment, to at least 1.2Fpu. 10.3.2.3.9.2 Crack widths and crack patterns shall be recorded at 0.9Fpu after the 1-hour period, and at 1.0Fpu. The maximum load shall also be reported. 10.3.2.3.10 exceed: The strength of the anchorage zone must
PLACEMENT OF DUCTS, STEEL, AND ANCHORAGE HARDWARE
10.4.1 Placement of Ducts Ducts shall be rigidly supported at the proper locations in the forms by ties to reinforcing steel which are adequate to prevent displacement during concrete placement. Supplementary support bars shall be used where needed to maintain proper alignment of the duct. Hold-down ties to the forms shall be used when the buoyancy of the ducts in the uid concrete would lift the reinforcing steel. Joints between sections of duct shall be coupled with positive connections which do not result in angle changes at the joints and will prevent the intrusion of cement paste. After placing of ducts, reinforcement and forming is complete, an inspection shall be made to locate possible duct damage. All unintentional holes or openings in the duct must be repaired prior to concrete placing. Grout openings and vents must be securely anchored to the duct and to either the forms or to reinforcing steel to prevent displacement during concrete placing operations. After installation in the forms, the ends of ducts shall at all times be covered as necessary to prevent the entry of water or debris. 10.4.1.1 Vents and Drains All ducts for continuous structures shall be vented at the high points of the duct prole, except where the curvature is small, as in continuous slabs, and at additional locations as shown on the plans. Where freezing conditions can be anticipated prior to grouting, drains shall be installed at low point in ducts where needed to prevent the accumulation of water. Low-point drains shall remain open until grouting is started. The ends of vents and drains shall be removed 1 inch below the surface of the concrete after grouting has been completed, and the void lled with mortar. 10.4.2 Placement of Prestressing Steel
Specimens tested under cyclic or sustained loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1Fpu Specimens tested under monotonic loading . . . . . .1.2Fpu The maximum crack width criteria specied below must be met for moderately aggressive environments. For higher aggressivity environments the crack width criteria shall be reduced by at least 50%. (1) No cracks greater than 0.010 inch at 0.8Fpu after completion of the cyclic or sustained loading, or at 0.9Fpu after the 1-hour period for monotonic loading. (2) No cracks greater than 0.016 inch at 0.9Fpu for cyclic or sustained loading, or at 1.0Fpu for monotonic loading. 10.3.2.3.11 A test series shall consist of three test specimens. Each one of the tested specimens must meet the acceptance criteria. If one of the three specimens fails to pass the test, a supplementary test of three additional specimens is allowed. The three additional test specimen results must meet all acceptance criteria of Article 10.3.2.3.10. For a series of similar special anchorage devices, tests are only required for representative samples unless tests for each capacity of the anchorages in the series are required by the engineer-of-record. 10.3.2.3.12 Records of the anchorage device acceptance test shall include: (1) Dimensions of the test specimen. (2) Drawings and dimensions of the anchorage device, including all conning reinforcing steel. (3) Amount and arrangement of supplementary skin reinforcement. (4) Type and yield strength of reinforcing steel. (5) Type and compressive strength at time of testing of concrete. (6) Type of testing procedure and all measurements required in Articles 10.3.2.3.7 through 10.3.2.3.10 for each specimen.
10.4.2.1 Placement for Pretensioning Prestressing steel shall be accurately installed in the forms and held in place by the stressing jack or temporary anchors and, when tendons are to be draped, by holddown devices. The hold-down devices used at all points of change in slope of tendon trajectory shall be of an approved low-friction type. Prestressing steel shall not be removed from its protective packaging until immediately prior to installation in
10.4.2.1
DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION Very Damp Atmosphere or over Saltwater (Humidity 70%) Moderate Atmosphere (Humidity from 40% to 70%) Very Dry Atmosphere (Humidity 40%)
557
the forms and placement of concrete. Openings in the packaging shall be resealed as necessary to protect the unused steel. While exposed, the steel shall be protected as needed to prevent corrosion. 10.4.2.2 Placement for Post-Tensioning All prestressing steel preassembled in ducts and installed prior to the placement of concrete shall be accurately placed and held in position during concrete placement. When the prestressing steel is installed after the concrete has been placed, the Contractor shall demonstrate to the satisfaction of the Engineer that the ducts are free of water and debris immediately prior to installation of the steel. The total number of strands in an individual tendon may be pulled into the duct as a unit, or the individual strand may be pulled or pushed through the duct. Anchorage devices or block-out templates for anchorages shall be set and held so that their axis coincides with the axis of the tendon and anchor plates are normal in all directions to the tendon. The prestressing steel shall be distributed so that the force in each girder stem is equal or as required by the plans, except as provided herein. For box girders with more than two girder stems, at the Contractors option, the prestressing force may vary up to 5% from the theoretical required force per girder stem provided the required total force in the superstructure is obtained and the force is distributed symmetrically about the center line of the typical section. 10.4.2.2.1 Protection of Steel After Installation Prestressing steel installed in members prior to placing and curing of the concrete, or installed in the duct but not grouted within the time limit specified below, shall be continuously protected against rust or other corrosion by means of a corrosion inhibitor placed in the ducts or directly applied to the steel. The prestressing steel shall be so protected until grouted or encased in concrete. Prestressing steel installed and tensioned in members after placing and curing of the concrete and grouted within the time limit specied below will not require the use of a corrosion inhibitor described herein and rust which may form during the interval between tendon installation and grouting will not be cause for rejection of the steel. The permissible interval between tendon installation and grouting without use of a corrosion inhibitor for various exposure conditions shall be as follows:
7 days 15 days 20 days
After tendons are placed in ducts, the openings at the ends of the ducts shall be sealed to prevent entry of moisture. When steam curing is used, steel for post-tensioning shall not be installed until the steam curing is completed. Whenever electric welding is performed on or near members containing prestressing steel, the welding ground shall be attached directly to the steel being welded. All prestressing steel and hardware shall be protected from weld spatter or other damage. 10.4.3 Placement of Anchorage Hardware The constructor is responsible for the proper placement of all materials according to the design documents of the engineer of record and the requirements stipulated by the anchorage device supplier. The Contractor shall exercise all due care and attention in the placement of anchorage hardware, reinforcement, concrete, and consolidation of concrete in anchorage zones. Modications to the local zone details veried under provisions of Article 9.21.7.3. in Division I and Article 10.3.2.3 in Division II shall be approved by both the engineer of record and the anchorage device supplier. 10.5 IDENTIFICATION AND TESTING All wire, strand, or bars to be shipped to the site shall be assigned a lot number and tagged for identication purposes. Anchorage assemblies to be shipped shall be likewise identied. Each lot of wire or bars and each reel of strand reinforcement shall be accompanied by a manufacturers certicate of compliance, a mill certicate, and a test report. The mill certicate and test report shall include the chemical composition (not required for strand), cross-sectional area, yield and ultimate strengths, elongation at rupture, modulus of elasticity, and the stress strain curve for the actual prestressing steel intended for use. All values certied shall be based on test values and nominal sectional areas of the material being certied. The Contractor shall furnish to the Engineer for verication testing the samples described in the following subarticles selected from each lot. If ordered by the Engineer,
558
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
10.5
the selection of samples shall be made at the manufacturers plant by the Inspector. All samples submitted shall be representative of the lot to be furnished and, in the case of wire or strand, shall be taken from the same master roll. The actual strength of the prestressing steel shall not be less than specied by the applicable ASTM Standard, and shall be determined by tests of representative samples of the tendon material in conformance with ASTM Standards. All of the materials specied for testing shall be furnished free of cost and shall be delivered in time for tests to be made well in advance of anticipated time of use. 10.5.1 Pretensioning Method Tendons For pretensioned strands, one sample at least 7 feet long shall be furnished in accordance with the requirements of paragraph 9.1 of AASHTO M 203. 10.5.2 Post-Tensioning Method Tendons The following lengths shall be furnished for each 20 ton, or portion thereof, lot of material used in the work. (a) For wires requiring heading5 feet. (b) For wires not requiring headingsufficient length to make up one parallel-lay cable 5 feet long consisting of the same number of wires as the cable to be furnished. (c) For strand to be furnished with ttings5 feet between near ends of ttings. (d) For bars to be furnished with threaded ends and nuts5 feet between threads at ends. 10.5.3 Anchorage Assemblies and Couplers The Contractor shall furnish for testing, one specimen of each size of prestressing tendon, including couplings, of the selected type, with end ttings and anchorage assembly attached, for strength tests only. These specimens shall be 5 feet in clear length, measured between ends of ttings. If the results of the test indicate the necessity of check tests, additional specimens shall be furnished without cost. When dynamic testing is required, the Contractor shall perform the testing and shall furnish certied copies of test results which indicate conformance with the specied requirements prior to installation of anchorages or couplers. For prestressing systems previously tested and approved on projects having the same tendon conguration, the Engineer may not require complete tendon samples
provided there is no change in the material, design, or details previously approved. Shop drawings or prestressing details shall identify the project on which approval was obtained, otherwise testing shall be conducted. 10.6 PROTECTION OF PRESTRESSING STEEL All prestressing steel shall be protected against physical damage and rust or other results of corrosion at all times from manufacture to grouting. Prestressing steel shall also be free of deleterious material such as grease, oil, wax, or paint. Prestressing steel that has sustained physical damage at any time shall be rejected. The development of pitting or other results of corrosion, other than rust stain, shall be cause for rejection. Prestressing steel shall be packaged in containers or shipping forms for the protection of the strand against physical damage and corrosion during shipping and storage. A corrosion inhibitor which prevents rust or other results of corrosion shall be placed in the package or form, or shall be incorporated in a corrosion inhibitor carrier type packaging material, or when permitted by the Engineer, may be applied directly to the steel. The corrosion inhibitor shall have no deleterious effect on the steel or concrete or bond strength of steel to concrete or grout. Packaging or forms damaged from any cause shall be immediately replaced or restored to original condition. The shipping package or form shall be clearly marked with a statement that the package contains high-strength prestressing steel, and the type of corrosion inhibitor used, including the date packaged. All anchorages, end ttings, couplers, and exposed tendons, which will not be encased in concrete or grout in the completed work, shall be permanently protected against corrosion. 10.7 CORROSION INHIBITOR Corrosion inhibitor shall consist of a vapor phase inhibitor (VPI) powder conforming to the provisions of Federal Specication MIL-P-3420 or as otherwise approved by the Engineer. When approved, water soluble oil may be used on tendons as a corrosion inhibitor. 10.8 DUCTS Ducts used to provide holes or voids in the concrete for the placement of post-tensioned bonded tendons may be either formed with removable cores or may consist of rigid or semi-rigid ducts which are cast into the concrete.
10.8
DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION 10.8.3 Duct Area
559
Ducts formed with removable cores shall be formed with no constrictions which would tend to block the passage of grout. All coring materials shall be removed. Ducts formed by sheath left in place shall be a type that will not permit the intrusion of cement paste. They shall transfer bond stresses as required and shall retain shape under the weight of the concrete and shall have sufficient strength to maintain their correct alignment without visible wobble during placement of concrete. 10.8.1 Metal Ducts Sheathing for ducts shall be metal, except as provided herein. Such ducts shall be galvanized ferrous metal and shall be fabricated with either welded or interlocked seams. Galvanizing of welded seams will not be required. Rigid ducts shall have smooth inner walls and shall be capable of being curved to the proper conguration without crimping or flattening. Semi-rigid ducts shall be corrugated and when tendons are to be inserted after the concrete has been placed their minimum wall thickness shall be as follows: 26 gauge for ducts less than or equal to 25 8-inch diameter, 24 gauge for ducts greater than 25 8-inch diameter. When bar tendons are preassembled with such ducts, the duct thickness shall not be less than 31 gauge. 10.8.2 Polyethylene Duct As an alternative to metal ducts, ducts for transverse tendons in deck slabs and at other locations where shown or approved may be of high density polyethylene, conforming to the material requirements of ASTM D 3350. Polyethylene duct shall not be used when the radius of curvature of the tendon is less than 30 feet. Semi-rigid polyethylene ducts for use where completely embedded in concrete shall be corrugated with minimum material thickness of 0.0500.010 inch. Such ducts shall have a white coating on the outside, or shall be of white material with ultraviolet stabilizers added. Rigid polyethylene ducts for use where the tendon is not embedded in concrete shall be rigid pipe manufactured in accordance with ASTM D 2447, Grades P33 or P34; F714 or D3350 with a cell classication of PE345433C. For external applications, such duct shall have an external diameter to wall thickness ratio of 21 or less. For applications where polyethylene duct is exposed to sunlight or ultraviolet light, carbon black shall be incorporated into the polyethylene pipe resin in such amount to provide resistance to ultraviolet degradation in accordance with ASTM D 1248.
The inside diameter of ducts shall be at least 1 4 inch larger than the nominal diameter of single wire, bar, or strand tendons, or in the case of multiple wire, bar or strand tendons, the inside cross-sectional area of the sheathing shall be at least two times the net area of the prestressing steel. When tendons are to be placed by the pull through method, the duct area shall be at least 21 2 times the net area of the prestressing steel. 10.8.4 Duct Fittings Coupling and transition ttings for ducts formed by sheathing shall be of either ferrous metal or polyethylene, and shall be cement paste intrusion proof and of sufficient strength to prevent distortion or displacement of the ducts during concrete placement. All ducts or anchorage assemblies shall be provided with pipes or other suitable connections at each end of the duct for the injection of grout after prestressing. As specied in Article 10.4.1.1, ducts shall also be provided with ports for venting or grouting at high points and for draining at intermediate low points. Vent and drain pipes shall be 1 2-inch minimum diameter standard pipe or suitable plastic pipe. Connection to ducts shall be made with metallic or plastic structural fasteners. The vents and drains shall be mortar tight, taped as necessary, and shall provide means for injection of grout through the vents and for sealing to prevent leakage of grout. 10.9 GROUT Materials for use in making grout which is to be placed in the ducts after tendons are post-tensioned shall conform to the following. 10.9.1 Portland Cement Portland cement shall conform to one of the following: Specications for Portland CementAASHTO M 85 (ASTM C 150), Types I, II, or III. Cement used for grouting shall be fresh and shall not contain any lumps or other indication of hydration or pack set. 10.9.2 Water The water used in the grout shall be potable, clean, and free of injurious quantities of substances known to be harmful to Portland cement or prestressing steel.
560 10.9.3 Admixtures
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
10.9.3
Admixtures, if used, shall impart the properties of lowwater content, good owability, minimum bleed, and expansion if desired. They shall contain no chemicals in quantities that may have harmful effect on the prestressing steel or cement. Admixtures which, at the dosage used, contain chlorides in excess of 0.005% of the weight of the cement used or contain any uorides, sulphites, and nitrates shall not be used. When a grout expanding admixture is required, or is used at the Contractors option, it shall be well dispersed through the other admixtures and shall produce a 2% to 6% unrestrained expansion of the grout. Amount of admixture to obtain a desired amount of expansion shall be determined by tests. If the source of manufacture or brand of either admixture or cement changes after testing, new tests shall be conducted to determine proper proportions. All admixtures shall be used in accordance with the instructions of the manufacturer. 10.10 TENSIONING 10.10.1 General Tensioning Requirements Prestressing steel shall be tensioned by hydraulic jacks so as to produce the forces shown on the plans or on the approved working drawing with appropriate allowances for all losses. Losses to be provided for shall be as specied in Division I, Article 9.16. For post-tensioned work the losses shall also include the anchor set loss appropriate for the anchorage system employed. For pretensioned members, the strand stress prior to seating (jacking stress) shall not exceed 80% of the minimum ultimate tensile strength of the prestressing steel (0.80 fs). This allowable stress, which slightly exceeds the values allowed in Division I, Article 9.15.1, may be permitted to offset seating losses and to accommodate compensation for temperature differences specied in Article 10.5.2. For post-tensioned members, the strand stress prior to seating (jacking stress) and the stress in the steel immediately after seating shall not exceed the values allowed in Division I, Article 9.15.1. The method of tensioning employed shall be one of the following as specied or approved: (1) Pretensioning; in which the prestressing strand or tendons are stressed prior to being embedded in the concrete placed for the member. After the concrete has attained the required strength, the prestressing force is
released from the external anchorages and transferred, by bond, into the concrete. (2) Post-tensioning; in which the reinforcing tendons are installed in voids or ducts within the concrete and are stressed and anchored against the concrete after the development of the required concrete strength. As a nal operation under this method, the voids or ducts are pressure-grouted. (3) Combined Method; in which part of the reinforcement is pretensioned and part post-tensioned. Under this method all applicable requirements for pretensioning and for post-tensioning shall apply to the respective reinforcing elements using these methods. During stressing of strand, individual wire failures may be accepted by the Engineer, provided not more than one wire in any strand is broken and the area of broken wires does not exceed 2% of the total area of the prestressing steel in the member. 10.10.1.1 Concrete Strength Prestressing forces shall not be applied or transferred to the concrete until the concrete has attained the strength specied for initial stressing. In addition, cast-in-place concrete for other than segmentally constructed bridges shall not be post-tensioned until at least 10 days after the last concrete has been placed in the member to be posttensioned. 10.10.1.2 Prestressing Equipment Hydraulic jacks used to stress tendons shall be capable of providing and sustaining the necessary forces and shall be equipped with either a pressure gauge or a load cell for determining the jacking stress. The jacking system shall provide an independent means by which the tendon elongation can be measured. The pressure gauge shall have an accurately reading dial at least 6 inches in diameter or a digital display, and each jack and its gauge shall be calibrated as a unit with the cylinder extension in the approximate position that it will be at nal jacking force, and shall be accompanied by a certied calibration chart or curve. The load cell shall be calibrated and shall be provided with an indicator by means of which the prestressing force in the tendon may be determined. The range of the load cell shall be such that the lower 10% of the manufacturers rated capacity will not be used in determining the jacking stress. When approved by the Engineer, calibrated proving rings may be used in lieu of load cells. Recalibration of gauges shall be repeated at least annually and whenever gauge pressures and elongations indicate materially different stresses.
10.10.1.2
DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION 10.10.2 Pretensioning Method Requirements
561
Only oxygen ame or mechanical cutting devices shall be used to cut strand after installation in the member or after stressing. Electric arc welders shall not be used. 10.10.1.3 Sequence of Stressing When the sequence of stressing individual tendons is not otherwise specied, the stressing of post-tensioning tendons and the release of pretensioned tendons shall be done in a sequence that produces a minimum of eccentric force in the member. 10.10.1.4 Measurement of Stress A record of gauge pressures and tendon elongations for each tendon shall be provided by the Contractor for review and approval by the Engineer. Elongations shall be measured to an accuracy of 1 16 inch. Stressing tails of post-tensioned tendons shall not be cut off until the stressing records have been approved. The stress in tendons during tensioning shall be determined by the gauge or load cell readings and shall be veried with the measured elongations. Calculations of anticipated elongations shall utilize the modulus of elasticity, based on nominal area, as furnished by the manufacturer for the lot of steel being tensioned, or as determined by a bench test of strands used in the work. All tendons shall be tensioned to a preliminary force as necessary to eliminate any take-up in the tensioning system before elongation readings are started. This preliminary force shall be between 5% and 25% of the nal jacking force. The initial force shall be measured by a dynamometer or by other approved method, so that its amount can be used as a check against elongation as computed and as measured. Each strand shall be marked prior to final stressing to permit measurement of elongation and to insure that all anchor wedges set properly. It is anticipated that there may be discrepancy in indicated stress between jack gauge pressure and elongation. In such event, the load used as indicated by the gauge pressure, shall produce a slight over-stress rather than under-stress. When a discrepancy between gauge pressure and elongation of more than 5% in tendons over 50 feet long or 7% in tendons of 50 feet or less in length occurs, the entire operation shall be carefully checked and the source of error determined and corrected before proceeding further. When provisional ducts are provided for addition of prestressing force in event of an apparent force deciency in tendons over 50 feet long, the discrepancy between the force indicated by gauge pressure and elongation may be increased to 7% before investigation into the source of the error.
Stressing shall be accomplished by either single strand stressing or multiple strand stressing. The amount of stress to be given each strand shall be as shown in the plans or the approved working drawings. All strand to be stressed in a group (multiple strand stressing) shall be brought to a uniform initial tension prior to being given their full pretensioning. The amount of the initial tensioning force shall be within the range specied in Article 10.5.1 and shall be the minimum required to eliminate all slack and to equalize the stresses in the tendons as determined by the Engineer. The amount of this force will be inuenced by the length of the casting bed and the size and number of tendons in the group to be tensioned. Draped pretensioned tendons shall either be tensioned partially by jacking at the end of the bed and partially by uplifting or depressing tendons, or they shall be tensioned entirely by jacking, with the tendons being held in their draped positions by means of rollers, pins, or other approved methods during the jacking operation. Approved low-friction devices shall be used at all points of change in slope of tendon trajectory when tensioning draped pretensioned strands, regardless of the tensioning method used. If the load for a draped strand, as determined by elongation measurements, is more than 5% less than that indicated by the jack gauges, the strand shall be tensioned from both ends of the bed and the load as computed from the sum of elongation at both ends shall agree within 5% of that indicated by the jack gauges. When ordered by the Engineer, prestressing steel strands in pretensioned members, if tensioned individually, shall be checked by the Contractor for loss of prestress not more than 3 hours prior to placing concrete for the members. The method and equipment for checking the loss of prestress shall be subject to approval by the Engineer. All strands that show a loss of prestress in excess of 3% shall be retensioned to the original computed jacking stress. Stress on all strands shall be maintained between anchorages until the concrete has reached the compressive strength required at time of transfer of stress to concrete. When prestressing steel in pretensioned members is tensioned at a temperature more than 25F lower than the estimated temperature of the concrete and the prestressing steel at the time of initial set of the concrete, the calculated elongation of the prestressing steel shall be increased to compensate for the loss in stress, due to the change in temperature, but in no case shall the jacking stress exceed 80% of the specied minimum ultimate tensile strength of the prestressing steel.
562
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 10.11.2 Preparation of Ducts
10.10.2
Strand splicing methods and devices shall be approved by the Engineer. When single strand jacking is used, only one splice per strand will be permitted. When multi-strand jacking is used, either all strands shall be spliced or no more than 10% of the strands shall be spliced. Spliced strands shall be similar in physical properties, from the same source, and shall have the same twist or lay. All splices shall be located outside of the prestressed units. Side and ange forms that restrain deection shall be removed before release of pretensioning reinforcement. Except when otherwise shown on the plans, all pretensioned-prestressing strands shall be cut off ush with the end of the member and the exposed ends of the strand and a 1-inch strip of adjoining concrete shall be cleaned and painted. Cleaning shall be by wire brushing or abrasive blast cleaning to remove all dirt and residue that is not rmly bonded to the metal or concrete surfaces. The surfaces shall be coated with one thick coat of zinc-rich paint conforming to the requirements of Federal Specication TT-P-641. The paint shall be thoroughly mixed at the time of application, and shall be worked into any voids in the strands. 10.10.3 Post-Tensioning Method Requirements Prior to post-tensioning any member, the Contractor shall demonstrate to the satisfaction of the Engineer that the prestressing steel is free and unbonded in the duct. All strands in each tendon, except for those in at ducts with not more than four strands, shall be stressed simultaneously with a multi-strand jack. Tensioning shall be accomplished so as to provide the forces and elongations specied in Article 10.5.1. Except as provided herein or when shown on the plans or on the approved working drawings, tendons in continuous post-tensioned members shall be tensioned by jacking at each end of the tendon. For straight tendons and when one end stressing is shown on the plans, tensioning may be performed by jacking from one end or both ends of the tendon at the option of the Contractor. 10.11 GROUTING 10.11.1 General When the post-tensioning method is used, the prestressing steel shall be provided with permanent protection and shall be bonded to the concrete by completely lling the void space between the duct and the tendon with grout.
All ducts shall be clean and free of deleterious materials that would impair bonding or interfere with grouting procedures. Ducts with concrete walls (cored ducts) shall be ushed to ensure that the concrete is thoroughly wetted. Metal ducts shall be ushed if necessary to remove deleterious material. Water used for ushing ducts may contain slack lime (calcium hydroxide) or quicklime (calcium oxide) in the amount of 0.1 lb per gallon. After ushing, all water shall be blown out of the duct with oil-free compressed air. 10.11.3 Equipment The grouting equipment shall include a mixer capable of continuous mechanical mixing which will produce a grout free of lumps and undispersed cement, a grout pump and standby ushing equipment with water supply. The equipment shall be able to pump the mixed grout in a manner which will comply with all requirements. Accessory equipment which will provide for accurate solid and liquid measures shall be provided to batch all materials. The pump shall be a positive displacement type and be able to produce an outlet pressure of at least 150 psi. The pump should have seals adequate to prevent introduction of oil, air, or other foreign substance into the grout, and to prevent loss of grout or water. A pressure gauge having a full-scale reading of no greater than 300 psi shall be placed at some point in the grout line between the pump outlet and the duct inlet. The grouting equipment shall contain a screen having clear openings of 0.125-inch maximum size to screen the grout prior to its introduction into the grout pump. If a grout with a thixotropic additive is used, a screen opening of 3 16 inch is satisfactory. This screen shall be easily accessible for inspection and cleaning. The grouting equipment shall utilize gravity feed to the pump inlet from a hopper attached to and directly over it. The hopper must be kept at least partially full of grout at all times during the pumping operation to prevent air from being drawn into the post-tensioning duct. Under normal conditions, the grouting equipment shall be capable of continuously grouting the largest tendon on the project in no more than 20 minutes. 10.11.4 Mixing of Grout Water shall be added to the mixer rst, followed by Portland cement and admixture, or as required by the admixture manufacturer.
10.11.4
563
Mixing shall be of such duration as to obtain a uniform, thoroughly blended grout, without excessive temperature increase or loss of expansive properties of the admixture. The grout shall be continuously agitated until it is pumped. Water shall not be added to increase grout owability which has been decreased by delayed use of the grout. Proportions of materials shall be based on tests made on the grout before grouting is begun, or may be selected based on prior documented experience with similar materials and equipment and under comparable eld conditions (weather, temperature, etc.). The water content shall be the minimum necessary for proper placement, and when Type I or II cement is used shall not exceed a watercement ratio of 0.45 or approximately 5 gallons of water per sack (94 lb) of cement. The water content required for Type III cement shall be established for a particular brand based on tests. The pumpability of the grout may be determined by the Engineer in accordance with the U.S. Corps of Engineers Method CRD-C79. When this method is used, the efflux time of the grout sample immediately after mixing shall not be less than 11 seconds. The ow cone test does not apply to grout which incorporates a thixotropic additive. 10.11.5 Injection of Grout All grout and high-point vent openings shall be open when grouting starts. Grout shall be allowed to ow from the rst vent after the inlet pipe until any residual ushing water or entrapped air has been removed, at which time the vent should be capped or otherwise closed. Remaining vents shall be closed in sequence in the same manner. The pumping pressure at the tendon inlet shall not exceed 250 psi. If the actual grouting pressure exceeds the maximum recommended pumping pressure, grout may be injected at any vent which has been, or is ready to be capped as long as a one-way ow of grout is maintained. If this procedure is used, the vent which is to be used for injection shall be tted with a positive shutoff. When one-way ow of grout cannot be maintained, the grout shall be immediately ushed out of the duct with water. Grout shall be pumped through the duct and continuously wasted at the outlet pipe until no visible slugs of water or air are ejected and the efflux time of the ejected grout, as measured by a ow cone test, if used, is not less than that of the injected grout. To ensure that the tendon remains lled with grout, the outlet shall then be closed
and the pumping pressure allowed to build to a minimum of 75 psi before the inlet vent is closed. Plugs, caps, or valves thus required shall not be removed or opened until the grout has set. 10.11.6 Temperature Considerations When temperatures are below 32F, ducts shall be kept free of water to avoid damage due to freezing. The temperature of the concrete shall be 35F or higher from the time of grouting until job cured 2-inch cubes of grout reach a minimum compressive strength of 800 psi. Grout shall not be above 90F during mixing or pumping. If necessary, the mixing water shall be cooled. 10.12 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT 10.12.1 Measurement The prestressing of cast-in-place concrete will be measured by the lump sum for each item or location listed in the schedule of bid items. 10.12.2 Payment
No separate payment will be made for prestressing precast concrete members. Payment for prestressing precast concrete members shall be considered as included in the contract price paid for the precast members as provided for in Section 8, Concrete Structures. The contract lump sum price paid for prestressing castin-place concrete shall include full compensation for furnishing all labor, materials, tools, equipment and incidentals, and for doing all work involved in furnishing, placing, and tensioning the prestressing steel in cast-inplace concrete structures, complete in place, as shown on the plans, as specied in these Specications and the special provisions, and as directed by the Engineer. Full compensation for furnishing and placing additional concrete and deformed bar reinforcing steel required by the particular system used, ducts, anchoring devices, distribution plates or assemblies and incidental parts, for furnishing samples for testing, working drawings, and for pressure grouting ducts shall be considered as included in the contract lump sum price paid for prestressing cast-in-place concrete or in the contract price for furnishing precast members, and no additional compensation will be allowed therefore.
Section 11
STEEL STRUCTURES
11.1 GENERAL 11.1.1 Description This work shall consist of furnishing, fabricating, and erecting steel structures and structural steel portions of other structures in accordance with these Specications, the Special Provisions and the details shown on the plans. The structural steel fabricating plant shall be certied under the AISC Quality Certication Program, Category I. The fabrication of fracture critical members shall be Category III. Details of design which are permitted to be selected by the Contractor shall conform to Division I of these Specications. Painting shall conform to the provisions of Section 13, Painting, of these Specications. Falsework used in the erection of structural steel shall conform to the provisions of Section 3, Temporary Works, of these Specications. Structural components designated on the plans or in the special provisions as fracture critical shall conform to the provisions of Chapter 12 of the ANSI/AASHTO/ AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code. Welding and weld qualication tests shall conform to the provisions of the current ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code. 11.1.2 Notice of Beginning of Work The Contractor shall give the Engineer ample notice of the beginning of work at the mill or in the shop, so that inspection may be provided. The term mill means any rolling mill or foundry where material for the work is to be manufactured. No material shall be manufactured, or work done in the shop, before the Engineer has been so notied. 11.1.3 Inspection Structural steel will be inspected at the fabrication site. The Contractor shall furnish to the Engineer a copy of all 565 mill orders and certied mill test reports. Mill test reports shall show the chemical analysis and physical test results for each heat of steel used in the work. With the approval of the Engineer, certicates of compliance shall be furnished in lieu of mill test reports for material that normally is not supplied with mill test reports, and for items such as lls, minor gusset plates and similar material when quantities are small and the material is taken from stock. Certified mill test reports for steels with specified impact values shall include, in addition to other test results, the results of Charpy V-notch impact tests. When fine grain practice is specified, the test report shall conrm that the material was so produced. Copies of mill orders shall be furnished at the time orders are placed with the manufacturer. Certified mill test reports and Certicates of Compliance shall be furnished prior to the start of fabrication of material covered by these reports. The Certificate of Compliance shall be signed by the manufacturer and shall certify that the material is in conformance with the specications to which it has been manufactured. Material to be used shall be made available to the Engineer so that each piece can be examined. The Engineer shall have free access at all times to any portion of the fabrication site where the material is stored or where work on the material is being performed. 11.1.4 Inspectors Authority The Inspector shall have the authority to reject materials or workmanship which do not fulll the requirements of these Specications. In cases of dispute, the Contractor may appeal to the Engineer, whose decision shall be nal. Inspection at the mill and shop is intended as a means of facilitating the work and avoiding errors, and it is expressly understood that it will not relieve the Contractor of any responsibility in regard to defective material or workmanship and the necessity for replacing the same. The acceptance of any material or nished members by the Inspector shall not be a bar to their subsequent rejection, if found defective. Rejected materials and workman-
566
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
11.1.4
ship shall be replaced as soon as practical or corrected by the Contractor. 11.2 WORKING DRAWINGS The Contractor shall expressly understand that the Engineers approval of the working drawings submitted by the Contractor covers the requirements for strength and detail, and that the Engineer assumes no responsibility for errors in dimensions. Working drawings must be approved by the Engineer prior to performance of the work involved and such approval shall not relieve the Contractor of any responsibility under the contract for the successful completion of the work. 11.2.1 Shop Drawings The Contractor shall submit copies of the detailed shop drawings to the Engineer for approval. Working drawings shall be submitted sufficiently in advance of the start of the affected work to allow time for review by the Engineer and corrections by the Contractor without delaying the work. Working drawings for steel structures shall give full detailed dimensions and sizes of component parts of the structure and details of all miscellaneous parts, such as pins, nuts, bolts, drains, etc. Where specic orientation of plates is required, the direction of rolling of plates shall be shown. Working drawings shall specically identify each piece that is to be made of steel which is to be other than AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade 36 steel. 11.2.2 Erection Drawings The Contractor shall submit drawings illustrating fully his or her proposed method of erection. The drawings shall show details of all falsework bents, bracing, guys, dead-men, lifting devices, and attachments to the bridge members: sequence of erection, location of cranes and barges, crane capacities, location of lifting points on the bridge members, and weights of the members. The plan and drawings shall be complete in detail for all anticipated phases and conditions during erection. Calculations may be required to demonstrate that allowable stresses are not exceeded and that member capacities and nal geometry will be correct. 11.2.3 Camber Diagram A camber diagram shall be furnished to the Engineer by the Fabricator, showing the camber at each panel point
in the cases of trusses or arch ribs, and at the location of eld splices and fractions of span length (1 4 points minimum) in the cases of continuous beam and girders or rigid frames. The camber diagram shall show calculated cambers to be used in preassembly of the structure in accordance with Article 11.5.3. 11.3 MATERIALS 11.3.1 Structural Steel 11.3.1.1 General
Steel shall be furnished according to the following specications. The grade or grades of steel to be furnished shall be as shown on the plans or specied. All steel for use in main load-carrying member components subject to tensile stresses shall conform to the applicable Charpy V-notch Impact Test requirements of AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709). Welded girders made of ASTM A 709, Grade HPS70W steels shall be fabricated in accordance with the AASHTO Guide Specications for Highway Bridge Fabrication with HPS70W Steel, which supplements the ANSI/AASHTO/ AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code. 11.3.1.2 Carbon Steel Unless otherwise specied, structural carbon steel for bolted or welded construction shall conform to: Structural Steel for Bridges, AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade 36. 11.3.1.3 High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel High-strength low-alloy steel shall conform to: Structural Steel for Bridges, AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grades 50 or 50W. 11.3.1.4 High-Strength Low-Alloy, Quenched and Tempered Structural Steel Plate High-strength, low-alloy quenched and tempered steel plate shall conform to AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade 70W, or Grade HPS70W. 11.3.1.5 High-Yield Strength, Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steel Plate High-yield strength, quenched, and tempered alloy steel plate shall conform to:
11.3.1.5
567
(a) Structural Steel for Bridges, AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grades 100 or 100W. (b) Quenched and tempered alloy steel structural shapes and seamless mechanical tubing, meeting all of the mechanical and chemical requirements of AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grades 100 or 100W steel, except that the specied maximum tensile strength may be 140,000 psi for structural shapes and 145,000 psi for seamless mechanical tubing, shall be considered as AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grades 100 and 100W steel. 11.3.1.6 Eyebars
(ASTM A 563) Grades DH, DH3, C, C3, and D. Nuts for AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) bolts shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 291 (ASTM A 563) Grades DH and DH3. Nuts to be galvanized (hot-dip or mechanically galvanized) shall be heat treated Grade DH or DH3. Plain (ungalvanized) nuts shall have a minimum hardness of 89 HRB. Nuts to be used with AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) Type 3 bolts shall be of Grade C3 or DH3. Nuts to be used with AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) bolts shall be of Grade DH3. All galvanized nuts shall be lubricated with a lubricant containing a visible dye. Black bolts must be oily to touch when delivered and installed. Washers shall be hardened steel washers conforming to the requirements of AASHTO M 293 (ASTM F 436) and Article 11.5.6.4.3. 11.3.2.2 Identifying Marks
Steel for eyebars shall be of a weldable grade. These grades include structural steel conforming to: (a) Structural Steel for Bridges, AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade 36. (b) Structural Steel for Bridges, AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grades 50 and 50W. 11.3.1.7 Structural Tubing Structural tubing shall be either cold-formed welded or seamless tubing conforming to ASTM 500, Grade B or hot-formed welded or seamless tubing conforming to ASTM 501. 11.3.2 High-Strength Fasteners 11.3.2.1 Material High-strength bolts for structural steel joints shall conform to either AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) or AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490). When high-strength bolts are used with unpainted weathering grades of steel, the bolts shall be Type 3. The supplier shall provide a lot number appearing on the shipping package and a certication noting when and where all testing was done, including rotational capacity tests, and zinc thickness when galvanized bolts and nuts are used. The maximum hardness for AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) bolts 1 inch or less in diameter shall be 33 HRC. Proof load tests (ASTM F 606 Method 1) are required for the bolts. Wedge tests of full-sized bolts are required in accordance with Section 8.3 of AASHTO M 164. Galvanized bolts shall be wedge tested after galvanizing. Proof load tests (AASHTO M 291) are required for the nuts. The proof load tests for nuts to be used with galvanized bolts shall be performed after galvanizing, overtapping, and lubricating. Except as noted below, nuts for AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) bolts shall conform to AASHTO M 291
AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) for bolts and the specications referenced therein for nuts require that bolts and nuts manufactured to the specication be identied by specic markings on the top of the bolt head and on one face of the nut. Head markings must identify the grade by the symbol A 325, the manufacturer and the type, if Type 2 or 3. Nut markings must identify the grade, the manufacturer and if Type 3, the type. Markings on direct tension indicators must identify the manufacturer and Type 325. Other washer markings must identify the manufacturer and if Type 3, the type. AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) for bolts and the specications referenced therein for nuts require that bolts and nuts manufactured to the specications be identied by specic markings on the top of the bolt head and on one face of the nut. Head markings must identify the grade by the symbol A 490, the manufacturer and the type, if Type 2 or 3. Nut markings must identify the grade, the manufacturer and if Type 3, the type. Markings on direct tension indicators must identify the manufacturer and Type 490. Other washer markings must identify the manufacturer and if Type 3, the type. 11.3.2.3 Dimensions Bolt and nut dimensions shall conform to the requirements for Heavy Hexagon Structural Bolts and for Heavy Semi-Finished Hexagon Nuts given in ANSI Standard B18.2.1 and B18.2.2, respectively.
568
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 11.3.2.6 Load Indicator Devices
11.3.2.4
11.3.2.4 Galvanized High-Strength Fasteners When fasteners are galvanized, they shall be specied to be hot-dip galvanized in accordance with AASHTO M 232 (ASTM A 153) Class C or, mechanically galvanized in accordance with AASHTO M 298 (ASTM B 695) Class 50. Bolts to be galvanized shall be either AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) Type 1 or Type 2 except that Type 2 bolts shall only be mechanically galvanized. Galvanized bolts shall be tension tested after galvanizing. Washers, nuts and bolts of any assembly shall be galvanized by the same process. The nuts should be overtapped to the minimum amount required for the fastener assembly, and shall be lubricated with a lubricant containing a visible dye so a visual check can be made for the lubricant at the time of eld installation. AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) bolts shall not be galvanized. 11.3.2.5 Alternative Fasteners Other fasteners or fastener assemblies, such as those conforming to the requirements of ASTM F 1852, which meet the materials, manufacturing, and chemical composition requirements of AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) or AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490), and which meet the mechanical property requirements of the same specication in full-sized tests, and which have body diameter and bearing areas under the head and nut, or their equivalent, not less than those provided by a bolt and nut of the same nominal dimensions prescribed in Article 11.3.2.3, may be used, subject to the approval of the Engineer. Such alternate fasteners may differ in other dimensions from those of the specied bolts and nuts. Subject to the approval of the Engineer, high-strength steel lock-pin and collar fasteners may be used as an alternate for high-strength bolts as shown on the plans. The shank and head of high-strength steel lock-pin and collar fasteners shall meet the requirements of Article 11.3.2.3. Each fastener shall provide a solid shank body of sufficient diameter to provide tensile and shear strength equivalent to or greater than that of the bolt specied, shall have a cold forged head on one end, of type and dimensions as approved by the Engineer, a shank length suitable for material thickness fastened, locking grooves, breakneck groove and pull grooves (all annular grooves) on the opposite end. Each fastener shall provide a steel locking collar of proper size for shank diameter used which, by means of suitable installation tools, is cold swaged into the locking grooves forming head for the grooved end of the fastener after the pull groove section has been removed. The steel locking collar shall be a standard product of an established manufacturer of lockpin and collar fasteners, as approved by the Engineer.
Load indicating devices may be used in conjunction with bolts, nuts, and washers specied in Article 11.3.2.1. Load indicating devices shall conform to the requirements of ASTM Specication for Compressible-Washer Type Direct Tension Indicators For Use with Structural Fasteners, ASTM F 959, except as provided in the following paragraph. Subject to the approval of the Engineer, alternate design direct tension indicating devices may be used provided they satisfy the requirements of Article 11.5.6.4.6 or other requirements detailed in specications provided by the manufacturer and subject to the approval of the Engineer. 11.3.3 Welded Stud Shear Connectors 11.3.3.1 Materials Shear connector studs shall conform to the requirements of Cold Finished-Carbon Steel Bars and Shafting. AASHTO M 169 (ASTM A 108), cold drawn bars, grades 1015, 1018, or 1020, either semi- or fully killed. If ux retaining caps are used, the steel for the caps shall be of a low carbon grade suitable for welding and shall comply with Cold-Rolled Carbon Steel Strip, ASTM A 109. Tensile properties as determined by tests of bar stock after drawing or of nished studs shall conform to the following requirements: Tensile strength Yield strength* Elongation Reduction of area 60,000 psi (min.) 50,000 psi (min.) 20% in 2 inches (min.) 50% (min.)
*As determined by a 0.2% offset method.
11.3.3.2 Test Methods Tensile properties shall be determined in accordance with the applicable sections of ASTM A370, Mechanical Testing of Steel Products. Tensile tests of nished studs shall be made on studs welded to test plates using a test xture similar to that shown in Figure 7.2 of the current ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code. If fracture occurs outside of the middle half of the gage length, the test shall be repeated. 11.3.3.3 Finish Finished studs shall be of uniform quality and condition, free from injurious laps, ns, seams, cracks, twists, bends, or other injurious defects. Finish shall be as produced by cold drawing, cold rolling, or machining.
11.3.3.4 11.3.3.4 Certication
DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION 11.3.6 Iron Castings 11.3.6.1 Materials
569
The manufacturer shall certify that the studs as delivered are in accordance with the material requirements of this section. Certied copies of in-plant quality control test reports shall be furnished to the Engineer upon request. 11.3.3.5 Check Samples The Engineer may select, at the Contractors expense, studs of each type and size used under the contract, as necessary for checking the requirements of this section. 11.3.4 Steel Forgings and Steel Shafting 11.3.4.1 Steel Forgings Steel forgings shall conform to the Specications for Steel Forgings Carbon and Alloy for General Use, AASHTO M 102 (ASTM A 668), Classes C, D, F, or G. 11.3.4.2 Cold Finished Carbon Steel Shafting Cold nished carbon steel shafting shall conform to the specications for Cold Finished Carbon Steel Bars Standard Quality, AASHTO M 169 (ASTM A 108). Grade 10160-10300, inclusive, shall be furnished unless otherwise specied. 11.3.5 Steel Castings 11.3.5.1 Mild Steel Castings Steel castings for use in highway bridge components shall conform to Standard Specications for Steel Castings for Highway Bridges, AASHTO M 192 (ASTM A 486) or Carbon-Steel Castings for General Applications, AASHTO M 103 (ASTM A 27). The Class 70 or Grade 70-36 of steel, respectively, shall be used unless otherwise specied. 11.3.5.2 Chromium Alloy-Steel Castings Chromium alloy-steel castings shall conform to the Specication for Corrosion-Resistant Iron-Chromium, Iron-Chromium-Nickel and Nickel-Based Alloy Castings for General Application, AASHTO M 163 (ASTM A 743). Grade CA 15 shall be furnished unless otherwise specied.
(1) Gray Iron CastingsGray iron castings shall conform to the Specication for Gray Iron Castings, AASHTO M 105 (ASTM A 48), Class No. 30 unless otherwise specied. (2) Ductile Iron CastingsDuctile iron castings shall conform to the Specifications for Ductile Iron Castings, ASTM A 536, Grade 60-40-18 unless otherwise specified. In addition to the specified test coupons, test specimens from parts integral with the castings, such as risers, shall be tested for castings weighing more than 1,000 pounds to determine that the required quality is obtained in the castings in the nished condition. (3) Malleable CastingsMalleable castings shall conform to the Specication for Malleable Iron Castings, ASTM A 47. Grade No. 35018 shall be furnished unless otherwise specied. 11.3.6.2 Workmanship and Finish Iron castings shall be true to pattern in form and dimensions, free from pouring faults, sponginess, cracks, blow holes, and other defects in positions affecting their strength and value for the service intended. Castings shall be boldly lleted at angles and the arrises shall be sharp and perfect. 11.3.6.3 Cleaning All castings must be sandblasted or otherwise effectively cleaned of scale and sand so as to present a smooth, clean, and uniform surface. 11.3.7 Galvanizing When galvanizing is shown on the plans or specified in the special provisions, ferrous metal products, other than fasteners and hardware items, shall be galvanized in accordance with the Specifications for Zinc (Hot-Galvanized) Coatings on Products Fabricated from Rolled, Pressed, and Forged Steel Shape Plates, Bars, and Strip, AASHTO M 111 (ASTM A 123). Fasteners and hardware items shall be galvanized in accordance with the Specication for Zinc Coating (Hot-Dip) on Iron and Steel Hardware, AASHTO M 232 (ASTM A 153) except as noted in Article 11.3.2.4 for high-strength fasteners.
570 11.4 FABRICATION
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 11.4.3.2.2 Oxygen Cutting
11.4
11.4.1 Identication of Steels During Fabrication The Contractors system of assembly-marking individual pieces, and the issuance of cutting instructions to the shop (generally by cross-referencing of the assemblymarks shown on the shop drawings with the corresponding item covered on the mill purchase order) shall be such as to maintain identity of the original piece. The Contractor may furnish from stock, material that can be identied by heat number and mill test report. During fabrication, up to the point of assembling members, each piece of steel, other than Grade 36 steel, shall show clearly and legibly its specication. Any piece of steel, other than Grade 36 steel, which prior to assembling into members, will be subject to fabricating operations such as blast cleaning, galvanizing, heating for forming, or painting which might obliterate marking, shall be marked for grade by steel die stamping or by a substantial tag rmly attached. Steel die stamps shall be low stress-type. Upon request, by the Engineer, the Contractor shall furnish an affidavit certifying that throughout the fabrication operation the identication of steel has been maintained in accordance with this specication. 11.4.2 Storage of Materials Structural material, either plain or fabricated, shall be stored above the ground on platforms, skids, or other supports. It shall be kept free from dirt, grease, and other foreign matter, and shall be protected as far as practicable from corrosion. See Article 11.5.6.4 for storage of highstrength fasteners. 11.4.3 Plates 11.4.3.1 Direction of Rolling Unless otherwise shown on the plans, steel plates for main members and splice plates for anges and main tension members, not secondary members, shall be cut and fabricated so that the primary direction of rolling is parallel to the direction of the main tensile and/or compressive stresses. 11.4.3.2 Plate Cut Edges 11.4.3.2.1 Edge Planing Sheared edges of plate more than 5 8 inch in thickness and carrying calculated stress shall be planed, milled, ground, or thermal cut to a depth of 1 4 inch.
Oxygen cutting of structural steel shall conform to the requirements of the current ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code. 11.4.3.2.3 Visual Inspection and Repair of Plate Cut Edges Visual inspection and repair of plate cut edges shall be in accordance with the current ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code. 11.4.3.3 Bent Plates 11.4.3.3.1 General Cold bending of fracture critical steels and fracture critical members is prohibited. Perform cold bending of other steels or members in accordance with the ANSI/ AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code and Table 11.4.3.3.2, and in a manner such that no cracking occurs. 11.4.3.3.2 Cold Bending For bent plates, the bend radius and the radius of the male die should be as liberal as the nished part will permit. The width across the shoulders of the female die should be at least 8 times the plate thickness for Grade 36 steel. Higher strength steels require larger die openings. The surface of the dies in the area of radius should be smooth. Where the concave face of a bent plate must t tightly against another surface, the male die should be sufficiently thick and have the proper radius to ensure that the bent plate has the required concave surface. Since cracks in cold bending commonly originate from the outside edges, shear burrs and gas cut edges should be removed by grinding. Sharp corners on edges and on punched or gas cut holes should be removed by chamfering or grinding to a radius. Unless otherwise approved, the minimum bend radii for cold forming (at room temperature), measured to the concave face of the plate, are given in Table 11.4.3.3.2. If a smaller radius is required, heat may be needed to be a part of the bending procedure. Provide the heating procedure for review by the Engineer. For grades not included in Table 11.4.3.3.2, follow minimum bend radii recommendations of the plate producer. If possible, orient bend lines perpendicular to the direction of nal rolling of the plate. If the bend line is parallel to the direction of nal rolling, multiply the suggested minimum radii in Table 11.4.3.3.2 by 1.5.
11.4.3.3.2
571
TABLE 11.4.3.3.2 Minimum Cold-Bending Radii Thickness Inches (t) ASTM A 709/ AASHTO M 270 Grades 36 50 50W HPS70W 100 100W Up to 3/4 Over 3/4 to 1, incl. Over 1 to 2, incl. Over 2
ness requirements as dened in ANSI B46.1, Surface Roughness, Waviness and Lay, Part I: Steel slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ANSI 2,000 Heavy plates in contact in shoes to be welded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ANSI 1,000 Milled ends of compression members, milled or ground ends of stiffeners and llers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ANSI 500 Bridge rollers and rockers. . . . . . . . . . ANSI 250 Pins and pin holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ANSI 125 Sliding bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ANSI 125 11.4.7 Straightening Material
1.5t 1.5t 1.5t 1.5t 1.75t 1.75t
1.5t 1.5t 1.5t 1.5t 2.25t 2.25t
1.5t 2.0t 2.0t 2.5t 4.5t 4.5t
2.0t 2.5t 2.5t 3.0t 5.5t 5.5t
11.4.3.3.3 Hot Bending If a radius shorter than the minimum specied for cold bending is essential, the plates shall be bent hot at a temperature not greater than 1,200F, except for Grades 70W, 100 and 100W. If Grades 100 and 100W steel plates to be bent are heated to a temperature greater than 1,100F, or Grade 70W plates to be bent are heated to a temperature greater than 1,050F, they must be requenched and tempered in accordance with the producing mills practice and tested to verify restoration of specied properties, as directed by the Engineer. Grade HPS70W steel to be bent shall not be heated to a temperature greater than 1,100F. Requenching and tempering is not required for Grade HPS70W steel heated to this limit. 11.4.4 Fit of Stiffeners End bearing stiffeners for girders and stiffeners intended as supports for concentrated loads shall have full bearing (either milled, ground or, on weldable steel in compression areas of anges, welded as shown on the plans or specied) on the anges to which they transmit load or from which they receive load. Intermediate stiffeners not intended to support concentrated loads, unless shown or specied otherwise, shall have a tight t against the compression ange. 11.4.5 Abutting Joints Abutting joints in compression members of trusses and columns shall be milled or saw-cut to give a square joint and uniform bearing. At other joints, not required to be faced, the opening shall not exceed 3 8 inch. 11.4.6 Facing of Bearing Surfaces The surface nish of bearing and base plates and other bearing surfaces that are to come in contact with each other or with concrete shall meet the ANSI surface rough-
The straightening of plates, angles, other shapes, and built-up members, when permitted by the Engineer, shall be done by methods that will not produce fracture or other injury to the metal. Distorted members shall be straightened by mechanical means or, if approved by the Engineer, by carefully planned procedures and supervised application of a limited amount of localized heat, except that heat straightening of AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grades 70W, HPS70W, 100 and 100W steel members shall be done only under rigidly controlled procedures, each application subject to the approval of the Engineer. In no case shall the maximum temperature exceed values in the following table. Grade 70W Grade HPS70W Grade 100 or 100W 1,050F 1,100F 1,100F
In all other steels, the temperature of the heated area shall not exceed 1,200F as controlled by temperature indicating crayons, liquids, or bimetal thermometers. Heating in excess of the limits shown shall be cause for rejection, unless the Engineer allows testing to verify material integrity. Parts to be heat straightened shall be substantially free of stress and from external forces, except stresses resulting from mechanical means used in conjunction with the application of heat. Evidence of fracture following straightening of a bend or buckle will be cause for rejection of the damaged piece. 11.4.8 Bolt Holes 11.4.8.1 Holes for High-Strength Bolts and Unnished Bolts* 11.4.8.1.1 General All holes for bolts shall be either punched or drilled except as noted herein. Material forming parts of a member
*See Article 11.5.5 for bolts included in designation Unnished Bolts.
572
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 11.4.8.2 Accuracy of Hole Group 11.4.8.2.1 Accuracy Before Reaming
11.4.8.1.1
composed of not more than ve thicknesses of metal may be punched 1 16 inch larger than the nominal diameter of the bolts whenever the thickness of the material is not greater than 3 4 inch for structural steel, 5 8 inch for highstrength steel or 1 2 inch for quenched and tempered alloy steel, unless subpunching and reaming are required under Article 11.4.8.5. When material is thicker than 3 4 inch for structural steel, 5 8 inch for high-strength steel, or 1 2 inch for quenched and tempered alloy steel, all holes shall either be subdrilled and reamed or drilled full size. Also, when more than ve thicknesses are joined, or as required by Article 11.4.8.5, material shall be subdrilled and reamed or drilled full size while in assembly. When required, all holes shall be either subpunched or subdrilled (subdrilled if thickness limitation governs) 3 16 inch smaller and, after assembling, reamed 1 16 inch larger or drilled full size to 1 16 inch larger than the nominal diameter of the bolts. When shown on the plans, enlarged or slotted holes are allowed with high-strength bolts. 11.4.8.1.2 Punched Holes The diameter of the die shall not exceed the diameter of the punch by more than 1 16 inch. If any holes must be enlarged to admit the bolts, such holes shall be reamed. Holes must be clean cut without torn or ragged edges. The slightly conical hole that naturally results from punching operations is considered acceptable. 11.4.8.1.3 Reamed or Drilled Holes Reamed or drilled holes shall be cylindrical, perpendicular to the member, and shall comply with the requirements of Article 11.4.8.1.1 as to size. Where practical, reamers shall be directed by mechanical means. Burrs on the outside surfaces shall be removed. Reaming and drilling shall be done with twist drills, twist reamers or rotobroach cutters. Connecting parts requiring reamed or drilled holes shall be assembled and securely held while being reamed or drilled and shall be match marked before disassembling. 11.4.8.1.4 Accuracy of Holes Holes not more than 1 32 inch larger in diameter than the true decimal equivalent of the nominal diameter that may result from a drill or reamer of the nominal diameter are considered acceptable. The width of slotted holes which are produced by ame cutting or a combination of drilling or punching and ame cutting shall generally be not more than 1 32 inch greater than the nominal width. The ame cut surface shall be ground smooth.
All holes punched full size, subpunched, or subdrilled shall be so accurately punched that after assembling (before any reaming is done) a cylindrical pin 1 8 inch smaller in diameter than the nominal size of the punched hole may be entered perpendicular to the face of the member, without drifting, in at least 75% of the contiguous holes in the same plane. If the requirement is not fullled, the badly punched pieces will be rejected. If any hole will not pass a pin 3 16 inch smaller in diameter than the nominal size of the punched hole, this will be cause for rejection. 11.4.8.2.2 Accuracy After Reaming When holes are reamed or drilled, 85% of the holes in any contiguous group shall, after reaming or drilling, show no offset greater than 1 32 inch between adjacent thicknesses of metal. All steel templates shall have hardened steel bushings in holes accurately dimensioned from the center lines of the connection as inscribed on the template. The center lines shall be used in locating accurately the template from the milled or scribed ends of the members. 11.4.8.3 Numerically Controlled Drilled Field Connections In lieu of subsized holes and reaming while assembled, or drilling holes full-size while assembled, the Contractor shall have the option to drill or punch bolt holes full-size in unassembled pieces and/or connections including templates for use with matching subsized and reamed holes, by means of suitable numerically controlled (N/C) drilling or punching equipment. Full-sized punched holes shall meet the requirements of Article 11.4.8.1. If N/C drilling or punching equipment is used, the Contractor, by means of check assemblies, will be required to demonstrate the accuracy of this drilling or punching procedure in accordance with the provisions of Article 11.5.3.3. Holes drilled or punched by N/C equipment shall be drilled or punched to appropriate size either through individual pieces, or drilled through any combination of pieces held tightly together. 11.4.8.4 Holes for Ribbed Bolts, Turned Bolts, or Other Approved Bearing Type Bolts All holes for ribbed bolts, turned bolts, or other approved bearing-type bolts shall be subpunched or subdrilled 3 16 inch smaller than the nominal diameter of the
11.4.8.4
DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION 11.4.9.2 Boring Pin Holes
573
bolt and reamed when assembled, or drilled to a steel template or, after assembling, drilled from the solid at the option of the Fabricator. In any case the nished holes shall provide a driving t as specied on the plans or in the special provisions. 11.4.8.5 Preparation of Field Connections Holes in all eld connections and eld splices of main member of trusses, arches, continuous beam spans, bents, towers (each face), plate girders, and rigid frames shall be subpunched or subdrilled and subsequently reamed while assembled or drilled full size through a steel template while assembled. Holes for field splices of rolled beam stringers continuous over floor beams or cross frames may be drilled full size unassembled to a steel template. All holes for oor beams or cross frames may be drilled full size unassembled to a steel template, except that all holes for floor beam and stringer field end connections shall be subpunched and reamed while assembled or drilled full size to a steel template. Reaming or drilling full size of field connection holes through a steel template shall be done after the template has been located with utmost care as to position and angle and firmly bolted in place. Templates used for reaming matching members, or the opposite faces of a single member shall be exact duplicates. Templates used for connections on like parts or members shall be so accurately located that the parts or members are duplicates and require no match-marking. For any connection, in lieu of subpunching and reaming or subdrilling and reaming, the fabricator may, at his option, drill holes full size with all thicknesses or material assembled in proper position. 11.4.9 Pins and Rollers 11.4.9.1 General Pins and rollers shall be accurately turned to the dimensions shown on the drawings and shall be straight, smooth, and free from aws. Pins and rollers more than 9 inches in diameter shall be forged and annealed. Pins and rollers 9 inches or less in diameter may be either forged and annealed or cold-nished carbon-steel shafting. In pins larger than 9 inches in diameter, a hole not less than 2 inches in diameter shall be bored full length along the axis after the forging has been allowed to cool to a temperature below the critical range, under suitable conditions to prevent injury by too rapid cooling, and before being annealed.
Pin holes shall be bored true to the specied diameter, smooth and straight, at right angles with the axis of the member and parallel with each other unless otherwise required. The nal surface shall be produced by a nishing cut. The diameter of the pin hole shall not exceed that of the pin by more than 1 50 inch for pins 5 inches or less in diameter, or by 1 32 inch for larger pins. The distance outside to outside of end holes in tension members and inside to inside of end holes in compression members shall not vary from that specied more than 1 32 inch. Boring of pin holes in built-up members shall be done after the member has been assembled. 11.4.9.3 Threads for Bolts and Pins Threads for all bolts and pins for structural steel construction shall conform to the United Standard Series UNC ANSI B1.1, Class 2A for external threads and Class 2B for internal threads, except that pin ends having a diameter of 13 8 inches or more shall be threaded six threads to the inch. 11.4.10 Eyebars
Pin holes may be ame cut at least 2 inches smaller in diameter than the nished pin diameter. All eyebars that are to be placed side by side in the structure shall be securely fastened together in the order that they will be placed on the pin and bored at both ends while so clamped. Eyebars shall be packed and match-marked for shipment and erection. All identifying marks shall be stamped with steel stencils on the edge of one head of each member after fabrication is completed so as to be visible when the bars are nested in place on the structure. Steel die stamps shall be low stress type. No welding is allowed on eyebars or to secure adjacent eyebars. The eyebars shall be straight and free from twists and the pin holes shall be accurately located on the center line of the bar. The inclination of any bar to the plane of the truss shall not exceed 1 16 inch to a foot. The edges of eyebars that lie between the transverse center line of their pin holes shall be cut simultaneously with two mechanically operated torches abreast of each other, guided by a substantial template, in such a manner as to prevent distortion of the plates. 11.4.11 Annealing and Stress Relieving Structural members which are indicated in the contract to be annealed or normalized shall have nished machin-
574
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
11.4.11
ing, boring, and straightening done subsequent to heat treatment. Normalizing and annealing (full annealing) shall be as specied in ASTM E 44. The temperatures shall be maintained uniformly throughout the furnace during the heating and cooling so that the temperature at no two points on the member will differ by more than 100F at any one time. Members of AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grades 100/100W or Grade 70W steels shall not be annealed or normalized and shall be stress relieved only with the approval of the Engineer. A record of each furnace charge shall identify the pieces in the charge and show the temperatures and schedule actually used. Proper instruments, including recording pyrometers, shall be provided for determining at any time the temperatures of members in the furnace. The records of the treatment operation shall be available to and meet the approval of the Engineer. The holding temperature for stress relieving Grades HPS70W and 100/100W shall not exceed 1,100F and for Grade 70W shall not exceed 1,050F. Members, such as bridge shoes, pedestals, or other parts that are built up by welding sections of plate together shall be stress relieved in accordance with the procedure of Section 4.4 of the current ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code, when required by the plans, specications, or special provisions governing the contract. 11.4.12 Curved Girders 11.4.12.1 General Flanges of curved, welded girders may be cut to the radii shown on the plans or curved by applying heat as specied in the succeeding articles providing the radii is not less than allowed by Article 10.15.2 of Division I. 11.4.12.2 Heat Curving Rolled Beams and Welded Girders 11.4.12.2.1 Materials
perature to obtain the required curvature. For the V-type heating, the top and bottom anges shall be heated in truncated triangular or wedge-shaped areas having their base along the ange edge and spaced at regular intervals along each ange; the spacing and temperature shall be as required to obtain the required curvature, and heating shall progress along the top and bottom ange at approximately the same rate. For the V-type heating, the apex of the truncated triangular area applied to the inside ange surface shall terminate just before the juncture of the web and the ange is reached. To avoid unnecessary web distortion, special care shall be taken when heating the inside ange surfaces (the surfaces that intersect the web) so that heat is not applied directly to the web. When the radius of curvature is 1,000 feet or more, the apex of the truncated triangular heating pattern applied to the outside ange surface shall extend to the juncture of the ange and web. When the radius of curvature is less than 1,000 feet, the apex of the truncated triangular heating pattern applied to the outside ange surface shall extend past the web for a distance equal to one-eighth of the ange width or 3 inches, whichever is less. The truncated triangular pattern shall have an included angle of approximately 15 to 30, but the base of the triangle shall not exceed 10 inches. Variations in the patterns prescribed above may be made with the approval of the Engineer. For both types of heating, the ange edges to be heated are those that will be on the inside of the horizontal curve after cooling. Heating both inside and outside ange surfaces is only mandatory when the ange thickness is 11 4 inches or greater, in which case, the two surfaces shall be heated concurrently. The maximum temperature shall be prescribed as follows. 11.4.12.2.3 Temperature
Except for Grade HPS70W steel, steels that are manufactured to a specied minimum yield point greater than 50,000 psi shall not be heat curved. 11.4.12.2.2 Type of Heating Beams and girders may be curved by either continuous or V-type heating as approved by the Engineer. For the continuous method, a strip or intermittent strips along the edge of the top and bottom ange shall be heated approximately simultaneously depending on ange widths and thicknesses; the strip shall be of sufficient width and tem-
The heat-curving operation shall be conducted in such a manner that the temperature of the steel does not exceed 1,200F for Grades 36, 50 and 50W; 1,100F for Grades HPS70W and 100/100W; and 1,050F for Grade 70W as measured by temperature indicating crayons or other suitable means. The girder shall not be articially cooled until after naturally cooling to 600F. The method of articial cooling is subject to the approval of the Engineer. 11.4.12.2.4 Position for Heating The girder may be heat-curved with the web in either a vertical or a horizontal position. When curved in the vertical position, the girder must be braced or supported in such a manner that the tendency of the girder to deect laterally during the heat-curving process will not cause the girder to overturn.
11.4.12.2.4
DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION 11.4.13 Orthotropic-Deck Superstructures 11.4.13.1 General
575
When curved in the horizontal position, the girder must be supported near its ends and at intermediate points, if required, to obtain a uniform curvature; the bending stress in the anges due to the dead weight of the girder and externally applied loads must not exceed the usual allowable design stress. When the girder is positioned horizontally for heating, intermediate safety catch blocks must be maintained at the mid-length of the girder within 2 inches of the anges at all times during the heating process to guard against a sudden sag due to plastic ange buckling. 11.4.12.2.5 Sequence of Operations The girder shall be heat-curved in the fabrication shop before it is painted. The heat curving operation may be conducted either before or after all the required welding of transverse intermediate stiffeners is completed. However, unless provisions are made for girder shrinkage, connection plates and bearing stiffeners shall be located and attached after heat curving. If longitudinal stiffeners are required, they shall be heat-curved or oxygen-cut separately and then welded to the curved girder. When cover plates are to be attached to rolled beams, they may be attached before heat curving if the total thickness of one ange and cover plate is less than 21 2 inches and the radius of curvature is greater than 1,000 feet. For other rolled beams with cover plates, the beams must be heat-curved before the cover plates are attached; cover plates must be either heat curved or oxygen-cut separately and then welded to the curved beam. 11.4.12.2.6 Camber
Dimensional tolerance limits for orthotropic-deck bridge members shall be applied to each completed but unloaded member and shall be as specified in Article 3.5 of the current ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code except as follows. The deviation from detailed flatness, straightness, or curvature at any point shall be the perpendicular distance from that point to a template edge which has the detailed straightness or curvature and which is in contact with the element at two other points. The term element as used herein refers to individual panels, stiffeners, flanges, or other pieces. The template edge may have any length not exceeding the greatest dimension of the element being examined and, for any panel, not exceeding 1.5 times the least dimension of the panel; it may be placed anywhere within the boundaries of the element. The deviation shall be measured between adjacent points of contact of the template edge with the element; the distance between these adjacent points of contact shall be used in the formulas to establish the tolerance limits for the segment being measured whenever this distance is less than the applicable dimension of the element specified for the formula.
11.4.13.2 Flatness of Panels (a) The term panel as used in this article means a clear area of steel plate surface bounded by stiffeners, webs, anges, or plate edges and not further subdivided by any such elements. The provisions of this article apply to all panels in the bridge; for plates stiffened on one side only such as orthotropic-deck plates or anges of box girders, this includes the total clear width on the side without stiffeners as well as the panels between stiffeners on the side with stiffeners. (b) The maximum deviation from detailed atness or curvature of a panel shall not exceed the greater of:
Girders shall be cambered before heat curving. Camber for rolled beams may be obtained by heatcambering methods approved by the Engineer. For plate girders, the web shall be cut to the prescribed camber with suitable allowance for shrinkage due to cutting, welding, and heat curving. However, subject to the approval of the Engineer, moderate deviations from specied camber may be corrected by a carefully supervised application of heat. 11.4.12.2.7 Measurement of Curvature and Camber Horizontal curvature and vertical camber shall be measured for nal acceptance after all welding and heating operations are completed and the anges have cooled to a uniform temperature. Horizontal curvature shall be checked with the girder in the vertical position.
16 inch or
D inch 144 T
where, D T the least dimension in inches along the boundary of the panel the minimum thickness in inches of the plate comprising the panel.
576
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
11.4.13.3
11.4.13.3 Straightness of Longitudinal Stiffeners Subject to Calculated Compressive Stress, Including Orthotropic-Deck Ribs The maximum deviation from detailed straightness or curvature in any direction perpendicular to its length of a longitudinal web stiffener or other stiffener subject to calculated compressive stress shall not exceed: L 480 where L the length of the stiffener or rib between cross members, webs, or anges, in inches. 11.4.13.4 Straightness of Transverse Web Stiffeners and Other Stiffeners not Subject to Calculated Compressive Stress The maximum deviation from detailed straightness or curvature in any direction perpendicular to its length of a transverse web stiffener or other stiffener not subject to calculated compressive stress shall not exceed: L 240 where L the length of the stiffener between cross members, webs, or anges, in inches. 11.4.14 Full-Sized Tests When full-sized tests of fabricated structural members or eyebars are required by the contract, the Contractor shall provide suitable facilities, material, supervision, and labor necessary for making and recording the required tests. The members tested in accordance with the contract shall be paid for in accordance with Article 11.7.2. 11.4.15 Marking and Shipping Each member shall be painted or marked with an erection mark for identication and an erection diagram showing these marks shall be furnished to the Engineer. The Contractor shall furnish to the Engineer as many copies of material orders, shipping statements, and erection diagrams as the Engineer may direct. The weights of the individual members shall be shown on the statements. Members weighing more than 3 tons shall have the weights marked thereon. Structural members shall be loaded on trucks or cars in such a manner that they may be transported and unloaded at their destination without being
excessively stressed, deformed, or otherwise damaged. Bolts, nuts and washers (where required) from each rotational-capacity lot shall be shipped in the same container. If there is only one production lot number for each size of nut and washer, the nuts and washers may be shipped in separate containers. Pins, small parts and packages of bolts, washers, and nuts shall be shipped in boxes, crates, kegs, or barrels, but the gross weight of any package shall not exceed 300 pounds. A list and description of the contained materials shall be plainly marked on the outside of each shipping container. 11.5 ASSEMBLY 11.5.1 Bolting Surfaces of metal in contact shall be cleaned before assembling. The parts of a member shall be assembled, well pinned, and rmly drawn together before drilling, reaming, or bolting is commenced. Assembled pieces shall be taken apart, if necessary, for the removal of burrs and shavings produced by the operation. The member shall be free from twists, bends, and other deformation. The drifting done during assembling shall be only such as to bring the parts into position and not sufficient to enlarge the holes or distort the metal. 11.5.2 Welded Connections Surfaces and edges to be welded shall be smooth, uniform, clean and free of defects which would adversely affect the quality of the weld. Edge preparation shall be done in accordance with the current ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code. 11.5.3 Preassembly of Field Connections 11.5.3.1 General
Field connections of main members of trusses, arches, continuous beams, plate girders, bents, towers and rigid frames shall be preassembled prior to erection as necessary to verify the geometry of the completed structure or unit and to verify or prepare field splices. Attaining accurate geometry is the responsibility of the Contractor who shall propose an appropriate method of preassembly for approval by the Engineer. The method and details of preassembly shall be consistent with the erection procedure shown on the erection plans and camber diagrams prepared by the Contractor and approved by the Engineer. As a minimum, the preassembly procedure shall consist of assembling three contiguous panels accurately
11.5.3.1
577
adjusted for line and camber. Successive assemblies shall consist of at least one section or panel of the previous assembly (repositioned if necessary and adequately pinned to assure accurate alignment) plus two or more sections or panels added at the advancing end. In the case of structures longer than 150 feet, each assembly shall be not less than 150 feet long regardless of the length of individual continuous panels or sections. At the option of the fabricator, sequence of assembly may start from any location in the structure and proceed in one or both directions so long as the preceding requirements are satised. 11.5.3.2 Bolted Connections For bolted connections holes shall be prepared as outlined in Article 11.4.8. Where applicable, major components shall be assembled with milled ends of compression members in full bearing and then shall have their subsized holes reamed to the specied size while the connections are assembled. 11.5.3.3 Check AssemblyNumerically Controlled Drilling When the contractor elects to use numerically controlled drilling, a check assembly shall be required for each major structural type of each project, unless otherwise designated on the plans or in the special provisions, and shall consist of at least three contiguous shop sections or, in a truss, all members in at least three contiguous panels but not less than the number of panels associated with three contiguous chord lengths (i.e., length between eld splices). Check assemblies should be based on the proposed order of erection, joints in bearings, special complex points, and similar considerations. Special points could be the portals of skewed trusses, for example. The check assemblies shall preferably be the rst sections of each major structural type to be fabricated. Shop assemblies other than the check assemblies will not be required. If the check assembly fails in some specic manner to demonstrate that the required accuracy is being obtained, further check assemblies may be required by the Engineer for which there shall be no additional cost to the Department. Each assembly, including camber, alignment, accuracy of holes, and t of milled joints, shall be approved by the Engineer before reaming is commenced or before an N/C drilled check assembly is dismantled. 11.5.3.4 Field Welded Connections
For eld welded connections the t of members including the proper space between abutting anges shall be prepared or veried with the segment preassembled in accordance with Article 11.5.3.1. 11.5.4 Match Marking Connecting parts preassembled in the shop to assure proper t in the eld shall be match-marked, and a diagram showing such marks shall be furnished to the Engineer. 11.5.5 Connections Using Unnished, Turned or Ribbed Bolts 11.5.5.1 General When unnished bolts are specied, the bolts shall be unnished, turned, or ribbed bolts conforming to the requirements for Grade A Bolts of Standard Specication for Carbon Steel Bolts and Studs, 60,000 PSI Tensile Strength, ASTM A 307. Bolts shall have single self-locking nuts or double nuts unless otherwise shown on the plans or in the special provisions. Beveled washers shall be used where bearing faces have a slope of more than 1:20 with respect to a plane normal to the bolt axis. The specications of this article do not pertain to the use of high-strength bolts. Bolted connections fabricated with high-strength bolts shall conform to Article 11.5.6. 11.5.5.2 Turned Bolts The surface of the body of turned bolts shall meet the ANSI roughness rating value of 125. Heads and nuts shall be hexagonal with standard dimensions for bolts of the nominal size specied or the next larger nominal size. Diameter of threads shall be equal to the body of the bolt or the nominal diameter of the bolt specied. Holes for turned bolts shall be carefully reamed with bolts furnished to provide for a light driving t. Threads shall be entirely outside of the holes. A washer shall be provided under the nut. 11.5.5.3 Ribbed Bolts The body of ribbed bolts shall be of an approved form with continuous longitudinal ribs. The diameter of the body measured on a circle through the points of the ribs shall be 5 64 inch greater than the nominal diameter specied for the bolts. Ribbed bolts shall be furnished with round heads conforming to ANSI B 18.5 unless otherwise specied. Nuts shall be hexagonal, either recessed or with a washer of suitable thickness. Ribbed bolts shall make a driving t
578
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
11.5.5.3
with the holes. The hardness of the ribs shall be such that the ribs do not mash down enough to permit the bolts to turn in the holes during tightening. If for any reason the bolt twists before drawing tight, the hole shall be carefully reamed and an oversized bolt used as a replacement. 11.5.6 Connections Using High-Strength Bolts 11.5.6.1 General This article covers the assembly of structural joints using AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) or AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) high-strength bolts, or equivalent fasteners, installed so as to develop the minimum required bolt tension specied in Table 11.5A. The bolts are used in holes conforming to the requirements of Article 11.4.8. 11.5.6.2 Bolted Parts All material within the grip of the bolt shall be steel, there shall be no compressible material such as gaskets or insulation within the grip. Bolted steel parts shall t solidly together after the bolts are snugged, and may be coated or uncoated. The slope of the surfaces of parts in contact with the bolt head or nut shall not exceed 1:20 with respect to a plane normal to the bolt axis. 11.5.6.3 Surface Conditions At the time of assembly, all joint surfaces, including surfaces adjacent to the bolt head and nut, shall be free of scale, except tight mill scale, and shall be free of dirt or other foreign material. Burrs that would prevent solid seating of the connected parts in the snug condition shall be removed.
TABLE 11.5A Required Fastener Tension Minimum Bolt Tension in Pounds*
Paint is permitted on the faying surface including slip critical joints when designed in accordance with Articles 10.32.3, or 10.56.1.3, Division I. The faying surfaces of slip-critical connections shall meet the requirements of the following paragraphs, as applicable: (1) In noncoated joints, paint, including any inadvertent overspray, shall be excluded from areas closer than one-bolt diameter, but not less than 1 inch, from the edge of any hole and all areas within the bolt pattern. (2) Joints specied to have painted faying surfaces shall be blast cleaned and coated with a paint which has been qualied in accordance with requirements of Articles 10.32.3.2.3 or 10.57.3.3, Division I. (3) Coated joints shall not be assembled before the coating has cured for the minimum time used in the qualifying test. (4) Faying surfaces specied to be galvanized shall be hot-dip galvanized in accordance with AASHTO M 111 (ASTM A 123), and shall subsequently be roughened by means of hand wire brushing. Power wire brushing is not permitted. 11.5.6.4 Installation 11.5.6.4.1 General Fastener components shall be assigned lot numbers (including rotational-capacity lot numbers) prior to shipping, and components shall be assembled when installed. Such components shall be protected from dirt and moisture at the job site. Remove from protective storage only the number of anticipated components to be installed during a work shift. Components not used shall be returned to protected storage at the end of the shift. Components shall not be cleaned of lubricant that is required to be present in asdelivered condition. Assemblies for slip-critical connections which accumulate rust or dirt resulting from job site conditions shall be cleaned, relubricated and tested for rotational-capacity prior to installation. All galvanized nuts shall be lubricated with a lubricant containing a visible dye. Plain bolts must be oily to touch when delivered and installed. Lubricant on exposed surfaces shall be removed prior to painting. A bolt tension measuring device (a Skidmore-Wilhelm Calibrator or other acceptable bolt tension indicating device) shall be at all job sites where high-strength bolts are being installed and tensioned. The tension measuring device shall be used to perform the rotational-capacity test and to conrm (1) the suitability to satisfy the requirements of Table 11.5A of the complete fastener assembly, including lubrication if required to be used in the work, (2) calibration of the wrenches, if applicable, and (3) the understanding and proper use by the bolting crew of the
11.5.6.4.1
579
installation method. To perform the calibrated wrench verication test for short grip bolts, direct tension indicators (DTI) with solid plates may be used in lieu of a tension measuring device. The DTI lot shall be rst veried with a longer grip bolt in the Skidmore-Wilhelm Calibrator or an acceptable equivalent device. The frequency of conrmation testing, the number of tests to be performed, and the test procedure shall be as specied in Articles 11.5.6.4.4 through 11.5.6.4.7, as applicable. The accuracy of the tension measuring device shall be conrmed by an approved testing agency at least annually. Bolts and nuts together with washers of size and quality specied, located as required below, shall be installed in properly aligned holes and tensioned and inspected by any of the installation methods described in Articles 11.5.6.4.4 through 11.5.6.4.7 to at least the minimum tension specied in Table 11.5A. Tensioning may be done by turning the bolt while the nut is prevented from rotating when it is impractical to turn the nut. Impact wrenches, if used, shall be of adequate capacity and sufficiently supplied with air to tension each bolt in approximately 10 seconds. AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) fasteners and galvanized AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) fasteners shall not be reused. Other AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) bolts may be reused if approved by the Engineer. Touching up or retensioning previously tensioned bolts which may have been loosened by the tensioning of adjacent bolts shall not be considered as reuse provided the tensioning continues from the initial position and does not require greater rotation, including the tolerance, than that required by Table 11.5B. Bolts shall be installed in all holes of the connection and the connection brought to a snug condition. Snug is dened as having all plies of the connection in rm contact. Snugging shall progress systematically from the most rigid part of the connection to the free edges. The snugging sequence shall be repeated until the full connection is in a snug condition. 11.5.6.4.2 Rotational-Capacity Tests Rotational-capacity testing is required for all fastener assemblies. Galvanized assemblies shall be tested galvanized. Washers are required as part of the test even though they may not be required as part of the installation procedure. The following shall apply: (a) Except as modied herein, the rotational-capacity test shall be performed in accordance with the requirements of AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325). (b) Each combination of bolt production lot, nut lot and washer lot shall be tested as an assembly. Where washers are not required by the installation procedures, they need not be included in the lot identication.
TABLE 11.5B Nut Rotation from the Snug-Tight Conditiona,b Geometry of Outer Faces of Bolted Parts
(c) A rotational-capacity lot number shall have been assigned to each combination of lots tested. (d) The minimum frequency of testing shall be two assemblies per rotational-capacity lot. (e) For bolts that are long enough to t in a SkidmoreWilhelm Calibrator, the bolt, nut and washer assembly shall be assembled in a Skidmore-Wilhelm Calibrator or an acceptable equivalent device. (f) Bolts that are too short to be tested in a SkidmoreWilhelm Calibrator may be tested in a steel joint. The tension requirement, in (g) below, need not apply. The maximum torque requirement, torque 0.25 PD, shall be computed using a value of P equal to the turn test tension taken as 1.15 times the bolt tension in Table 11.5A. (g) The tension reached at the below rotation (i.e., turntest tension) shall be equal to or greater than 1.15 times the required fastener tension (i.e., installation tension) shown in Table 11.5A.
580
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
11.5.6.4.2
(h) The minimum rotation from an initial tension of 10% of the minimum required tension (snug condition) shall be two times the required number of turns indicated in Table 11.5B without stripping or failure. (i) After the required installation tension listed above has been exceeded, one reading of tension and torque shall be taken and recorded. The torque value shall conform to the following: Torque 0.25 PD Where: Torque measured torque (foot-pounds) P measured bolt tension (pounds) D bolt diameter (feet). 11.5.6.4.3 Requirement for Washers Where the outer face of the bolted parts has a slope greater than 1:20 with respect to a plane normal to the bolt axis, a hardened beveled washer shall be used to compensate for the lack of parallelism. Hardened beveled washers for American Standard Beams and Channels shall be required and shall be square or rectangular, shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 293 (ASTM F 436), and shall taper in thickness. Where necessary, washers may be clipped on one side to a point not closer than 7 8 of the bolt diameter from the center of the washer. Hardened washers are not required for connections using AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) and AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) bolts except as follows: Hardened washers shall be used under the turned element when tensioning is to be performed by calibrated wrench method. Irrespective of the tensioning method, hardened washers shall be used under both the head and the nut when AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) bolts are to be installed in material having a specied yield point less than 40 ksi. However, when DTIs are used they may replace a hardened washer provided a standard hole is used. Where AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) bolts of any diameter or AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) bolts equal to or less than 1 inch in diameter are to be installed in oversize or short-slotted holes in an outer ply, a hardened washer conforming to AASHTO M 293 (ASTM F 436) shall be used. When AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) bolts over 1 inch in diameter are to be installed in an oversized or short-slotted hole in an outer ply, hardened washers conforming to AASHTO M 293 (ASTM F 436) except with 5 16 inch minimum thickness shall be
used under both the head and the nut in lieu of standard thickness hardened washers. Multiple hardened washers with combined thickness equal to or greater than 5 16 inch do not satisfy this requirement. Where AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) bolts of any diameter or AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) bolts equal to or less than 1 inch in diameter are to be installed in a long slotted hole in an outer ply, a plate washer or continuous bar of at least 5 16 inch thickness with standard holes shall be provided. These washers or bars shall have a size sufficient to completely cover the slot after installation and shall be of structural grade material, but need not be hardened except as follows. When AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) bolts over 1 inch in diameter are to be used in long slotted holes in external plies, a single hardened washer conforming to AASHTO M 293 (ASTM F 436) but with 5 16 inch minimum thickness shall be used in lieu of washers or bars of structural grade material. Multiple hardened washers with combined thickness equal to or greater than 5 16 inch do not satisfy this requirement. Alternate design fasteners meeting the requirements of Article 11.3.2.6 with a geometry which provides a bearing circle on the head or nut with a diameter equal to or greater then the diameter of hardened washers meeting the requirements of AASHTO M 293 (ASTM F 436) satisfy the requirements for washers specied herein and may be used without washers. 11.5.6.4.4 Turn-of-Nut Installation Method When the turn-of-nut installation method is used, hardened washers are not required except as may be specied in Article 11.5.6.4.3. Verication testing using a representative sample of not less than three fastener assemblies of each diameter, length and grade to be used in the work shall be performed at the start of work in a device capable of indicating bolt tension. This verication test shall demonstrate that the method used to develop a snug condition and control the turns from snug by the bolting crew develops a tension not less than 5% greater than the tension required by Table 11.5A. Periodic retesting shall be performed when ordered by the Engineer. After snugging, the applicable amount of rotation specied in Table 11.5B shall be achieved. During the tensioning operation there shall be no rotation of the part not turned by the wrench. Tensioning shall progress systematically from the most rigid part of the joint to its free edges. 11.5.6.4.5 Calibrated Wrench Installation Method The calibrated wrench method may be used only when wrenches are calibrated on a daily basis and when a hardened washer is used under the turned element. Standard
11.5.6.4.5
581
torques determined from tables or from formulas which are assumed to relate torque to tension shall not be acceptable. When calibrated wrenches are used for installation, they shall be set to deliver a torque which has been calibrated to develop a tension not less than 5% in excess of the minimum tension specied in Table 11.5A. The installation procedures shall be calibrated by verication testing at least once each working day for each fastener assembly lot that is being installed that day in the work. This verication testing shall be accomplished in a tension measuring device capable of indicating actual bolt tension by testing three typical fastener assemblies from each lot. Bolts, nuts and washers under the turned element shall be sampled from production lots. Wrenches shall be recalibrated when signicant difference is noted in the surface condition of the bolts, threads, nuts or washers. It shall be veried during actual installation in the assembled steel work that the wrench adjustment selected by the calibration does not produce a nut or bolt head rotation from a snug condition greater than that permitted in Table 11.5B. If manual torque wrenches are used, nuts shall be torqued in the tensioning direction when torque is measured. When calibrated wrenches are used to install and tension bolts in a connection, bolts shall be installed with hardened washers under the turned element. Following snugging, the connection shall be tensioned using the calibrated wrench. Tensioning shall progress systematically from the most rigid part of the joint to its free edges. The wrench shall be returned to touch up previously tensioned bolts which may have been relaxed as a result of the subsequent tensioning of adjacent bolts until all bolts are tensioned to the prescribed amount. 11.5.6.4.6 Alternative Design Bolts Installation Method When fasteners which incorporate a design feature intended to indirectly indicate that the applied torque develops the required tension or to automatically develop the tension required by Table 11.5A and which have been qualied under Article 11.3.2.5 are to be installed, verication testing using a representative sample of not less than three fastener assemblies of each diameter, length and grade to be used in the work shall be performed at the job site in a device capable of indicating bolt tension. The test assembly shall include at-hardened washers, if required in the actual connection, arranged as in the actual connections to be tensioned. The verication test shall demonstrate that each bolt develops a tension not less than 5% greater than the tension required by Table 11.5A. Manufacturers installation procedure shall be followed for installation of bolts in the calibration device and in all connections. Periodic retesting shall be performed when ordered by the Engineer. When alternate design fasteners which are intended to control or indicate bolt tension of the fasteners are used,
bolts shall be installed in all holes of the connection and initially snugged sufficiently to bring all plies of the joint into rm contact but without yielding or fracturing the control or indicator element of the fasteners. All fasteners shall then be further tensioned, progressing systematically from the most rigid part of the connection to the free edges in a manner that will minimize relaxation of previously tensioned bolts. In some cases, proper tensioning of the bolts may require more than a single cycle of systematic partial tensioning prior to nal yielding or fracturing of the control or indicator element of individual fasteners. If yielding or twist-off occurs prior to the nal tensioning cycle, the fastener assembly shall be replaced with a new one. 11.5.6.4.7 Direct Tension Indicator Installation Method When Direct Tension Indicators (DTIs) meeting the requirements of Article 11.3.2.6 are to be used with highstrength bolts to indicate bolt tension, they shall be subjected to the verication testing described below and installed in accordance with the method specied below. Unless otherwise approved by the engineer-of-record, the DTIs shall be installed under the head of the bolt and the nut turned to tension the bolt. The Manufacturers recommendations shall be followed for the proper orientation of the DTI and additional washers, if any, required for the correct use of the DTI. Installation of a DTI under the turned element may be permitted if a washer separates the turned element from the DTI. 11.5.6.4.7a Verication
Verication testing shall be performed in a calibrated bolt tension measuring device. A special at insert shall be used in place of the normal bolt head holding insert. Three verication tests are required for each combination of fastener assembly rotational-capacity lot, DTI lot, and DTI position relative to the turned element (bolt head or nut) to be used on the project. The fastener assembly shall be installed in the tension measuring device with the DTI located in the same position as in the work. The element not turned (bolt or nut) shall be restrained from rotation. The purpose of verication testing is to ensure that the fastener will be at or above the desired installation tension when the requisite number of spaces between the protrusions have a gap of 0.005 inches or less and that the bolt will not have excessive plastic deformation at the minimum gap allowed on the project. The verication tests shall be conducted in two stages. The bolt nut and DTI assembly shall be installed in a manner so that at least three and preferably not more than ve threads are located between the bearing face of the nut and the bolt head. The bolt shall be tensioned rst to the load equal to that listed in Table 11.5C under Verication Ten-
582
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
11.5.6.4.7a
sion for the grade and diameter of bolt. If an impact wrench is used, the tension developed using the impact wrench shall be no more than two-thirds the required tension. Subsequently a manual wrench shall be used to attain the required tension. The number of refusals of a 0.005 inch tapered feeler gauge in the spaces between the protrusions shall be recorded. The number of refusals for uncoated DTIs under the stationary or turned element, or coated DTIs under the stationary element, shall not exceed the number listed under Maximum Verication Refusals in Table 11.5C for the grade and diameter of bolt used. The maximum number of verication refusals for coated DTIs (galvanized, painted, or epoxy-coated), when used under the turned element shall be no more than the number of spaces on the DTI less one. The DTI lot is rejected if the number of refusals exceeds the values in the table or, for coated DTIs if the gauge is refused in all spaces. After the number of refusals is recorded at the verication load, the bolt shall be further tensioned until the 0.005 inch feeler gauge is refused at all the spaces and a visible gap exists in at least one space. The load at this condition shall be recorded and the bolt removed from the tension measuring device. The nut shall be able to be rundown by hand for the complete thread length of the bolt excluding thread runout. If the nut cannot be rundown for this thread length, the DTI lot shall be rejected unless the load recorded is less than 95% of the average load measured in the rotational capacity test for the fastener lot as specied in Article 11.5.6.4.2g.
TABLE 11.5C
If the bolt is too short to be tested in the calibration device, the DTI lot shall be veried on a long bolt in a calibrator to determine the number of refusals at the Verication Tension listed in Table 11.5C. The number of refusals shall not exceed the values listed under Maximum Verication Refusals in Table 11.5C. Another DTI from the same lot shall then be veried with the short bolt in a convenient hole in the work. The bolt shall be tensioned until the 0.005 inch feeler gauge is refused in all spaces and a visible gap exists in at least one space. The bolt shall then be removed from the tension measuring device and the nut must be able to be rundown by hand for the complete thread length of the bolt excluding thread runout. The DTI lot shall be rejected if the nut cannot be rundown for this thread length. 11.5.6.4.7b Installation Installation of fastener assemblies using DTIs shall be performed in two stages. The stationary element shall be held against rotation during each stage of the installation. The connection shall be first snugged with bolts installed in all the holes of the connection and tensioned sufficiently to bring all the plies of the connection into rm contact. The number of spaces in which 0.005 inch feeler gauge is refused in the DTI after snugging shall not exceed those listed under Maximum Verification Refusals in Table 11.5C. If the number exceeds the values in the table, the fastener assembly shall be removed and another DTI installed and snugged. For uncoated DTIs under the stationary or turned element, or coated DTIs under the stationary element, the bolts shall be further tensioned until the number of refusals of the 0.005 inch feeler gauge is equal to or greater than the number listed under Minimum Installation Refusals in Table 11.5C. If the bolt is tensioned so that no visible gap in any space remains, the bolt and DTI shall be removed, and replaced by a new properly tensioned bolt and DTI. The feeler gauge shall be refused in all spaces when coated DTIs (galvanized, painted, or epoxy-coated) are used under the turned element. 11.5.6.4.8 Lock-Pin and Collar Fasteners The installation of lock-pin and collar fasteners shall be by methods and procedures approved by the Engineer. 11.5.6.4.9 Inspection 11.5.6.4.9.1 The Engineer shall determine that the requirements of Articles 11.5.6.4.9.2 and 11.5.6.4.9.3, following, are met in the work. 11.5.6.4.9.2 Before the installation of fasteners in the work, the Engineer shall check the marking, surface con-
11.5.6.4.9.2
DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION 11.5.7 Welding
583
dition and storage of bolts, nuts, washers, and DTIs, if used, and the faying surfaces of joints for compliance with the requirements of Articles 11.3.2, 11.5.6.1, and 11.5.6.4.1. The Engineer shall observe calibration and/or testing procedures required in Articles 11.5.6.4.4 through 11.5.6.4.7 as applicable, to conrm that the selected procedure is properly used and that, when so used with the fastener assemblies supplied, the tensions specied in Table 11.5A are developed. The Engineer shall monitor the installation of fasteners in the work to assure that the selected installation method, as demonstrated in the initial testing to develop the specied tension, is routinely followed. 11.5.6.4.9.3 Either the Engineer or the Contractor, in the presence of the Engineer at the Engineers option, shall inspect the tensioned bolts using an inspection torque wrench, unless alternate fasteners or direct tension indicator devices are used, allowing verication by other methods. Inspection tests should be conducted in a timely manner prior to possible loss of lubrication or before corrosion inuences torque. Three fastener assembly lots in the same condition as those under inspection shall be placed individually in a device calibrated to measure bolt tension. This calibration operation shall be done at least once each inspection day. There shall be a washer under the turned element in tensioning each bolt if washers are used on the structure. If washers are not used on the structure, the material used in the tension measuring device which abuts the part turned shall be of the same specication as that used on the structure. In the calibrated device, each bolt shall be tensioned by any convenient means to the specied tension. The inspecting wrench shall then be applied to the tensioned bolt to determine the torque required to turn the nut or head 5 (approximately 1 inch at a 12-inch radius) in the tensioning direction. The average of the torque required for all three bolts shall be taken as the job-inspection torque. Ten percent (at least two) of the tensioned bolts on the structure represented by the test bolts shall be selected at random in each connection. The job-inspection torque shall then be applied to each with the inspecting wrench turned in the tensioning direction. If this torque turns no bolt head or nut, the bolts in the connection will be considered to be properly tensioned. But if the torque turns one or more bolt heads or nuts, the job-inspection torque shall then be applied to all bolts in the connection. Any bolt whose head or nut turns at this stage shall be retensioned and reinspected. The Contractor may, however, retension all the bolts in the connection and resubmit it for inspection, so long as DTIs are not overtensioned or fastener assemblies are not damaged.
Welding, welder qualications, prequalication of weld details and inspection of welds shall conform to the requirements of the current ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code. Brackets, clips, shipping devices, or other material not required by the plans or special provisions shall not be welded or tacked to any member unless shown on the shop drawings and approved by the Engineer. 11.6 ERECTION 11.6.1 General The Contractor shall provide all tools, machinery, and equipment necessary to erect the structure. Falsework and forms shall be in accordance with the requirements of Section 3, Temporary Works. 11.6.2 Handling and Storing Materials Material to be stored at the job site shall be placed on skids above the ground. It shall be kept clean and properly drained. Girders and beams shall be placed upright and shored. Long members, such as columns and chords, shall be supported on skids placed near enough together to prevent injury from deection. If the contract is for erection only, the Contractor shall check the material turned over to him or her against the shipping lists and report promptly in writing any shortage or injury discovered. The Contractor shall be responsible for the loss of any material while in his or her care, or for any damage caused to it after being received by the Contractor. 11.6.3 Bearings and Anchorages Bridge bearings shall be furnished and installed in conformance with Section 18, Bearing Devices, of these Specications. If the steel superstructure is to be placed on a substructure that was built under a separate contract, the Contractor shall verify that the masonry has been constructed in the right location and to the correct lines and elevations before ordering materials. 11.6.4 Erection Procedure 11.6.4.1 Conformance to Drawings The erection procedure shall conform to the erection drawings submitted in accordance with Article 11.2.2. Any modications to or deviations from this erection procedure will require revised drawings and verication of stresses and geometry.
584 11.6.4.2 Erection Stresses
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
11.6.4.1
Any erection stresses, induced in the structure as a result of using a method of erection which differs from the plans, shall be accounted for by the Contractor. The Contractor, at his own expense, shall prepare erection design calculations for such changed methods and submit them to the Engineer. The calculations shall indicate any change in stresses or change in behavior for the temporary and nal structures. Additional material required to keep both the temporary and nal stresses within the allowable limits used in design shall be provided at the Contractors expense. The Contractor will be responsible for providing temporary bracing or stiffening devices to accommodate handling stresses in individual members or segments of the structure during erection. 11.6.4.3 Maintaining Alignment and Camber During erection, the Contractor will be responsible for supporting segments of the structure in a manner that will produce the proper alignment and camber in the completed structure. Cross frames and diagonal bracing shall be installed as necessary during the erection process to provide stability and assure correct geometry. Temporary bracing, if necessary at any stage of erection, shall be provided by the Contractor. 11.6.5 Field Assembly The parts shall be accurately assembled as shown on the plans or erection drawings, and any match-marks shall be followed. The material shall be carefully handled so that no parts will be bent, broken, or otherwise damaged. Hammering which will injure or distort the members shall not be done. Bearing surfaces and surfaces to be in permanent contact shall be cleaned before the members are assembled. Splices and eld connections shall have onehalf of the holes lled with bolts and cylindrical erection pins (half bolts and half pins) before installing and tightening the balance of high-strength bolts. Splices and connections carrying traffic during erection shall have threefourths of the holes so lled. Fitting-up bolts may be the same high-strength bolts used in the installation. If other tting-up bolts are used they shall be of the same nominal diameter as the highstrength bolts, and cylindrical erection pins shall be 1 32 inch larger. 11.6.6 Pin Connections Pilot and driving nuts shall be used in driving pins. They shall be furnished by the Contractor without charge.
Pins shall be so driven that the members will take full bearing on them. Pin nuts shall be screwed up tight and the threads burred at the face of the nut with a pointed tool. 11.6.7 Mists The correction of minor mists involving minor amounts of reaming, cutting, grinding and chipping will be considered a legitimate part of the erection. However, any error in the shop fabrication or deformation resulting from handling and transporting will be cause for rejection. The Contractor shall be responsible for all mists, errors, and damage and shall make the necessary corrections and replacements. 11.7 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT 11.7.1 Method of Measurement Pay quantities for each type of steel and iron will be measured by the pound computed from dimensions shown on the plans using the following rules and assumptions:
The weights of rolled shapes shall be computed on the basis of their nominal weights per foot as shown on the drawings, or listed in the handbooks. The weights of plates shall be computed on the basis of the nominal weight for their width and thickness as shown on the drawings, plus an estimated overrun computed as one-half the Permissible Variation in Thickness and Weight as tabulated in Specication, General Requirements for Delivery of Rolled Steel Plates, Shapes, Steel Piling, and Bars for Structural Use, AASHTO M 160 (ASTM A 6). The weight of castings shall be computed from the dimensions shown on the approved shop drawings, deducting for open holes. To this weight shall be added 5% allowance for llets and overrun. Scale weights may be substituted for computed weights in the case of castings or of small complex parts for which accurate computations of weight would be difficult. The weight of temporary erection bolts, shop and eld paint, boxes, crates, and other containers used for shipping, and materials used for supporting members during transportation and erection, will not be included.
11.7.1
585
The weight of any additional material required by Article 11.6.4.2 to accommodate erection stresses resulting from the Contractors choice of erection methods will not be included. In computing pay weight on the basis of computed net weight the following stipulations in addition to those in the foregoing paragraphs shall apply. (a) The weight shall be computed on the basis of the net nished dimensions of the parts as shown on the approved shop drawings, deducting for copes, cuts, clips, and all open holes, except bolt holes. (b) The weight of heads, nuts, single washers, and threaded stick-through of all high tensile strength bolts, both shop and eld, shall be included on the basis of the following weights:
of base metal for the galvanizing will be determined from the weights of zinc coatings specified by AASHTO M 111 (ASTM A 123). (e) No allowance will be made for the weight of paint. 11.7.2 Basis of Payment The contract price for fabrication and erection of structural steel shall be considered to be full compensation for the cost of all labor, equipment, materials, transportation, and shop and eld painting, if not otherwise provided for, necessary for the proper completion of the work in accordance with the contract. The contract price for fabrication without erection shall be considered to be full compensation for the cost of all labor, equipment, and materials necessary for the proper completion of the work, other than erection and eld assembly, in accordance with the contract. Under contracts containing an item for structural steel, all metal parts other than metal reinforcement for concrete, such as anchor bolts and nuts, shoes, rockers, rollers, bearing and slab plates, pins and nuts, expansion dams, roadway drains and scuppers, weld metal, bolts embedded in concrete, cradles and brackets, railing, and railing pots shall be paid for as structural steel unless otherwise stipulated. Payment will be made on a pound-price or a lumpsum basis as required by the terms of the contract, but unless stipulated otherwise, it shall be on a pound-price basis. For members comprising both carbon steel and other special steel or material, when separate unit prices are provided for same, the weight of each class of steel in each such member shall be separately computed, and paid for at the contract unit price therefore. Full-size members which are tested in accordance with the specifications, when such tests are required by the contract, shall be paid for at the same rate as for comparable members for the structure. The cost of testing including equipment, labor and incidentals shall be included in the contract price for structural steel. Members which fail to meet the contract requirements, and members rejected as a result of tests, will not be paid for by the Department.
(c) The weight of llet welds shall be as follows:
(d) To determine the pay quantities of galvanized metal, the weight to be added to the calculated weight
Section 12
STEEL GRID FLOORING
12.1 GENERAL 12.1.1 Description This work shall consist of furnishing and installing steel grid ooring of the open type, or of the concrete lled type as specied in the special provisions and as shown on the plans. When the Contractor is allowed to select any details of the design, said details shall meet the requirements for the design of steel grid oors in Division I, Article 3.27. 12.1.2 Working Drawings The Contractor shall submit complete working drawings with assembly details to the Engineer for approval. Fabrication or construction of the ooring shall not be started until the drawings have been approved. Such approval shall not relieve the Contractor of any responsibility under the contract for the successful completion of the work. If painted, the paint shall be applied according to the specications for Section 13, Painting, except that dipping will be permitted. The paint shall be as specied for metal structures unless paint or coating of another type is required by the special provisions. When painting is specied, those areas of steel grid ooring completely encased in concrete may remain unpainted, unless otherwise specied. 12.2.3 Concrete All concrete in lled steel grid oors shall conform to the requirements of Section 8, Concrete Structures. The concrete and the size of aggregate shall be as specied for Class C (AE) concrete. 12.2.4 Skid Resistance The upper edges of all members forming the wearing surface of open type grid ooring shall be serrated to give the maximum skid resistance. Concrete lled or overlayed grid oors shall be given a skid-resistant texture as specied in Article 8.10.2.
12.2 MATERIALS 12.2.1 Steel
12.3 ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS All steel shapes, plates and bars shall conform to AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade 36, 50, or 50W. Unless the material is galvanized or epoxy coated it shall have a copper content of 0.2%. Reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of Section 9, Reinforcing Steel. 12.2.2 Protective Treatment Open type oors, unless otherwise specied, shall be galvanized in accordance with the requirements of AASHTO M 111 (ASTM A 123). Filled or partially lled types, as called for in the special provisions, shall be either galvanized, painted, epoxy coated, or supplied in unpainted weathering steel. 587 Where the main elements are normal to center line of roadway, the units generally shall be of such length as to extend over the full width of the roadway for roadways up to 40 feet but in every case the units shall extend over at least three panels. Where joints are required, the ends of the main oor members shall be welded at the joints over their full cross-sectional area, or otherwise connected to provide full continuity. Where the main elements are parallel to center line of roadway, the sections shall extend over not less than three panels, and the ends of abutting units shall be welded over their full cross-sectional area, or otherwise connected to provide full continuity in accordance with the design.
588 12.4 PROVISION FOR CAMBER
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
12.4
Unless otherwise provided on the plans, provision for camber shall be made as follows: Steel units so rigid that they will not readily follow the camber required shall be cambered in the shop. For grid ooring types other than those employing a eld placed full depth concrete lling attached to the deck with welded shear connectors, the stringers shall be canted or provided with shop-welded beveled bearing bars to provide a bearing surface parallel to the crown of the roadway. If beveled bars are used, they shall be continuous and llet welded along the center line of the stringer ange; in which case, the design span length shall be governed by the width of the bearing bar instead of the width of the stringer ange. Longitudinal stringers, except as provided in the following paragraph, shall be mill cambered or provided with bearing strips so that the completed oor after dead load deection will conform to the longitudinal camber shown on the plans. Vertical adjustment of full-depth-lled grid oors, which are to be connected to supporting members with shear connectors, may be accomplished by use of adjusting bolts operating through nuts welded to the grid and bearing on the top ange of framing members. Alternatively, shims may be used, and shims must be used if construction vehicles are to be allowed on the oor prior to nal attachment. 12.5 FIELD ASSEMBLY Areas of considerable size shall be placed and, if necessary, adjusted to proper t before the oor is connected to its supports. Care shall be taken during lifting and placing to avoid overstressing the grid units. The main elements shall be made continuous as specied in Article 12.3, and sections shall be connected together along their edges by welding or bolting in accordance with the plans or the approved working drawings. 12.6 CONNECTION TO SUPPORTS Except when other connection methods are specied or approved, the oor shall be connected to its steel supports by welding every fourth main element to the supporting member; however, welds shall be spaced no greater than 15 inches on centers. Before any welding is done, the oor shall either be temporarily loaded or it shall be clamped down to make a tight joint with full bearing. To minimize the stresses induced through clamping down, any differential elevation of 1 4 inch or more over a 4-foot support-
ing member shall be shimmed before welding the shim, the grid, and the supporting member. The location, length, and size of the welds shall be subject to the approval of the Engineer. Around the perimeter of continuous units of grid ooring, the ends of all the main steel members of the ooring shall be securely fastened together by means of steel plates or angles welded to the ends of the main members, or by thoroughly encasing the ends with concrete. When specied or approved, methods other than welding may be used for attaching steel grid oors (both open and concrete lled types) to framing members. In such cases, welded headed shear connectors can be employed for concrete lled grids and open steel grids can be connected to framing members by bolting. 12.7 WELDING All shop and eld welding shall be done in accordance with ANSI/AASHTO/AWS Bridge Welding Code D1.5. 12.8 REPAIRING DAMAGED GALVANIZED COATINGS Galvanized surfaces that are abraded or damaged at any time after the application of the zinc coating shall be repaired by thoroughly wire brushing the damaged areas and removing all loose and cracked coating, after which the cleaned areas shall be painted with two applications of unthinned commercial quality zinc-rich primer (organic vehicle type). Spray cans shall not be used. 12.9 PLACEMENT OF CONCRETE FILLER 12.9.1 Forms Concrete lled types of ooring with bottom anges not in contact with each other shall be provided with bottom forms of metal or wood to retain the concrete ller without excessive leakage. Forms shall be removed after the concrete has been cured except that metal forms conforming to the following paragraph may be left in place. If metal form strips are used they shall t tightly on the bottom flanges or protrusions of the grid members and be placed in noncontinuous lengths so as to extend not more than 1 inch onto the edge of each support, but in all cases the forms shall be such as will result in adequate bearing of slab on the support. If metal forms are to be left in place, they shall either be galvanized or protective treated by the same method that is required for the grid ooring.
12.9.2 12.9.2 Placement
589
When the plans indicate that the concrete lling does not extend to the bottom of the steel grid, the concrete, except concrete for cells in which shear connectors are to be installed, may be placed with the grid in an inverted position prior to installation, or the portion of the grid to remain unlled may be blocked out by the use of a temporary inert lling material, such as sand or polystyrene board ller which is later removed, or by the use of metal lath form strips or other approved methods. The method used shall permit full embedment of the tertiary bars and the shear connector studs, if used. When the plans or specications indicate that lled or partially lled grids or reinforced concrete slabs incorporating steel grids are to act compositely with their supporting members, all shear connecting studs shall be fully encased in concrete and the entire area between the top ange of the supporting member and the bottom of the grid lling shall be lled with concrete.
The concrete for lled grid oors shall be mixed, placed, and cured in accordance with the requirements of Section 8. The concrete shall be thoroughly compacted by vibrating the steel grid oor. The vibrating device and the manner of operating it shall be subject to the approval of the Engineer.
12.10 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT Steel grid ooring will be measured by the square foot. The number of square feet will be based on the dimensions of the ooring in place and approved by the Engineer in the completed work. Steel grid ooring will be paid for at the contract price per square foot. Such payment for steel grid oor, open or concrete lled types, shall be considered to be full compensation for the cost of furnishing of all materials, equipment, tools, and labor necessary for the satisfactory completion of the work.
Section 13
PAINTING
13.1 GENERAL 13.1.1 Description This work shall consist of the painting of surfaces shown on the plans or otherwise specied to be painted. The work includes, but is not limited to, the preparation of surfaces to be painted, application and curing of the paint, protection of the work, protection of existing facilities, vehicles and the public from damage due to this work, and the furnishing of all labor, equipment, and materials needed to perform the work. 13.1.2 Protection of Public and Property The Contractor shall comply with all applicable environmental protection and occupational safety and health standards, rules, regulations, and orders. Failure to comply with these standards, rules, regulations, and orders will be sufficient cause for suspension or disqualication. All reasonable precautions shall be taken to contain waste materials (used blasting material and old paint) classied as hazardous. Disposal of hazardous waste material shall be performed in accordance with all applicable federal, state, and local laws. The Contractor shall provide protective devices such as tarps, screens or covers as necessary to prevent damage to the work and to other property or persons from all cleaning and painting operations. Paint or paint stains that result in an unsightly appearance on surfaces not designated to be painted shall be removed or obliterated by the Contractor at own expense. 13.1.3 Protection of the Work All painted surfaces that are marred or damaged as a result of operations of the Contractor shall be repaired by the Contractor, at own expense, with materials and to a condition equal to that of the coating specied herein. If traffic causes an objectionable amount of dust, the Contractor, when directed by the Engineer, shall sprinkle 591 the adjacent roadbed and shoulders with water or dust palliative for a sufficient distance on each side of the location where painting is being done. Upon completion of all painting operations and of any other work that would cause dust, grease, or other foreign materials to be deposited on the painted surfaces, the painted surfaces shall be thoroughly cleaned. At the time of opening structures to public traffic, the painting shall be completed, and the surfaces shall be undamaged and clean. 13.1.4 Color
If not otherwise shown or specied, the color of the top or nish coat of paint shall be as directed by the Engineer. 13.2 PAINTING METAL STRUCTURES 13.2.1 Coating Systems and Paints The coating system and paints to be applied shall consist of the system in Table 13.2.1 which is specied for use or modied by the special provisions. 13.2.2 Weather Conditions Paint shall be applied only on thoroughly dry surfaces. Painting will not be permitted when the atmospheric temperature, paint, or the surface to be painted is at or below 40F or above 100F, or when metal surfaces are less than 5F above the dew point, or when the humidity exceeds 85% at the site of the work, or when freshly painted surfaces may become damaged by rain, fog, or dust, or when it can be anticipated that the atmospheric temperature will drop below 40F during the drying period, except as provided herein for painting in enclosures. Metal surfaces which are hot enough to cause the paint to blister, to produce a porous paint lm, or to cause the vehicle to separate from the pigment shall not be painted. Subject to approval of the Engineer, the Contractor may provide a suitable enclosure to permit painting during inclement weather. Provisions shall be made to arti-
592
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
TABLE 13.2.1
13.2.2
cially control atmospheric conditions inside the enclosure within limits suitable for painting throughout the painting operation. Surfaces painted under cover in damp or cold weather shall remain under cover until the paint dries or weather conditions permit open exposure. Full compensation for providing and maintaining such enclosures shall be considered as included in the prices paid for the various contract items of work involving painting and no additional compensation will be allowed therefore. All blast cleaning, except that performed within closed buildings, and all painting shall be performed during daylight hours unless otherwise provided by the contract documents. 13.2.3 Surface Preparation All exposed surfaces of structural steel, except galvanized or metalized surfaces, shall be cleaned and painted. All surfaces of new structural steel shall be cleaned by the blast-cleaning method unless otherwise specied in the special provisions, or approved in writing by the Engineer. In repainting existing steel structures the method of cleaning shall be as specied in the special provisions. Any damage to sound paint, on areas not designated for treatment, resulting from the Contractors operations shall be repaired by the Contractor at own expense to the satisfaction of the Engineer.
The methods used in the cleaning of metal surfaces shall conform to the following. 13.2.3.1 Blast Cleaning Abrasives used for blast cleaning shall be either clean dry sand, mineral grit, steel shot, or steel grit, at the option of the Contractor, and shall have a suitable grading to produce satisfactory results. The use of other abrasives will not be permitted unless approved in writing by the Engineer. Unwashed beach sand containing salt or excessive amounts of silt will not be allowed. All dirt, mill scale, rust, paint, and other foreign material shall be removed from exposed steel surfaces in accordance with the requirements of the Steel Structures Painting Council Surface Preparation Specication No. 10, SSPC-SP10Near-White Blast Cleaning. Blast cleaning shall leave all surfaces with a dense and uniform anchor pattern of not less than 1 nor more than 3 mils. as measured with an approved surface prole comparator. When blast cleaning is being performed near machinery, all journals, bearings, motors, and moving parts shall be sealed against entry of abrasive dust before blast cleaning begins. Blast cleaned surfaces shall be primed or treated the same day blast cleaning is done, unless otherwise authorized by the Engineer. If cleaned surfaces rust or are con-
13.2.3.1
593
taminated with foreign material before painting is accomplished, they shall be reblast cleaned by the Contractor at own expense. 13.2.3.2 Steam Cleaning All dirt, grease, loose chalky paint, or other foreign material which has accumulated on the previously painted or galvanized surfaces shall be removed with a steam cleaning apparatus which shall precede all other phases of cleaning. It is not intended that sound paint be removed by this process. Any paint which becomes loose, curled, lifted, or loses its bond with the preceding coat or coats after steam cleaning shall be removed as directed by the Engineer to sound paint or metal surface by the Contractor at own expense. A biodegradable detergent shall be added to the feed water of the steam generator or applied to the surface to be cleaned. The detergent shall be of such composition and shall be added or applied in such quantity that the cleaning as described in the above paragraph is accomplished. Any residue, detergent, or other foreign material which may accumulate on cleaned surfaces shall be removed by ushing with fresh water. Steam cleaning shall not be performed more than 2 weeks prior to painting or other phases of cleaning. Subsequent painting shall not be performed until the cleaned surfaces are thoroughly dry and in no case in less than 24 hours after cleaning and ushing. 13.2.3.3 Solvent Cleaning Unless otherwise prohibited by the special provisions, solvents shall be used to remove oil, grease, and other soluble contaminants in accordance with the requirements of SSPC-SP1, Solvent Cleaning. Solvent cleaning shall be performed prior to blast cleaning. If contamination remains after blasting, the area shall be recleaned with solvent. 13.2.3.4 Hand Cleaning Wire brushes, either hand or powered, hand scraping tools, power grinders, or sandpaper shall be used to remove all dirt, loose rust and mill scale, or paint which is not rmly bonded to the metal surfaces. Pneumatic chipping hammers shall not be used unless authorized in writing by the Engineer. 13.2.4 Application of Paints The Contractor shall notify the Engineer, in writing, at least 1 week in advance of the date that cleaning and painting operations are to begin.
Painting shall be done in a neat and workmanlike manner. Unless otherwise specied, paint shall be applied by brush, spray, or roller, or any combination thereof peculiar to the paint being applied. Each application of paint shall be thoroughly cured and any skips, holidays, thin areas, or other deciencies corrected before the succeeding application. The surface of the paint being covered shall be free from moisture, dust, grease, or any other deleterious materials that would prevent the bond of the succeeding applications. In spot painting, old paint which lifts after the rst application shall be removed by scraping and the area repainted before the next application. Paints specied are formulated ready for application and no thinning will be allowed unless otherwise provided in the applicable materials specication for the paint being used. Brushes, when used, shall have sufficient body and length of bristle to spread the paint in a uniform lm. Round, oval-shaped brushes, or at brushes not wider than 41 2 inches shall be used. Paint shall be evenly spread and thoroughly brushed out. On all surfaces that are inaccessible for painting by regular means, the paint shall be applied by sheepskin daubers, bottle brushes, or by any other means approved by the Engineer. Rollers, when used, shall be of a type that do not leave a stippled texture in the paint lm. Rollers shall be used only on at, even surfaces to produce a paint lm of even thickness with no skips, runs, sags, or thin areas. Paint may be applied with airless or conventional spray equipment. Suitable traps or separators acceptable to the Engineer shall be furnished and installed in the airline to each spray pot to exclude oil and water from the air. Any spray method which produces excessive paint build-up, runs, sags, or thin areas in the paint lm, or skips and holidays, will be considered unsatisfactory and the Engineer may require modication of the spray method or prohibit its use and require brushing instead. Mechanical mixers shall be used to mix paint. Prior to application, paint shall be mixed a sufficient length of time to thoroughly mix the pigment and vehicle together, and shall be kept thoroughly mixed during its application. The dry lm thickness of the paint will be measured in place with a calibrated magnetic lm thickness gage according to Steel Structures Painting Council SSPC-PA2. The thickness of each application shall be limited to that which will result in uniform drying throughout the paint lm. Succeeding applications of paint shall be of such shade as to contrast with the paint being covered.
594
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
13.2.4
Structures shall be blast cleaned and painted with the total thickness of undercoats before erection. After erection and before applying subsequent paint, all areas where paint has been damaged or has deteriorated and all exposed unpainted surfaces shall be thoroughly cleaned and spot painted with the specied undercoats to the specied thickness. Surfaces exposed to the atmosphere and which would be inaccessible for painting after erection shall be painted the full number of applications prior to erection. Vinyl wash primer, if required, shall not be applied more than 12 hours before application of the succeeding coat of paint. The vinyl wash primer shall be applied by spraying to produce a uniform wet lm on the surface. The dry lm thickness shall be between 0.3 and 0.5 mils. The painting of areas under joint connection and splice plates shall conform to Article 11.5.6.3. 13.2.4.1 Application of Zinc-Rich Primers Zinc-rich primers, which include organic and inorganic zinc primers, shall be applied by spray methods. On areas inaccessible to spray application, the paint may be applied by brush or daubers. Mechanical mixers shall be used in mixing the primer. After mixing, zinc-rich primers shall be strained through a metal 30-60 mesh screen or a double layer of cheesecloth immediately prior to or during pouring into the spray pot. An agitating spray pot shall be used in all spray application of zinc-rich primers. The agitator or stirring rod shall reach to within 2 inches of the bottom of the spray pot and shall be in motion at all times during primer application. Such motion shall be sufficient to keep the primer well mixed. Spray equipment shall provide the proper pot pressure and atomization pressure to produce a coating the composition of which shall comply in all respects to the specications for zinc paint. The hose from pot to nozzle shall not be more than 75 feet long, nor be used more than 15 feet above or below the pot. Cured, zinc-rich primer shall be free from dust, dirt, salt, or other deleterious deposits and thoroughly dry before applying vinyl wash primer. In addition, the application of inorganic zinc paints shall conform to the following paragraphs. Succeeding applications of inorganic zinc paints shall be applied within 24 hours, but not less than 30 minutes after prior application of such paint. In areas where mud-cracking occurs in the inorganic zinc paint, it shall be blast cleaned back to soundly bonded paint, and recoated to the same thickness by the same methods specied for the original coat.
Paint shall be cured for 48 hours at a relative humidity of at least 45% before the application of vinyl wash primer. The cured inorganic zinc paint shall be hosed down with water and be in a surface dry condition before the application of vinyl wash primer if the vinyl wash primer is not applied within 3 weeks after the inorganic zinc paint is applied, or when there is evidence of dust, dirt, salt, or other deleterious deposits on the inorganic zinc paint. 13.2.5 Measurement and Payment Cleaning and painting structural steel will be paid for on the basis of lump sum prices, unless otherwise specied in the special provisions. The lump sum prices paid for clean structural steel and for paint structural steel or the lump sum price paid for clean and paint structural steel shall include full compensation for furnishing all labor, materials, tools, equipment, and incidentals, and for doing all the work involved in cleaning and painting structural steel as shown on the plans, and as specified in these specifications and the special provisions, and as directed by the Engineer.
13.3 PAINTING GALVANIZED SURFACES All galvanized surfaces that are to be painted shall rst be cleaned by washing with mineral spirit solvent sufficient to remove any oil, grease, or other materials foreign to the galvanized coating. After cleaning, vinyl wash primer shall be applied to such surfaces. The vinyl wash primer shall be applied by spraying to produce a uniform wet lm on the surface. The dry lm thickness shall be between 0.3 and 0.5 mils. Finish paint to be applied to primed galvanized surfaces shall be as shown on the plans or otherwise specied. If not shown or otherwise specied, the nish paint shall be the same as that used on adjacent metal work or shall be as directed by the Engineer. No separate payment will be made for preparing and painting galvanized surfaces and full compensation for furnishing all labor, materials, tools, equipment, and incidentals, and for doing all the work involved in preparing and painting galvanized surfaces as shown on the plans, and as specied in these specications and the special provisions, and as directed by the Engineer will be considered as included in the prices paid for the various contract items of work involving the galvanized surfaces.
13.4 13.4 PAINTING TIMBER 13.4.1 General
DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION 13.4.5 Painting Treated Timber
595
Unless otherwise shown on the plans or specied in the special provisions, all new timber requiring painting shall be painted with three applications of paint. The paint used for various applications will be as specied in these specications or as shown on the plans or specied in the special provisions. The painting of previously painted surfaces shall be as required by the plans and specications. 13.4.2 Preparation of Surfaces All cracked or peeled paint, loose chalky paint, dirt and other foreign material shall be removed by wire brushing, scraping or other means immediately prior to painting. The moisture content of the timber shall not be more than 20% at the time of the rst application. 13.4.3 Paint Paint for timber structures, except as otherwise provided herein, shall conform to the Specication for White and Tinted Ready-Mixed Paint, AASHTO M 70. The paint as specied is intended for use in covering previously painted surfaces. When it is applied to unpainted timber, turpentine and linseed oil shall be added as required by the character of the surface in an amount not to exceed 1 pint per gallon of the paint as specied. The paint shall be either white or tinted as directed by the Engineer. If a black nish paint is specied, the rst or prime coat shall be as specied above. Black paint shall conform to the Specications for Black Paint, AASHTO M 68. 13.4.4 Application When permitted in writing by the Engineer, the rst application of paint may be applied prior to erection. After the rst application has dried and the timber is in place, all cracks, checks, nail holes, or other depressions shall be puttied ush with the surface and allowed to dry before the second application of paint. Paint shall be applied by brush, air spray, or roller, spread evenly, and worked thoroughly into all seasoning cracks, corners, and recesses. No later coat shall be applied until the full thickness of the previous coat has dried. Final brush strokes with aluminum paint shall be made in the same direction to ensure that powder particles leaf evenly.
Timber treated with creosote or oil-borne, pentachlorophenol preservatives shall normally not be painted. Timber treated with water-borne preservatives shall be clean and be reduced to no more than 20% moisture content before it is painted. Any visible salt crystals on the wood surface shall be washed and brushed away, and the moisture content reduced again to the specied level before painting. Stored timber awaiting painting shall be covered and stacked with spreaders to ensure air circulation. 13.4.6 Payment No separate payment will be made for preparing surfaces and for painting new timber. The painting of existing timber will be paid for on the basis of lump sum prices. Full compensation for furnishing all labor, materials, tools, equipment, and incidentals, and for doing all the work involved in preparing surfaces and painting timber as shown on the plans, and as specied in these specications and the special provisions, and as directed by the Engineer will be considered as included in the prices paid for the various contract items of work involving new timber or the prices paid for painting existing timber. 13.5 PAINTING CONCRETE 13.5.1 Surface Preparation Prior to painting concrete surfaces, laitance and curing compounds shall be removed from the surface by abrasive blast cleaning in accordance with Article 13.2.3.1. Concrete surfaces shall be thoroughly dry and free of dust at the time the paint is to be applied. Any articial drying procedures and methods shall be subject to approval by the Engineer. 13.5.2 Paint Unless otherwise specied in the special provisions, paint to be applied to concrete surfaces shall be acrylic emulsion and shall comply in all respects to Federal Specication TT-P-19 (latest revision), Paint, Acrylic Emulsion, Exterior. This paint may be tinted by using universal or all purpose concentrates. 13.5.3 Application Acrylic emulsion paint shall be applied in not less than two applications to produce a uniform appearance.
596
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
13.5.3
The paint shall be applied only when the ambient temperature is 50F, or above. Painting will not be permitted when it can be anticipated that the ambient temperature will drop below 50F during the application and drying of the paint. 13.5.4 Measurement and Payment Preparing and painting concrete will be measured either by the lump sum or by the square foot as listed in the
schedule of bid items. When measured by the square foot, measurement will be determined along the surface of the actual area painted. The contract price paid per lump sum or square foot for prepare-and-paint concrete shall include full compensation for furnishing all labor, materials, tools, equipment, and incidentals, and for doing all the work involved in preparing the concrete and applying the paint to concrete surfaces, as shown on the plans, and as specied in these specications and the special provisions, and as directed by the Engineer.
Section 14
STONE MASONRY
14.1 DESCRIPTION This work shall consist of the construction of stone masonry structures and the stone masonry portions of composite structures in accordance with these Specications and in reasonably close conformity with the lines and grades shown on the plans or established by the Engineer. 14.1.1 Rubble Masonry Rubble masonry, as here specied, shall include various classes of roughly squared and dressed stone laid in cement mortar. 14.1.2 Ashlar Masonry Ashlar masonry shall consist of first-class cut stone masonry laid in regular courses and shall include all work in which, as distinguished from rubble masonry, the individual stones are dressed or tooled to exact dimensions. 14.2 MATERIALS 14.2.1 Stone for masonry shall be tough, dense, sound and durable and free of seams, cracks, inclusions or other structural defects. Stone shall be of the type and quality shown on the plans or otherwise specied. Prior to shipment of stone to the job site, the Contractor shall obtain approval of the proposed source and shall submit a representative sample of stone to the Engineer for inspection and, if necessary, testing. The sample shall be dressed and nished as specied for use in the work and shall not be less than 6 inches in any dimension. All stone used in the work shall be of a quality comparable to that of the sample submitted. 14.2.1.1 Rubble Stone Stone for mortar rubble masonry shall be free from rounded, worn, or weathered surfaces. All weathered stone shall be rejected. 597 14.2.1.2 Ashlar Stone Stone for ashlar masonry shall be reasonably ne grained and uniform in color. Preferably, stone shall be from a quarry, the product of which is known to be of satisfactory quality. Stone shall be of such character that it can be brought to such lines and surfaces, whether curved or plane, as may be required. Any stone having defects that have been repaired with cement or other materials shall be rejected. 14.2.2 Shipment and Storage of Stone Quarry operations and delivery of stone to the point of use shall be organized to insure deliveries well ahead of masonry operations. A sufficiently large stock of the specied stone shall be kept on the site at all times, to permit adequate selection of stone by the masons. The stone shall be kept free from dirt, oil, or any other injurious material which may prevent the proper adhesion of the mortar or detract from the appearance of the exposed surfaces. 14.2.3 Mortar The ingredients used in making mortar shall conform to the following requirements: Portland Cement, Admixtures and Water; Section 8 Masonry Cement; ASTM C 91 Hydrated Lime; ASTM C 207 Quick Lime used to make lime putty; ASTM C 5 Sand Aggregate; AASHTO M 45 (ASTM C 144) The proportions of materials shall be such that the volume of sand in a damp, loose condition is between 21 4 and 3 times the volume of the cementitious materials. The cementitious materials shall consist of either one part of portland cement to between 1 4 and 1 2 parts of hydrated lime or lime putty, or one part of portland cement to between one and two parts of masonry cement. Premixed materials conforming to these requirements may be used.
598
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
14.2.3
Admixtures shall be used only when specied or approved by the Engineer. 14.3 MANUFACTURE OF STONE FOR MASONRY 14.3.1 General Each stone shall be free from depressions and projections that might weaken it or prevent it from being properly bedded, and shall be of a shape to meet the requirements for the class of masonry specied. When no dimensions are shown on the plans, the stones shall be furnished in the sizes and face areas necessary to produce the general characteristics and appearance as indicated on the plans. The thickness of courses, if varied, shall diminish regularly from bottom to top of wall. The size of ring stones in arches shall be as shown on the plans. When headers are required, their lengths shall be not less than the width of bed of the widest adjacent stretcher plus 12 inches. 14.3.2 Surface Finishes of Stone
line, shall be used at all angles and ends of walls. If specied, all corners or angles in exterior surfaces shall be nished with a chisel draft. Bed surfaces of face stones shall be normal to the faces of the stones for about 3 inches and from this point may depart from normal not more than 2 inches in 12 inches. Joint surfaces of face stones shall form an angle with the bed surfaces of not less than 45. All shaping or dressing of stone shall be done before the stone is laid in the wall, and no dressing or hammering which will loosen the stone will be permitted after it is placed. 14.3.3.3 Dressing Stone shall be dressed to remove any thin or weak portions. Face stones shall be dressed to provide bed and joint lines with a maximum variation from true line of 11 2 inches unless otherwise indicated on the plans or in the special provisions. 14.3.4 Ashlar Masonry 14.3.4.1 Size
For the purpose of this specication the surface nishes of stone are dened as follows: Smooth-nished: Having a surface in which the variations from the pitch line do not exceed 1 16 inch. Fine-nished: Having a surface in which the variations from the pitch line do not exceed 1 4 inch. Rough-nished: Having a surface in which the variations from the pitch line do not exceed 1 2 inch. Scabbled: Having a surface in which the variations from the pitch line do not exceed 3 4 inch. Rock-faced: Having an irregular projecting face without indications of tool marks. The projections beyond the pitch line shall not exceed 3 inches and no part of the face shall recede back of the pitch line. 14.3.3 Rubble Masonry 14.3.3.1 Size Individual stones shall have a thickness of not less than 8 inches and a width of not less than 11 2 times the thickness. No stones, except headers, shall have a length less than 11 2 times their width. 14.3.3.2 Shape
The individual stones shall be large and well proportioned. They shall not be less than 12 inches nor more than 30 inches in thickness. 14.3.4.2 Dressing Stones shall be dressed to exact sizes and shapes before being laid and shall be cut to lie on their natural beds with top and bottom truly parallel. Hollow beds will not be permitted. The bottom bed shall be the full size of the stone and no stone shall have an over-hanging top. In rock-face construction the face side of any stone shall not present an undercut contour adjacent to its bottom arris giving a top-heavy, unstable appearance when laid. Beds of face stone shall be ne-nished for a depth of not less than 12 inches. Vertical joints of face stone shall be ne-nished and full to the square for a depth of not less than 9 inches. Exposed surfaces of the face stone shall be given the surface nish indicated on the plans, with edges pitched to true lines and exact batter. Chisel drafts 11 2 inches wide shall be cut at all exterior corners. Face stone forming the starling or nosing of piers shall be rough-nished unless otherwise specied. Holes for stone hooks shall not be permitted to show in exposed surfaces.
The stones shall be roughly squared on joints, beds, and faces. Selected stone, roughly squared and pitched to
14.3.4.3 14.3.4.3 Stretchers
599
Stretchers shall have a width of bed of not less than 11 2 times their thickness. They shall have a length of bed not less than twice nor more than 31 2 times their thickness, and not less than 3 feet. 14.3.5 Arch Ring Stones Arch ring stone joint surfaces shall be radial and at right angles to the front faces of the stones. They shall be dressed for a distance of at least 3 inches from the front faces and the soffits, from which points they may depart from a plane normal to the face not to exceed 3 4 inches to 12 inches. The back surface in contact with the concrete of the arch barrel shall be parallel to the front face and shall be dressed for a distance of 6 inches from the intrados. The top shall be cut perpendicular to the front face and shall be dressed for a distance of at least 3 inches from the front. When concrete is to be placed after the masonry has been constructed, adjacent ring stones shall vary at least 6 inches in depth. Stratication in arch ring stones shall be parallel to the radial joints and in other stones shall be parallel to the beds. When specied in the special provisions, a full-sized template of the arch ring shall be laid out near the quarry site, showing face dimensions of each ring stone and thickness of joints. The template shall be approved by the Engineer before the shaping of any ring stone is started, and no ring stone shall be placed in the structure until all ring stones have been shaped, dressed, and approved by the Engineer. 14.4 CONSTRUCTION 14.4.1 Weather Conditions Stone masonry shall not be constructed in freezing weather or when the stone contains frost, except by written permission of the Engineer and subject to such conditions as he or she may require. 14.4.2 Mixing Mortar The mortar shall be hand or machine mixed, as may be required by the Engineer. In the preparation of handmixed mortar, the sand and cement shall be thoroughly mixed together in a clean, tight mortar box until the mixture is of uniform color, after which clean water shall be added in such quantity as to form a stiff plastic mass. Ma-
chine-mixed mortar shall be prepared in an approved mixer and shall be mixed not less than 3 minutes nor more than 10 minutes. Mortar shall be used within 11 2 hours after mixing and before nal set begins. Retempering of mortar shall be done as necessary to maintain proper consistency during placement. 14.4.3 Selection and Placing of Stone 14.4.3.1 General When masonry is placed on a prepared foundation bed, the bed shall be rm and normal to, or in steps normal to, the face of the wall, and approved by the Engineer before any stone is placed. When it is placed on foundation masonry, the bearing surface of the foundation masonry shall be cleaned thoroughly and in a saturated-surface dry condition when the mortar bed is spread. All masonry shall be constructed by experienced workmen. Face stones shall be set in random bond to produce the effect shown on the plans. Care shall be taken to prevent the bunching of small stones or stones of the same size. When weathered or colored stones, or stones of varying texture, are being used, care shall be exercised to distribute the various kinds of stones uniformly throughout the exposed faces of the work. Large stones shall be used for the bottom courses and large, selected stones shall be used in the corners. In general, the stones shall decrease in size from the bottom to the top of work. Each stone shall be cleaned and thoroughly saturated with water before being set and the bed which is to receive it shall be clean and well moistened. All stones shall be well bedded in freshly made mortar. The mortar joints shall be full and the stones carefully settled in place before the mortar has set. No spalls will be permitted in the beds. No pinning up of stones with spalls will be permitted in beds. Stone shall not be dropped upon, or slid over the wall, nor will hammering, rolling, or turning of stones on the wall be allowed. They shall be carefully set without jarring the stone already laid and they shall be handled with a lewis or other appliance that will not cause disgurement. In case any stone is moved or the joint broken, the stone shall be taken up, the mortar thoroughly cleaned from bed and joints, and the stone reset in fresh mortar. 14.4.3.2 Rubble Masonry Rubble masonry shall be laid to line and in courses roughly leveled up. The bottom or foundation courses shall be composed of large, selected stones and all courses shall be laid with bearing beds parallel to the natural bed
600
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
14.4.3.2
of the material. The vertical joints in each course of rubble masonry shall break with those in adjoining courses at least 6 inches. In no case shall a vertical joint be so located as to occur directly above or below a header. 14.4.3.3 Ashlar Masonry The stones in any one course of ashlar masonry shall be placed so as to form bonds of not less than 12 inches with the stones of adjoining courses. Headers shall be placed over stretchers and, in general, the headers of each course shall equally divide the spaces between the headers of adjoining courses, but no header shall be placed over a joint and no joint shall be made over a header. 14.4.4 Beds and Joints Beds and joints in rubble masonry shall have an average thickness of not more than 1 inch. Beds and joints in ashlar masonry shall be not less than 3 8 inch nor more than 1 2 inch in thickness and the thickness of the joint or bed shall be uniform throughout. The thickness of beds in ashlar masonry may vary as shown from the bottom to the top of the work. However, in each course the beds shall be of uniform thickness throughout. Beds shall not extend in an unbroken line through more than ve stones. Joints in ashlar masonry shall be vertical. In all other masonry, joints may be at angles with the vertical from 0 to 45. Each face stone shall bond with all contiguous face stones at least 6 inches longitudinally and 2 inches vertically. Ring stone joints on the faces and soffits shall be not less than 1 4 inch nor more than 11 2 inches in thickness. Cross beds for vertical walls shall be level and for battered walls may vary from level to normal to the batter line of the face of the wall. All joints shall be completely lled with mortar. 14.4.5 Headers Headers shall hold in the heart of the wall the same size shown in the face and shall extend not less than 12 inches into the core or backing. They shall occupy not less than one-fth of the face area of the wall and shall be evenly distributed. Headers in rubble masonry walls 2 feet or less in thickness shall extend entirely through the wall. Headers in ashlar masonry shall be placed in each course and shall have a width of not less than 11 2 times their thickness. In walls having a thickness of 4 feet or
less, the headers shall extend entirely through the wall. In walls of greater thickness, the length of headers shall be not less than 21 2 times their thickness when the course is 18 inches or less in height, and not less than 4 feet in courses of greater height. Headers shall be spaced not further apart than 8 feet center to center. There shall be at least one header to every two stretchers. 14.4.6 Cores and Backing 14.4.6.1 General
Cores and backing shall consist either of roughly bedded and jointed headers and stretchers, as specied above, or of Class B or C concrete, as may be specied. The headers and stretchers in walls having a thickness of 3 feet or less shall have a width or length equal to the full thickness of the wall. No backing will be allowed. 14.4.6.2 Stone
When stone is used for cores or backing, at least onehalf of the stone shall be of the same size and character as the face stone, and with parallel ends. No course shall be less than 8 inches thick. Stone backing shall be laid in the same manner as specied above for face stone, with headers interlocking with face headers when the thickness of the wall will permit. Backing shall be laid to break joints with the face stone. Stone cores shall be laid in full mortar beds so as to bond not less than 12 inches with face and backing stone and with each other. Bed joints in cores and backing shall not exceed 1 inch and vertical joints shall not exceed 4 inches in thickness. 14.4.6.3 Concrete Concrete used for cores and backing shall conform to the requirements specied in Section 8, Concrete Structures. The operations involved in the handling and placing of concrete used in cores and backing shall conform to the requirements specied in Section 8. However, the puddling and compacting of concrete adjacent to the ashlar masonry facing shall be done in a manner that will insure the lling of all spaces around the stones and secure full contact and efficient bond with all stone surfaces. 14.4.6.4 Leveling Courses Stone cores and backing shall be carried up to the approximate level of the face course before the succeeding course is started.
14.4.6.4
601
The construction joints produced in concrete cores or backing by the intermittent placing of concrete shall be located, in general, not less than 6 inches below the top bed of any course of masonry. 14.4.7 Facing for Concrete Unless otherwise specied in the Special Provisions, the stone masonry shall be constructed before placing concrete. Steel anchors as shown on the plans or specied in the Special Provisions shall be used. To improve the bond between the stone masonry and the concrete backing, the back of the masonry shall be made as uneven as the stones will permit. After the stone facing has been laid and the mortar has attained sufficient strength, all surfaces against which concrete is to be placed shall be cleaned carefully and all dirt, loose material, and accumulations of mortar droppings removed. When placing concrete all interstices of the masonry shall be lled and the concrete thoroughly spaded and worked until it is brought into intimate contact with every part of the back of the masonry. 14.4.8 Copings 14.4.8.1 Stone
ied shall be of Class A concrete which shall conform to the requirements of Section 8, Concrete Structures. Concrete copings shall be made in sections extending the full width of the wall, not less than 12 inches in thickness, and from 5 to 10 feet long. The sections may be cast in place or precast and set in place in full mortar beds. 14.4.9 Dowels and Cramps Where required, coping stone, stone in the wings of abutments, and stone in piers shall be secured with wrought-iron cramps or dowels as indicated on the plans. Dowel holes shall be drilled through each stone before the stone is placed and, after it is in place, such dowel holes shall be extended by drilling into the underlying course not less than 6 inches. Cramps shall be of the shapes and dimensions shown on the plans or approved by the Engineer. They shall be inset in the stone so as to be ush with the surfaces. Cramps and dowels shall be set in lead, care being taken to completely ll the surrounding spaces with the molten metal, or shall be rigidly anchored by other means approved by the Engineer. 14.4.10 Weep Holes All walls and abutments shall be provided with weep holes. Unless otherwise shown on the plans or directed by the Engineer, the weep holes shall be placed at the lowest points where free outlets can be obtained and shall be spaced not more than 10 feet center to center. A minimum of 2 cubic feet of permeable material encapsulated with lter fabric shall be placed at each weep hole. 14.4.11 Pointing Pointing shall not be done in freezing weather or when the stone contains frost. Whenever possible the face joints shall be properly pointed before the mortar becomes set. Joints which cannot be so pointed shall be prepared for pointing by raking them out to a depth of 2 inches before the mortar has set. The face surfaces of stones shall not be smeared with the mortar forced out of the joints or that used in pointing. Joints not pointed at the time the stone is laid shall be thoroughly wet with clean water and lled with mortar. The mortar shall conform to Article 14.2.3 except that the proportion of hydrated lime putty shall be increased to 1 2 to 2 times the volume of the cement or the cement shall be all masonry type cement. The mortar shall be well driven into the joints and nished with an approved pointing tool. The wall shall be kept wet while pointing is being done and in hot or dry weather the pointed masonry shall be
Stones for copings of wall, pier, and abutment bridge seats shall be carefully selected and fully dimensioned stones. On piers, not more than two stones shall be used to make up the entire width of coping. The copings of abutment bridge seats shall be of sufficient width to extend at least 4 inches under the backwall. Each step forming the coping of a wingwall shall be formed by a single stone which shall overlap the stone forming the step immediately below it at least 12 inches. Tops of copings shall be given a bevel cut at least 2 inches wide, and beds, bevel cuts, and tops shall be nenished. The vertical joints shall be smooth-nished and the copings shall be laid with joints not more than 1 4 inch in thickness. The undersides of projecting copings, preferably, shall have a drip bead. Joints in copings shall be located so as to provide not less than a 12-inch bond with the stones of the under course and so that no joint will come directly under the superstructure masonry plates. 14.4.8.2 Concrete Copings, bridge seats, and backwalls shall be of the material shown on the plans and when not otherwise spec-
602
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14.4.11
protected from the sun and kept wet for a period of at least 3 days after completion. After the pointing is completed and the mortar set, the wall shall be thoroughly cleaned and left in a neat and workmanlike condition. 14.4.12 Arches The number of courses and the depth of voussoirs shall be as shown on the plans. Voussoirs shall be placed in the order indicated, shall be full size throughout, and shall have bond not less than their thickness of the stone. Beds shall be roughly pointed to bring them to radial planes. Radial joints shall be in planes parallel to the transverse axis of the arch and, when measured at the intrados, shall not exceed 3 4 inch in thickness. Joints perpendicular to the arch axis shall not exceed 1 inch in thickness when measured at the intrados. The intrados face shall be dressed sufficiently to permit the stone to rest properly upon the centering. Exposed faces of the arch ring shall be rock-faced with edges pitched to true lines. The work shall be carried up symmetrically about the crown, the stone being laid in full mortar beds, and the joints grouted where necessary. Pinning by the use of stone spalls will not be permitted.
Backing may consist of Class B concrete or of large stones shaped to t the arch, bonded to the spandrels, and laid in full beds of mortar. The extrados and interior faces of the spandrel walls shall be given a nished coat of 1:2 1 2 cement mortar which shall be trowelled smooth to receive the waterproong. Arch centering, waterproong, draining, and lling shall be as specied in Section 3, Temporary Works, Section 8, Concrete Structures, and Section 21, Waterproong. 14.5 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT Stone masonry will be measured by either the cubic yard or the square yard as listed in the schedule of bid items. The volume or area will be that actually placed to the limiting dimensions shown on the plans, or the plan dimensions as may have been revised by the Engineer. Stone masonry, as measured above, will be paid for by the contract price per cubic yard or square foot. Such payment shall be considered to be full compensation for the cost of all labor, tools, materials, and other items incidental to the satisfactory completion of the work. Concrete used in connection with stone masonry shall be measured and paid for in the same manner as concrete for structures.
Section 15
CONCRETE BLOCK AND BRICK MASONRY
15.1 DESCRIPTION Concrete block and brick masonry shall consist of concrete blocks or brick laid in cement mortar and may be unreinforced or reinforced with steel reinforcing. Block or brick pavements are not included under this designation. 15.2 MATERIALS 15.2.1 Concrete Block Unless otherwise specied in the special provisions or approved in writing by the Engineer, all concrete block for masonry construction shall be Type I moisture controlled units (Grade N-I) that meet the requirements of ASTM C 90. The value of f m shall be as shown on the plans or as specied in the special provisions. Concrete block units should be protected from rain, snow, or other moisture during storage on or off the job site to assure that they will meet the Type I moisture requirements at the time they are placed in the construction. 15.2.2 Brick quirements for uncoated reinforcing in Section 9, Reinforcing Steel. 15.2.4 Mortar Mortar used shall conform, as regards materials, proportions and mixing, to the mortar specied in Articles 14.2.3 and 14.4.2. 15.2.5 Grout Grout for lling voids in hollow masonry units shall either conform to the requirements of ASTM C 476 or to the requirements of the following paragraph. As an alternative to the requirements of ASTM C 476, the materials for grout shall conform to the requirements of Section 8, Concrete Structures, for cement, aggregates, water and admixtures and to the requirements of Article 14.2.3 for lime. Coarse aggregate shall be of either 1 2inch or 3 8-inch maximum gradation. For ne grout, if proportioned by volume, the cementitious materials shall consist of one part Portland cement to no more than 1 10 part hydrated lime or lime putty and the aggregates shall consist of sand in the amount of 21 4 to 3 times the total volume of cementitious materials. For coarse grout, the proportions shall be the same as for ne grout except that coarse aggregate in the amount of 1 to 2 times the total volume of cementitious materials shall be added. If proportioned by weight, the weights used shall be equivalent to those which would be obtained by volumetric methods. Adjustments in mix proportions, within the limits allowed, shall be made as necessary to satisfy workability and strength requirements. Admixtures shall be used only when specied or approved by the Engineer. 15.2.6 Sampling and Testing 15.2.6.1 Mortar
Brick for masonry construction shall conform to the Specication for Building Brick (solid masonry units made from clay or shale) AASHTO M 114 (ASTM C 62), Concrete Building Brick (ASTM 55), or Solid Load-Bearing Concrete Masonry Units (ASTM 145). The type and grade of brick to be furnished shall be as shown on the plans or as specied in the special provisions. The bricks shall have a ne-grained uniform, and dense structure, free from lumps of lime, laminations, cracks, checks, soluble salts, or other defects which may in any way impair their strength, durability, appearance, or usefulness for the purpose intended. Bricks shall emit a clear, metallic ring when struck with a hammer. 15.2.3 Reinforcing Steel Reinforcing steel used in the construction of concrete block or brick masonry structures shall conform to the re603
Unless otherwise specied in the special provisions, mortar shall have a minimum 28-day compressive
604
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
15.2.6.1
strength of 1,800 psi based on the average of three specimens tested in accordance with the requirements of ASTM C 780. Field samples shall be obtained as follows: (a) Spread 1 2 inch or the thickness of the mortar joint of mortar on masonry units. (b) After 1 minute remove mortar and compress into 2 4 inch cylinder in two layers using at end of a rod or ngers, being sure to see that mold is solidly lled. (c) Lightly tap cylinder immediately and maintain in damp condition. (d) After 48 hours remove mold and store in fog room until testing. 15.2.6.2 Grout When required by the special provision or requested by the Engineer, the Contractor shall manufacture grout prisms for testing. Prisms shall be manufactured at the site during construction using the following procedure: (a) Place masonry units, having same moisture condition as those being placed, on nonabsorptive base to form a void for a square prism with a height twice the side and a minimum side of 3 inches. (b) Line the side faces of the prism with permeable paper or porous separator to allow water passage through liner into masonry units. (c) Fill prism with a fully representative grout sample in two layers. Puddle each layer to eliminate air voids. (d) Level off specimen and maintain in a damp condition. (e) Remove prisms from masonry units after 48 hours and deliver to Engineer. Grout prisms will be tested in accordance with the provisions of ASTM C 39. Grout shall have attained a compressive strength of 2,000 psi at 28 days unless otherwise specied in the special provisions. 15.3 CONSTRUCTION 15.3.1 Weather Conditions Block or brick masonry shall not be constructed in freezing weather or when the block or brick contains frost, except by written permission of the Engineer and subject to such conditions as he or she may require. 15.3.2 Laying Block and Brick The blocks or bricks shall be laid in such manner as will thoroughly bond them into the mortar by means of the
shove-joint method; buttered or plastered joints will not be permitted. All clay or shale brick must be thoroughly saturated with water before being laid. Dampening of concrete masonry units before or during construction shall not be permitted unless approved by the Engineer. The arrangement of headers and stretchers shall be such as will thoroughly bond the mass and, unless otherwise specied, work shall be of alternate headers and stretchers with consecutive courses breaking joints. Other types of bonding, as for ornamental work, shall be as specied on the plans. All joints shall be completely lled with mortar. They shall not be less than 1 4 inch and not more than 5 8 inch in thickness and the thickness shall be uniform throughout. All joints shall be nished properly as the work progresses and on exposed faces they shall be neatly struck, using the weather joint. No spalls or bats shall be used except for shaping around irregular openings or when unavoidable to nish out a course, in which case full bricks shall be placed at the corners, the bats being placed in the interior of the course. Each masonry unit shall be adjusted to its nal position while mortar is still soft and plastic. Units which are disturbed after mortar has stiffened shall be removed and relayed in fresh mortar. Vertical cells to be lled with grout shall be aligned to provide a continuous unobstructed opening. Piers and walls may be built of solid brick work, or may consist of a brick or block shell backed with concrete or other suitable material as specified on the plans. All details of the construction shall be in accordance with approved practice and to the satisfaction of the Engineer.
15.3.3 Placement of Reinforcement Prior to and during grouting the reinforcing steel shall be securely held in position at the top and bottom and at intermediate points not exceeding 200 bar diameters or 10 feet apart. Bars shall be maintained clear of the cell walls and within plus or minus 1 2 inch of their planned position transverse to the wall and within plus or minus 2 inches of their planned position longitudinal to the wall.
15.3.4 Grouting of Voids Grouted masonry shall be constructed in such a manner that all elements of the masonry act together as a structural element.
15.3.4
605
Prior to grouting, the grout space shall be clean so that all spaces to be lled with grout do not contain mortar projections greater than 1 2 inch, mortar droppings or other foreign material. Grout shall be placed so that all spaces to be grouted do not contain voids. Grout materials and water content shall be controlled to provide adequate uidity for placement, without segregation. Size and height limitations of the grout space or cell on the average shall not be less than shown in Table 15.1. Higher grout pours or smaller cavity widths or cell size than shown in Table 15.1 may be used when approved by the Engineer, if it is demonstrated that grout spaces are properly lled. When required by Table 15.1, cleanouts shall be provided in the bottom course at every vertical bar but shall not be spaced more than 32 inches on center for solidly grouted masonry. Cleanouts shall be of sufficient size to allow removal of debris. Units may be laid to the full height of the grout pour and grout shall be placed in a continuous pour in grout lifts not exceeding 6 feet. If construction joints are used in columns of grout, they shall be located at least 11 2 inches below the level of a mortar bed joint. Segregation of the grout materials and damage to the masonry shall be avoided during the grouting process. Grout shall be consolidated before loss of plasticity in a manner to ll the grout space. Grout pours greater than 12 inches in height shall be mechanically reconsolidated to minimize voids due to water loss. Grout not mechanically vibrated shall be puddled.
In nonstructural elements, mortar of pouring consistency may be substituted for grout when the masonry is constructed and grouted in pours of 12 inches or less. Vertical barriers of masonry may be built across the grout space. The grouting of any section of wall between barriers shall be completed in 1 day with no interruption longer than 1 hour.
15.3.5 Copings, Bridge Seats, and Backwalls The tops of retaining walls, abutment wingwalls, and similarly exposed brick or block work shall be provided, in general, with either a stone or concrete coping. The underside of the coping shall have a batter or drip bead, at least 1 inch beyond the face of the block or brick work wall. The coping upon an abutment backwall will commonly have no projection beyond its bridge seat face. When concrete is used, it shall conform to the requirements for Class A concrete specied in Section 8, Concrete Structures. For thin copings, mortar of the same proportions as used for laying the block or brick may be used to produce precast sections not less than 3 feet nor more than 5 feet in length. No coping shall be less than 4 inches thick. Copings of piers and abutment bridge seats shall be of Ashlar stone work or of Class A concrete and shall conform to the requirements for Ashlar Masonry specied in Section 14, Stone Masonry, or for concrete as specied in Section 8, Concrete Structures, as the plans may
TABLE 15.1 Grouting Limitations
606
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
15.3.5
indicate. Unless otherwise shown on the plans, concrete shall be used.
15.4 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT Concrete block and brick masonry will be measured by the number of cubic yards or the number of square feet of the type of masonry actually placed in the structure in accordance with the plans or as modied by written instructions from the Engineer. The units of measure for the var-
ious types of masonry shall be as listed in the schedule of bid items. Concrete block and stone masonry, as measured above, will be paid for by the contract price per cubic yard or square foot. Such payment shall be considered to be full compensation for the cost of all labor, equipment, materials, and other expenses incidental to the satisfactory completion of the work. Filling material for the interior of the wall, reinforcing steel, and concrete or mortar copings, shall be considered as included in the price paid for number of cubic yards or square feet of block or brick masonry actually placed.
Section 16
TIMBER STRUCTURES
16.1 GENERAL This work shall consist of constructing timber structures and the timber portions of composite structures, in accordance with these Specications and in reasonably close conformity with the details shown on the plans or established by the Engineer. It will include furnishing, preparing, fabricating, erecting, treating, and painting of timber. All timber, treated or untreated, shall be of the specied species, grades and dimensions. Also included will be any required yard lumber of the sizes and grades specied and all hardware required for timber connections and ties. 16.1.1 Related Work Other work involved in the construction of timber structures shall be as specied in the applicable sections of this specication. Some of the sections that frequently apply to timber structures are Section 4, Driven Foundation Piles; Section 13, Painting; Section 17, Preservative Treatment of Wood; and Section 20, Railings. rate laminations may not exceed 2 inches in net thickness. They may be comprised of pieces end-joined to form any length, of pieces placed or glued edge to edge to make wider ones, or of pieces bent to curved form during gluing. On glued-laminated structural members that are not to be preservatively treated, an approved end sealer shall be applied after end trimming of each completed member. The grades of timber used for various structural purposes shall be as shown on the plans or in the special provisions. Structural lumber and timber, solid sawn or glued laminated, in exposed permanent structures, other than running planks on decks, shall be treated in conformance with the requirements of Section 17, Preserved Treatment of Wood. Temporary structures or lumber and timber of certain species with adequate heartwood requirements, as listed in AASHTO M 168, when permitted by the plans or specications, do not require preservative treatment. When the special provisions require certication of quality for timber or lumber, the Contractor shall furnish the following certicates of compliance to the Engineer, as appropriate, upon delivery of the materials to the job site: For timber and lumber, a certication by an agency certied by the American Lumber Standards Committee that the timber or lumber conforms to the grade, species, and any other specied requirements. For glued laminated timber, a certication by a qualied inspection and testing agency that the glued laminated timber complies with the grade, species, and other requirements outlined in ANSI/AITC A190.1. If the wood is to be treated with a preservative, a certicate of compliance, as specied in Article 17.3.3, shall be furnished. 16.2.2 Steel Components Rods, plates, eyebars, and shapes shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade 36 unless otherwise specied. 607
16.2 MATERIALS 16.2.1 Lumber and Timber (Solid Sawn or Glued Laminated) Sawn lumber and timber shall conform to the Specications for Structural Timber, Lumber, and Piling, AASHTO M 168. Structural glued laminated timber shall conform to the American National Standard ANSI/AITC A-190.1, Specification for Structural Glued Laminated Timber. Structural glued laminated timber, as employed in ANSI/AITC A190.1, is an engineered, stress-rated product of a timber laminating plant, comprising assemblies of suitably selected and prepared wood laminations securely bonded together with wet-use adhesives. The grain of all laminations is approximately parallel longitudinally. The sepa-
608 16.2.3 Castings
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 16.2.6.3 Shear-Plate Connectors
16.2.3
Castings shall be cast steel or gray-iron, as specied, conforming to the requirements of Articles 11.3.5 or 11.3.6. 16.2.4 Hardware Bolts, nuts, drift-bolts, and dowels may be of mild steel. Washers may be cast iron ogee or malleable iron castings, or they may be cut from mild steel plate, as specied. Bolts shall have either standard square, hex or dome heads, or economy type (washer) heads. Nails shall be cut or round wire of standard form. Spikes shall be cut or wire spikes, or boat spikes, as specied. Unless otherwise specied, bolts shall comply with ASTM A 307, and shall have coarse threads, Class 2 tolerance conforming to ANSI Standard Specications. All fasteners, including nails, spikes, bolts, dowels, washers, and lag screws shall be galvanized, unless otherwise specied or permitted. 16.2.5 Galvanizing 16.2.5.1 Unless otherwise specied, all hardware for timber structures shall be galvanized in accordance with AASHTO M 232 (ASTM A 153) or cadmium plated in accordance with AASHTO M 299 (ASTM B 696). All steel components, timber connectors, and castings, other than malleable iron, shall be galvanized in accordance with AASHTO M 111 (ASTM A 123). 16.2.6 Timber Connectors 16.2.6.1 Dimensions The various types of timber connectors shall generally conform to the dimensions shown in Table 16.1 and to the dimensions specied in this Article 16.2.6. 16.2.6.2 Split Ring Connectors Split rings of 21 2-inch inside diameter and 4-inch inside diameter shall be manufactured from hot-rolled carbon steel conforming to the Society of Automotive Engineers Specication SAE-1010. Each ring shall form a closed true circle with the principal axis of the cross section of the ring metal parallel to the geometric axis of the ring. The metal section shall be beveled from the central portion toward the edges to a thickness less than the midsection. It shall be cut through in one place in its circumference to form a tongue and slot.
Pressed steel shear-plates of 25 8-inch diameter shall be manufactured from hot-rolled carbon steel conforming to the Society of Automotive Engineers Specication SAE1010. Each plate shall be a true circle with a ange around the edge, extending at right angles to the face of the plate and extending from one face only, the plate portion having a central bolt hole and two small perforations on opposite sides of the hole and midway from the center and circumference. Malleable iron shear-plates of 4-inch diameter shall be manufactured according to ASTM A 47, Grade 32510, for malleable iron casting. Each casting shall consist of a perforated round plate with a ange around the edge extending at right angles to the face of the plate and projecting from one face only, the plate portion having a central bolt hole reamed to size with an integral hub concentric to the bolt hole and extending from the same face as the ange. 16.2.6.4 Spike-Grid Connectors Spike-grid timber connectors shall be manufactured according to ASTM A 47, Grade 32510, for malleable iron casting.
TABLE 16.1 Typical Dimensions of Timber Connectors (dimensions in inches)
16.2.6.4
TABLE 16.1 (Continued)
609
a central circular llet which forms a bolt hole opening of 11 4 inch. Fillets in cross section shall be diamond shaped except that the inner circular fillet may be flattened on one side to provide for manufacturer identification. 16.3 FABRICATION AND CONSTRUCTION 16.3.1 Workmanship Workmanship shall be rst class throughout, and all framing shall be true and exact. Unless otherwise specied, nails and spikes shall be driven with just sufficient force to set the heads ush with the surface of the wood. Deep hammer marks in wood surfaces shall be considered evidence of poor workmanship and sufficient cause for removal of the workman causing them. 16.3.2 Storage of Material Lumber and timber stored at the construction site shall be kept in orderly piles or stacks. Untreated material shall be open-stacked on supports at least 12 inches above the ground surface to avoid absorption of ground moisture and permit air circulation and it shall be so stacked and stickered as to permit free circulation of air between the tiers and courses. In particular cases required by the Engineer, the Contractor shall provide protection from the weather by a suitable covering. The ground underneath and in the vicinity of the timber shall be cleared of weeds and rubbish. The storage area shall be chosen or constructed so that water will not collect under or near the stored timber. 16.3.3 Treated Timber 16.3.3.1 Handling Treated timber shall be carefully handled without sudden dropping, breaking of outer bers, bruising, or penetrating the surface with tools. It shall be handled with web slings. Cant hooks, peaveys, pikes, or hooks shall not be used. When metal bands are used to bundle members, corner protectors shall be provided to prevent damage to the treated timber. 16.3.3.2 Framing and Boring All cutting, framing, and boring of treated timbers shall be done before treatment insofar as is practicable. When treated timbers are to be placed in waters infested by marine borers, untreated cuts, borings, or other joint framings below high-water elevation shall be avoided.
Square grids shall consist of four rows of opposing spikes forming a 41 8-inch square grid with 16 teeth that are held in place by llets. Fillets for the at grid in cross section shall be diamond shaped. Fillets for the single curve grids shall be increased in depth to allow for curvature and shall maintain a thickness between the sloping faces of the llets equal to the width of the llet. Circular grids of 31 4-inch diameter shall consist of eight opposing spikes equally spaced around the outer circumference and held in place by connecting fillets around the outer diameter and radial llets projecting to
610 16.3.3.3 Cuts and Abrasions
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
16.3.3.3
All cuts and all recesses formed by countersinking in creosote treated piles or timbers, and all abrasions, after having been carefully trimmed, shall be eld treated as specied either in this paragraph or the following paragraph. Cuts and recesses shall be covered with two applications of a mixture of 60% creosote oil and 40% roong pitch or brush coated with at least two applications of hot creosote oil and covered with hot roong pitch. Recesses likely to collect injurious materials shall be lled with hot roong pitch. Unless specied otherwise, hot preservatives shall be heated to a temperature between 150 and 200F. Where particularly heavy coatings are required, a suitable plastic compound can be prepared by mixing 10% to 20% of creosote and 80% to 90% of coal-tar roofing pitch. For timbers originally treated with pentachlorophenol, creosote, creosote solutions or water-borne preservatives, all cuts, abrasions and recesses which occur after treatment shall be eld treated by two liberal applications of a compatible preservative in accordance with the requirements of the American Wood Preservers Association Standard M 4 entitled, Standard for the Care of Pressure Treated Wood Products. 16.3.3.4 Bored Holes All holes bored after treatment shall be treated by lling the holes with the preservative used for eld treatment. After treatment, any holes not lled with bolts or other items shall be plugged with preservative treated plugs. 16.3.3.5 Temporary Attachment Whenever, with the approval of the Engineer, forms or temporary braces are attached to treated timber with nails or spikes, the resulting holes shall be treated as required for bored holes and shall be lled by driving galvanized nails, spikes, or preservative-treated plugs ush with the surface. 16.3.4 Installation of Connectors Timber connectors shall be one of the following types, as specied on the plans: the split ring, the shear plate, or the spike grid. The split ring and the shear plate types shall be installed in precut grooves of dimensions as given herein or as recommended by the manufacturer. Spike grids shall be forced into the wood so that timbers will be in rm contact. Pressure equipment that does not damage the wood shall be utilized. One acceptable method is to use high-strength bolts or rods tted with low friction
ball-bearing washers made for this purpose. The highstrength bolt will be replaced with specied bolts for the nal installation. All connectors of this type at a joint shall be embedded simultaneously and uniformly. Connector grooves in timber shall be cut concentric with the bolt hole, shall conform to the cross-sectional shape of the rings, and shall provide a snug t. Inside groove diameter shall be larger than nominal ring diameter in order that the ring will expand slightly during installation. (See Table 16.1.) Fabrication of all structural members using connectors shall be done prior to preservative treatment. When prefabricated from templates or shop details, bolt holes shall not be more than 1 16 inch from required placement. Bolt holes shall be 1 16 inch larger than the nished bolt diameter. Bolt holes shall be bored perpendicular to the face of the timber. Timber after fabrication shall be stored in a manner that will prevent changes in the dimensions of the members before assembly. Timber should be cured before fabrication so that it will remain stable in its dimensions. Timber that shrinks during storage causing predrilled grooves for split rings or plates to become elliptical or causing bolt hole spacing to change will be sufficient reason for rejection. 16.3.5 Holes for Bolts, Dowels, Rods, and Lag Screws Holes for round drift-bolts and dowels shall be bored with a bit 1 16 inch less in diameter than the bolt or dowel to be used. The diameter of holes for square drift-bolts or dowels shall be equal to the least dimension of the bolt or dowel. Holes for machine bolts shall be bored with a bit the same diameter as the nished bolt, except as otherwise provided for bolts in connectors. Holes for rods shall be bored with a bit 1 16 inch greater in diameter than the nished rod. Holes for lag screws shall be bored with a bit not larger than the body of the screw at the base of the thread. To prevent splitting or stripping the threads, the hole for the shank shall be bored the same diameter and to the same depth as the shank. The depth of holes for lag screws shall be approximately 1 inch less than the length under the head. 16.3.6 Bolts and Washers A washer, of the size and type specied, shall be used under all bolt heads (except for timber bolts with economy type heads) and nuts which would otherwise come in contact with wood.
16.3.6
DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION 16.3.9.4 Posts
611
The nuts of all bolts shall be effectually locked after they have been nally tightened. 16.3.7 Countersinking Countersinking shall be done where smooth or ush surfaces are required. All recesses in treated timber, formed for countersinking, shall be treated as specied in Article 16.3.3.3. Recesses likely to collect injurious materials shall be lled with hot roong pitch. 16.3.8 Framing All lumber and timber shall be accurately cut and framed to a close t in such manner that the joints will have even bearing over the entire contact surfaces. Mortises shall be true to size for their full depth and tenons shall t snugly. No shimming will be permitted in making joints, nor will open joints be accepted. 16.3.9 Framed Bents 16.3.9.1 Mud Sills Mud sills shall be rmly and evenly bedded to solid bearing and tamped in place. Mud sills shall be pressure preservative treated for ground contact. Where untreated timber is permitted for mud sills, it shall be of heart cedar, heart cypress, redwood, or other durable timber as approved by the Engineer. 16.3.9.2 Concrete Pedestals Concrete pedestals for the support of framed bents shall be carefully nished so that the sills or posts will take even bearing. Dowels for anchoring sills or posts shall be not less than 3 4 inches in diameter and project at least 6 inches above the tops of the pedestals. These dowels shall be cast in the concrete pedestals. Concrete and reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of Sections 8, Concrete Structures, and 9, Reinforcing Steel, respectively. 16.3.9.3 Sills Sills shall have true and even bearing on mud sills, piles, or pedestals. They shall be drift-bolted to mud sills or piles with bolts of not less than 3 4-inch diameter and extending into the mud sills or piles at least 6 inches, or by other types of connectors as detailed on the plans. When possible, all earth shall be removed from contact with sills so that there will be free air circulation around the sills.
Posts shall be fastened to pedestals with dowels of not less than 3 4-inch diameter, extending at least 6 inches into the posts, or by other types of connectors as detailed on the plans. Posts shall be fastened to sills by one of the following methods, as indicated on the plans: (a) By dowels of not less than 3 4-inch diameter, extending at least 6 inches into posts and sills. (b) By drift-bolts of not less than 3 4-inch diameter driven diagonally through the base of the post and extending at least 9 inches into the sill. Drift bolts shall be driven in holes as required by Article 16.3.5 at a 45 angle and shall enter the post at least 6 inches above the post base. (c) By other types of connectors as detailed on the plans. 16.3.9.5 Caps
Timber caps shall be placed, with ends aligned, in a manner to secure an even and uniform bearing over the tops of the supporting posts or piles. All caps shall be secured by drift-bolts of not less than 3 4-inch diameter, extending at least 9 inches into the posts or piles, or by other types of connectors as detailed on the plans. The driftbolts shall be approximately in the center of the post or pile. 16.3.9.6 Bracing
Bracing shall be bolted through the pile, post, or cap at the ends and at all intermediate intersections using a bolt of not less than 5 8 inches in diameter. Bracing shall be of sufficient length to provide a minimum distance of 8 inches between the outside bolt and the end of the brace. 16.3.10 Stringers Stringers shall be sized at bearings and shall be placed in position so that knots near edges will be in the top portions of the stringers. Outside stringers may have butt joints with the ends cut on a taper, but interior stringers shall be lapped to take bearing over the full width of the oor beam or cap at each end. The lapped ends of untreated stringers shall be separated at least 1 2 inch for the circulation of air and shall be securely fastened by drift-bolting where specied. When stringers are two panels in length the joints shall be staggered.
612
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
16.3.10
Unless otherwise specied in the contract, cross-bridging or blocking shall be placed at the center of each span. Cross-bridging between stringers shall be neatly and accurately framed and securely toe-nailed with at least two nails in each end. All cross-bridging members shall have full bearing at each end against the sides of stringers. Blocking shall be snug-t and held in place by either prefabricated galvanized steel beam hangers or by tie-rods as detailed on the plans. 16.3.11 Plank Floors Unless otherwise specied, planks for ooring shall be surfaced four sides (S 4 S). Single plank oors shall consist of a single thickness of plank supported by stringers or joists. The planks shall be laid heart side down, with 1 4-inch openings between them for seasoned material and with tight joints for unseasoned material. Each plank shall be securely spiked to each joist. The planks shall be carefully graded as to thickness and so laid that no two adjacent planks shall vary in thickness by more than 1 8 inch. Two-ply timber oors shall consist of two layers of ooring supported on stringers or joists. The top course shall be laid either diagonal or parallel to the center line of roadway, as specied, and each oor piece shall be securely fastened to the lower course. Joints shall be staggered at least 3 feet. If the top ooring is placed parallel to the center line of the roadway, special care shall be taken to securely fasten the ends of the ooring. At each end of the bridge these members shall be beveled. 16.3.12 Nail Laminated or Strip Floors The strips shall be placed on edge, at right angles to the center line of roadway. Each strip shall be nailed to the preceding strip as shown in Figure 16.3. The spikes shall be of sufficient length to pass through two strips and at least half-way through the third strip. If timber supports are used, every other strip shall be toe-nailed to every other support. The size of the spikes shall be as shown on the plans. When specied on the plans, the strips shall be securely attached to steel supports by the use of approved galvanized metal clips. Care shall be taken to have each strip vertical and tight against the preceding strip, and bearing evenly on all the supports. 16.3.13 Glue Laminated Panel Decks Unless otherwise specied, deck panels shall be pressure preservative treated with creosote or pentachlorophenol with Type A, C, or D carrier. When it is not
possible to complete the fabrication and drilling of glulam members for eld connections before treating, a preservative treatment shall be applied to cut or drilled areas in the eld, in accordance with Articles 16.3.3.3 and 16.3.3.4. Panels shall not be dragged or skidded. Glue laminated deck panels shall be handled, and transported in a way to prevent bending the panels, especially transverse to the laminated pieces. When lifted, they shall be supported at a sufficient number of points to avoid overstressing, and the edges shall be protected from damage. When dowels are shown on the drawings between deck panels, a template or drilling jig shall be used to ensure that dowel holes are accurately spaced. The holes shall be drilled to a depth 1 4 inch greater than one-half the dowel length and of the same diameter as the dowel unless otherwise shown on the drawings. A temporary dowel shall be used as a check for snug t prior to production drilling. The dowels shall be of the size shown on the drawings with the tips slightly tapered or rounded. A lubricant may be used to facilitate the connection process. The tips of the dowels shall be partially and equally started into the holes of the two panels being joined. The panels shall be drawn together keeping the edges parallel, until the panels abut tightly. Each panel shall be securely fastened to each stringer or girder as shown on the drawings. 16.3.14 Composite Wood-Concrete Decks Shear connectors needed to resist shear and provide hold-down capacity between timber and concrete elements which are designed for composite action shall be furnished and installed in conformance with the details shown on the plans or specied in the special provisions. If no such details are provided and the construction is described on the plans as being composite, the Contractor shall submit working drawings for such details and devices for approval by the Engineer before the subject work is begun. 16.3.15 Wheel Guards and Railing Wheel guards and railing shall be accurately framed in accordance with the plans and erected true to line and grade. Unless otherwise specied, wheel guards, rails, and rail posts shall be surfaced four-sides (S 4 S). Wheel guards shall be laid in sections not less than 12 feet long, except where necessary to match expansion joints or end joints. Railings shall conform to the requirements in Section 20, Railings.
16.3.16 16.3.16 Trusses
613
Trusses, when completed, shall show no irregularities of line. Chords shall be straight and true from end to end in horizontal projection and, in vertical projection, shall show a smooth curve through panel points conforming to the correct camber. All bearing surfaces shall t accurately. Uneven or rough cuts at the points of bearing shall be cause for rejection of the piece containing the defect. 16.4 PAINTING Rails and rail posts of timber and any other parts designated on the plan or in the special provisions to be painted shall be painted with three coats of specication paint. Paint and its application shall conform to the requirements in Section 13, Painting. Metal parts, except for hardware, galvanized or cadmium plated metal, and malleable iron, shall be given one coat of shop paint and, after erection, two coats of eld paint as specied in Section 13, Painting. 16.5 MEASUREMENT The quantities to be paid for will be the number of thousand feet board measure (Mbm) of each species and grade of lumber and timber listed in the schedule of bid items, complete in place and accepted. Measurements of lumber and timber will be computed from the nominal dimensions and actual lengths. The cross-sectional dimensions on the plans will be interpreted as standard sizes. The standard cross-sectional dimensions will be used in
the computations even though the actual size is less in the dimension specied. Timber in wheel guards will be included. Timber in piling, railing, and other items for which separate payment is provided will not be included. Measurements for glued laminated girders and beams will be computed from the applicable nished dimensions and actual lengths. Quantities for glue laminated girders and beams to be paid for will be the linear feet for each size and stress combination. The measurement of lumber and timber and of glued laminated girders and beams will include only such material as is a part of the completed and accepted work, and will not include materials used for erection purposes, such as falsework, bracing, sheeting, etc. 16.6 PAYMENT Payment for timber, lumber, and glued laminated girders and beams shall be considered to be full compensation for all costs of furnishing of materials, including hardware and timber connectors, preservative treatment, equipment, tools, and labor for the fabrication, erection, and painting necessary to complete all of the work in compliance with the plans and specications in a satisfactory manner. Metal parts, other than hardware and timber connectors, will be measured and paid for as provided in Section 23, Miscellaneous Metal. Railings and concrete will be measured and paid for as provided in Sections 20, Railings and 8, Concrete Structures, respectively.
FIGURE 16.3 Nail Placement Pattern
Section 17
PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT OF WOOD
17.1 GENERAL This work shall consist of treating wood, including lumber, timber, piles and poles, with designated preservatives in accordance with these Specications. It shall include furnishing all materials, preparing, treating, and performing all work to complete treating the wood products required for the project. The type of preservative treatment required shall be as specied in the special provisions or as noted on the plans. When a specic type of preservative is not called for, the kind of preservative to be used shall be adopted for its suitability to the conditions of exposure to which it will be subjected and shall be subject to approval of the Engineer. The handling and care of treated woods shall conform to the requirements of Sections 4, Driven Foundation Piles, and 16, Timber Structures. 17.2 MATERIALS 17.2.1 Wood 17.3 IDENTIFICATION AND INSPECTION 17.3.1 Branding and Job Site Inspection Each piece of treated timber shall bear a legible brand, mark, or tag indicating the name of the treater and the specification symbol or specification requirements to which the treatment conforms. Treated wood products bearing the quality mark of the American Wood Preservers Bureau (AWPB) will be acceptable. The Engineer shall be provided adequate facilities and free access to the necessary parts of the treating plant for inspection of material and workmanship to determine that the contract requirements are met. The Engineer reserves the right to retest all materials after delivery to the job site and to reject all materials which do not meet the requirements of the contract; provided that, at the job site reinspection, conformance within 5% of contract requirements shall be acceptable. Reinspection at the job site may include assay to determine retention of preservatives and extraction and analysis of preservative to determine its quality. 615 Unless otherwise specied in the Special Provisions or shown on the design drawings, timber railings and posts and timber that are to be painted shall be treated with pentachlorophenol with a Type C solvent or with a water-borne preservative of either Type CCA or ACZA.
17.2.3 Coal-tar Roong Cement For purposes of these specications pitch, coal-tar pitch, coal-tar roong pitch, or coal-tar roong compound shall mean coal-tar roong cement wherever the terms are used. Coal-tar roong cement is a residue of the manufacturing of coke and creosote from bituminous coal. It shall be a thick, heavy-bodied, and paste-like material. When called for, it can be mixed with creosote. It may or may not contain brous material.
Piling shall conform to the requirements of Section 4, Driven Foundation Piles. Timber and lumber shall conform to the requirements of Section 16, Timber Structures. 17.2.2 Preservatives and Treatments Timber preservatives and treatment methods shall conform to AASHTO M 133. The type of preservative furnished shall be in accordance with that specied or as noted on the plans. It should be noted that AASHTO M 133 designates the preservatives and retentions recommended for Coastal Waters and in marine structures and further that timber for use in ground or water contact has requirements that differ from timbers for use not in ground or water contact. In some instances there is a range of retentions offered which provides for different degrees of exposure based on climate or degree of insect infestation. Unless the higher retentions are specied, not less than the minimum retention is required.
616 17.3.2 Inspection at Treatment Plant
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 17.3.3 Certicate of Compliance
17.3.2
Unless otherwise specied, inspection of materials and preservative treatment shall be the responsibility of the Contractor and the supplier of treated wood products. Inspections shall be conducted in accordance with AASHTO Specication M 133 (AWPA Standards) by the treater or an independent commercial inspection agency approved by the American Wood Preservers Bureau (AWPB) and the Engineer. The inspection agency shall be engaged by the Contractor directly or through his or her supplier. No direct compensation will be made for these inspection costs, it being understood that the costs of inspection are included in the contract bid prices for treated wood products or construction items of work.
Whenever specied or requested by the Engineer, a certicate of compliance with copies of the inspection reports attached shall be furnished to the Engineer with each shipment of material. Such certicates shall identify the type of preservative used and the quantity in pounds per cubic foot (assay method) and shall be signed by the treater or the qualied independent inspection agency.
17.4 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT No separate measurement and payment will be made for preservative treatment as such work is a part of the work included in furnishing preservative treated materials.
Section 18
BEARINGS
18.1 SCOPE This section covers the construction and installation of structural bearings that consist of one or more of the following component types: metal rocker and roller bearings, PTFE sliding bearings (at and curved), plain elastomeric pads, berglass reinforced elastomeric pads, cotton duck reinforced pads, steel reinforced elastomeric bearings, pot bearings, disc bearings, and bronze and copper alloy bearings (at and curved). At the discretion of the Engineer, other component types may be used, but the construction, installation and testing requirements must then be agreed by the Engineer before the start of fabrication. The section also covers ancillary items such as masonry, sole and load distribution plates, bedding materials, anchor bolts, lubricants and adhesives. 18.2 APPLICABLE DOCUMENTS 18.2.1 AASHTO Standards ASTM B 22 The following AASHTO Standards are relevant to this section. AASHTO M 102 Steel Forgings, Carbon and Alloy for General Use (ASTM A 668) AASHTO M 107 Bronze Castings for Bridges and Turntables (ASTM B 22) AASHTO M 108 Rolled Copper-Alloy Bearing and Expansion Plates and Sheets for Bridges and Other Industrial Uses (ASTM B100) AASHTO M 164 High-Strength Bolts for Structural Steel Joints (ASTM A 325) AASHTO M 251 Specications for Plain and Steel Laminated Bearings for Bridges (ASTM D 4014) AASHTO M 253 Heat-Treated Steel Structural Bolts 150 Ksi Minimum Tensile Strength (ASTM A 490) AASHTO M 270 Structural Steel for Bridges (ASTM A 709) 617 ASTM B 29 ASTM B 36 ASTM B 100 18.2.2 ASTM Standards The following ASTM Standards are relevant to this section. ASTM A 167 Specication for Stainless and HeatResisting Chromium-Nickel Steel Plate Sheet, and Strip. Specication for Heat-Resisting Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip for Pressure Vessels Specication for Carbon Steel Externally Threaded Standard Fasteners Standard Specication for Castings, Steel and Alloy, Common Requirements, for General Industrial Use Specication for Steel Forgings, General Requirements Practice for Steel Castings, Textures and Discontinuities, Evaluation and Specifying by Visual Examination Bronze Castings for Bridges and Turntables (AASHTO M 107) Specication for Pig Lead Specication for Brass Plate, Sheet, Strip, and Rolled Bar Specication for Rolled Copper Alloy Bearing and Expansion Plates for Bridge and Other Structural Uses (AASHTO M 108) Specication for Phosphor-Bronze Plate, Sheet, Strip and Rolled Bar Specication for Sintered Bronze Bearings (Oil Impregnated) Test Methods for Rubber Property Compression Set Test Methods for Rubber Property Tension Test Test Methods for Rubber Property Peel Test Test Method for Rubber DeteriorationSurface Cracking Test Method for RubberDeterioration in an Air Oven
ASTM A 240
ASTM A 307 ASTM A 781
ASTM A 788 ASTM A 802
ASTM B 103 ASTM B 438 ASTM D 395 ASTM D 412 ASTM D 429 ASTM D 518 ASTM D 573
618 ASTM D 746
HIGHWAY BRIDGES Test Method for Brittleness Temperature of Plastics and Elastomers by Impact Test Method for Specic Gravity (Relative Density) and Density of Plastics by Displacement Test Method for Peel or Stripping Strength of Adhesive Bonds Stiffness Properties of Plastics as a Function of Temperature by Means of a Torsion Test Test Method for Rubber DeteriorationSurface Ozone Cracking in a Chamber. Method of Measuring Thickness of Textile Materials Classication System for Rubber Products in Automotive Applications Test Method for Rubber Property Durometer Hardness Test Method for Breaking Load (Strength) and Elongation of Yarn by the Single-Strand Method Specication for PTFE Resin Molded Sheet Specication for Plain and SteelLaminated Elastomeric Bearings for Bridges (AASHTO M 251) Specication for Polytetrauoroethylene (PTFE) Granular Molding and Ram Extrusion Materials Specication for Polytetrauoroethylene (PTFE) Resin Produced from Dispersion 18.4 MATERIALS 18.4.1 General 18.4.1.1 Steel
18.2.2
ASTM D 792
ASTM D 903 ASTM D 1043
ASTM D 1149
18.4.1.1.1 Rolled steel shall be of the type required on the plans and shall satisfy the testing requirements of the standard to which it conforms. Unless otherwise specied, it shall conform to AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade 36 and shall cause no adverse electrolytic or chemical reaction with other components of the bearing. It shall be free of all rust and mill scale. 18.4.1.1.2 Unless otherwise specied by the Engineer, steel laminates in steel reinforced elastomeric bearings shall be made from rolled mild steel conforming to M 270 Grade 36, Grade 50 (ASTM A 36, A 572), or equivalent, and shall have a nominal thickness not less than 16 gage. Holes in laminates, not specied on the plans but used for manufacturing purposes, shall be permitted only with the written approval of the Engineer. 18.4.1.1.3 Cast steel shall satisfy the requirements of ASTM A 802 and be free of all blow-holes and impurities larger than 1 8 inch. The inside wall of the pot in pot bearings and the contact surface of metal rocker or roller bearings shall be free of blow-holes or impurities of any size. 18.4.1.1.4 Forged steel shall satisfy the requirements of ASTM A 788. 18.4.1.1.5 Unless otherwise specied by the Engineer, stainless steel shall conform to ASTM A 167 or A 240 type 304, and have a minimum thickness of 20 gage. Stainless steel in contact with PTFE sheet shall be polished to a #8 mirror nish. 18.4.1.1.6 Steel weld metal shall be chosen to be compatible with the parent materials and the welding process used and shall be approved by the Engineer. Stainless steel weld used for overlays shall be type 309L. 18.4.1.1.7 Bolts shall conform to AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325), AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) or ASTM A 307 unless specied otherwise. 18.4.2 Special Material Requirements for Metal Rocker and Roller Bearings The steel at the contact surface of a metal bearing may be hardened provided that, after hardening, it satises the strength and ductility requirements of the contract plans and material specications.
ASTM D 1777 ASTM D 2000 ASTM D 2240 ASTM D 2256
ASTM D 3293 ASTM D 4014
ASTM D 4894
ASTM D 4895
18.2.3 Other Standards ANSI/AASHTO/ AWS D1.5 MIL-S-8660C MMM-A-134 QQ-B-626 TT-S-230 Bridge Welding Code Grease for pot bearing rotational elements Epoxy (Federal specication) Brass (Federal specication) Caulk (Federal specication)
18.3 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS Bearings shall be constructed in accordance with the details shown on the plans and specications. When complete details are not provided, bearings shall be furnished that conform to the limited details shown on the plans and shall provide the performance characteristics specied.
18.4.3
619
18.4.3 Special Material Requirements for PTFE Sliding Surfaces 18.4.3.1 PTFE
specication MMM-A-134, FEP lm or equal, as approved by the Engineer. 18.4.3.3 Lubricants Lubricant, if used, shall consist of a combination of solids which does not react chemically or electrolytically with the PTFE and its mating surface and shall remain stable in the environmental conditions expected at the bridge site. 18.4.3.4 Interlocked Bronze and Filled PTFE Structures The phosphor bronze back plate shall conform to AASHTO M 108 (ASTM B 100) and the porous bronze layer shall conform to ASTM B 103. 18.4.4 Special Material Requirements for Pot Bearings 18.4.4.1 The rotational element of the pot bearing shall be made from an elastomeric compound, with a hardness of 50 10 on the Shore A scale. It shall be made from all new material. The raw polymer on which it is based shall be either polychloroprene (neoprene) or polyisoprene (natural rubber). The compound shall satisfy the physical property requirements for a 50 hardness material as specied in Tables 18.4.5.1-1A or -1B. 18.4.4.2 The elastomer may be lubricated with a silicone grease which does not react chemically with the elastomer and which does not alter its properties within the range of environmental conditions expected at the bridge site. 18.4.4.3 The sealing rings shall be made of brass conforming to ASTM B 36 (half hard) for rings of rectangular cross-section, and to federal specication QQ-B-626, composition 2, for rings of circular cross-section. The Engineer
18.4.3.1.1 PTFE resin shall be 100% pure new material and shall comply with ASTM D 4894 or D 4895. It shall satisfy the requirements of Table 18.4.3.1-1. No reclaimed material shall be used. Finished PTFE sheet, strip and fabric shall be resistant to acids, alkalis, and petroleum products, stable at temperatures from 360F to 500F, nonammable, and nonabsorbing of water. 18.4.3.1.2 Filler material, when used in PTFE, shall be milled glass ber, carbon ber or other approved ber. The ller shall not react chemically with the PTFE but shall adhere to it so that the two act compositely. 18.4.3.1.3 Finished PTFE sheet shall be made from virgin PTFE resin or virgin PTFE resin uniformly blended with approved ller. The maximum ller content shall be 15% for berglass and 25% for carbon bers. The maximum ller content for other materials shall be determined by the Engineer. The PTFE sheet shall satisfy the requirements of Table 18.4.3.1-1. Values for intermediate ller contents may be obtained by interpolation. 18.4.3.1.4 Woven fabric PTFE shall be made from oriented multi-lament PTFE bers or from a mixture of PTFE bers made from twisted, slit PTFE tape and other bers. It shall conform to the requirements of Table 18.4.3.1-1. 18.4.3.2 Adhesives
Adhesive used for bonding sheet PTFE shall be an epoxy material satisfying the requirements of federal
TABLE 18.4.3.1-1 Physical Properties of PTFE Physical Property Specic Gravity Melting point (F) Tensile Strength (psi) Elongation at Break (%)
1 2
ASTM Test Method D 4894, D 4895, or D 5977 D 4894, D 4895, or D 5977 D 4894, D 4895, or D 5977 D 4894, D 4895, or D 5977
Sheet (Unlled) 2.16 0.03 .623 2 28001 2001
Sheet with 15% glass bers 2.20 0.03 .621 18 20002 1502
Sheet with 25% carbon bers 2.10 0.03 .621 18 13002 752
Woven fabric 24,000 24,0351
Using Test Method ASTM D 2256 Using Test Method ASTM D 638
620
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
18.4.3.1.1
may, at own discretion, approve other sealing ring materials on the basis of test evidence which demonstrates adequate sealing properties and durability of the material. 18.4.5 Special Material Requirements for Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings and Elastomeric Pads 18.4.5.1 Elastomer The raw elastomer shall be either virgin neoprene (polychloroprene) or virgin natural rubber (polyisoprene). The elastomer compound shall be classied as being of low temperature grade 0, 2, 3, 4 or 5. The grades are dened by the testing requirements in Tables 18.4.5.1-1A and -1B. A higher grade of elastomer may be substituted for a lower one. In the absence of more specic information, bearings shall be Grade 3, 60 durometer elastomer. The elastomer compound shall meet the minimum requirements of Tables 18.4.5.1-1A and -1B except as otherwise specied by the Engineer. The nominal hardness of the compound shall lie between 50 and 60 for reinforced bearings and between 50 and 70 for plain pads. Test requirements may be interpolated for intermediate hardness. If the material is specied by its shear modulus, its measured shear modulus shall lie within 15% of the specied value. A consistent value of hardness shall also be supplied for the purpose of dening limits for the tests in Tables 18.4.5.1-1A and -1B. If the hardness is specied, the measured shear modulus must fall within the range of Table 14.6.5.2.1 in Article 14.6.5.2 of Division I. When test specimens are cut from the nished product, the physical properties shall be permitted to vary from those specied in Tables 18.4.5.1-1A and -1B by 10%. All material tests shall be carried out at 73 4F unless otherwise noted. Shear modulus tests shall be carried out using the apparatus and procedure described in annex A of ASTM D 4014, amended where necessary by the requirements of Tables 18.4.5.1-1A or -1B. 18.4.5.2 Fabric Reinforcement Fabric reinforcement shall be woven from 100% glass bers of E type yarn with continuous bers. The minimum thread count in either direction shall be 25 threads per inch. The fabric shall have either a crowfoot or an 8 Harness Satin weave. Each ply of fabric shall have a minimum breaking strength of 800 lb/in. of width in each thread direction. 18.4.5.3 Bond
laminated bearings shall develop a minimum peel strength of 40 lb/in. Peel strength tests shall be performed by ASTM D 429 Method B. 18.4.6 Special Material Requirements for Bronze or Copper Alloy Sliding Surfaces
18.4.6.1 Bronze and Copper Alloys 18.4.6.1.1 Bronze Bronze components shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 107 (ASTM B 22) alloy C90500, C91100 or C86300. Alloy C91100 shall be furnished unless otherwise specied. Components may be cast, rolled or forged. Castings shall be free of blow-holes larger than 1 8 inch and contact surfaces shall be free of all blow-holes of any size. 18.4.6.1.2 Rolled Copper-Alloy Rolled copper-alloy bearing and expansion plates shall conform to the Specication for Rolled Copper-Alloy Bearing and Expansion Plates and Sheets for Bridge and Other Structural Uses, AASHTO M 108 (ASTM B 100). Alloy No. C51000 or No. C51100 shall be furnished unless otherwise specied. 18.4.6.2 Oil Impregnated Metal Powder Sintered Material Metal powdered sintered material shall conform to ASTM B 438, Grade 1, Type II or Grade 2, Type I. 18.4.7 Special Material Requirements for Disc Bearings
18.4.7.1 Elastomeric Rotational Element The rotational element of the disc bearing shall be made from an elastomeric compound with a hardness which lies between 45 and 65 on the Shore D scale. The raw polymer on which it is based shall be polyether urethane. The compound shall satisfy the physical property requirements appropriate to the materials hardness in Table 18.4.7.1-1. 18.4.8 Special Material Requirements for Guides 18.4.8.1 Low-Friction Material The sliding interface shall be made from a material which is approved by the Engineer and which will provide a friction coefficient no greater than the one used in the design.
The vulcanized bond between fabric and reinforcement shall have a minimum peel strength of 30 lb/in. Steel
18.4.3.1
TABLE 18.4.5.1-1A Material Testspolychloroprene
621
as described in annex A of ASTM D 4014
622
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
TABLE 18.4.5.1-1B Material Testspolyisoprene
18.4.5.1
as described in annex A of ASTM D 4014
18.4.5.1
TABLE 18.4.7.1-1 Physical Properties of Polyether Urethane ASTM Test Method D 2240 D 412
623
18.4.9.4 Grout and Mortar Grout and mortar used for lling under masonry plates shall conform to Article 8.14.
Physical Property Hardness, Durometer D Minimum Tensile Stress (psi) at 100% elongation at 200% elongation Tensile Strength (psi) Elongation at break (%) Maximum Compression Set (22 hrs @ 158 F, %)
Requirements 45 1500 2800 4000 350 40 55 1900 3400 5000 285 40 65 2300 4000 6000 220 40
18.5 FABRICATION 18.5.1 General 18.5.1.1 Bearings shall be accurately machined to the dimensions and tolerances shown on the contract plans and shall be free from aws. 18.5.1.2 All fabrication from steel plate shall comply with Section 11.4 of Division II of this specication. All welding shall conform to, and all welders shall be qualied in accordance with, the requirements of the ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D 1.5 Bridge Welding Code. 18.5.1.4 If a masonry plate is used, the bearing shall be attached to it by a method that permits transfer of all the specied loads, but also allows replacement of the bearing. Recessing is recommended. 18.5.1.5 Unless specied otherwise, the dimensional tolerances and surface nishes of the bearing shall satisfy the requirements of Table 18.5.1.5-1. 18.5.2 Special Fabrication Requirements for Metal Rocker and Roller Bearings 18.5.2.1 Steel Rocker bearings may be made by casting, forging or fabricating from plate. Roller bearings more than 9 inches in diameter shall be forged and annealed. Smaller roller bearings may either be forged and annealed or be made from cold-nished carbon steel shafting. In roller bearings more than 9 inches in diameter, a hole not less than 2 inches in diameter shall be bored full length along the axis after the forging has cooled to a temperature below the critical range and before annealing. It shall be done under conditions which prevent damage by cooling too rapidly. 18.5.2.2 Lubricant Lubrication shall be applied to all gear mechanisms and to all other components of roller bearings for which it is required. The type of lubricant shall be as specied on the contract plans, and shall be applied in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations.
D 412 D 412 D 395
18.4.8.2
Adhesive
Any adhesive used to attach the sliding interface material shall be recommended for that purpose by the manufacturer of the sliding material and approved by the Engineer. 18.4.9 Special Requirements for Bedding Materials 18.4.9.1 Fabric-Reinforced Elastomeric Bedding Pads Preformed fabric pads used as bedding shall be composed of multiple layers of 8-ounce cotton duck impregnated and bonded with high quality natural rubber or of equivalent and equally suitable materials compressed into resilient pads of uniform thickness. The number of plies shall be such as to produce the specied thickness, after compression and vulcanizing. The nished pads shall withstand compression stress perpendicular to the plane of the laminations of not less than 10,000 pounds per square inch without detrimental reduction in thickness or extrusion. 18.4.9.2 Sheet Lead Sheet lead used as bedding shall be common desilverized lead conforming to ASTM B 29. The sheets shall be of uniform thickness and shall be free from cracks, seams, slivers, scale, and other defects. Unless otherwise specied, lead sheet thickness shall be 1 8 inch 0.03 inch. 18.4.9.3 Caulk
Caulking material used as bedding shall be a nonsag polysulde or polyurethane material conforming to Federal Specication TT-S-230, Type II.
624
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
TABLE 18.5.1.5-1 Fabrication Tolerances and Surface Finish Requirements Thickness tolerance 0.000, 0.250 0.000, 0.125 0.000, 0.025 0.000, 0.063 0.000, 0.025 0.000, 0.125 0.000, 0.250 0.000, 0.063 0.000, 0.063 0.000, 0.063 0.000, 0.063 0.000, 0.125 0.000, 0.250 0.125, 0.125 & 0.20* design 0.000, 0.125 0.005 radians 0.000, 0.125 0.063, 0.063 0.002 radians Dimension tolerance 0.063, 0.063 0.002, 0.002 0.125, 0.125 0.005, 0.000 0.000, 0.005 0.000, 0.125 0.000, 0.025 0.003, 0.003 0.003, 0.003 0.063, 0.000 0.000, 0.125 0.000, 0.005 0.000, 0.063 0.000, 0.125 0.000, 0.030 0.000, 0.125 0.000, 0.125 0.010, 0.000 0.000, 0.010 0.000, 0.250 0.020 radians 0.000, 0.250 0.000, 0.125 0.000, 0.030 0.005 radians 0.250, 0.250 Flatness or out-of-round tolerance 0.001, 0.001 0.001, 0.001 0.001, 0.001 0.002, 0.002 0.002, 0.002 0.001, 0.001 Class C 0.001, 0.001 Class C Class A Class B Class B Class A Class A Class A 0.002, 0.002 0.002, 0.002 Class A Class A
18.4.5.1
Item Metal Rocker & Roller Bearings Single Roller: diameter Nested Roller: diameter Rockers: diameter Pins: diameter Bushings: diameter Pot Bearings Overall dimensions Pot depth (inside) Pot wall: thickness & ave. I.D. Pot base: top & bottom surfaces Piston: rim Piston: top and bottom surfaces Elastomeric disk (unstressed) Disc Bearings Overall dimensions Shear-restricting element Other machined parts Urethane disc Flat PTFE Sliding Bearings PTFE Stainless steel Flat Bronze and Copper Alloy Sliding Bearings Sliding surfaces Curved PTFE Sliding Bearings Convex radius Concave radius Steel-reinforced Elastomeric Bearings Overall dimensions Internal rubber layers Cover Parallelism: top & bot. surfaces Parallelism: sides Elastomeric Pads Overall dimensions Guides Contact surface Distance between guides Parallelism of guides Load Plates Overall dimensions Bevel slope
Surface nish (-in.) (rms.) 63 63 125 32 32 32 63 32 63 32 63 63 #8 mirror 32 #8 mirror 125 32 125
Notes: Flatness: Class A 0.001 nominal dimension Class B 0.002 nominal dimension Class C 0.005 nominal dimension only for surfaces in contact with the bearing
18.4.9.2
625
18.5.3 Special Fabrication Requirements for PTFE Sliding Bearings 18.5.3.1 Fabrication of PTFE Each PTFE element shown on the plans as a single piece shall be so fabricated and supplied. 18.5.3.2 Attachment of PTFE 18.5.3.2.1 Flat Sheet PTFE All at sheet PTFE attached to a metal backing plate shall be attached by recessing into the backing plate for one half of the PTFE thickness and bonding. PTFE attached to other materials, such as elastomers, shall be attached by a method approved by the Engineer. The PTFE shall be factory-bonded, using an adhesive that is approved by the Engineer, in accordance with the instructions of the adhesives manufacturer. Prior to bonding, the surface shall be etched by an approved manufacturer using the sodium napthalene or sodium ammonia process. When the backing plate is metal, the bonding shall be conducted under a uniform pressure greater than 100 psi. The peel strength of the bond shall be not less than 20 lb/in, tested in accordance with ASTM D 429 Method B. The nished surface of the PTFE shall be smooth, free from bubbles and shall conform to the tolerances shown in Table 18.5.1.5-1. Filled PTFE sheets shall be polished after bonding. 18.5.3.2.2 Curved Sheet PTFE Curved sheet PTFE, such as used in spherical bearings, shall be attached by recessing for one half of the PTFE thickness. The dimensions of the PTFE element shall be selected so that it ts tightly in the recess even when the bearing is subjected to its lowest design temperature. 18.5.3.2.3 Woven PTFE Fabric Fabric made from woven PTFE bers shall be bonded or mechanically fastened to a rigid substrate in such a way that the fabric can carry a compressive stress of 10,000 psi without cold ow. The attachment of the fabric to the substrate shall be capable of withstanding, without delamination, a shear force equal to (0.1 )P at the same time as the normal load P, where is the design coefficient of friction between the PTFE and its mating surface and P is the design load acting perpendicularly to the interface. 18.5.3.3 Stainless Steel Mating Surface Each stainless steel element shown on the plans as a single piece shall be so supplied. Each sheet shall be at-
tached to its backing material by seal welding around the entire perimeter so as to prevent entry of moisture between the stainless steel and the backing material. Welds shall conform to the American Welding Society requirements for stainless steel. After welding, the stainless steel sheet shall be at, free from wrinkles and in continuous contact with its backing plate. 18.5.3.4 Lubrication Lubricant shall be applied to the entire PTFE surface if specied by the Engineer. If the PTFE is dimpled, enough lubricant shall be used to ll all the dimples. 18.5.4 Special Fabrication Requirements for Curved Sliding Bearings All mating parts of any bearing shall be furnished by the manufacturer. Sheet PTFE shall be attached to the metal backing surface by recessing in accordance with Article 18.5.3.2.2. Unless otherwise specied by the Engineer, the PTFE shall be bonded to its metal backing surface using an adhesive that is recommended by the manufacturer and approved by the Engineer. While the adhesive sets, the PTFE shall be compressed between the two mating curved metal surfaces under a pressure of at least 100 psi. 18.5.5 Special Fabrication Requirements for Pot Bearings 18.5.5.1 Pot
The pot shall be made by forging, casting, fabrication by welding or machining from a single piece of plate. In pots made by welding a ring to a base plate, the weld shall be a full penetration butt weld. The piston shall be machined from a single piece of steel. The outside diameter of the piston shall be no more than 0.030 inches less than the inside diameter of the pot at the level of the interface between the piston and elastomeric rotational element. The sides of the piston shall be beveled to facilitate rotation. If guides are used, they may be attached to the piston by welding or bolting. 18.5.5.2 Sealing Rings The sealing rings shall be recessed into the elastomeric disk and shall t snugly against the pot wall. Rings of rectangular cross section shall be installed with their gaps equally spaced around the circumference. The gap between the ring and the wall shall nowhere exceed 0.01 inches.
626
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 18.5.6.4 Plain Elastomeric Pads
18.5.6.1
The gap between the cut ends of the ring shall not exceed 0.05 inches. 18.5.5.3 Elastomeric Rotational Element The elastomeric pad shall have the same nominal diameter as the pot. It may be individually molded or cut from sheet. It may be made of no more than three separate layers, of which none may have a nominal thickness of less than 1 2 inch. The sealing ring recess depth shall be the same as the total ring thickness if rectangular rings are used. 18.5.6 Special Fabrication Requirements for Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings and Elastomeric Pads 18.5.6.1 Requirements for All Elastomeric Bearings Bearings and pads which are designed to act as a single unit with a given shape factor shall be manufactured as a single unit. Flash tolerance, nish, and appearance shall meet the requirements of the latest edition of the Rubber Handbook as published by the Rubber Manufacturers Association, Inc., RMA F3 and T.063 for molded bearings and RMA F2 for extruded bearings. 18.5.6.2 Steel Laminated Elastomeric Bearings Bearings with steel laminates shall be cast as a unit in a mold and shall be bonded and vulcanized under heat and pressure. The mold nish shall conform to standard shop practice. The internal steel laminates shall be sandblasted and cleaned of all surface coatings, rust, mill scale and dirt before bonding, and shall be free of sharp edges and burrs. External load plates (sole plates) shall be protected from rusting by the manufacturer, and preferably should be hot bonded to the bearing during vulcanization. 18.5.6.3 Fabric Reinforced Elastomeric Pads Fabric-reinforced elastomeric pads may be vulcanized in large sheets and cut to size. Cutting shall be performed in such a way as to avoid heating the materials and shall produce a smooth nish with no separation of the fabric from the elastomer. Fabric reinforcement shall be at least single ply for the top and bottom reinforcement layers and double ply for internal reinforcement layers. Fabric shall be free of folds and ripples and shall be parallel to the top and bottom surfaces.
Plain pads may be molded, extruded, or vulcanized in large sheets and cut to size. Cutting shall not heat the material, and shall produce a smooth nish. 18.5.7 Special Fabrication Requirements for Bronze and Copper Alloy Bearings 18.5.7.1 Bronze Sliding Surfaces Bronze plates shall be cast according to details shown on the plans. Unless detailed otherwise, sliding surfaces shall be machined parallel to the direction of movement and polished. 18.5.7.2 Copper Alloy Plates Copper alloy plates shall be furnished according to details shown on the plans. Rolled plates need not be finished provided they have a plane, true and smooth surface. 18.5.8 Special Fabrication Requirements for Disc Bearings
18.5.8.1 Steel Housing The steel housing of the disc bearing shall be made by machining from a single piece of plate or by fabrication by welding. The shear restriction mechanism shall be connected to the bearing plate by mechanical fastening, welding or other means approved by the Engineer. 18.5.8.2 Elastomeric Rotational Element The polyether urethane rotational element shall be molded as a single piece. The nish of the mold shall be free from burrs and shall conform to good shop practice. 18.5.9 Special Fabrication Requirements for Guides 18.5.9.1 Guide bars shall be attached to the body of the bearing by a method which minimizes distortion and allows the atness tolerances on all parts of the bearing to be met after attachment. The sliding surfaces of the guide system shall be at and parallel. 18.5.9.2 Bolts or threaded fasteners used to attach the guide bars to their supporting plates shall have an embedded thread length adequate to develop their required strength.
18.5.10
627
18.5.9.3 If low friction material is used at the contact interface, it shall be attached to its backing piece by two or more of the following methods simultaneously: bonding, recessing and mechanical attachment with countersunk fasteners. If the material is bonded, it shall rst be etched by the method recommended by the manufacturer of the material or the bonding agent. Recessing shall be one half of the material thickness. Fasteners shall be countersunk to a depth which ensures that they will not touch the mating material after allowing for wear. 18.5.10 Special Requirements for Load Plates Load plates shall be made from a single steel plate or they may be built up from several steel laminates, each oriented in the plane perpendicular to the direction of the load. Built up load plates shall be joined by complete seal welding to prevent ingress of moisture. Such welds shall also provide sufficient shear strength to resist the applied loads. The load plates shall have no sharp corners or edges. Holes may be formed by drilling, punching, or accurately controlled oxygen cutting. All burrs shall be removed by grinding. 18.5.11 Special Requirements for Anchor Bolts Anchor bolts shall be provided with anchorage details that permit development of the full tension strength of the bolt. Hooks or end plates are recommended. 18.6 CORROSION PROTECTION
When bearings are made from a number of components, each component shall satisfy the testing requirements from the applicable section. The Engineer, or his or her assigned agents, shall be given free access to inspect the manufacturer of the bearings at all times. 18.7.1.2 Denitions Load RangeA load range is a range of load capacities in which the highest capacity is no more than 2.0 times as large as the lowest. LotA lot is a group of no more than 25 bearings of the same type (e.g. elastomeric or pot bearings, and xed, guided or oating), in the same load range. BatchA batch is a body of material in which the ingredients are uniformly blended together at one time. SampleA sample is a piece of material or a complete bearing which is tested in order to infer the properties of the batch of material or group of bearing elements from which it is taken. A sample shall consist of at least one bearing chosen randomly from each lot and material batch and shall comprise at least 10% of the lot. 18.7.1.3 Test Pieces to be Supplied to the Engineer If required by the Engineer, the Manufacturer shall supply material samples from the batches used in the bearings and two nished bearings for inspection and testing at a site of the Engineers choice. 18.7.1.4 Tapered Sole Plates
After fabrication, steel surfaces exposed to the atmosphere, except stainless steel surfaces, shall be cleaned and coated to protect against corrosion in accordance with the contract plans and specications. Areas to be welded shall be free of all rust, moisture, and foreign material at the time of welding. The required nal cleaning and coating of these surfaces shall be done after the completion of welding. 18.7 TESTING AND ACCEPTANCE 18.7.1 General 18.7.1.1 Scope
Each bearing with a tapered sole plate that is selected for testing shall be delivered to the test site accompanied by an unattached plate identical to the tapered sole plate. The single beveled plate shall be so constructed that, when placed in contact with the tapered sole plate, the two shall form a single body, rectangular in shape and uniform in thickness. 18.7.2 Tests The tests prescribed in Articles 18.7.2.2-18.7.2.9 shall be carried out at the manufacturers expense. Unless otherwise agreed by the Engineer, they shall be supervised by an independent testing agency. 18.7.2.1 Material Certication Tests Material certication tests to determine the physical and chemical properties of all materials shall be conducted in accordance with the appropriate specication
Testing and acceptance criteria for bearings shall conform to the minimum requirements laid out in this section. The Engineer may require more stringent standards. The tests shall be conducted in accordance with the requirements of Article 18.7.2. The minimum frequency of testing for different bearing types is set out in Article 18.7.4.
628
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
18.7.2.2
governing the material. The test certicates shall be provided to the Engineer. 18.7.2.2 Material Friction Test (Sliding Surfaces Only) The coefficient of friction between the two mating surfaces shall be measured. Samples taken from the same batch of materials as those used in the prototype bearings shall be used or the tests may, at the manufacturers option, be conducted on nished bearings. Only new materials shall be used, and no material that has been previously tested shall be used. The surfaces shall rst be thoroughly cleaned with a degreasing solvent. No lubrication other than that specied for the prototype bearings shall be used. The mating surfaces for the test pieces shall have a common area no less than the smaller of the bearing area or 7 in2. The test pieces shall be loaded in compression to a stress corresponding to their maximum service dead plus live load, which shall be held constant for 1 hour prior to and throughout the duration of the sliding test. At least 100 cycles of sliding, each consisting of at least 1 inch of movement, shall then be applied at a temperature of 68F 2F. The uniform sliding speed shall be 2.5 inches/minute. The breakaway friction coefficient shall be computed for each direction of each cycle, and its mean and standard deviation shall be computed for the sixth through twelfth cycles. The initial static breakaway coefficient of friction for the rst cycle shall not exceed twice the design coefcient of friction. The maximum coefficient of friction for all subsequent cycles shall not exceed the design coefficient of friction. Failure of a single sample shall result in rejection of the entire lot. Following the 100 cycles of testing, the breakaway coefficient of friction shall be determined again and shall not exceed the initial value. The bearing or specimen shall show no appreciable sign of wear, bond failure or other defects. 18.7.2.3 Dimensional Check The dimensions of the bearing shall be checked. Two types of dimensions, standard and critical, shall be measured. For each component type, the standard and critical dimensions are dened in the appropriate Article 18.7.3. The values of the critical dimensions shall be recorded and provided by the manufacturer to the Engineer. Failure of a critical dimension to satisfy its tolerance shall constitute absolute cause for rejection. Failure of a standard measurement to satisfy its tolerance shall, at the discretion of the Engineer, constitute cause for rejection.
Flatness shall be checked by placing a precision straightedge on the surface to be checked and by inserting feeler gages between the two. The straight-edge shall be placed at different orientations and the worst condition shall be established. No more than three feeler gages may be stacked on top of one another. The straight-edge shall be as long as the largest dimension of the at surface. Flatness shall satisfy the requirements of Table 18.5.1.5-1. 18.7.2.4 Clearance Test In a clearance check the components of the bearing shall be moved through their design displacements or rotations in order to verify that the required clearances exist. If the test is conducted on a rotational component which is not under simultaneous full vertical load, allowance shall be made for the displacements which would be caused by that load. 18.7.2.5 Short-term Compression Proof Load Test The bearing shall be loaded in compression to 150% of its rated service load. If a rotational element exists, a tapered plate shall be introduced in the load train so that the bearing sustains the load at the maximum simultaneous design rotation. The load shall be held for 5 minutes, removed, then reapplied for a second period of 5 minutes. The bearing shall be examined visually while under the second loading. Any defects shall constitute cause for rejection. If the load drops below the required value during either application, the test shall be restarted from the beginning. 18.7.2.6 Long-term Compression Proof Load Test The test shall be conducted in the same way as the short-term proof load test except that the second load shall be maintained for 15 hours. If the load drops below 90% of its target value during this time, the load shall be increased to the target value and the test duration shall be increased by the time for which the load was below the required value. 18.7.2.7 Bearing Friction Test (for sliding surfaces only) The purpose of the Bearing Friction Test is to verify that the friction values achieved in the material friction tests are adequate predictors of the friction in the nished bearing.
18.7.2.7
629
No lubrication shall be applied except that used for the whole lot of bearings. The bearing shall be loaded in compression with 100% of the full service dead plus live load, which shall be held constant for one hour prior to and throughout the duration of the sliding test. At least 12 cycles of sliding, each consisting of the smaller of the design displacement and 1 inch of movement, shall then be applied. The average sliding speed shall be 2.5 inches/minute. When the test is applied to curved sliding bearings, the design rotation shall be used in place of the displacement. In at sliding bearings, the breakaway friction coefficient shall be computed for each direction of each cycle, and its mean and standard deviation shall be computed for the sixth through twelfth cycles. Neither the friction coefcient for the rst movement nor the mean plus two standard deviations for the sixth through twelfth cycles shall exceed the value used in design, and the mean value for the sixth through the twelfth cycles shall not exceed two thirds of the value used in design. In curved sliding surfaces, the moment corresponding to the design rotation shall be established at each peak movement (positive and negative) during the rst and last six full cycles of testing. The corresponding load eccentricity shall be calculated by dividing the moment by the total compressive load acting. The eccentricity shall be small enough that the allowable stresses on the PTFE used in design are not violated. 18.7.2.8 Long-term Deterioration Test The purpose of the test is to verify the long-term resistance of the materials to creep, wear and deterioration. The test shall be conducted on samples of the materials used in the bearings, or, at the option of the manufacturer, it may be conducted on a pair of bearings, placed back-toback. The samples shall have an area not less than 7 in2. The test piece shall rst be loaded in compression to a stress corresponding to 100% of the maximum dead plus live service load. Flat sliding systems shall then be displaced through at least 1000 cycles with an amplitude of at least 1 inch (2 inches peak to peak). Curved sliding systems and rotational systems that depend on deformation of an elastomeric element shall be subjected to displacements corresponding to 5000 cycles of rotation at the design amplitude. The sliding may take place at up to 10 inches/minute, except when readings are taken of the coefficient of friction, when the sliding speed shall be 2.5 inches/minute. The following shall be cause for rejection of the bearing: (1) Damage visible to the naked eye on disassembly of the bearing, such as excessive wear, cracks or splits in the material.
(2) A coefficient of friction which exceeds two thirds the value used in design. 18.7.2.9 Bearing Horizontal Force Capacity (Fixed or Guided Bearings Only) The purpose of the test is to verify that the bearing is stable and that the guide or restraint system has adequate strength under the most severe combination of horizontal and vertical loads. One or more loading combinations, consisting of a horizontal and vertical service load which could exist simultaneously in the structure, shall be selected. The vertical load shall be applied rst, at 1.0 times its nominal value. The horizontal load shall be applied in stages, up to 1.5 times its nominal value. Failure or excessive deection of any of the components shall be cause for rejection. 18.7.3 Performance Criteria If one bearing of the sample fails, all the bearings of that lot shall be rejected, unless the manufacturer elects to test each bearing of the lot at own expense. In lieu of this procedure, the Engineer may require every bearing of the lot to be tested. 18.7.4 Special Testing Requirements 18.7.4.1 Special Test Requirements for Rocker and Roller Bearings Material certication tests shall be performed to establish the material properties of the steel. 18.7.4.2 Special Test Requirements for PTFE Sliding Bearings Inspection of the completed bearings or representative samples of bearings with PTFE surfaces in the manufacturers plant may be required by the Engineer. Inspectors, if appointed, shall be allowed free access to the necessary parts of the manufacturers plant and test facility. When testing is performed by the manufacturer, copies of the test results shall be submitted to the Engineer. The manufacturer is required to perform material tests on the materials used in the sliding surface in accordance with Article 18.7.2.2. A minimum of one test must be performed for each lot of bearings. If requested by the Engineer and available test facilities permit, complete bearings shall be tested for complete bearing friction as dened in Article 18.7.2.7. If the test facility does not permit testing complete bearings, at the direction
630
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
18.7.4.3
of the Engineer, extra bearings may be manufactured by the Contractor and samples of at least 100-kips capacity at normal working stresses prepared by sectioning the bearings. As soon as all bearings have been manufactured for a given project, notication shall be given to the Engineer who will select the prescribed test bearings at random from the lot. Manufacturers certication of the steel, elastomeric pads, preformed fabric pads, PTFE, and other materials used in the construction of the bearings shall be furnished along with notication of fabrication completion. 18.7.4.3 Special Test Requirements for Curved Sliding Bearings Curved PTFE sliding surfaces shall satisfy all of the test requirements specied for PTFE sliding surfaces in Article 18.7.4.2, except that, when the prototype bearing is too large to test, a test bearing may be especially manufactured using materials and fabrication methods that are identical to those used for the prototype, in lieu of sectioning a bearing. Critical dimensions shall include the difference between the average radii of the two elements and the variation of the actual curved surface from the average one. The Engineer may require verication of these critical dimensions through a dimensional check as described in Article 18.7.2.3. 18.7.4.4 Special Test Requirements for Pot Bearings 18.7.4.4.1 Material Certication Tests The manufacturer shall select, at random, samples for material certication tests as dened in Article 18.7.2.1. The tests shall be performed, and certications shall be delivered to the Engineer. Certication shall be provided for all elastomeric elements. Their material properties shall satisfy the requirements of the design documents and the tests described in Article 18.7.4.5. Additional tests may be required by the Engineer. 18.7.4.4.2 Testing by the Engineer When quality assurance testing is called for by the special provisions, the manufacturer shall furnish to the Engineer the required number of complete bearings and component samples to perform quality assurance testing. At least one elastomeric element shall be tested per lot of bearings. All exterior surfaces of sampled production bearings shall be smooth and free from irregularities or protrusions that might interfere with testing procedures.
For quality assurance testing, the Engineer may select at random the required sample bearing(s) and the material samples from completed lots of bearings or from stock. A minimum of 30 days shall be allowed for inspection, sampling, and quality assurance testing of production bearings and component materials. 18.7.4.4.3 Bearing Tests Critical dimensions shall include the clearance between the piston and pot, and shall be veried by the Clearance Test described in Article 18.7.2.4. A Long-term Deterioration Test as described in Article 18.7.2.8 shall be performed on one bearing of each lot of pot bearings with sealing rings other than rings with rectangular cross-sections satisfying Article 14.6.4.5.1 and circular cross-sections satisfying Article 14.6.4.5.2. The test shall be performed at the maximum design rotation combined with maximum dead plus live load. If size limitations prevent testing of the full size bearing, a special bearing with the same sealing rings, the same rotational capacity and no less than 200 kips compressive load capacity may be tested in its place. A Long-term Compression Proof Load Test as described in Article 18.7.2.6 may be required by the Engineer. 18.7.4.5 Test Requirements for Elastomeric Bearings 18.7.4.5.1 Scope
Materials for elastomeric bearings and the nished bearings themselves shall be subjected to the tests described in this section. Material tests shall be in accordance with the appropriate Table 18.4.5.1-1A or Table 18.4.5.1-1B. 18.7.4.5.2 Frequency of Testing The ambient temperature tests on the elastomer described in Article 18.7.4.5.3 shall be conducted for the materials used in each lot of bearings. In lieu of performing a shear modulus test for each batch of material, the manufacturer may elect to provide certicates from tests performed on identical formulations within the preceding year, unless otherwise specied by the Engineer. Test certicates from the supplier shall be provided for each lot of reinforcement. The three low temperature tests on the elastomer described in Article 18.7.4.5.4 shall be conducted on the material used in each lot of bearings for grades 3, 4, and 5 material and the instantaneous thermal stiffening test shall be conducted on material of grades 0 and 2. Low temperature brittleness and crystallization tests are not required
18.7.4.5.2
631
for grades 0 and 2 materials, unless especially requested by the Engineer. For grade 3 material, in lieu of the low temperature crystallization test, the manufacturer may choose to provide certicates from low-temperature crystallization tests performed on identical material within the last year, unless otherwise specied by the Engineer. Every nished bearing shall be visually inspected in accordance with Article 18.7.4.5.5. Every steel reinforced bearing shall be subjected to the short-term load test described in Article 18.7.4.5.6. From each lot of bearings either designed by the provisions of Article 14.6.5 of Division I of this specication or made from grade 4 or grade 5 elastomer, a random sample shall be subjected to the long-term load test described in Articles 18.7.2.7 and 18.7.4.5.7. The sample shall consist of at least one bearing chosen randomly from each size and material batch and shall comprise at least 10% of the lot. If one bearing of the sample fails, all the bearings of that lot shall be rejected, unless the manufacturer elects to test each bearing of the lot at own expense. In lieu of this procedure, the Engineer may require every bearing of the lot to be tested. The Engineer may require shear stiffness tests on material from a random sample of the nished bearings in accordance with Article 18.7.4.5.8. 18.7.4.5.3 Ambient Temperature Tests on the Elastomer The elastomer used shall at least satisfy the limits prescribed in the appropriate Table 18.4.5.1-1A or -1B for durometer hardness, tensile strength, ultimate elongation, heat resistance, compression set, and ozone resistance. The bond to the reinforcement, if any, shall also satisfy Article 18.4.5.3. The shear modulus of the material shall be tested at 73F 2F using the apparatus and procedure described in Annex A of ASTM D 4014, amended where necessary by the requirements of Table 18.4.5.1-1A or -1B. It shall fall within 15% of the specied value, or within the range of its hardness given in Article 14.6.5.2 of Division I if no shear modulus is specied. 18.7.4.5.4 Low Temperature Tests on the Elastomer The tests shall be performed in accordance with the requirements of Tables 18.4.5.1-1A and -1B and the compound shall satisfy all limits for its grade. The testing frequency shall be in accordance with Article 18.7.4.5.2. 18.7.4.5.5 Visual Inspection of the Finished Bearing Each nished bearing shall be inspected for compliance with dimensional tolerances and for overall quality
of manufacture. In steel reinforced bearings, the edges of the steel shall be protected everywhere from corrosion. 18.7.4.5.6 Short-Duration Compression Tests on Bearings Each nished bearing shall be subjected to a short-term compression test as described in Article 18.7.2.5. If the bulging pattern suggests laminate parallelism or a layer thickness that is outside the specied tolerances, or poor laminate bond, the bearing shall be rejected. If there are three or more separate surface cracks that are greater than 0.08 inches wide and 0.08 inches deep, the bearing shall be rejected. 18.7.4.5.7 Long-Duration Compression Tests on Bearings The bearing shall be subject to a long-term compression test as described in Article 18.7.2.6. The bearing shall be examined visually at the end of the test while it is still under load. If the bulging pattern suggests laminate parallelism or a layer thickness that is outside the specied tolerances, or poor laminate bond, the bearing shall be rejected. If there are three or more separate surface cracks that are greater than 0.08 inches wide and 0.08 inches deep, the bearing shall be rejected. 18.7.4.5.8 Shear Modulus Tests on Materials from Bearings The shear modulus of the material in the nished bearing shall be evaluated by testing a specimen cut from it using the apparatus and procedure described in Annex A of ASTM D 1014, amended where necessary by the requirements of Table 18.4.5.1-1A or -1B, or, at the discretion of the Engineer, a comparable nondestructive stiffness test may be conducted on a pair of nished bearings. The shear modulus shall fall within 15% of the specied value, or within the range for its hardness given in Table 14.6.5.2.1 of Division I if no shear modulus is specied. If the test is conducted on nished bearings, the material shear modulus shall be computed from the measured shear stiffness of the bearings, taking due account of the inuence on shear stiffness of bearing geometry and compressive load. 18.7.4.7 Test Requirements for Bronze and Copper Alloy Bearings Material certication tests for the bronze or copper shall be performed to verify the properties of the metal. Bearing friction tests as dened in Article 18.7.2.7 or material friction tests as dened in Article 18.7.2.2 may be required by the Engineer.
632
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
18.7.4.8.2
18.7.4.8 Test Requirements for Disc Bearings 18.7.4.8.1 Material Certication Tests The manufacturer shall select, at random, samples for material certication tests as dened in Article 18.7.2.1. The tests shall be performed, and certications shall be delivered to the Engineer. Certication shall be provided for all polyether urethane elements. Their material properties shall satisfy the requirements of the design documents and the tests described in Article 18.4.8.1. Additional tests may be required by the Engineer. 18.7.4.8.2 Testing by the Engineer When quality assurance testing is called for by the special provisions, the manufacturer shall furnish to the Engineer the required number of complete bearings and component samples to perform quality assurance testing. At least one set of material property tests in accordance with Article 18.4.8.1 shall be conducted per lot of bearings. All exterior surfaces of sampled production bearings shall be smooth and free from irregularities or protrusions that might interfere with testing procedures. For quality assurance testing, the Engineer may select at random the required sample bearing(s) and the material samples from completed lots of bearings. A minimum of 30 days shall be allowed for inspection, sampling, and quality assurance testing of production bearings and component materials. 18.7.4.8.3 Bearing Tests Critical dimensions shall include the clearance between the upper and lower parts of the steel housing, and shall be veried by the Clearance Test described in Article 18.7.2.4. A Long-term Deterioration Test as described in Article 18.7.2.8 shall be performed on one disc bearing of each lot. The test shall be performed at the maximum design rotation combined with a maximum dead plus live load. If size limitations prevent testing of the full size bearing, a special bearing with the same rotational capacity and no less than 200 kips compressive load capacity may be tested in its place. A Long-term Compression Proof Load Test as described in Article 18.7.2.6 may be required by the Engineer. 18.7.5 Cost of Transporting The Contractor shall assume the cost of transporting all samples from the place of manufacture to the test site and back, or if applicable, to the project site.
18.7.6 Use of Tested Bearings in the Structure Bearings which have been satisfactorily tested in accordance with the requirements of this section may be used in the structure provided that they are equipped with new deformable elements, sliding elements and seals, as required by the Engineer. 18.8 PACKING, SHIPPING AND STORING For transportation and storage, bearings shall be packaged in a way that prevents relative movement of their components and damage by handling, weather, dust, or other normal hazards. They shall be stored only in a clean, protected environment. When installed, bearings shall be clean and free from all foreign substances. Bearings shall not be opened or dismantled at the site except under the direct supervision of, or with the written approval of, the manufacturer or its assigned agents. 18.9 INSTALLATION 18.9.1 General Installation Requirements Bearings shall be installed by qualied personnel at the locations shown on the plans. Bearings shall be set to the dimensions and offsets prescribed by the manufacturer, the Engineer, and the plans and shall be adjusted as necessary to take into account the temperature and future movements of the bridge due to temperature changes, release of falsework, shortening due to prestressing and other bridge movements. Each bridge bearing shall be located within 1 8 inch of its correct position in the horizontal plane and oriented to within an angular tolerance of 0.02 radians. Guided Bearings shall also satisfy the requirements of Article 18.9.2.3. All bearings except those which are placed in opposing pairs shall be set horizontal to within an angular tolerance of 0.005 radians, and must have full and even contact with load plates, where these exist. The superstructure supported by the bearing shall be set on it so that, under full dead load, its slope lies within an angular tolerance of 0.005 radians of the design value. Any departure from this tolerance shall be corrected by means of a tapered plate or by other means approved by the Engineer. If shim stacks are needed to level the bearing they shall be removed after grouting and before the weight of the superstructure acts on the bearing. Metallic bearing assemblies not embedded in the concrete shall be bedded on the concrete with a ller or fabric material conforming to Article 18.4.9. Bearings seated directly on steel work require the supporting surface to be machined so as to provide a level and planar surface upon which the bearing is placed.
18.9.2.2
DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION 18.10 DOCUMENTATION 18.10.1 Working Drawings
633
Bearings or masonry plates that rest on a steel support may be installed directly on it, provided that it is at to within a tolerance of 0.002 times the nominal dimension, and is sufficiently rigid that it will not deform under the specied loads to exceed that atness tolerance. 18.9.2 Special Installation Requirements 18.9.2.1 Installation of Rocker and Roller Bearings Just before placing roller bearings, the Contractor shall coat all contact surfaces thoroughly with oil and graphite. 18.9.2.2 Installation of Elastomeric Bearings Elastomeric bearings without external load plates may be placed directly on a concrete or steel surface provided that it is at to within an tolerance of 0.005 of the nominal dimension for steel reinforced bearings and 0.01 of the nominal dimension for others. Bearings shall be placed on surfaces that are horizontal to within 0.01 radians. Any lack of parallelism between the top of the bearing and the underside of the girder that exceeds 0.01 radians shall be corrected by grouting or as otherwise directed by the Engineer. Exterior plates of the bearing shall not be welded unless at least 1.5 inches of steel exists between the weld and the elastomer. In no case shall the elastomer or the bond be subjected to temperatures higher than 400 F. 18.9.2.3 Installation of Guideways and Restraints Guided bearings and bearings which rotate about only one axis shall be oriented in the direction specied on the contract plans to within an angular tolerance of 0.005 radians. 18.9.2.4 Installation of Anchorages Load plates shall be set level to within an angular tolerance of 0.005 radians and shall have a uniform bearing over their whole area. When plates are to be embedded in concrete, provision shall be made to keep the plates in the correct position while the concrete is being placed. A bedding layer may be used to achieve level, uniform bearing. This may consist of grout or a ductile metal such as a thin lead sheet. The bedding material shall be able to support the specied vertical and horizontal loads without undergoing displacements or deformations detrimental to the bearing or structure. Anchor bolts embedded in concrete shall either be cast into the concrete or shall be grouted into drill holes.
The manufacturer shall submit to the Engineer shop drawings and design calculations which are sufficiently detailed to permit proper review of the bearings. The drawings shall show all details of the bearings and of the materials proposed for use and must be approved by the Engineer before fabrication of the bearings is begun. Such approval shall not relieve the Contractor of any responsibility under the contract for the successful completion of the work. The drawings shall include, but not be limited to the following information: (1) Plan, elevations and sections including all nominal dimensions and material designations. (2) Vertical and horizontal load capacities, horizontal movement capacities and rotation capacities about two horizontal and one vertical axes. (3) Design calculations for all items not completely covered in Section 14 of Division I of this specification. (4) Material designations and specications. (5) A schedule of bearing offsets, if any are required. (6) Shop painting or coating requirements. (7) Any special installation requirements. 18.10.2 Marking Each bearing shall be marked in indelible ink or exible paint. The marking shall consist of the location, orientation, order number, lot number, bearing identication number, and elastomer type and grade number. Unless otherwise specied in the contract documents, the marking shall be on a face which is visible after erection of the bridge. 18.10.3 Certication The manufacturer shall supply certication data for all materials used. This shall consist of at least test reports for the bearing performance tests and for any forgings, castings or hardened material, mill certicates for all other steels used, and a certicate of compliance for the bearing as a whole and for any anchor bolts, dowels or other accessories. If the manufacturer designed the bearing, he shall certify that each bearing satises the Engineers requirements, given under Division I, Section 14, Bearings. The manufacturer shall also supply a separate sheet showing the materials, critical dimensions and clearances for each bearing other than elastomeric pads. The precise information to be supplied shall be agreed between the Engineer and the manufacturer prior to starting production.
634 18.11 MEASUREMENT
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 18.12 PAYMENT
18.11
Bearing devices will be measured either by the pound as determined from scale weights or by a unit basis for each type of bearing assembly listed in the schedule of bid items. Scale weights are not required when calculated weights are shown on the plans, in which case the weights shown on the plans will be used as the basis of payment.
Bearing devices will be paid for at the contract price per pound or per unit. Such payment shall include full compensation for furnishing all labor, materials, tools, equipment and incidentals, and for doing all the work involved in furnishing, testing and installing said bearing devices, complete in place, as shown on the plans, and as specied in these Specications and the special provisions, and as directed by the Engineer.
Section 19
BRIDGE DECK JOINT SEALS
19.1 GENERAL This work shall consist of the furnishing and installing of joint sealing systems in bridge decks of the types used where signicant movements are expected across the joint. These include compression seal joints consisting of preformed elastomeric material compressed and installed in specially prepared joints and joint seal assemblies consisting of assemblies of metal and elastomeric materials installed in recesses in the deck surface. Joint seals described in the plans or the specications as poured joint seals shall conform to the requirement of Article 8.9, Expansion and Contraction Joints. The type and dimensions or movement rating for bridge deck joint seals at each location shall be as shown on the plans or ordered by the Engineer. All joint seals shall prevent the intrusion of material and water through the joint system. Preformed elastomeric joint seals of multiple web design shall conform to AASHTO M 220 (ASTM D 2628). Lubricant-adhesive for use with preformed elastomeric seals shall conform to ASTM D 4070. Deck joint seal assemblies shall be of an approved type for each size required and shall conform to the specications provided by the manufacturer at the time of approval. Steel and fabricated steel components shall conform to the requirements of Section 23, Miscellaneous Metal. 19.4 MANUFACTURE AND FABRICATION 19.4.1 Compression Seal Joints Preformed elastomeric joint seals shall not be eld spliced except when specically permitted by the Engineer. 19.4.2 Joint Seal Assemblies Expansion joint assemblies shall be fabricated by the manufacturer and delivered to the bridge site completely assembled, unless otherwise shown on the plans or specied in the special provisions. 19.5 INSTALLATION 19.5.1 General All joint materials and assemblies, when stored at the job site, shall be protected from damage and assemblies shall be supported so as to maintain their true shape and alignment. Deck joint seals shall be constructed and installed to provide a smooth ride. Bridge deck joints shall be covered over by protective material after installation until nal cleanup of the bridge deck. After installation and prior to nal acceptance, deck joint seals shall be tested in the presence of the Engineer for leakage of water through the joint. Any leakage of the joint seal will be cause for rejection. 635
19.2 WORKING DRAWINGS If not given on the plans, calculations showing the joint settings for their installation will be required before approval to install joints in any bridge deck can be given. The Contractor will submit working drawings to the Engineer showing the installation procedure and joint assembly for bridge decks using proprietary joint systems. Also, shop drawings shall be submitted to the Engineer for approval for joints having a total movement of more than 13 4 inches. Working drawings must be approved by the Engineer prior to performance of the work involved and such approval shall not relieve the Contractor of any responsibility under the contract for the successful completion of the work.
19.3 MATERIALS Bridge deck joint seal materials and assemblies shall conform to the following specications:
636 19.5.2 Compression Seal Joints
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
19.5.2
Joints in the roadway area of bridge decks which are to be sealed with compression seals shall be cast to a narrower width than required for the preformed material. Such joints in curbs and sidewalks may be cast to full width. Prior to installation of compression seals in joints whose width is narrower than needed, a groove of proper width and depth to receive the preformed material shall be saw cut along the top of the joint. When making saw cuts into the bridge deck, spalling shall be minimized. Both sides of a groove shall be cut simultaneously to the proper depth and alignment as shown on the plans. The alignment of the saw shall be controlled at all times by a rigid guide. The width of the groove will depend on the temperature and age of the concrete and shall be as directed by the Engineer. Lip of saw cut should be bevelled to avoid later breakage. After saw cutting, any spalls, popouts or cracks shall be repaired prior to installation of the lubricant sealant. Saw cuts are not required where armor plates are used. At the time of installation the joint shall be clean and dry and free from spalls and irregularities which might impair a proper joint seal. Concrete or metal surfaces shall be clean, free of rust, laitance, oils, dirt, dust, or other deleterious materials. Premolded elastomeric compression joint seals shall be installed without damage to the seal by suitable hand methods or machine tools. The lubricant-adhesive shall be applied to both faces of the joint prior to installation and in accordance with the manufacturers instructions. The preformed elastomeric seal shall
be compressed to the thickness specied on the plans or as approved by the Engineer for the rated opening and ambient temperature at the time of installation. Loose tting or open points between the seal and the deck will not be permitted. 19.5.3 Joint Seal Assemblies Expansion joint seal assemblies shall be constructed to provide absolute freedom of movement through a range consistent with that prescribed by the Engineer or as shown on the design plans. Installation shall be in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations. Final settings of the deck joint seal assembly at the time of casting in the anchorages of the unit depend on the relationship of the current temperature of the superstructure to its expected mean temperature, and shall be as specied by the manufacturer or Engineer or as shown on the plans. 19.6 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT Deck joint seals will be measured by the linear foot of acceptable joint seal completely installed by measurements made along the slope of the centerline of the joint seal. Payment of linear feet of joint seal as measured, for each type of seal for which separate payment is provided, shall include full compensation for the cost of labor, equipment and materials to furnish and install the deck joint seal.
Section 20
RAILINGS
20.1 GENERAL 20.1.1 Description This work consists of furnishing all materials and constructing railings on structures. The types of railings included in this work consist of handrailings, pedestrian railings, traffic railings which are sometimes called barriers, and railings for other such purposes. Railings constructed at each location shall conform to the type and details shown on the plans for that location. The work includes the furnishing and placing of mortar or concrete, anchor bolts, reinforcing steel dowels or other devices used to attach the railing to the structure. 20.1.2 Materials All materials not otherwise specied shall conform to the requirements of the applicable AASHTO Standard Specications for Transportation Materials. 20.1.3 Construction 20.2.1.4 Unless otherwise permitted by the Engineer, railing shall not be placed until the centering or falsework for the span has been released, rendering the span self-supporting. 20.1.4 Line and Grade The line and grade of the railing shall be true to that shown on the plans and may include an allowance for camber in each span but shall not follow any unevenness in the superstructure. Unless otherwise specied or shown on the plans, railings on bridges, whether super-elevated or not, shall be vertical. 20.2 METAL RAILING 20.2.1 Materials and Fabrication 20.2.1.1 Steel Railing Materials and fabrication of steel railings shall conform to the applicable requirements of Section 11, Steel 637 Welding Structures, except that formed sections may be fabricated from mild steel, and pipe sections shall be of standard steel pipe. Nuts and bolts not designated as high strength shall conform to the requirements of ASTM A 307 and steel tubing shall conform to the requirements of ASTM A 500, Grade B. 20.2.1.2 Aluminum Railing For aluminum railings or portions of railings, cast aluminum posts shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 193; and extruded components shall conform to the requirements of ASTM B 221. 20.2.1.3 Metal Beam Railing Metal beam rail, posts and hardware shall conform to the requirements in Section 606 of the AASHTO Guide Specications for Highway Construction.
All exposed welds shall be nished by grinding or ling to give a smooth surface. Welding of aluminum materials shall be done by an inert gas shielded, electric arc welding process using no welding ux. Torch or ame cutting of aluminum will not be permitted. 20.2.2 Installation Metal railings shall be carefully adjusted prior to xing in place to ensure proper matching at abutting joints, correct alignment, and camber throughout their length. Holes for eld connections shall be drilled with the railing in place on the structure at proper grade and alignment. Where aluminum alloys come in contact with other metals or concrete, the contacting surfaces shall be thoroughly coated with a dielectric aluminum-impregnated caulking compound, or a synthetic rubber gasket may be placed between the two surfaces.
638 20.2.3 Finish
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
20.2.3
Unless otherwise specied, anchor bolts, nuts and all steel portions of railings shall be galvanized and aluminum portions shall be unpainted. Galvanizing of rail element shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 111 (ASTM A 123) and galvanizing of nuts and bolts shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 232 (ASTM A 153). Minor abrasions to galvanized surfaces shall be repaired with zinc rich paint. After erection, all sharp protrusions shall be removed and the railing cleaned of discoloring foreign materials. When painting is specied, the type and coating shall conform to the requirements of Section 13, Painting, or the special provisions. 20.3 CONCRETE RAILING 20.3.1 Materials and Construction Concrete railings, depending on the design, may be constructed by the cast-in-place, precast or, when approved by the Engineer, the slip form method. All materials and construction shall conform to the requirements in Section 8, Concrete Structures and Section 9, Reinforcing Steel. Unless otherwise specied, concrete shall conform to Class AE except that Class A may be used in areas where freezing seldom occurs. When the minimum thickness of the railing at any point is less than 4 inches, Class C (AE) or, where freezing seldom occurs, Class C concrete may be used. Forms for cast-inplace railing shall not be removed until adequate measures to protect and cure the concrete are in place and the concrete has sufficient strength to prevent surface or other damage caused by form removal. Finish for railings constructed with xed forms shall be Class 2-Rubbed Finish. Finish for railings constructed with slip forms and for temporary railings shall be Class I-Ordinary Finish. 20.4 TIMBER RAILING Unless otherwise stated in the special provisions, posts, rails, and other timber for wood railings shall be constructed according to the requirements of Section 16, Timber Structures, and Section 17, Preservative Treatment of Wood. When treated wood is called for, the preservative treatment shall conform to the requirements of Section 17, Preventive Treatment of Wood. The sur-
faces of all elements of treated wooden railings that are located where contact with people could occur shall be sealed with two coats of an acceptable sealer. Acceptable sealers are urethane, shellac, latex epoxy, enamel and varnish. 20.5 STONE AND BRICK RAILINGS Stone and brick railings shall conform to the requirements of Section 14, Stone Masonry, and Section 15, Concrete Block and Brick Masonry. 20.6 TEMPORARY RAILING Temporary railings shall be constructed of materials and to the details shown on the plans or specied. Railings shall be properly joined and aligned at the required locations. Temporary precast barriers shall be installed on a solid base. The temporary railing shall be maintained in rst class condition and shall not be removed until all work requiring the railing has been completed. Previously used units may be employed provided they are in a clean and undamaged condition. After removal, temporary railing shall continue to be the property of the Contractor. 20.7 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT 20.7.1 Measurement Railings will be measured by the linear foot between the ends of the railing or the outside ends of end posts, whichever is greater. Measurement will be made along the slope of the railing and no deductions will be made for electrolier or other small openings called for on the plans. 20.7.2 Payment Railings will be paid for by the contract prices per linear foot for the various types listed in the schedule of bid items. Such payment shall include full compensation for furnishing all labor, materials, equipment and incidentals and for doing all work involved in constructing the railings or barriers complete in place, including the furnishing and installation of reinforcing steel and steel dowels or anchor bolts which are either placed or drilled and bonded into the structure for attachment of the railing.
Section 21
WATERPROOFING
21.1 GENERAL This work shall consist of furnishing and installing materials to waterproof or dampproof concrete or masonry surfaces. The surfaces to be waterproofed or dampproofed and the type of system to be installed shall be as shown on the plans or otherwise specied. 21.1.1 Waterproong Waterproong shall consist of either a constructed-inplace asphalt membrane system or a preformed membrane system, both of which include appropriate priming materials and, when required, protective coverings. Unless a specic type of waterproong system is shown on the plans or specied, the type of system to be used will be at the option of the Contractor. 21.1.2 Dampproong stances for Use in Waterproong, AASHTO M 117 (ASTM D 173) or the Specications for Woven Glass Fabric Treated with Asphalt, ASTM D 1663. The Fabric shall be stored in a dry, protected place. The rolls shall not be stored on end. 21.2.2 Preformed Membrane Waterproong Systems 21.2.2.1 Primer Primer for use with the rubberized asphalt membrane shall be a neoprene based material, and the primer for use with the modied bitumen membrane shall be a resin or solvent based material. Primers shall be of a type recommended by the manufacturer. 21.2.2.2 Preformed Membrane Sheet Preformed membrane sheet shall be of either the rubberized asphalt type or the modied bitumen type. The rubberized asphalt type shall consist of a rubberized asphalt sheet reinforced with a polyethylene lm or mesh. The modied bitumen sheet type shall consist of a polymer modied bitumen sheet reinforced with a stitchbonded polyester fabric or a berglass mesh. The membrane sheet shall conform to the following requirements: For Surfaces Other Than Bridge Decks
Dampproong shall consist of a coating of primer and two moppings of waterproong asphalt. 21.2 MATERIALS 21.2.1 Asphalt Membrane Waterproong System 21.2.1.1 Asphalt
Waterproong asphalt shall conform to the Specication for Asphalt for Dampproong and Waterproong, AASHTO M 115 (ASTM D 312). Type I shall be used below ground and Type II used above ground. 21.2.1.2 Primer Primer for use with waterproong asphalt shall conform to the Specication for Primer for Use With Asphalt in Dampproong and Waterproong, AASHTO M 116 (ASTM D 41). 21.2.1.3 Fabric
The fabric shall conform to either the Specication for Woven Cotton Fabrics Saturated with Bituminous Sub639
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640 For Bridge Deck Surfaces
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 21.2.5 Inspection and Delivery
21.2.2.2
21.2.2.3 Mastic The mastic for use with preformed rubberized sheets shall be a rubberized asphalt cold applied joint sealant. The mastic for use with modied bitumen sheet shall be a blend of bituminous and synthetic resins. 21.2.3 Protective Covers Materials for protective covers shall conform to the following unless another type is shown or specied. For surfaces against which backll will be placed, the protective cover shall consist of 1 8-inch hardboard or other material that will furnish equivalent protection from damage due to sharp coarse backll material or from construction equipment. For roadway surfaces of bridge decks, the protective cover shall consist of a layer of special asphalt concrete as specied in the special provisions. For horizontal surfaces above which reinforced concrete structures are to be constructed, the protective cover shall consist of a 2-inch course of concrete mortar conforming to the requirements of Article 8.14 except that the proportions shall consist of 1 part Portland cement to 3 parts of ne aggregate. This mortar course shall be reinforced midway between its top and bottom surfaces with 6 6W1.4 W1.4 welded wire fabric, or its equivalent. The top surface shall be nished smooth and true to grade. 21.2.4 Dampproong
All waterproong and dampproong materials shall be tested before shipment. Unless otherwise ordered by the Engineer, they shall be tested at the place of manufacture, and, when so tested, a copy of the test results shall be sent to the Engineer by the chemist or inspection bureau which has been designated to make the tests, and each package shall have affixed to it a label, seal, or other mark of identication, showing that it has been tested and found acceptable, and identifying the package with the laboratory tests. Factory inspection is preferred, but, in lieu thereof, the Engineer may order that representative samples, properly identied, be sent to him or her for test prior to shipment of the materials. After delivery of the materials, representative check samples shall be taken which shall determine the acceptability of the materials. All materials shall be delivered to the work in original containers, plainly marked with the manufacturers brand or label. 21.3 SURFACE PREPARATION All concrete surfaces which are to be waterproofed or dampproofed shall be reasonably smooth and free of foreign material that would prevent bond and from projections or holes which might cause puncture of the membrane or dampproong. The surface shall be dry and, immediately before the application of the primer the surface shall be thoroughly cleaned of dust and loose materials. No waterproong or dampproong shall be done in wet weather, nor when the surface temperature is below 35F, or that recommended by the manufacturer, without special authorization from the Engineer. Should the surface of the concrete become temporarily damp, it shall be covered with a 2-inch layer of hot sand, which shall be allowed to remain in place from 1 to 2 hours, or long enough to produce a warm and surface-dried condition, after which the sand shall be swept back, uncovering sufficient surface for beginning work, and the operation repeated as the work progresses. 21.4 APPLICATION Waterproong shall not be applied to any surface until the Contractor is prepared to follow its application with the placing of the protective covering and backll within a sufficiently short time that the membrane will not be damaged by men or equipment, exposure to weathering, or from any other cause. Damaged membrane or protec-
The primer and asphalt used for dampproong shall conform to that specied in Article 21.2.1.
21.4
641
tive covering shall be repaired or replaced by the Contractor at own expense. Care shall be taken to conne all materials to the areas to be waterproofed or dampproofed and to prevent disgurement of any other parts of the structure by dripping or spreading of the primer or asphalt. 21.4.1 Asphalt Membrane Waterproong 21.4.1.1 General Asphalt membrane waterproong shall consist of a coat of primer applied to the prepared surface and a rmly bonded membrane composed of two layers of saturated fabric and three moppings of waterproong asphalt and, when required, a protective cover. 21.4.1.2 Installation Asphalt shall be heated to a temperature between 300 and 350F. The heating kettles shall be equipped with thermometers. In all cases, the waterproong shall begin at the low point of the surface to be waterproofed, so that water will run over and not against or along the laps. The rst strip of fabric shall be of half-width; the second shall be full-width, lapped the full-width of the rst sheet; and the third and each succeeding strip shall be fullwidth and lapped so that there will be two layers of fabric at all points with laps not less than 2 inches wide. All end laps shall be at least 12 inches. Beginning at the low point of the surface to be waterproofed, a coating of primer shall be applied and allowed to dry before the rst coat of asphalt is applied. The waterproong shall then be applied as follows. Beginning at the low point of the surface to be waterproofed, a section about 20 inches wide and the full length of the surface shall be mopped with the hot asphalt, and there shall be rolled into it, immediately following the mopping, the rst strip of fabric, of half-width, which shall be carefully pressed into place so as to eliminate all air bubbles and obtain close conformity with the surface. This strip and an adjacent section of the surface of a width equal to slightly more than half of the width of the fabric being used shall then be mopped with hot asphalt, and a full width of the fabric shall be rolled into this, completely covering the rst strip, and pressed into place as before. This second strip and an adjacent section of the concrete surface shall then be mopped with hot asphalt and the third strip of fabric shingled on so as to lap the rst strip not less than 2 inches. This process shall be continued with each strip of fabric lapping at least 2 inches over the second previous strip so that the entire surface is covered
with at least two layers of fabric. The entire surface shall then be given a nal mopping of hot asphalt. The completed waterproong shall be a rmly bonded membrane composed of two layers of fabric and three moppings of asphalt, together with a coating of primer. Under no circumstances shall one layer of fabric touch another layer at any point or touch the surface, as there must be at least three complete moppings of asphalt. In all cases the mopping on concrete shall cover the surface so that no gray spots appear, and on cloth it shall be sufficiently heavy to completely conceal the weave. On horizontal surfaces not less than 12 gallons of asphalt shall be used for each 100 square feet of nished work, and on vertical surfaces not less than 15 gallons shall be used. The work shall be so regulated that, at the close of a days work, all cloth that is laid shall have received the nal mopping of asphalt. Special care shall be taken at all laps to see that they are thoroughly sealed down. 21.4.1.3 Special Details At the edges of the membrane and at any points where it is punctured by such appurtenances as drains or pipes, suitable provisions shall be made to prevent water from getting between the waterproong and the waterproofed surface. All ashing at curbs and against girders, spandrel walls, etc., shall be done with separate sheets lapping the main membrane not less than 12 inches. Flashing shall be closely sealed either with a metal counter-ashing or by embedding the upper edges of the ashing in a groove poured full of joint ller. Joints which are essentially open joints but which are not designed to provide for expansion shall rst be caulked with oakum and lead wool or other material approved by the Engineer, and then lled with hot joint ller. Expansion joints, both horizontal and vertical, shall be provided with sheet copper or lead in U or V form in accordance with the details. After the membrane has been placed, the joint shall be lled with hot joint ller. The membrane shall be carried continuously across all expansion joints. At the ends of the structure the membrane shall be carried well down on the abutments and suitable provision made for all movement. 21.4.1.4 Damage Patching Care shall be taken to prevent injury to the nished membrane by the passage over it of workpersons or equipment, or by throwing any material on it. Any damage which may occur shall be repaired by patching. Patches
642
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
21.4.1.4
shall extend at least 12 inches beyond the outermost damaged portion and the second ply shall extend at least 3 inches beyond the rst. 21.4.2 Preformed Membrane Waterproong Systems 21.4.2.1 General Preformed membrane waterproong systems shall consist of a primer applied to the prepared surface, a single layer of adhering preformed membrane sheet and, when required, a protective cover. 21.4.2.2 Installation on Bridge Decks Prior to applying the primer, an oil resistant construction paper mask shall be taped or held with an adhesive to any deck areas which will later be covered by expansion dams or headers. The membrane seal and asphalt concrete shall be placed continuously across such paper masks; however, the mask and the preformed sheet shall be cut at or near the expansion joint when ordered by the Engineer. The neoprene based primer shall be applied in one coat at a rate of approximately 300 square feet per gallon. The resin or solvent based primer shall be applied, in one coat, at a rate of approximately 120 square feet per gallon. Primer shall be applied to the entire area to be sealed by spray or squeegee methods. All primers shall be thoroughly mixed and continuously agitated during application. Primers shall be allowed to dry to a tack free condition before placing membrane sheets. Should membrane sheets not be placed over solvent based primed surfaces within 24 hours, or neoprene based primed surfaces within 36 hours, or resin based primed surfaces within 8 hours, the surfaces shall be reprimed. The preformed membrane sheets shall be applied to the primed surfaces either by hand methods or by mechanical applicators. The membrane sheet shall be placed in such a manner that a shingling effect is achieved in the direction that water will drain. First, a 12-inch minimum width membrane stripe shall be placed along the juncture of deck and base of barrier railing or curb face at the low side of the deck with the sheet extending up the face 3 inches. Next, starting at the gutter line, sheets shall be laid longitudinally and side lapped with adjacent sheets by not less than 21 2 inches and end lapped by not less than 6 inches. A 12-inch minimum width strip shall then be placed at the juncture of deck and base of curb or railing at the high side of the deck extending up the face 3
inches. After being laid, the membrane sheets shall be rolled with hand rollers or other apparatus as necessary to develop a rm and uniform bond with the primed concrete surfaces. Procedures shall be used which minimize wrinkles and air bubbles. Any tears, cuts, or narrow overlaps shall be patched, using a satisfactory adhesive and by placing sections of membrane sheet over the defective area in such a manner that the patch extends at least 6 inches beyond the defect. On modified bitumen sheets with a permanent polyester lm, a propane torch shall be used to melt the polyester film on the section to be patched. The patch shall then be placed over the heated surface. All patches shall be rolled or pressed rmly onto the surface. At all open joints, deck bleeder pipes and at other locations when ordered by the Engineer, the membrane sheet shall be cut and turned into the joint or bleeder as membrane sheet is laid. For rubberized asphalt sheets and modied bitumen sheets, mastic shall be applied as a bead along the exposed edge of the membrane sheet which extends up the barrier railing or curb face, and which terminates in the high side gutter after the sheets have been installed. 21.4.2.3 Installation on Other Surfaces Installation of preformed membranes on surfaces other than bridge decks shall conform to the applicable requirements for bridge decks and the following: Preformed membrane material shall be placed vertically with each successive sheet lapped to the preceding by a minimum of 3 inches. Horizontal splices shall be lapped by a minimum of 6 inches. Exposed edges of membrane sheets shall have a troweled bead of manufacturers recommended mastic or sealing tape applied after the membrane is placed. All projecting pipe, conduits, sleeves or other facilities passing through the preformed membrane waterproong shall be ashed with prefabricated or eld-fabricated boots, tted coverings or other devices as necessary to provide watertight construction. 21.4.3 Protective Cover Protective covers shall be installed sufficiently soon after the application of waterproong to prevent any damage to the waterproong from exposure to sunlight or the weather or damage from traffic or subsequent construction operations. Hardboard protective covering shall be placed on a coating of adhesive of a type recommended by the waterproong manufacturer. The adhesive shall be applied at a
21.4.3
DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION 21.5 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT
643
rate sufficient to hold the protective covering in position until the backll is placed. 21.4.4 Dampproong
Concrete, brick, or other surfaces that are to be protected by dampproong shall be thoroughly clean before the primer is applied. The surface to be dampproofed shall be primed and then thoroughly mopped with waterproofing asphalt. When the rst mopping of asphalt has set sufciently, the entire surface shall be mopped with the second coating of hot asphalt. Special care shall be taken to see that there are no skips in the coatings and that all surfaces are thoroughly covered.
Waterproong and dampproong will be measured by the square yard complete in place and accepted. Payment will be made on the basis of the number of square yards of waterproong or dampproong measured. Payment for waterproong includes full compensation for the cost of furnishing all equipment, materials, and labor necessary for the satisfactory completion of the waterproong membrane and the protection cover. Payment for dampproong includes full compensation for the cost of furnishing all equipment, materials, and labor necessary for the satisfactory completion of the dampproong.
Section 22
SLOPE PROTECTION
22.1 GENERAL 22.1.1 Description This work shall consist of the construction of bank and slope protection courses in accordance with these Specications and in reasonably close conformity with the lines, grades, and thicknesses shown on the plans or established by the Engineer. 22.1.2 Types shall include the sequence and rate of placement. Sufficient copies shall be furnished to meet the needs of the Engineer and other entities with review authority. The working drawings shall be submitted sufficiently in advance of proposed use to allow for their review, revision, if needed, and approval without delay to the work. The Contractor shall not start the construction of any slope protection system for which working drawings are required until the drawings have been approved by the Engineer. Such approval will not relieve the Contractor of responsibility for results obtained by use of these drawings or any other responsibilities under the contract. 22.3 MATERIALS 22.3.1 Aggregate Aggregate for riprap shall conform to the requirements of Subsection 703.16 of the AASHTO Guide Specications for Highway Construction. Aggregate for underdrains and lter blankets shall conform to Sections 704 and 705, respectively, of the AASHTO Guide Specications for Highway Construction. 22.3.2 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions) Gabions shall be constructed of wire mesh. The wire mesh shall be made of galvanized steel wire having a minimum size of 0.120-inch diameter (U.S. Wire Gage No. 11). The tensile strength of the wire shall be in the range of 60,000 to 85,000 psi, determined in accordance with ASTM A 392. The minimum zinc coating of the wire shall be 0.80 oz/sq ft of uncoated wire surface as determined in accordance with ASTM A 90. Selvedge, tie, and connection wire shall meet the same strength and coating requirements specied above for wire used in the wire mesh. 22.3.3 Filter Fabric Filter fabric shall meet the requirements of Subsection 705.03 of the AASHTO Guide Specications for Highway Construction. 645
Types of slope protection are designated as follows: (1) Riprap Hand-Placed Ripraphand-placed stones on earth or gravel bedding. Machine-Placed Riprapmachine-placed stones on earth or gravel bedding. Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions)stones placed in wire fabric enclosures. Grouted Ripraphand-placed riprap as described above with voids lled with sand-cement grout. Sacked Concrete Ripraphand-placed sacked concrete. (2) Concrete Slope Paving Cast-in-Place Slope PavingPortland cement concrete, pneumatically applied mortar or, when permitted, fabric forms lled with structural concrete grout. (3) Precast Concrete Slope PavingPortland cement concrete slabs, blocks, or shapes precast prior to placement. 22.2 WORKING DRAWINGS Whenever specied or requested by the Engineer, the Contractor shall provide working drawings with design calculations and supporting data in sufficient detail to permit a structural review of the proposed design of a slope protection system. When concrete is involved, such data
646 22.3.4 Grout
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
22.3.4
Grout shall consist of one part Portland cement and three parts of sand, thoroughly mixed with water to produce a workable mix. 22.3.5 Sacked Concrete Riprap Concrete for sacked concrete riprap shall consist of a mixture of clean pitrun or washed sand and gravel, cement and water. The mixture shall contain not less than 376 pounds of Portland cement per cubic yard and sufficient water to obtain a slump of 3 to 5 inches. Sacks for sacked concrete riprap shall be made of 10-ounce burlap or other fabric having equal or greater strength. Sacks shall be approximately 191 2 inches by 36 inches measured inside the seams when the sack is laid at, with an approximate capacity of 1.25 cubic feet. Sound, reclaimed sacks may be used. 22.3.6 Portland Cement Concrete Portland cement concrete for cast-in-place slope paving shall conform to the provisions in Section 8, Concrete Structures, for Class B or Class B (AE) concrete using the 1-inch maximum combined grading. Expansion joint ller shall conform to the provisions in Article 8.9.2.1. 22.3.7 Pneumatically Applied Mortar Materials for pneumatically applied mortar shall conform to the requirements of Section 24, Pneumatically Applied Mortar. 22.3.8 Precast Portland Cement Concrete Blocks and Shapes Precast Portland cement concrete blocks and shapes shall meet the requirements of ASTM C 129, C 139, or C 145, grade as specied. Materials for precast Portland cement concrete slabs shall conform to the requirements in Article 8.13, Precast Concrete Members. 22.3.9 Reinforcing Steel Reinforcement shall conform to the provisions in Section 9, Reinforcing Steel. 22.3.10 Geocomposite Drain Geocomposite drain shall consist of a manufactured core with one or both sides covered with a layer of lter fabric.
The manufactured core shall be a preformed grid of embossed plastic, a mat of random shapes of plastic bers, a drainage net consisting of a uniform pattern of polymeric strands forming two sets of continuous ow channels, a system of plastic pillars and interconnections forming a semi-rigid mat, or other system approved by the Engineer, which will conduct the ow of water designated on the plans or in the special provisions. Filter fabric shall conform to the requirements of Article 22.3.3 and shall be integrally bonded to the core material. The Contractor shall furnish to the Engineer a signed certification from the manufacturer stating that the geocomposite drain proposed for use is capable of withstanding design loadings at all planned locations without appreciably decreasing the carrying capacity of the designed drainage voids for the entire height or length of the drain. 22.4 CONSTRUCTION 22.4.1 Preparation of Slopes Slopes shall be shaped to allow the full thickness of the specified slope protection and any bedding or filter gravel, where required. Slopes shall not be steeper than the natural angle of repose of the slope specified in the contract. Where the slopes cannot be excavated to undisturbed material, the underlying material shall be compacted to 95% standard density per AASHTO T 99. 22.4.2 Bedding When called for on the plans, a layer of lter gravel or lter fabric shall be placed on the slope immediately prior to placement of the riprap or slope paving. The layer of lter gravel shall be shaped to provide the minimum thickness specied. 22.4.3 Filter Fabric When specied in the contract, lter fabric shall be spread uniformly over the prepared slope or surface. The fabric shall be unrolled directly on the surface to the lines and dimensions shown. The lter fabric shall be lapped a minimum of 12 inches in each direction and shall be anchored in position with approved anchoring devices. The Contractor shall place the riprap in a manner that will not tear, puncture, or shift the fabric. Tracked or wheeled equipment will not be permitted on the fabric covered slopes.
22.4.4 22.4.4 Geocomposite Drain
647
work, the footing trench shall be lled with excavated material, and compaction will not be required. 22.4.6.2 Underwater Placement When placed under water, free dumping will not be permitted without written permission of the Engineer. Placement shall be by controlled methods using bottom dump buckets or wire rope baskets lowered through the water to the point of placement. 22.4.7 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions) 22.4.7.1 Fabrication The wire mesh shall be twisted to form hexagonal openings of uniform size. The maximum linear dimension of the mesh opening shall not exceed 41 2 inches and the area of the mesh opening shall not exceed 8 square inches. The mesh shall be fabricated in such a manner as to be nonravelling. Nonravelling is dened as the ability to resist pulling apart at any of the twists or connections forming the mesh when a single wire strand in a section is cut. Gabions shall be fabricated so the sides, ends, lid, and diaphragms can be assembled at the construction site into rectangular baskets of the specied size. Gabions shall be of single unit constructionbase, lid, ends, and sides shall be either woven into a single unit or one edge of these members connected to the base section of the gabion in a manner that strength and exibility at the point of connection is at least equal to that of the mesh. Where the length of the gabion exceeds its horizontal width, the gabion shall be equally divided by diaphragms of the same mesh and gauge as the body of the gabions, into cells the length of which does not exceed the horizontal width. The gabion shall be furnished with the necessary diaphragms secured in proper position on the base in a manner that no additional tying at this junction will be necessary. All perimeter edges of the mesh forming the gabion shall be securely clip bound or selvedged so that the joints formed by tying the selvedges have at least the same strength as the body of the mesh. Selvedge wire used through all the edges (perimeter wire) shall not be less than 0.148-inch diameter (U.S. Wire Gage No. 9) and shall meet the same strength and coating specications as the wire mesh. Tie and connection wire shall be supplied in sufficient quantity to securely fasten all edges of the gabion and diaphragms and to provide for at least four cross connecting wires in each cell whose height is equal to the width and at least two cross-connecting wires in each cell whose height is one-half the width of the gabion. Cross-connect-
Geocomposite drains shall be installed at locations shown on the plans, described in the special provisions, and where directed by the Engineer. Collection and discharge systems shall be installed as shown on the plans or as directed by the Engineer. Core material manufactured from impermeable plastic sheeting having connecting corrugations shall be placed with the corrugations approximately perpendicular to the drainage collection system. When only one side of the geocomposite drain is covered with lter fabric, the drain shall be installed with the lter fabric side facing the embankment. The fabric facing the embankment side shall overlap a minimum of 3 inches at all joints and wrap around the exterior edges a minimum of 3 inches beyond the exterior edge. If additional fabric is needed to provide overlap at joints and wrap-around at edges, the added fabric shall overlap the fabric on the geocomposite drain at least 6 inches and be attached thereto. Should the fabric on the geocomposite drain be torn or punctured, the damaged section shall be replaced completely or repaired by placing a piece of fabric that is large enough to cover the damaged area and provide a 6-inch overlap all around the damaged area. 22.4.5 Hand Placing Stones Where hand placing of stones is specied, the larger stones shall be placed rst with close joints. The larger stones shall be placed in the footing trench. Stones shall be placed with their longitudinal axis normal to the embankment face and arranged so that each stone above the foundation course has a three-point bearing on the underlying stones. The foundation course is the course placed on the slope in contact with the ground surface. Bearing on smaller stones that may be used for chinking voids will not be acceptable. Placing of stones by dumping will not be permitted. Interstices shall be lled with smaller stones and spalls. 22.4.6 Machine-Placed Stones 22.4.6.1 Dry Placement Machine-placed stones shall be so placed so as to provide a minimum of voids, and the larger stones shall be placed in the toe course and on the outside surface of the slope protection. The stone may be placed by dumping and may be spread in layers by bulldozers or other suitable equipment. At the completion of slope protection
648
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
22.4.7.1
ing wires will not be required when the height of the cell is one-third the width of the gabion. Tie and connection wire shall meet the same strength and coating specications as the wire used in the mesh, except that it may be as much as two gages smaller. In lieu of tie wire, two gauge galvanized hog rings may be used to connect adjacent baskets and to secure basket lids. Spacing of the hog rings shall not exceed 6 inches. Vertical joints in the completed work shall be staggered at approximately 1 3 or 1 2 the length of the full baskets. 22.4.7.2 Installation The gabions shall be placed on a smooth foundation. Final line and grade shall be approved by the Engineer. Each gabion unit shall be assembled by binding together all vertical edges with wire ties on approximately 6-inch spacing or by a continuous piece of connecting wire stitched around the vertical edges with a coil about every 4 inches. Empty gabion units shall be set to line and grade as shown on the plans or as directed by the Engineer. Wire ties, hog rings, or connecting wire shall be used to join the units together in the same manner as described above for assembling. Internal tie wires shall be uniformly spaced and securely fastened in each cell of the structure. A standard fence stretcher, chain fall, or iron rod may be used to stretch the wire baskets and hold alignment. The gabions shall be lled with stone carefully placed by hand or machine to assure alignment and avoid bulges with a minimum of voids. Alternate placing of rock and connection wires shall be performed until the gabion is lled. After a gabion has been lled, the lid shall be bent over until it meets the sides and edges. The lid shall then be secured to the sides, ends and diaphragms with the wire ties or connecting wire in the manner described above for assembling. 22.4.8 Grouted Riprap Stones shall be placed on the slope as specied in Article 22.4.5 and shall be thoroughly moistened with water after placement. Grout shall be applied while the stone is moist and shall be worked into the interstices to completely ll the voids. Where the depth is in excess of 12 inches, the stone shall be placed in 12-inch lifts and each lift grouted prior to placement of the next lift. Succeeding lifts shall be constructed and grouted before grout in the previous lift has set. Grout shall be placed only when the weather is suitable and shall be protected from freezing for at least 4 days. The surface shall be cured by covering with moist earth,
wet rugs or curing blankets for at least 3 days after grout placement. Weep holes shall be provided through the riprap as shown on the plans or as directed by the Engineer. 22.4.9 Sacked Concrete Riprap Sacks shall be lled with approximately 1 cubic foot of concrete, leaving room at the top to fold the sacks and retain the concrete during placement. Immediately after being lled, the sacks shall be placed and lightly trampled to conform with the earth face and with adjacent sacks. The rst two courses shall provide a foundation of double thickness. The rst foundation course shall consist of a double row of stretchers (long dimension of sack parallel to contour of slope) laid level and adjacent to each other in a neatly trimmed trench. The trench shall be located as shown on the plans, or as directed by the Engineer, cut to the proper depth and width to accommodate placement of the rst two foundation courses, and cut back into the slope a sufficient distance to enable proper subsequent placement of the riprap. The second foundation course shall consist of a row of headers (long dimension at right angles to the stretchers) placed directly above the double row of stretchers. The remaining courses shall consist of stretchers and shall be placed with staggered joints. Dirt and debris shall be removed from the top of the sacks before the next course is placed. Stretchers shall be placed so that the folded ends are not adjacent. Headers shall be placed with the folds toward the earth face. Not more than four vertical courses of sacks shall be placed in any tier until initial set has taken place in the rst course. When there will not be proper bearing or bond for the concrete because of delays in placing succeeding layers of sacks, a small trench shall be excavated back of the row of sacks and lled with fresh concrete before the next layer of sacks is laid. Header courses may be required at any level to provide additional stability. Sacked concrete riprap shall be cured with a blanket of wet earth or by sprinkling with a ne spray of water every 2 hours during the daytime for 4 days. Weep holes shall be provided through the riprap as shown on the plans or as directed by the Engineer. 22.4.10 Concrete Slope Paving 22.4.10.1 General This work shall consist of constructing cast-in-place and precast portland cement concrete slope paving. At the option of the Contractor, the cast-in-place slope paving shall be constructed of either Portland cement concrete or
22.4.10.1
DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION 22.4.10.3 Precast Slope Paving
649
pneumatically applied mortar. Where specied or permitted by the Engineer, this work shall also include woven fabric forms lled with ne aggregate Portland cement concrete grout.
22.4.10.2 Cast-in-Place Slope Paving Concrete shall be mixed and placed in conformance with the provisions in Section 8, Concrete Structures, and shall be spread and tamped until it is thoroughly compacted and mortar ushes to the surface. If the slope is too steep to permit the use of concrete sufficiently wet to ush with tamping, the concrete shall be tamped until consolidated and a mortar surface 1 4-inch thick, troweled on immediately. The mortar shall consist of one part Portland cement and three parts of ne aggregate. The mortar surface shall be considered as a part of the concrete and no separate payment will be made therefore. After striking off to grade, the concrete shall be hand oated with wooden oats. The entire surface shall be broomed with a ne texture hair push broom to produce a uniform surface with the broom marks parallel to the edges of the panel. Edges and joints shall be edged with a 1 4-inch radius edger prior to the brooming. Pneumatically applied mortar shall be placed and nished in accordance with the provisions in Section 24, Pneumatically Applied Mortar. Expansion joints shall be installed transversely at intervals of 20 feet. Longitudinal expansion joints shall be installed at the locations shown on the plans. Expansion joints shall be lled with expansion joint ller 1 2-inch thick. Cast-in-place concrete and pneumatically applied mortar shall be cured as provided in Sections 8 and 24, respectively. Weep holes shall be provided through the slope paving as shown on the plans or as directed by the Engineer. When permitted or specied, the Contractor may use woven fabric forms lled with pumpable ne aggregate Portland cement concrete grout as the slope protection system. The request by the Contractor to use a particular system must be in writing accompanied by working drawings and complete information as to the materials, construction and performance characteristics of the proposed system. Pervious backll material, if required by the plans, shall be placed as shown. Two cubic feet of pervious backll material wrapped in lter fabric shall be placed at each weep hole and drain hole. At the completion of the work, footing trenches shall be lled with excavated material and compaction will not be required.
Precast slabs, blocks, and shapes shall be laid on a 3inch bed of cushion sand in the pattern shown on the plans. Blocks and shapes shall be thoroughly rammed in place to provide a uniformly even surface and solid bedding under each block or shape. In the areas where grouting is called for, the blocks shall be laid in running bond with the length parallel to the slope and with 1 4-inch joints. Following the laying of the blocks, in the area to be grouted, sufficient mortar sand shall be spread over the surface and swept into the joints to fill the latter to 4 inches from the surface. The blocks shall be wetted to the satisfaction of the Engineer before any grout is placed. The joints shall be lled with grout ush with the top of the block. After grouting has been completed and the grout has sufficiently hardened, the blocks shall be wetted, covered and cured with curing blankets or covers for the rst 7 days after grouting. Grout shall not be poured during freezing weather.
22.5 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT 22.5.1 Method of Measurement 22.5.1.1 Stone Riprap and Filter Blanket Hand-placed riprap, machine-placed riprap, grouted riprap, and lter blanket aggregate will be measured by the square yard, cubic yard, or ton, as listed in the schedule of bid items. The area will be that actually placed to the limiting dimensions shown on the plans, or the plan dimensions as may have been revised by the Engineer, measured along the upper surface. If measured by the cubic yard, the volume will be computed on the basis of the measured area and the thickness specied on the plans. If measured by the ton, the quantity shall be the number of tons, loose measure, incorporated into the work. 22.5.1.2 Sacked Concrete Riprap Sacked concrete riprap will be measured by the cubic yard of concrete placed. Measurement will be based on mixer volumes. 22.5.1.3 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions) Wire-enclosed riprap (gabions) will be measured as the number of square yards of surface area.
650
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 22.5.2.4 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions)
22.5.1.4
22.5.1.4 Cast-in-Place Concrete Slope Paving Cast-in-place concrete or pneumatically applied mortar slope paving will be measured on a square yard or cubic yard basis. The area will be that actually placed to the limiting dimensions shown on the plans, or the plan dimensions as may have been revised by the Engineer, measured along the upper sloped surface. If measured by the cubic yard, the volume will be computed on the basis of the measured area and the thickness shown on the plans. No additional compensation will be allowed for additional concrete or pneumatically applied mortar placed by reason of low foundation. 22.5.1.5 Precast Concrete Slope Paving Precast concrete slabs, blocks, or shapes placed as slope paving will be measured in square yards computed from the payment lines shown on the plans, or as directed by the Engineer. 22.5.1.6 Filter Fabric Filter fabric will be measured by the square yard on the ground surface, excluding overlaps, complete in place. 22.5.2 Payment 22.5.2.1 General Payment for slope protection of the various classes at the unit prices bid will include full compensation for all labor, materials, equipment, or other incidentals in connection with the preparation of subgrade (except for the furnishing and placement of lter blanket material and lter fabric), excavating and backlling toe trenches where required, furnishing and placing the stones, slabs, blocks, shapes, grout, mortar, Portland cement concrete, pneumatically applied mortar, reinforcing steel, expansion joint ller, if required, and all other work and incidental material required to complete the work in accordance with the plans and specications. 22.5.2.2 Stone Riprap Hand-placed riprap, machine-placed riprap, and grouted riprap measured in accordance with Article 22.5.1.1 will be paid for at the price bid per square yard, per cubic yard, or per ton as set forth in the schedule of bid items. 22.5.2.3 Sacked Concrete Riprap Sacked concrete riprap measured in accordance with Article 22.5.1.2 will be paid for at the price bid per cubic yard.
Wire-enclosed riprap (gabions) measured in accordance with Article 22.5.1.3 will be paid for at the price bid per square yard. Such price shall include wire baskets, connection hardware, anchors, aggregate lling, and any other materials, labor, and equipment necessary to complete the work in accordance with the plans and specications. 22.5.2.5 Cast-in-Place Concrete Slope Paving Cast-in-place concrete or pneumatically applied mortar slope paving measured in accordance with Article 22.5.1.4 will be paid for at the price bid per square yard or per cubic yard as set forth in the schedule of bid items. 22.5.2.6 Precast Concrete Slope Paving Precast concrete slope paving measured in accordance with Article 22.5.1.5 will be paid for at the price bid per square yard. Such price shall include cushion sand and shall include Portland cement grout or mortar, if required by the plans or specications. 22.5.2.7 Filter Blanket Filter blanket or lter gravel measured in accordance with Article 22.5.1.1 will be paid for at the price bid per square yard, per cubic yard, or per ton as set forth in the schedule of bid items. 22.5.2.8 Filter Fabric Filter fabric measured in accordance with Article 22.5.1.6 will be paid for at the price bid per square yard. 22.5.2.9 Geocomposite Drain System Geocomposite drain system will be paid for on the basis of a contract lump sum price. Such lump sum price shall include full compensation for furnishing all labor, materials, tools, equipment, and incidentals, and for doing all the work involved in constructing geocomposite drain systems complete in place including geocomposite drain, collection and discharge systems as shown on the plans, as specied in the special provisions and as directed by the Engineer.
Section 23
MISCELLANEOUS METAL
23.1 DESCRIPTION This work shall consist of furnishing and installing metal items in structures which are not otherwise provided for. Such work includes but is not limited to the following items: (1) Expansion joint armor in bridge decks, and sliding plate and nger type expansion joints. (2) Manhole frames and covers, drainage pipes, frames and grates, ladders or ladder rungs, access opening covers, and access door assemblies. (3) Other items specically identied as miscellaneous metal on the plans or in the specications. 23.2 MATERIALS Miscellaneous metal items shall be constructed of materials conforming to the following AASHTO (or ASTM) material specications: 23.5 MEASUREMENT Measurement of miscellaneous metal shall be by the scale weight. When requested by the Engineer, each delivery shall be accompanied with a certied weighmasters weight ticket. Scale weights are not required when calculated weights are shown on the plans, in which case these weights shall be used as the basis of payment. practice in modern commercial shops. Burrs, rough and sharp edges, and other aws shall be removed. Warped pieces shall be straightened after fabrication and galvanizing.
23.4 GALVANIZING Unless otherwise specied all steel items, which are not embedded at least 2 inches in concrete, and all cast iron sidewalk frames and covers shall be galvanized in accordance with Articles 11.3.2.4 and 11.3.7 of Section 11, Steel Structures. Assemblies shall be galvanized after fabrication.
23.6 PAYMENT Miscellaneous metal will be paid for by the contract unit price per pound. Such payment shall include full compensation for furnishing all labor, materials, tools, equipment and incidentals, and for doing all the work involved in furnishing and installing miscellaneous metal, complete in place, as shown on the plans, and as specied in these specications and the special provisions, and as directed by the Engineer.
23.3 FABRICATION Fabrication of miscellaneous metal items shall be performed in a workmanlike manner in conformance with the
651
Section 24
PNEUMATICALLY APPLIED MORTAR
24.1 DESCRIPTION This work shall consist of the furnishing and placing of pneumatically applied mortar for the construction of portions of structures, repairing concrete structures, texturing concrete surfaces, encasement of structural steel members, lining ditches and channels, paving slopes and for other miscellaneous work, all as shown on the plans. This work also includes the preparation of surfaces to receive the mortar and the furnishing and placing of any reinforcing steel and anchors for reinforcement. Pneumatically applied mortar shall consist of either dry mixed ne aggregate and Portland cement pneumatically applied by a suitable mechanism, to which mixture the water is added immediately previous to its expulsion from the nozzle, or mortar premixed by mechanical methods and pneumatically applied through a nozzle onto the prepared surface. 24.2.3 Anchor Bolts or Studs Anchor studs used to support reinforcing wire fabric or bars when placing mortar against existing concrete or rock shall consist of 1 4-inch minimum diameter expansion hook bolts placed in drilled holes. Each bolt shall have sufficient engagement in sound masonry to resist a pullout force of 150 lbs. When permitted by the Engineer, driven steel studs of not less than 1 8-inch diameter and a minimum length of 2 inches may be used. The equipment used for driving such studs shall be of the type which uses an explosive for the driving force, and shall be capable of inserting the stud or pin to the required depth without damage to the surrounding concrete. 24.3 PROPORTIONING AND MIXING 24.3.1 Proportioning The Contractor shall submit the proposed mix design to the Engineer for approval prior to start of the work. Unless otherwise specied, the mix design shall provide a cement to aggregate ratio, based on dry loose volumes, of not less than 1:3.5 for the construction and repair of concrete structures and for encasing steel members, or not less than 1:5 for lining ditches and channels and for paving slopes. The water content shall be as low as practical and shall be adjusted so that the mix is sufficiently wet to adhere properly and sufficiently dry so that it will not sag or fall from vertical or inclined surfaces or separate in horizontal work. 24.3.2 Mixing Mixing shall be done either by the dry mix or wet mix process. Before being charged into the placing equipment, the materials shall be thoroughly and uniformly mixed using a mixer designed for use with pneumatic application. It may be either a paddle type or drum type mixer. Transit mix equipment and methods may be used for the wet process. 653
24.2 MATERIALS 24.2.1 Cement, Aggregate, Water and Admixtures Cement, aggregate, water and admixtures, when used, shall conform to the requirements of Section 8, Concrete Structures. Aggregate shall be ne aggregate, except that up to 30% coarse aggregate, conforming to AASHTO M 43 for size 3 8 inch to No. 8 or No. 16, may be substituted for ne aggregate. Recovered rebound which is clean and free of foreign material may be reused as fine aggregate in quantities not to exceed 20% of the total fine aggregate requirements.
24.2.2 Reinforcing Steel Reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of Section 9, Reinforcing Steel.
654 24.4 SURFACE PREPARATION 24.4.1 Earth
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
24.4
When pneumatically applied mortar is to be placed against earth, the area shall be accurately graded to the plan dimensions and shall be thoroughly compacted, with sufficient moisture to provide a rm foundation and to prevent absorption of water from the mortar, but shall not contain free surface water. When shown on the plans, joints, side forms, headers and shooting strips shall be provided for backing or paneling. Ground or gaging wires shall be used where necessary to establish thicknesses, surface planes, and nish lines. 24.4.2 Forms When mortar is to be placed against forms, the forms shall conform to the requirement of Section 3, Temporary Works. 24.4.3 Concrete or Rock When mortar is to be placed against concrete or rock, all deteriorated or loose material shall be removed by chipping with pneumatic or hand tools. Square or slightly undercut shoulders shall be cut approximately 1-inch deep along the perimeter of repair areas. The surface shall be sandblasted as necessary to clean all rust from exposed steel and to produce a clean rough-textured surface on the concrete or rock. The surface against which mortar is to be placed shall be kept wet for at least 1 hour and then allowed to dry to a surface dry condition just prior to application of the mortar. 24.5 INSTALLATION 24.5.1 Placement of Reinforcing Reinforcing steel, when required, shall be installed in conformance with the requirements of Section 9, Reinforcing Steel. Reinforcement in new construction shall be placed as specied in the plans and secured to insure no displacement from impact of the pneumatically placed mortar during application. For repair work, the reinforcing steel shall be supported by anchor studs installed in the existing masonry except where existing reinforcing steel in the repair area is considered by the Engineer to be satisfactory for this purpose. Anchors shall be spaced no more than 12 inches,
center to center, on overhead surfaces; 18 inches, center to center, on vertical surfaces; and 36 inches, center to center, on top horizontal surfaces. At least three anchors shall be used in each individual patch area. The Engineer shall be notied in advance of the date when installation of anchor studs is to begin. The locations of the studs shall be such that damage will not occur to prestressing tendons or conduits embedded in the concrete. Unless otherwise shown or specied, for repair work, all areas where the thickness of the mortar exceeds 11 2 inches shall be reinforced with a single layer of either 2 2 W1 W1 or 3 3 W1.5 W1.5 welded wire fabric. For areas where the thickness of the mortar exceeds 4 inches, a single layer of wire fabric shall be used to reinforce each 4-inch thickness of patch or fractional part thereof. All fabric shall be placed parallel to the proposed nished surface. Each layer of fabric shall be completely encased in mortar which has taken its initial set, before the succeeding layer of fabric is installed. Fabric supported adjacent to the prepared masonry surface shall be no closer than 1 2 inch to said surface. Fabric shall be carefully prebent before installation to t around corners and into re-entrant angles, and shall in no case be sprung into place. All steel items, including anchors, reinforcing bars and wire fabric, shall be no closer than 1 inch to the nished surface of the mortar. 24.5.2 Placement of Mortar Only experienced foremen, gunmen, nozzlemen, and rodmen shall be employed, and satisfactory evidence of such experience shall be furnished when requested by the Engineer. The mortar shall be applied by pneumatic equipment that sprays the mix onto the prepared surface at a high velocity as needed to produce a compacted dense homogeneous mass. The air compressor and delivery hose lines shall be of adequate capacity and size to provide a minimum pressure of 35 psi at the nozzle for 1-inch nozzles and proportionally greater for larger nozzles. The velocity of the material as it leaves the nozzle must be maintained uniform at a rate determined for the given job conditions to produce minimum rebound. Water which is added at the nozzle shall be supplied at a uniform pressure of not less than 15 psi greater than the air pressure at the nozzle. The mortar shall be applied as dry as practicable to prevent shrinkage cracking. Shooting strips shall be employed to insure square corners, straight lines, and a plane surface of mortar, except as otherwise permitted by the plans or approved by the Engineer. They shall be so placed
24.5.2
655
as to keep the trapping of rebound at a minimum. At the end of each days work, or similar stopping periods requiring construction joints, the mortar shall be sloped off to a thin edge. Before placing an adjacent section, construction joints shall be thoroughly cleaned and wetted as required under Article 24.4. In shooting all surfaces, the stream of owing material from the nozzle shall impinge as nearly as possible at right angles to the surface being covered, and the nozzle shall be held from 2 to 4 feet from the working surface. A sufficient number of mortar coats shall be applied to obtain the required thickness. On vertical and overhead surfaces, the thickness of each coat shall be not greater than 1 inch, except as approved by the Engineer, and shall be so placed that it will neither sag nor decrease the bond of the preceding coat. The time interval between successive layers in sloping, vertical or overhanging work shall be sufficient to allow initial but not nal set to develop. At the time the initial set is developing, the surface shall be cleaned to remove the thin lm of laitance in order to provide for a bond with succeeding applications. Rebound or accumulated loose sand shall be removed from the surface to be covered prior to placing of the original or succeeding layers of mortar and shall not be embedded in the work. Materials that have been mixed for more than 45 minutes and have not been incorporated in the work shall not be used, unless otherwise permitted by the Engineer. After curing and before nal acceptance, all repaired areas shall be sounded. All unsound and cracked areas shall be removed and replaced. 24.5.2.1 Weather Limitations Pneumatically placed mortar shall not be placed on a frozen surface nor when the ambient temperature is less than 40F; nor shall it be placed when it is anticipated that the temperature during the following 24 hours will drop below 32F. The application of pneumatically placed mortar shall be suspended if high winds prevent proper application, or rain occurs which would wash out the pneumatically placed mortar. 24.5.2.2 Protection of Adjacent Work During progress of the work, where appearance is important, adjacent facilities which may be permanently dis-
colored, stained, or otherwise damaged by overspray, dust or rebound, shall be adequately protected and, if contacted, shall be cleaned by early scraping, brushing, or washing, as the surroundings permit. 24.5.3 Finishing After mortar has been placed to desired thickness, all high spots shall be cut off with a sharp trowel, or screeded to a true plane as determined by shooting strips or by the original masonry surface, or as directed. Cutting screeds, where used, shall be lightly applied to all surfaces so as not to disturb the mortar for an appreciable depth, and they shall be worked in an upward direction when applied on vertical surfaces. Unless otherwise directed, the nished mortar surface shall be given a nal ash coat of about 1 8 inch of mortar. Special care shall be taken to obtain a uniform appearance on all exposed surfaces. 24.5.4 Curing and Protecting Pneumatically placed mortar shall be water cured in conformance with the requirements of Article 8.11.3.2. The minimum water curing duration shall be 96 hours. The mortar shall be protected from freezing during the curing period. 24.6 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT The quantity of pneumatically applied mortar will be measured either by the square foot or by the cubic foot as indicated in the schedule of bid items. Square foot measurements will be based on measurements of the surface area of acceptable mortar placed in the work made along the plane or curve of each surface. Cubic foot measurement will be based on the dimensions of such work shown in the plans or ordered by the Engineer. Pneumatically applied mortar will be paid for by the contract price per square foot or cubic yard. Such payment shall be considered to be full compensation for the cost of furnishing all labor, materials, equipment, incidentals, and for doing all work involved in preparing the surface and installing the mortar, reinforcing steel, anchor studs, headers, joint llers, and other items as shown on the plans or specied.
Section 25
STEEL AND CONCRETE TUNNEL LINERS
25.1 SCOPE These specications are intended to cover the installation of tunnel liner plates in tunnels constructed by conventional tunnel methods. For the purposes of these Specications, tunnels excavated by full face, heading and bench, or multiple drift procedures are considered conventional methods. Liner plates used with any construction procedure utilizing a full or partial shield, a tunneling machine, or other piece of equipment which will exert a force on the liner plates for the purpose of propelling, steering, or stabilizing the equipment are considered special cases and are not covered by these Specications. 25.2 DESCRIPTION 25.2.1 This work shall consist of furnishing cold-formed steel tunnel liner plates or precast concrete plates conforming to these specications and of the sizes and dimensions required on the plans, and installing such plates at the locations designated on the plans by the Engineer, and in conformity with the lines and grades established by the Engineer. The completed liner shall consist of a series of liner plates assembled with staggered longitudinal joints. Steel tunnel liner plates shall preferably be of a type which is commercially available. Precast concrete tunnel liner plates shall be such that their size and shape suits the method and equipment being used to install them. 25.3 MATERIALS AND FABRICATION Liner plates shall be fabricated to t the cross section of the tunnel. 25.3.1 General Steel liner plates herein described must meet the Sectional Properties of thickness, area, and moment of inertia shown on the plans. If not shown on the plans, the properties shall be as listed in Division I, Article 16.3. 657 All steel plates shall be connected by bolts on both longitudinal and circumferential seams or joints and shall be so fabricated as to permit complete erection from the inside of the tunnel. Bolt sizes and properties shall be in accordance with the manufacturers standard but not less than those specied in Division 1, Article 16.7. Grout holes 2 inches or larger in diameter shall be provided as shown on the plans to permit grouting as the erection of tunnel liner plates progresses. Precast concrete tunnel liner plates shall conform to the details shown on the plans and the requirements of Section 8, Concrete Structures. If such details are not provided and the plans or the specications allow the Contractor to propose the use of concrete liner plates, the Contractor shall submit working drawings and specications to the Engineer for approval. Such drawings and specications shall describe materials to be used, plate dimensions, reinforcement details, connecting details, and erection procedures. The fabrication of Contractor proposed types of concrete tunnel liner plates shall not begin until the working drawings have been approved. Such approval shall not relieve the Contractor of any responsibility under the contract for the successful completion of the work. 25.3.2 Forming and Punching of Steel Liner Plates All plates shall be formed to provide circumferential anged joints. Longitudinal joints may be anged or of the offset lap seam type. All plates shall be punched for bolting on both longitudinal and circumferential seams or joints. Bolt spacing in circumferential anges shall be in accordance with the manufacturers standard spacing and shall be a multiple of the plate length so that plates having the same curvature shall be interchangeable and will permit staggering of the longitudinal seams. Bolt spacing at anged longitudinal seams shall be in accordance with the manufacturers standard spacing. For lapped longitudinal seams, bolt size and spacing shall be in accordance with the manufacturers standard but not less than that required to meet the longitudinal seam strength requirements of Division I, Article 16.3.2.
658 25.4 INSTALLATION 25.4.1 Steel Liner Plates
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 25.4.3 Grouting
25.4
All steel liner plates for the full length of a specied tunnel shall be of one type only, either the anged or the lapped seam type of construction. Liner plates shall be assembled in accordance with the manufacturers instruction. Coated steel plates shall be handled in such a manner as to prevent bruising, scaling, or breaking of the coating. Any plates that are damaged during handling or placing shall be replaced by the Contractor at own expense, except that small areas with minor damage may be repaired by the Contractor as directed by the Engineer. 25.4.2 Precast Concrete Liner Plates Installation of precast concrete tunnel liner plates shall not start prior to receipt of approval of working drawings and specications submitted as required by Article 25.3.1. Installation shall conform to the specied or approved erection procedures.
When directed by the Engineer, voids occurring between the liner plate and the tunnel wall shall be forcegrouted. The grout shall be forced through the grouting holes in the plates with such pressure that all voids will be completely lled. Full compensation for back packing or grouting shall be considered as included in the contract price paid for tunnel and no separate payment will be made therefore. 25.5 MEASUREMENT The length of tunnel liner to be paid for will be the length measured along the tunnel liner plate invert. 25.6 PAYMENT Payment for the length of each size of tunnel as determined under measurement shall be at the contract unit prices per linear foot bid for the various sizes, which payment shall include full compensation for furnishing all labor, materials, tools, equipment, and incidentals to complete this item, including the force-grouting of voids.
Section 26
METAL CULVERTS
26.1 GENERAL 26.1.1 Description This work shall consist of furnishing, fabricating, and installing metal pipe, metal structural plate pipe, arches, pipe arches, and box structures in conformance with these specications, the special provisions, and the details shown on the plans. As used in this specication, longspan structures are metal plate horizontal ellipse, inverted pear and multiple radius arch shapes as well as special shape culverts as dened in Division I, Section 12, SoilCorrugated Metal Structure Interaction Systems. The terms metal pipe and metal structural plate pipe shall include both circular pipe arch, underpass and elliptical shapes. Metal structural plate arches consist of a metal plate arch supported on reinforced concrete footings at its base (ends) with or without a paved invert slab. Pipe arches are constructed to form a pipe having an archshaped crown and a relatively at invert. Metal structural plate box structures are conduits, rectangular in cross section, constructed of metal plates. 26.2 WORKING DRAWINGS Whenever specied or requested by the Engineer, the Contractor shall provide manufacturers assembly instructions or working drawings with supporting data in sufficient detail to permit a structural review. Sufficient copies shall be furnished to meet the needs of the Engineer and other entities with review authority. The working drawings shall be submitted sufficiently in advance of proposed use to allow for their review, revision, if needed, and approval without delay to the work. The Contractor shall not start the construction of any metal culvert for which working drawings are required until the drawings have been approved by the Engineer. Such approval will not relieve the Contractor of responsibility for results obtained by use of these drawings or any of his or her other responsibilities under the contract. 26.3 MATERIALS 26.3.1 Corrugated Metal Pipe Steel pipe shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 36. Aluminum pipe shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 196. 26.3.2 Structural Plate Steel structural plate shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 167. Aluminum alloy structural plate shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 219. 26.3.3 Nuts and Bolts Nuts and bolts for steel structural plate pipe, arches, pipe arches, and box structures shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 167. Nuts and bolts for aluminum structural plate shall be aluminum conforming to ASTM F 468 or standard strength steel conforming to ASTM A 307. 26.3.4 Mixing of Materials Aluminum and steel materials shall not be mixed in any installation unless they are adequately separated or protected to avoid galvanic reactions. Hot-dip galvanizing provides such protection. Hot-dip galvanized steel and stainless steel bolts and nuts are acceptable for aluminum structural plate. 26.3.5 Fabrication Plates at longitudinal and circumferential seams shall be connected by bolts with the seams staggered so that not more than three plates come together at any one point.
659
660 26.3.6 Welding
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
26.3.6
Welding of steel, if required, shall conform to the ANSI/AASHTO/AWS Bridge Welding Code D1.5. All welding of steel plates, other than ttings, shall be performed prior to galvanizing. Welding of aluminum, if required, shall conform to the AWS D1.2, Structural Welding Code. 26.3.7 Protective Coatings When required by the plans or the special provisions, metal pipes and structural plate shall be protected with bituminous coating or have the invert paved with bituminous material. Bituminous coatings shall be applied as provided in AASHTO M 190, Type A, unless otherwise specied. Bituminous pavings, if required, shall be applied over the bituminous coatings to the inside bottom portion of pipe as provided in AASHTO M 190, Type C, unless otherwise specied. The portion of all nuts and bolts used for assembly of coated structural plate projecting outside the pipe, shall be coated after installation. The portions of the nuts and bolts projecting inside the pipe need not be coated. Polymeric coatings, when called for on the plans or in the special provisions, shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 246. The polymeric coating shall be applied to the galvanized sheet prior to corrugating and, unless otherwise specied, the thickness shall be not less than 0.010 inch. Any pinholes, blisters, cracks, or lack of bond shall be cause for rejection. Polymeric coatings will not be permitted on structural plate pipes. 26.3.8 Bedding and Backll Materials 26.3.8.1 General Bedding material shall be loose native or granular material with a maximum particle (or clump) size not to exceed one-half the corrugation depth. Backll for metal culverts shall be granular material as specied in the plans and specications and shall be free of organic material, stones larger than 3 inches in the greatest dimension, frozen lumps, or moisture in excess of that permitting thorough compaction. As a minimum, backll materials shall meet the requirements of AASHTO M 145 for A-1, A-2, or A-3. 26.3.8.2 Long-Span Structures Bedding and backll materials shall meet the general requirements of Article 26.3.8.1. As a minimum backll materials for structures with less than 12 feet of cover shall meet the requirements of AASHTO M 145 for A-1, A-2-4,
A-2-5, or A-3. Minimum backll requirements for structures with 12.0 feet or more cover shall meet AASHTO M 145 requirements for A-1 or A-3. 26.3.8.3 Box Culverts
Bedding and backll materials shall meet the general requirements of Article 26.3.8.1. As a minimum, backll shall meet the requirements of AASHTO M 145 for A-1, A-2-4, A-2-5, or A-3. 26.4 ASSEMBLY 26.4.1 General Corrugated metal pipe and structural plate pipe shall be assembled in accordance with the manufacturers instructions. All pipe shall be unloaded and handled with reasonable care. Pipe or plates shall not be rolled or dragged over gravel or rock and shall be prevented from striking rock or other hard objects during placement in trench or on bedding. Corrugated metal pipe shall be placed in the bed starting at the downstream end. Pipes with circumferential seams shall be installed with their inside circumferential sheet laps pointing downstream. Bituminous coated pipe, polymer coated pipe, and paved invert pipe shall be installed in a similar manner to corrugated metal pipe with special care in handling to avoid damage to coatings. Paved invert pipe shall be installed with the invert pavement placed and centered on the bottom. Structural plate shall be assembled and installed in accordance with the plans and detailed erection instructions. Copies of the manufacturers assembly instructions shall be furnished as specied in Article 26.2. Bolted longitudinal seams shall be well tted with the lapping plates parallel to each other. The applied bolt torque for 3 4-inch diameter high-strength steel bolts (A 449) for the assembly of steel structural plate shall be a minimum of 100 ftlbs and a maximum of 300 ft-lbs. Aluminum structural plate shall be assembled using 3 4-inch diameter aluminum bolts (F 468) or standard strength steel bolts (A 307) which shall be torqued to a minimum of 100 ft-lbs and a maximum of 150 ft-lbs. When seam sealant tape or a shop applied asphalt coating is used, bolts should be retightened no more than once. Generally, retightening is done within 24 hours. There is no structural requirement for residual torque; the important factor is the seam t-up. 26.4.2 Joints
Joints for corrugated metal culvert and drainage pipe shall meet the following performance requirements.
26.4.2.1 26.4.2.1 Field Joints
DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION 26.4.2.3 Soil Conditions
661
Transverse eld joints shall be of such design that the successive connection of pipe sections will form a continuous line free from appreciable irregularities in the ow line. In addition, the joints shall meet the general performance requirements described in Articles 26.4.2.2 and 26.4.2.3. Suitable transverse eld joints, which satisfy the requirements for one or more of the subsequently dened joint performance categories can be obtained with the following types of connecting bands furnished with the suitable band-end fastening devices: (a) Corrugated bands. (b) Bands with projections. (c) Flat bands. (d) Bands of special design that engage factory reformed ends of corrugated pipe. (e) Other equally effective types of eld joints may be used with the approval of the Engineer. 26.4.2.2 Joint Types Applications may require either Standard or Special joints. Standard joints are for pipe not subject to large soil movements or disjointing forces; these joints are satisfactory for ordinary installations, where simple slip type joints are typically used. Special joints are for more adverse requirements such as the need to withstand soil movements or resist disjointing forces. Special designs must be considered for unusual conditions as in poor foundation conditions. Downdrain joints are required to resist longitudinal hydraulic forces. Examples of this are steep slopes and sharp curves.
(a) The requirements of the joints are dependent on the soil conditions at the construction site. Pipe backll which is not subject to piping action is classied as nonerodible. Such backll typically includes granular soil (with grain sizes equivalent to coarse sand, small gravel, or larger) and cohesive clays. (b) Backll that is subject to piping action, and would tend to either inltrate the pipe or to be easily washed by exltration of water from the pipe, is classied as Erodible. Such backll typically includes ne sands and silts. (c) Special joints are required when poor soil conditions are encountered such as when the backll or foundation material is characterized by large soft spots or voids. If construction in such soil is unavoidable, this condition can only be tolerated for relatively low ll heights, because the pipe must span the soft spots and support imposed loads. Backlls of organic silt, which are typically semi-uid during installation, are included in this classication. 26.4.2.4 Joint Properties The requirements for joint properties are divided into the six categories given on Table 26.4. Properties are dened and requirements are given in the following paragraphs (a) through (f). The values for various types of pipe can be determined by a rational analysis or a suitable test. (a) Shear StrengthThe shear strength required of the joint is expressed as a percent of the calculated shear strength of the pipe on a transverse cross-section remote from the joint. (b) Moment StrengthThe moment strength required of the joint is expressed as a percent of the calculated mo-
TABLE 26.4 Categories of Pipe Joints
662
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
26.2.4
ment capacity of the pipe on a transverse cross section remote from the joint. (c) Tensile StrengthTensile strength is required in a joint when the possibility exists that a longitudinal load could develop which would tend to separate adjacent pipe sections. (d) Joint OverlapStandard joints which do not meet the moment strength alternatively shall have a minimum sleeve width overlapping the abutting pipes. The minimum total sleeve width shall be as given in Table 26.4. Any joint meeting the requirements for a special joint may be used in lieu of a standard joint. (e) SoiltightnessSoiltightness refers to openings in the joint through which soil may inltrate. Soil tightness is inuenced by the size of the opening (maximum dimension normal to the direction that the soil may inltrate) and the length of the channel (length of the path along which the soil may inltrate). No opening may exceed 1 inch. In addition, for all categories, if the size of the opening exceeds 1 8 inch, the length of the channel must be at least four times the size of the opening. Furthermore, for nonerodible or erodible soils, the ratio of D85 soil size to size of opening must be greater than 0.3 for medium to ne sand or 0.2 for uniform sand; these ratios need not be met for cohesive backlls where the plasticity index exceeds 12. As a general guideline, a backll material containing a high percentage of ne grained soils requires investigation for the specic type of joint to be used to guard against soil inltration. Alternatively, if a joint demonstrates its ability to pass a 2-psi hydrostatic test without leakage, it will be considered soil tight. NOTE: Joints that do not meet these requirements may be made soil tight by wrapping with a suitable geotextile. (f) WatertightnessWatertightness may be specied for joints of any category where needed to satisfy other criteria. The leakage rate shall be measured with the pipe in place or at an approved test facility. The adjoining pipe ends in any joint shall not vary more than 0.5 inch in diameter or more than 1.5 inches in circumference for watertight joints. These tolerances may be attained by proper production controls or by match-marking pipe ends. 26.4.3 Assembly of Long-Span Structures Long-span structures may require deviation from the normal good practice of loose bolt assembly. Unless held in shape by cables, struts, or backll, longitudinal seams should be tightened when the plates are hung. Care must be taken to align plates to ensure properly tted seams prior to bolt tightening. This may require temporary shoring. Follow the manufacturers instructions. The variation before backll shall not exceed 2% of the span or rise, whichever is greater, but shall not exceed 5 inches
except for horizontal ellipse shapes having a ratio of top to side radii of 3 or less where only the 2% restriction shall apply. The rise of arches with a ratio of top to side radii of three or more should not deviate from the specied dimensions by more than 1% of the span. Reinforcing ribs, when required to satisfy the structural design, shall be attached to the structural plate corrugation crown prior to backlling using a bolt spacing of not more than 12 inches. Legible identifying letters or numbers shall be placed on each rib to designate its proper position in the nished structure. Reinforcing ribs, when required only as a means of controlling structure shape during installation, shall be spaced and attached to the corrugated plates at the discretion of the manufacturer with the approval of the Engineer. 26.5 INSTALLATION 26.5.1 Placing CulvertsGeneral For trench conditions, the trench shall be excavated to the width, depth, and grade shown on the plans and approved by the Engineer. Proper preparation of foundation, placement of foundation material where required, and placement of bedding material shall precede the installation of all culvert pipe. This shall include necessary leveling of the native trench bottom or the top of the foundation material as well as placement and compaction of required bedding material to a uniform grade so that the entire length of pipe will be supported on a uniform base. The backll material shall be placed and compacted around the pipe in a manner to meet the requirements specied. All pipes shall be protected by sufficient cover before permitting heavy construction equipment to pass over them during construction. Soil migration can weaken or destroy the support capabilities of the soils around the pipe. Materials used for foundation improvements, bedding and structure backll must have gradations compatible with adjacent soils to avoid migration. Where material gradations can not be properly controlled, adjacent materials must be separated with a suitable geotextile. 26.5.2 Foundation The foundation under the pipe and structure backll shall be investigated for its ability to support the loads. A foundation shall be provided such that the structure backll does not settle more than the pipe to avoid dragdown loads on the pipe. The foundation must provide uniform support for the pipe invert. Boulders or rock under the pipe or soft spots
26.5.2
663
FIGURE 26.5 Typical Cross-Section Showing Materials Around the Pipe
shall be excavated to a suitable depth and lled with backll material compacted sufficiently to provide uniformity as shown in Figure 26.5.2A. Where the natural foundation is judged inadequate by the Engineer to support the pipe or structure backll, it shall be excavated to a suitable depth and replaced by backll material as shown in Figure 26.5.2B. For shapes such as pipe arches, horizontal ellipses or underpasses, where relatively large radius inverts adjoin small radius corners or sides, the foundation must support the radial pressures exerted by the smaller radius portions of the pipe. These pressures, quantied in Division I, Section 12, Soil-Corrugated Metal Structure Interaction Systems, may be two to ve times the loading pressures on top of the pipe, depending on the specic pipe shape. The
principal foundation support must be provided in the areas extending radially outward from the smaller radius areas. The larger radius inverts exert proportionately lower pressures. When corrective measures are necessary, providing less support under the invert allows the pipe to maintain its shape as minor settlements occur. (See Figure 26.5.2C.) Under high lls, where pipe settlements will not maintain the necessary grade, pipe may be cambered to an amount sufficient to prevent excessive sag or back slope. The amount of camber must be determined by the Engineer based on considerations including the ow line gradient, ll height, the compressive characteristics of the foundation materials and the depth to rock or other incompressible materials. A camber detail is provided in Figure 26.5.2D.
664
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
26.5.3
FIGURE 26.5.2 A-D: Foundation Improvement Methods When Required
26.5.3 Bedding The pipe bedding is a relatively thin layer of loosely placed material to cushion the pipe invert and allow the corrugation to rest or seat into it, thus supporting the corrugation. When, in the opinion of the Engineer, the natural soil does not provide a suitable bed, a bedding blanket
with a minimum thickness of twice the corrugation depth shall be provided. Pipe arch, horizontal ellipse and underpass shapes with spans exceeding 12 feet should be placed on a shaped bed. The shaped area, centered beneath the pipe should have a minimum width of 1 2 the span for pipe arch and underpass shapes and 1 3 the span for horizontal ellipse shapes.
26.5.3
665
Preshaping may consist of a simple V graded into the soil as shown in Figure 26.5.3.
Where single or multiple structures are installed at a skew to the embankment (i.e. cross the embankment at other than 90), proper support for the pipe must be provided. This may be done with a rigid, reinforced concrete head wall or by warping the embankment ll to provide the necessary balanced side support. Figure 26.5.4 provides guidelines for warping the embankment. 26.5.4.2 Arches Arches may require special shape control considerations during the placement and compaction of structure backll. Pin connections at the footing restrict uniform shape change. Arches may peak excessively and experience curvature attening in their upper quadrants. Using lighter compaction equipment, more easily compacted structure backll, or top loading (placing a small load of structure backll on the crown) will aid installation. 26.5.4.3 Long-Span Structures
FIGURE 26.5.3 V Shaped Bed (Foundation) for Larger Pipe Arch, Horizontal Ellipse and Underpass Structures
26.5.4 Structural Backll 26.5.4.1 General Correct placement of materials of the proper quality and moisture content is essential. Sufficient eld testing must be used to verify procedures, but is no substitute for inspection that ensures that the proper procedures are followed. This is of extreme importance because the structural integrity of the corrugated metal structure is vitally affected by the quality of construction in the eld. Backll material shall meet the requirements of Article 26.3.8 and shall be placed as shown in Figure 26.5.2D in layers not exceeding 8-inch loose lift thickness to a minimum 90% standard density per AASHTO T 99. Equipment used to compact backll within 3 feet from sides of pipe or from edge of footing for arches and box culverts shall be approved by the Engineer prior to use. Except as provided below for long-span structures, the equipment used for compacting backll beyond these limits may be the same as used for compacting embankment. The backll shall be placed and compacted with care under the haunches of the pipe and shall be brought up evenly on both sides of the pipe by working backll operations from side to side. The side to side backll differential shall not exceed 24 inches or 1 3 of the size of the structure, whichever is less. Backll shall continue to not less than 1 foot above the top for the full length of the pipe. Fill above this elevation may be material for embankment ll or other materials as specied to support the pavement. The width of trench shall be kept to the minimum width required for placing pipe, placing adequate bedding and sidell, and safe working conditions. Ponding or jetting of backll will not be permitted except upon written permission by the Engineer. Backll requirements for long-span structural-plate structures are similar to those for smaller structures. Their size and exibility require special control of backll and continuous monitoring of structure shape. Prior to beginning construction, the manufacturer shall provide a preconstruction conference to advise the Contractor(s) and Engineer of the more critical functions to be performed. Equipment and construction procedures used to backll long-span structural plate structures shall be such that excessive structure distortion will not occur. Structure shape shall be checked regularly during backlling to verify acceptability of the construction methods used. Magnitude of allowable shape changes will be specied by the manufacturer (fabricator of long-span structures). The manufacturer shall provide a qualied shape control inspector to aid the Engineer during the placement of all structural backll to the minimum cover level over the structure (as required by the design to carry full highway loads). The Inspector shall advise the Engineer on the acceptability of all backll material and construction methods and the proper monitoring of the shape. Structure backll material shall be placed in horizontal uniform layers not exceeding an 8-inch loose lift thickness and shall be brought up uniformly on both sides of the structure. Each layer shall be compacted to a density not less than 90% per AASHTO T 180. The structure backfill shall be constructed to the minimum lines and grades shown on the plans, keeping it at or below the level of adjacent soil or embankment. Permissible exceptions to required structure backfill density are: the area under the invert, the 12-inch to 18-inch width of soil immediately adjacent to the large radius side plates of high-profile
666
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
26.5.4.3
FIGURE 26.5.4 End Treatment of Skewed Flexible Culvert
arches and inverted pear shapes, and the lower portion of the rst horizontal lift of overll carried ahead of and under the small, tracked vehicle initially crossing the structure. 26.5.4.4 Box Culverts
For long-span structures which require temporary bracing or cabling to hold the structure in shape, the supports shall not be removed until backll is placed to an adequate elevation to provide the necessary support. In no case shall internal braces be left in place when backlling reaches the top quadrant of the pipe or the top radius arc portion of a long span. 26.5.5 Arch Substructures and Headwalls Substructures and headwalls shall be designed in accordance with the requirements of Division I. The ends of the corrugated metal arch shall rest in a keyway formed into continuous concrete footings, or shall rest on a metal bearing surface, usually an angle or channel shape, which is securely anchored to or embedded in the concrete footing. The metal bearing when specied may be a hot-rolled or cold-formed galvanized steel angle or channel, or an extruded aluminum angle or channel. These shapes shall be not less than 3 16 inch in thickness and shall be securely anchored to the footing at a maximum spacing of 24 inches. When the metal bearing member is not completely embedded in a groove in the footing, one vertical
Metal box culverts are not long-span structures in that they are relatively stiff, semi-rigid frames. They do not require a preconstruction conference or shape control considerations beyond those of a standard metal culvert. Structural backll material shall be placed in uniform horizontal layers not exceeding an 8-inch maximum loose lift thickness and compacted to a density not less than 90% per AASHTO T 180. The structural backll shall be constructed to the minimum lines and grades shown on the plans, keeping it at or below the level of the adjacent soil or embankment. 26.5.4.5 Bracing
When required, temporary bracing shall be installed and shall remain in place as long as necessary to protect workmen and to maintain structure shape during erection.
26.5.5
667
leg shall be punched to allow the end of the corrugated plates to be bolted to this leg of the bearing member. Where an invert slab is provided which is not integral with the arch footing, the invert slab shall be continuously reinforced. 26.5.6 Inspection Requirements for CMP All pipe shall undergo inspection during and after installation to ensure proper performance. Inspections at the appropriate times during installation will detect and allow early correction of line and grade, jointing and shape change problems. CMP installation can be properly monitored and evaluated by visual inspection. The timing and number of inspections required will vary with the signicance of the installation. Pipes shall be inspected by entering the pipe, or by inspection from both the inlet and outlet (or other access points) by visual means or through the use of video equipment. CMP shall be inspected after placement in the trench, and as required during backlling to ensure that nal installation conditions allow the pipe to perform as designed. Construction inspection during early stages of the project will allow the contractor to evaluate and, if necessary, modify construction and quality control practices. This is particularly important in deep installations. The inspector will verify that bedding, backfill and compaction requirements are followed during installation. The pipe shall be checked for alignment, joint separation, cracking at bolt holes, localized distortions, bulging, attening, or racking. Minimum or near-minimum
cover installations should be inspected prior to and immediately after vehicular load is applied. 26.6 CONSTRUCTION PRECAUTIONS These structures can carry legal highway loads once the backll is placed and compacted to the minimum cover level over the pipe as dened by Division I, Section 12, Soil-Corrugated Metal Structure Interaction. For heavier construction loads, additional cover may be required. Table 26.6 provides guidance for smaller structures. Consult the Engineer or the manufacturer for guidance on structures or axle loads not listed. The structure must be protected from hydraulic forces during construction, prior to the completion of permanent erosion control and end protection. Hydraulic forces may cause erosion, shape distortion, otation or washout. Backll and other earth loads must be kept balanced. (See Article 26.5.4.) 26.7 MEASUREMENT Corrugated metal and structural plate pipe, pipe arches, arches and box culverts shall be measured in lineal feet installed in place, completed and accepted. The number of lineal feet shall be the average of the top and bottom center line lengths for pipe, the bottom center line length for pipe arches and box culverts, and the average of springing line lengths for arches. 26.8 PAYMENT Separate pay items or provision for including excavation, backll, and concrete for arches must be provided for in the contract. The lengths as measured above will be paid for at the contract prices per lineal foot bid for corrugated metal and structural plate pipe, pipe-arch, arch or box culvert of the sizes specied. Such price and payment shall constitute full compensation for furnishing, handling, erecting, and installing the pipe, pipe-arches, arches or box culverts, and for all materials, labor, equipment, tools and incidentals necessary to complete this item. Such price and payment shall also include excavation, bedding material, backll, concrete headwalls, endwalls and foundations for pipe, pipe-arches and box culverts. Separate payment will be made for excavation, backll, and concrete or masonry headwalls and foundations for arches.
TABLE 26.6 Minimum Cover for Construction Loads
Section 27
CONCRETE CULVERTS
27.1 GENERAL This work shall consist of fabricating, furnishing, and installing buried precast concrete culverts conforming to these Specications, the special provisions and the details shown on the plans. Precast reinforced concrete pipe shall be circular, arch or elliptical, as specied. Precast reinforced concrete box sections shall be of the dimensions specied or shown on the plans. 27.2 WORKING DRAWINGS When complete details are not provided in the plans, or when required or permitted by provisions in the contract, the Contractor shall prepare and submit to the Engineer working drawings of the structure or installation system proposed for use. Fabrication or installation of the structure shall not begin until the Engineer has approved the drawings. The working drawings shall show complete details and substantiating calculations of the structure, the materials, equipment and installation methods the Contractor proposes to use. Working drawings shall be submitted sufficiently in advance of the start of the affected work to allow time for review by the Engineer and correction of the submittal by the Contractor without delaying the work. Approval by the Engineer shall not relieve the Contractor of any responsibility under the contract for the successful completion of this work. 27.3 MATERIALS 27.3.1 Reinforced Concrete Culverts The materials for reinforced concrete culverts shall meet the requirements of the following specications for the classes and sizes specied above.
27.3.2 Joint Sealants 27.3.2.1 Cement Mortar Mortar shall be composed of one part Portland cement and two parts sand by volume. Sand shall be well graded and of such size that all will pass a No. 8 sieve. The materials shall be mixed to a consistency suitable for the purpose intended and used within 30 minutes after the mixing water has been added. Admixtures, if any, shall be approved by the Engineer prior to use. 27.3.2.2 Flexible Watertight Gaskets Flexible watertight gasketed joints shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 198 and shall be exible and capable of withstanding expansion, contraction, and settlement of the pipeline. All rubber gaskets shall be stored in as cool a place as practicable, preferably at 70F or less. Rubber gaskets, of the type requiring lubrication, shall be lubricated with the lubricant recommended and supplied by the manufacturer of the pipe.
669
670 27.3.2.3 Other Joint Sealant Materials
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
27.3.2.3
Other joint sealant materials shall be submitted for testing in advance of their use and shall not be used prior to receiving approval by the Engineer. 27.3.3 Bedding, Haunch, Lower Side and Backll or Overll Material 27.3.3.1 Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular, Arch, and Elliptical Pipe Bedding, haunch, lower side and overll material shall conform to Figures 27.5A, 27.5B, 27.5C, and 27.5D which dene soil areas and critical dimensions, and Tables 27.5A and 27.5B, which list generic soil types and minimum compaction requirements, and minimum bedding thicknesses for the four Standard Installation Types. The AASHTO Soil Classications and the USCS Soil Classications equivalent to the generic soil types in the Standard Installations are presented in Table 27.5C. 27.3.3.2 Precast Reinforced Concrete Box Sections For precast reinforced concrete box sections, bedding and backll material shall conform to Figure 27.5E with the following exceptions. Bedding material may be sand or select sandy soil all of which passes a U.S. Standard 3 8-inch sieve and not more than 10% of which passes a U.S. Standard No. 200 sieve. Backll may be select material and shall be free of organic material, stones larger than 3 inches in the greatest dimension, frozen lumps, or moisture in excess of that permitting the specied compaction. 27.4 ASSEMBLY 27.4.1 General
cracks 0.01 inch or less in width are considered acceptable without repair. Cracks determined to be detrimental shall be sealed by a method approved by the Engineer. 27.4.2 Joints
Joints for reinforced concrete pipe and precast reinforced concrete box sections shall comply with the details shown on the plans, the approved working drawings, and the requirements of the special provisions. Each joint shall be sealed to prevent inltration of soil nes or water as required by the contract documents. Joint sealant materials shall comply with the provisions of Article 27.3.2. The Contractor shall furnish to the Engineer a certicate of compliance that the material being furnished conforms to the joint property requirements. Field tests may be required by the Engineer whenever there is a question regarding compliance with contract requirements. 27.5 INSTALLATION 27.5.1 General Trenches shall be excavated to the dimensions and grade specied in the plans or ordered by the Engineer. The Contractor shall make such provisions as required to insure adequate drainage of the trench to protect the bedding during construction operations. Proper preparation of foundation, placement of foundation material where required, and placement of bedding material shall precede the installation of the culvert. This shall include necessary leveling of the native trench bottom or the top of foundation materials as well as placement and grading of required bedding material to a uniform grade so that the entire length of pipe will be supported on a uniform slightly yield bedding. The backll material shall be placed around the culvert in a manner to meet the requirements specied. 27.5.2 Bedding
Precast concrete units or elements shall be assembled in accordance with the manufacturers instructions. All units or elements shall be handled with reasonable care and shall not be rolled or dragged over gravel or rock. Care shall be taken to prevent the units from striking rock or other hard objects during placement. Cracks in an installed precast concrete culvert that exceed 0.01-inch width will be appraised by the Engineer considering the structural integrity, environmental conditions, and the design service life of the culvert. Generally in noncorrosive environments, cracks 0.10 inch or less in width are considered acceptable; in corrosive environments, those
27.5.2.1
General
If rock strata or boulders are encountered under the culvert within the limits of the required bedding, the rock or boulders shall be removed and replaced with bedding material. Special care may be necessary with rock or other unyielding foundations to cushion pipe from shock when blasting can be anticipated in the area. Where, in the opinion of the Engineer, the natural foundation soil is such as to require stabilization, such material shall be replaced by a layer of bedding material. Where an unsuitable material
27.5.2.1
671
FIGURE 27.5A Standard Embankment Installations
672
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
27.5.2.1
FIGURE 27.5B Standard Trench Installations
27.5.2.1
673
FIGURE 27.5C Trench Beddings, Miscellaneous Shapes
(peat, muck, etc.) is encountered at or below invert elevation during excavation, the necessary subsurface exploration and analysis shall be made and corrective treatment shall be as directed by the Engineer. 27.5.2.2 Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular Arch and Elliptical Pipe A bedding shall be provided for the type of installation specied conforming to Figures 27.5A, 27.5B, 27.5C, and 27.5D which dene soil areas and critical dimensions, and Tables 27.5A and 27.5B, which list generic soil types and minimum compaction requirements, and minimum bedding thicknesses for the four Standard Installation Types.
27.5.2.3 Precast Reinforced Concrete Box Sections A bedding shall be provided for the type of installation specied conforming to Figure 27.5E unless in the opinion of the Engineer, the natural soil provides a suitable bedding. 27.5.3 Placing Culvert Sections Unless otherwise authorized by the Engineer, the laying of culvert sections on the prepared foundation shall be started at the outlet and with the spigot or tongue end pointing downstream and shall proceed toward the inlet
674
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
27.5.3
FIGURE 27.5D Embankment Beddings, Miscellaneous Shapes
end with the abutting sections properly matched, true to the established lines and grades. Where pipe with bells is installed, bell holes shall be excavated in the bedding to such dimensions that the entire length of the barrel of the pipe will be supported by the bedding when properly installed. Proper facilities shall be provided for hoisting and lowering the sections of culvert into the trench without disturbing the prepared foundation and the sides of the trench. The ends of the section shall be carefully cleaned before the section is jointed. The section shall be tted and matched so that when laid in the bed it shall form a smooth, uniform conduit. When elliptical pipe with circular reinforcing or circular pipe with elliptical reinforcing is used, the pipe shall be laid in the trench in such position that the markings Top or Bottom, shall not be more than 5 from the vertical plane through the longitudinal axis of the pipe.
Multiple installations of reinforced concrete culverts shall be laid with the center lines of individual barrels parallel at the spacing shown on the plans. Pipe and box sections used in parallel installations require positive lateral bearing between the sides of adjacent pipe or box sections. Compacted earth ll, granular backll, or grouting between the units are considered means of providing positive bearing. 27.5.4 Haunch, Lower Side and Backll or Overll 27.5.4.1 Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular Arch and Elliptical Pipe 27.5.4.1.1 Haunch Material Haunch material shall be installed to the limits shown on Figure 27.5A, 27.5B, 27.5C, and 27.5D.
27.5.4.1.1
TABLE 27.5A Standard Embankment Installation Soils and Minimum Compaction Requirements Installation Type Type 1 Bedding Thickness Bc /24 minimum, not less than 3. If rock foundation, use Bc /12 minimum, not less than 6 Bc /24 minimum, not less than 3. If rock foundation, use Bc /12 minimum, not less than 6 Bc /24 minimum, not less than 3. If rock foundation, use Bc /12 minimum, not less than 6 No bedding required, except if rock foundation, use Bc /12 minimum, not less than 6 Haunch and Outer Bedding 95% SW Lower Side 90% SW, 95% ML or 100% CL
675
Type 2 (See Note 3.)
90% SW or 95% ML
85% SW, 90% ML or 95% CL
Type 3 (See Note 3.)
85% SW, 90% ML, or 95% CL
85% SW, 90% ML or 95% CL
Type 4
No compaction required, except if CL, use 85% CL
NOTES:
.11. Compaction and soil symbolsi.e. 95% SW refers to SW soil material with a minimum standard proctor compaction of 95%. See Table 27.5C for equivalent modied proctor values. .12. Soil in the outer bedding, haunch, and lower side zones, except within Bc /3 from the pipe springline, shall be compacted to at least the same compaction as the majority of soil in the overll zone. .13. Only Type 2 and 3 installations are available for horizontal elliptical, vertical elliptical and arch pipe. .14. SUBTRENCHES 4.1 A subtrench is dened as a trench with its top below nished grade by more than 0.1H or, for roadways, its top is at an elevation lower than 1 below the bottom of the pavement base material. 4.2 The minimum width of a subtrench shall be 1.33 Bc, or wider if required for adequate space to attain the specied compaction in the haunch and bedding zones. 4.3 For subtrenches with walls of natural soil, any portion of the lower side zone in the subtrench wall should be at least as rm as an equivalent soil placed to the compaction requirements specied for the lower side zone and as rm as the majority of soil in the overll zone, or shall be removed and replaced with soil compacted to the specied level.
676
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
TABLE 27.5B Standard Trench Installation Soils and Minimum Compaction Requirements Installation Type Type 1 Bedding Thickness Bc /24 minimum, not less than 3. If rock foundation, use Bc /12 minimum, not less than 6 Bc /24 minimum, not less than 3. If rock foundation, use Bc /12 minimum, not less than 6 Bc /24 minimum, not less than 3. If rock foundation, use Bc /12 minimum, not less than 6 No bedding required, except if rock foundation, use Bc /12 minimum, not less than 6 Haunch and Outer Bedding 95% SW Lower Side 90% SW, 95% ML 100% CL, or natural soils of equal rmness
27.5.4.1.1
Type 2 (see Note 3)
90% SW or 95% ML
85% SW, 90% ML 95% CL, or natural soils of equal rmness
Type 3 (see Note 3)
85% SW, 90% ML, or 95% CL
Type 4
NOTES: 1. Compaction and soil symbolsi.e. 95% SW refers to SW soil material with a minimum standard proctor compaction of 95%. See Table 27.5C for equivalent modied proctor values. 2. The trench top elevation shall be no lower than .0.1H below nished grade or, for roadways, its top shall be no lower than an elevation of 1 below the bottom of the pavement base material. 3. Only Type 2 and 3 installations are available for horizontal elliptical, vertical elliptical and arch pipe. 4. Soil in bedding and haunch zones shall be compacted to at least the same compaction as specied for the majority of soil in the backll zone. 5. The trench width shall be wider than shown if required for adequate space to attain the specied compaction in the haunch and bedding zones. 6. For trench walls that are within 10 degrees of vertical, the compaction or rmness of the soil in the trench walls and lower side zone need not be considered. 7. For trench walls with greater than 10-degree slopes that consist of embankment, the lower side shall be compacted to at least the same compaction as specied for the soil in the backll zone.
27.5.4.1.2
TABLE 27.5C Equivalent USCS and AASHTO Soil Classications for SIDD Soil Designations Representative Soil Types Percent Compaction AASHTO Standard Proctor
677
SIDD Soil
USCS
Modied Proctor
Gravelly Sand (SW)
SW, SP GW, GP
A1, A3
100 95 90 85 80 61 100 95 90 85 80 49 100 95 90 85 80 45 100 95 90 45
95 90 85 80 75 59 95 90 85 80 75 46 90 85 80 75 70 40 90 85 80 40
Sandy Silt (ML)
GM, SM, ML Also GC, SC with less than 20% passing No. 200 sieve
A2, A4
Silty Clay (CL)
GL, MH GC, SC
A5, A6
CH
A7
27.5.4.1.2 Lower Side Material Lower side material shall be installed to the limits shown on Figures 27.5A, 27.5B, 27.5C, and 27.5D. 27.5.4.1.3 Overll Overll material shall be installed to the limits shown on Figures 27.5A, 27.5B, 27.5C, and 27.5D.
27.5.4.3 Placing of Haunch, Lower Side and Backll or Overll Generally, compaction of ll material to the required density is dependent on the thickness of the layer of ll being compacted, soil type, soil moisture content, type of compaction equipment, and amount of compactive force and the length of time the force is applied. Fill material shall be placed in layers with a maximum thickness of 8 inches and compacted to obtain the required density. The ll material shall be placed and compacted with care under the haunches of the culvert and shall be brought up evenly and simultaneously on both sides of the culvert. For the lower haunch areas of Type 1, 2, and 3 Standard Installations, soils requiring 90% or greater Standard Proctor densities shall be placed in layers with a maximum thickness of 4 inches and compacted to obtain the required density. The width of trench shall be kept to the minimum required for installation of the culvert. Ponding or jetting will be only by the permission of the Engineer.
27.5.4.2 Precast Reinforced Concrete Box Sections 27.5.4.2.1 Backll
Backll material shall be installed to the limits shown on Figure 27.5E for the embankment or trench condition. Trenches shall have vertical walls and no over-excavating or sloping sidewalls shall be permitted.
678
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
27.5.4.4
FIGURE 27.5E
27.5.4.4 Cover Over Culvert During Construction Culverts shall be protected by a minimum of 3 feet of cover to prevent damage before permitting heavy construction equipment to pass over them during construction. 27.6 MEASUREMENT Culverts shall be measured in linear feet installed in place, completed, and accepted. The number of feet shall be the average of the top and bottom center line lengths for pipe and box sections.
27.7 PAYMENT The length determined as herein given shall be paid for at the contract unit prices per linear foot bid for culverts of the several sizes and shapes, as the case may be, which prices and payments shall constitute full compensation for furnishing, handling, and installing the culvert and for all materials, labor, equipment, tools, and incidentals necessary to complete this item. Such price and payment shall also include excavation, bedding material, backll, reinforced concrete headwalls and endwalls, and any required foundations.
Section 28
WEARING SURFACES
28.1 DESCRIPTION This work shall consist of placing a wearing surface of durable and impervious material on the roadway surface of bridge decks. It also includes the preparation of the surfaces of either existing or new decks to receive such an overlay of surfacing material. The type and thickness of the wearing surface shall be as designated on the plans. The materials and installation requirements for wearing surfaces of types other than latex modied concrete shall be as specied in the special provisions. Latex modied concrete wearing surfaces shall be furnished and installed in accordance with these Specications. 28.2 LATEX MODIFIED CONCRETE TYPE WEARING SURFACE 28.2.1 General All equipment used to prepare the surface and to proportion, mix, place and nish the latex concrete shall be subject to approval by the Engineer prior to use. This approval will be contingent on satisfactory performance and will be rescinded in the event such performance is not being achieved. Equipment shall be on hand sufficiently ahead of the start of construction operations to be examined and approved. Any equipment leaking oil or any other containment onto the deck shall be immediately removed from the job site until repaired. A technician who is well experienced in the proportioning, mixing, placing and nishing of latex modied concrete shall be employed by the Contractor and shall be present and in technical control of the work whenever these operations are underway. The qualications of this technician which includes a list of projects on which the technician was employed and the technicians level of responsibility on each shall be submitted to and approved by the Engineer prior to the start of these operations. Approval by the Engineer of equipment or technicians shall not relieve the Contractor of any responsibility under the contract for the successful completion of the work. 679 28.2.2.3 Water Water for mixing concrete shall conform to the requirements of Article 8.3.2. 28.2.2.4 Latex Emulsion Formulated latex emulsion admixture shall be a nonhazardous, lm forming, polymeric emulsion in water to which all stabilizers have been added at the point of manufacture and shall be homogeneous and uniform in composition. Physical PropertiesThe latex modier shall conform to the following requirements: Polymer Type Stabilizers Styrene Butadiene (a) Latex .............................. Nonionic Surfactants (b) Portland Cement Composition ............... Polydimethyl Siloxane Percent Solids ................................................. 46.049.0 Weight per Gallon (lbs at 25C) ..................................8.4 Color .......................................................................White If not otherwise shown on the plans, the minimum thickness of latex modied concrete wearing surfaces shall be 1 1 4 inches. 28.2.2 Materials 28.2.2.1 Portland Cement Portland cement shall conform to the requirement of Article 8.3.1 of Section 8, Concrete Structures, except that only Types I or II shall be used. 28.2.2.2 Aggregate Aggregate shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 6 for ne aggregate and to AASHTO M 80 for coarse aggregate. Coarse aggregate shall be graded 1 2 inch to No. 4 per AASHTO M 43.
680
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
28.2.2.4
A Certicate of Compliance signed by the manufacturer of the latex emulsion certifying that the material conforms to the above specications shall be furnished for each shipment used in the work. Latex admixture to be stored shall be kept in suitable enclosures which will protect it from freezing and from prolonged exposure to temperatures in excess of 85F. Containers of latex admixture may be stored at the bridge site for a period not to exceed 10 days. Such stored containers shall be covered completely with suitable insulating blanket material to avoid excessive temperatures. 28.2.2.5 Latex Modied Concrete The latex modied concrete for use on this project shall be a workable mixture and meet the following requirements.
NOTES: 1. Following sampling of the discharged, normally mixed material, the commencement of the slump test shall be delayed from 4 to 5 minutes. 2. Water may be added to obtain slump within the prescribed limits. 3. The dry weight ratios are approximate and should produce good workability, but due to gradation changes may be adjusted within limits by the Engineer. The parts by weight of sand may be increased by as much as 0.2 if the coarse aggregate is reduced by an equivalent volume. 28.2.3 Surface Preparation 28.2.3.1 New Decks The surfaces of new decks upon which a wearing surface overlay is to be placed shall be nished to a rough texture by coarse brooming or other approved methods. After curing of the deck concrete is complete and before placing the overlay, the entire area of the deck surface and the vertical faces of curbs, concrete parapets, barrier
walls, etc., up to a height of 1 inch above the top elevation of the overlay shall be blast cleaned to a bright, clean appearance which is free from laitance, curing compound, dust, dirt, oil, grease, bituminous material, paint, and all foreign matter. The blast cleaning of an area of the deck shall normally be performed within the 24-hour period preceding placement of the overlay on the area. The blast cleaning may be performed by either wet sandblasting, high pressure water blasting, blasting grits, shrouded dry sandblasting with dust collectors, or other method approved by the Engineer. Water blasting equipment shall operate with a minimum pressure of 3,500 psi. The method used shall be performed so as to conform to applicable air and water pollution regulations and to applicable safety and health regulations. All debris, including dirty water, resulting from the blast cleaning operations shall be immediately and thoroughly cleaned from the blast-cleaned surfaces and from other areas where debris may have accumulated. The blast cleaned areas shall be protected, as necessary, against contamination prior to placement of the overlay. Contaminated areas and areas exposed more than 36 hours after cleaning shall be blast cleaned again as directed by the Engineer at the Contractors expense. Just prior to placement of the overlay, all dust and other debris shall be removed by ushing with water or blowing with compressed air. The prepared surface shall then be soaked with clean water for not less than 1 hour prior to the placement of the latex overlay. Before the overlay is applied, all free water shall be blown out and off, and this procedure shall continue until the surface appears dry or barely damp. The air supply system for blast cleaning and blowing shall be equipped with an oil trap in the air line, and provisions shall be made to prevent oil or grease contamination of the surface by any equipment prior to placement of the overlay. 28.2.3.2 Existing Decks The surface of existing decks that have become contaminated by traffic usage or by deicing salts shall be scaried to the depth shown on the plans or specied. If no depth is shown or specied, a minimum of 1 4 inch of material shall be removed by scarication. Prior to beginning scarication and until operations are completed, all deck drains, expansion joints and other openings where damage could result, as determined by the Engineer, shall be temporarily covered or plugged to prevent entry of debris. Scarifying shall be done with power-operated mechanical scariers, or other approved devices, capable of uniformly removing the existing surface to the depths re-
28.2.3.2
681
quired without damaging the underlying concrete. Machine scariers shall not be operated so as to damage hardware such as drain grates and expansion joint armor. In areas where machine scarifying cannot reach and in areas of spalling and where steel reinforcement is exposed, scarifying and the removal of deteriorated or unsound concrete shall be accomplished with hand tools. Pneumatic hammers heavier than nominal 45 pounds shall not be used. No scarifying or chipping will be allowed within 6 feet of a new overlay until 48 hours after its placement. In areas where deteriorated or unsound concrete is encountered, as determined by the Engineer, the concrete shall be removed to a depth of 3 4-inch below the top mat of reinforcing steel. A minimum of 3 4-inch clearance shall be required around the reinforcing steel except where lower bar mats make this impractical. Care shall be exercised to prevent damaging the exposed reinforcing steel. All reinforcing steel shall be blast-cleaned. The repair areas are to be lled during the overlay operation. After scarication and removal of unsound concrete has been completed, the deck surface shall be blast cleaned and prepared as specied for new decks. 28.2.4 Proportioning and Mixing The Contractor shall submit to the Engineer for approval, 14 calendar days prior to date of placement, the proposed mix design in writing and samples of all mix materials in sufficient quantity to produce a minimum of 3 cubic feet of concrete for laboratory mix design testing. Proportioning and mixing equipment shall be of a selfcontained, mobile, continuous-mixing, volumetric proportioning type mixer. Continuous-type mixers shall be equipped so that the proportions of the cement, natural sand, and coarse aggregate can be xed by calibration of the mixer and cannot be changed without destroying a seal or other indicating device affixed to the mixer. In addition to being equipped with a ow meter for calibrating the water supply portion of the mixer, the mixer shall also be equipped with a cumulative-type water meter which can be read to the nearest 0.1 gallon. The water meters shall be readily accessible, accurate to within 1%, and easy to read. Both water meters shall be subject to checking by the Engineer each time the mixer is calibrated. Approved methods for adding the admixture shall be provided. The admixtures shall be added so as to be kept separated as far as is practicable. The continuous type mixer shall be calibrated to the satisfaction of the Engineer prior to starting the work. Yield checks normally will be made for each 50 cubic yards of mix. Recalibration will be necessary when indicated by the yield checks, and at any other times
the Engineer deems necessary to ensure proper proportioning of the ingredients. Continuous type mixers which entrap unacceptable volumes of air in the mixture shall not be used. The mixer shall be kept clean and free of partially dried or hardened materials at all times. It shall consistently produce a uniform, thoroughly blended mixture within the specied air content and slump limits. Malfunctioning mixers shall be immediately repaired or replaced with acceptable units. Aggregate stockpiles being used should be of uniform moisture content. Mixing capability shall be such that nishing operations can proceed at a steady pace with nal nishing completed before the formation of the plastic surface lm. 28.2.5 Installation 28.2.5.1 Weather Restrictions The placement of latex modied concrete shall not be started when the temperature is, or is expected to fall below 45F or rise above 80F, or when high winds, rain or low humidity conditions are expected prior to nal set of the concrete. If any of these conditions occur during placement, the placement shall be terminated and a straight construction joint formed. Placement at night may be necessary when daytime conditions are not favorable. If placement is performed at night, adequate lighting shall be provided by the Contractor. 28.2.5.2 Equipment Placing and nishing equipment shall include hand tools for placement and brushing-in freshly mixed latex modied concrete and for distributing it to approximately the correct level for striking-off with the screed. Hand-operated vibrators, screeds and oats shall be used for consolidating and nishing small areas. An approved nishing machine complying with the following requirements shall be used for nishing all large areas of work: The nishing machine shall be self-propelled and capable of forward and reverse movement under positive control. The length of the screed shall be sufficient to extend at least 6 inches beyond the edge of both ends of the section being placed. The nishing machine shall also be capable of consolidating the concrete by vibration and of raising all screeds to clear the concrete for traveling in reverse. The machine shall be either a rotating roller type or an oscillating screed type.
682
HIGHWAY BRIDGES Rotating roller-type machines shall have one or more rollers, augers, and 1,500 to 2,500 vpm vibratory pans. Oscillating screed-type machines shall have vibrators on the screeds whose frequency of vibration can be varied between 3,000 and 15,000 vpm. The bottom face of the screeds shall be not less than 4 inches wide and shall be metal.
28.2.5.2
Rails will be required for the nishing machine to travel on. Rails shall be sufficiently rigid to support the weight of the machine without appreciable deection and shall be placed outside of the overlay area. Rail anchorages shall provide horizontal and vertical stability and shall not be ballistically shot into concrete that will not be overlaid. A suitable portable lightweight or wheeled work bridge shall be furnished for use behind the nishing operation. 28.2.5.3 Placing and Finishing 28.2.5.3.1 Construction Joints Planned construction joints shall be formed by bulkheads set to grade. Before placing concrete against previously placed overlay material, the construction joint shall be sawed to a straight vertical edge. Sawing of joints may be omitted if the bulkhead produces a straight, smooth, vertical surface. The face of the joint shall be sand or water blasted to remove loose material. Longitudinal construction joints will be permitted only at the center line of roadway or at lane lines unless otherwise shown on the plans or permitted by the Engineer. In case of delay in the placement operation exceeding 1 hour in duration, an approved construction joint shall be formed by removing all material not up to nish grade and sawing the edge in a straight line. During minor delays of 1 hour or less, the end of the placement may be protected from drying with several layers of clean, wet burlap. 28.2.5.3.2 Placing
the rate of progress is limited so that the material brushed on does not become dry before it is covered with the full depth of latex modied concrete. The latex modied concrete shall be placed on the prepared and grout-coated surface immediately after being mixed. The mixture shall be placed and struck off approximately 1 4 inch above nal grade then consolidated by vibration and nished to nal grade with the approved nishing machine. Spud vibrators will be required in deep pockets, along edges, and adjacent to joint bulkheads. Supplemental vibration shall be provided along the meet lines where adjacent pours come together and along curb lines. Hand nishing with a oat may be required along the edge of the pour or on small areas of repair. Screed rails and construction bulkheads shall be separated from the newly placed material by passing a pointing trowel along their inside face. Expansion dams shall not be separated from the overlay. Care shall be exercised to ensure that this trowel cut is made for the entire depth and length of rails after the mixture has stiffened sufficiently. 28.2.5.3.3 Finishing
The nishing equipment shall be operated so as to produce a uniform, smooth, and even-textured surface. The nal surface shall not vary more than 1 8 inch from a 10-foot straightedge placed longitudinally thereon. Before the plastic lm forms, the surface shall be textured by tining in accordance with the requirements of Article 8.10.2.3. 28.2.6 Curing The surface shall be promptly covered with a single layer of clean, wet burlap as soon as the surface will support it without deformation. Within 1 hour of covering with wet burlap, the burlap shall be rewet if necessary and a layer of 4-mil polyethylene lm, or wet burlap-polyethylene sheets, shall be placed on the wet burlap, and the surface cured for 24 hours. The curing material shall then be removed for an additional 72 hours of air cure. If the temperature falls below 45 during curing, the duration of the wet cure shall be extended as directed by the Engineer. The overlay shall be protected from freezing during the cure period. Traffic will not be permitted on the overlay while it is curing. 28.2.7 Acceptance Testing After curing is completed, the overlay will be visually inspected for cracking or other damage, and inspected for delaminations and bond failures by the use of a chain drag or other suitable device.
The nishing machine shall be test run over the entire area to be overlayed each day before placement is started to ensure that the required overlay thickness will be achieved. Immediately ahead of placing the overlay mixture, a thin coating of the polymer modied concrete mixture to be used for the overlay shall be thoroughly brushed and scrubbed onto the surface as a grout-bond coat for the overlay. Coarser particles of the mixture which cannot be scrubbed into contact with the surface shall be removed and disposed of in a manner approved by the Engineer. Care shall be taken to insure that all vertical as well as horizontal surfaces receive a thorough, even coating and that
28.2.7
683
Surface cracks not exceeding 3 8 inch in depth shall be sealed with an epoxy penetrating sealer followed by an application of approved sand. Any cracks exceeding 3 8 inch in depth shall be repaired by methods approved by the Engineer, or the affected portions of the wearing surface shall be removed and replaced. Any delaminated or unbonded portions of the wearing surface or portions damaged by rain or freezing shall be removed and replaced. After completion of the wet cure, the surface shall be tested for atness and corrected, if necessary, as provided in Article 8.10.2.4. All corrective work will be at the Contractors expense. 28.2.8 Measurement and Payment Wearing surfaces and areas requiring scarication will be measured by the square foot based on dimensions of the completed work.
Wearing surfaces will be paid for at the contract price per square foot. Except as otherwise provided, the payment per square foot for wearing surfaces shall be considered to be full compensation for the cost of furnishing all labor, materials, equipment, incidentals, and for doing all work involved in preparing the surface and constructing the wearing surface as shown on the plans and specied. When a separate item is included in the bid schedule for scarifying bridge decks, scarifying will be paid for by the contract price per square foot. Such payment shall be considered to be full compensation for all costs involved with the scarifying work including removal and disposal of debris. The removal of unsound concrete which is encountered below the depth specied for scarifying will be paid for as extra work.
Section 29
EMBEDMENT ANCHORS
29.1 DESCRIPTION This specication covers installation and eld testing of cast-in-place, grouted, adhesive-bonded, expansion and undercut steel anchors. 29.2 PREQUALIFICATION Prequalify all concrete anchors, including cast-inplace, all bonded anchor systems (including grout, chemical compounds, and adhesives), and undercut by universal test standards designed to allow approved anchor systems to be employed for any construction attachment use. Conduct test for adhesive-bonded and other bonding compounds in accordance with ASTM E 1512 (Standard Test Methods for Testing Bond Performance of AdhesiveBonded Anchors). Test expansion types to ASTM E 488 (Standard Test Methods for Strength of Anchors in Concrete and Masonry Elements). Comply with ACI 349-85 (Code Requirements for Nuclear Safety Related Concrete StructuresAppendix B, Steel Embedments). Provide certied test reports prepared by an independent laboratory documenting that the system (except mechanical expansion anchors) is capable of achieving the minimum tensile strength of the embedment steel. 29.3 MATERIALS Provide mill test reports certifying physical properties, chemistry, and strengths. The chemical compounds acceptable for adhesive anchors may include epoxies, polyesters, or vinylesters. Adhesive compounds which are moisture-insensitive, highmodulus, high-strength, and low-shrinkage should be used. The use of additives to grout, and bonding materials which will be corrosive to steel or zinc/cadmium coatings is prohibited. 685
29.4 CONSTRUCTION METHODS Provide adequate edge distance, embedment depth and spacing to develop the required strength of the embedment anchors. Use the correct drill hole diameter as per manufacturers instructions. Use rotary impact drilling equipment unless diamond core drilling has been specied and tested. If reinforcing bar is encountered during the drilling operation, move to a different location, or drill through the reinforcing steel using a diamond core bit as directed by the Engineer. Patch abandoned holes with an approved bonding material. Clean holes thoroughly as recommended by the manufacturer. Remove all loose dust and concrete particles from hole. Prepare bonding material and install anchors according to instructions provided by the manufacturer or approved by the Engineer. Embedded anchors which are improperly installed or which do not have the required strength shall be removed and replaced to the satisfaction of the Engineer at the Contractors expense. 29.5 INSPECTION AND TESTING Where specied, conduct sacricial tests of the anchor system on the job site to ultimate loads to document the capability of the system to achieve pullout loads equaling the full minimum tensile value of the anchor employed. Test the anchor on fully cured concrete samples. Unless specied otherwise, test no fewer than three (3) anchors by ASTM E 488 methods. The Contractor may use any prequalied anchor systems meeting the above requirements. Provide, without delay in progress, for an alternate system that will reach the designated pull-out requirement if the job site proooading proves incapable of achieving minimum tensile values (or the designers required load if too little concrete exists in which to develop full ductile loads). After installing the curing of bonding material, torque each anchor system to values specied. If torque values are not specied, use values recommended by the manufacturer or provided by the Engineer.
686 29.6 MEASUREMENT
HIGHWAY BRIDGES 29.7 PAYMENT
29.6
Count and summarize each embedment anchor type satisfactorily installed for the Contract, according to anchor system, orientation (vertical, diagonal, and horizontal), and size (diameter).
Payment for the quantity of embedment anchors determined under measurement for each embedment anchor type, shall include full compensation for furnishing all labor, materials, tools, equipment, testing, and incidentals necessary to place each anchor type.
Section 30
THERMOPLASTIC PIPE
30.1 GENERAL 30.1.1 Description This work shall consist of furnishing and installing thermoplastic pipe in conformance with these Specications, any special provisions, and the details shown on the plans. As used in this specication, thermoplastic pipe is dened in Division I, Section 17, Soil-Thermoplastic Pipe Interaction Systems. 30.1.2 Workmanship and Inspection All thermoplastic pipe materials shall conform to the workmanship and inspection requirements of AASHTO M 278, M 294, or M 304; or ASTM F 679, F 714, F 794, or F 894 as applicable. 30.2 WORKING DRAWINGS Whenever specied or requested by the Engineer, the Contractor shall provide manufacturers installation instructions or working drawings with supporting data in sufficient detail to permit a structural review. Sufficient copies shall be furnished to meet the needs of the Engineer and other entities with review authority. The working drawings shall be submitted sufficiently in advance of proposed installation and use to allow for their review, revision, if needed, and approval without delay of the work. The Contractor shall not start construction of any thermoplastic pipe installations for which working drawings are required until the drawings have been approved by the Engineer. Such approval will not relieve the Contractor of responsibility for results obtained by use of these drawings or any of the other responsibilities under the contract. 30.3 MATERIALS 30.3.1 Thermoplastic Pipe Polyethylene pipe shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 294, or ASTM F 714, or ASTM F 894. Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) pipe shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 278 or M 304; or ASTM F 679 or F 794. 30.3.2 Bedding Material and Structural Backll Bedding and structural backfill shall meet the requirements of AASHTO M 145, A-1, A-2-4, A-2-5, or A3. Bedding material shall have a maximum particle size of 1.25 inch. Backfill for thermoplastic pipe shall be free of organic material, stones larger than 112 inch in greatest dimension, or frozen lumps. Moisture content shall be in the range of optimum (typically 3% to 2%) permitting thorough compaction. Consideration should be given to the potential for migration of fines from adjacent materials into open-graded backfill and bedding materials. For pipe types that are not smooth on the outside (corrugated or prole walls), backll gradations should be selected that will permit the lling of the corrugation or prole valleys. Flowable fills, such as controlled low strength mortar (CLSM) or controlled density fill (CDF), may be used for backfill and bedding provided adequate flotation resistance can be achieved by restraints, weighting, or placement technique. With CLSM backfill, trench width can be reduced to a minimum of the outside diameter plus 12 inches. When CLSM is used all joints shall have gaskets.
687
688 30.4 ASSEMBLY 30.4.1 General
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
30.5.4
(a) Corrugated bands (with or without gaskets) (b) Bell and spigot pipe ends (with or without gaskets) (c) Double bell couplings (with or without gaskets) 30.5 INSTALLATION 30.5.1 General Installation Requirements Trenches must be excavated in such a manner as to insure that the sides will be stable under all working conditions. Trench walls shall be sloped or supported in conformance with all standards of safety. Only as much trench as can be safely maintained shall be opened. All trenches shall be backlled as soon as practicable, but not later than the end of each working day. Trench details, including foundation, bedding, haunching, initial backll, nal backll, pipe zone, and trench width are shown in Figure 30.5.1. 30.5.2 Trench Widths
Thermoplastic pipe shall be assembled in accordance with the manufacturers instructions. All pipe shall be unloaded and handled with reasonable care. Pipe shall not be rolled or dragged over gravel or rock and shall be prevented from striking rock or other hard objects during placement in trench or on bedding. Thermoplastic pipe shall be placed in the bed starting at the downstream end. 30.4.2 Joints
Joints for thermoplastic pipe shall meet the performance requirements for soiltightness unless watertightness is specied. 30.4.2.1 Field Joints Joints shall be so installed that the connection of pipe sections will form a continuous line free from irregularities in the ow line. Suitable eld joints can be obtained with the following types of connections:
Trench width shall be sufficient to ensure working room to properly and safely place and compact haunching and other backll materials. The space between the pipe
FIGURE 30.5.1
30.5.5
689
and trench wall must be wider than the compaction equipment used in the pipe zone. Minimum trench width shall not be less than 1.5 times the pipe outside diameter plus 12 inches. Trench width in unsupported, unstable soils will depend on the size of the pipe, the stiffness of the backll and in situ soil, and the depth of cover. The trench shall be excavated to the width, depth, and grade as indicated on the plans and/or given by the Engineer. 30.5.3 Foundation and Bedding Foundation and bedding shall meet the requirements of Article 30.3.2 and shall be installed as required by the Engineer according to conditions in the trench bottom. A stable and uniform bedding shall be provided for the pipe and any protruding features of its joint and/or ttings. The middle of the bedding equal to one-third the pipe O.D. should be loosely placed, while the remainder shall be compacted to a minimum 90% of maximum density per AASHTO T 99. A minimum of 4 inches of bedding shall be provided prior to placement of the pipe unless otherwise specied. When rock or unyielding material is present in the trench bottom, a cushion of bedding of 6 inches minimum thickness shall be provided below the bottom of the pipe. When the trench bottom is unstable, material shall be excavated to a depth as required by the Engineer and replaced with a suitable foundation. A suitably graded material shall be used where conditions may cause migration of nes and loss of pipe support. 30.5.4 Structural Backll Structural backll shall meet the requirements of Article 30.3.2. Structural backll shall be placed and compacted in layers not exceeding an 8 inch loose lift thickness and brought up evenly and simultaneously on both sides of the pipe to an elevation not less than one foot above the top of the pipe. Structural backll must be worked into the haunch area and compacted by hand. A minimum compaction level of 90% standard density per AASHTO T 99 shall be achieved. Special compaction means may be necessary in the haunch area (See Figure 30.5.1). All compaction equipment used within 3 feet of the pipe shall be approved by the Engineer. Ponding or
jetting the structural backll to achieve compaction shall not be permitted without written permission from the Engineer. Backll materials more than one foot above the pipe to nal grade shall be selected, placed, and compacted to satisfy the loading, pavement, and other requirements above the pipe. 30.5.5 Minimum Cover A minimum depth of cover above the pipe should be maintained before allowing vehicles or heavy construction equipment to traverse the pipe trench. The minimum depth of cover should be established by the Engineer based on an evaluation of specic project conditions. For embedment materials installed to the minimum density given in Article 30.5.4, cover of at least 24 inches shall be provided before allowing vehicles or construction equipment to cross the trench surface. Hydrohammer type compactors shall not be used over the pipe. 30.5.6 Installation Deection The internal diameter of the barrel shall not be reduced by more than 5% of its base inside diameter when measured not less than 30 days following completion of installation. 30.6 MEASUREMENT Pipe installations shall be measured in linear feet installed in place, completed, and accepted. The number of feet shall be the centerline lengths of the pipe. 30.7 PAYMENT The length as measured above will be paid for at the contract prices per lineal foot bid for thermoplastic pipe of the sizes specied. Such price and payment shall constitute full compensation for furnishing, handling, and installing the pipe and for all materials, labor, equipment, tools, and incidentals necessary to complete this item. Such price and payment shall also include excavation, bedding material, backll, headwalls, endwalls, and foundations for pipe.

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Division I-A SEISMIC DESIGN

DIVISION IASEISMIC DESIGN

FIGURE 1.6A Design Procedure Flow Chart

DIVISION IASEISMIC DESIGN

446 L N pe(x) Pn po Q R S S SF SPC T Tm Vc Vj vu Vu vs(x), ve(x) w(x) W h n s

FIGURE 3.2B Acceleration CoefficientAlaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico

DIVISION IASEISMIC DESIGN

TABLE 3.4 Seismic Performance Category (SPC)

where Tm the period of the mth mode of vibration.

DIVISION IASEISMIC DESIGN

FIGURE 3.10 Dimensions for Minimum Support Length Requirements

TABLE 4.2B Regular Bridge Requirements

TABLE 4.2A Minimum Analysis Requirements

HIGHWAY BRIDGES vs, MAX maximum value of vs(x)

W = w( x)dx where L total length of the bridge

DIVISION IASEISMIC DESIGN

= w( x)v ( x)dx = w( x)v ( x) dx

456 4.5.2 Mathematical Model

DIVISION IASEISMIC DESIGN

462 6.4.3(B) Monolithic Abutments

6.6.2(A) A sh = 0.30ah c or, A sh = 0.12ah c whichever is greater, where: a fc fyh

DIVISION IASEISMIC DESIGN fc A g 1 fyh Ac

466 Group Load 1.0(D B SF E EQF)

HIGHWAY BRIDGES (7-2)

DIVISION IASEISMIC DESIGN 7.2.5(A) Longitudinal Linkage Forces

DIVISION IASEISMIC DESIGN

DIVISION IASEISMIC DESIGN EXCEPTIONS:

DIVISION IASEISMIC DESIGN

474 7.6.4 Column Connections

14 days 10 days 10 days

DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION 3.3.2 Protection of Concrete

488 3.5 TEMPORARY BRIDGES 3.5.1 General

HIGHWAY BRIDGES 4.3.1.5.1 Working Drawings

4.4 4.4 DRIVING PILES 4.4.1 Pile Driving Equipment

4.4.1.2.6 4.4.1.2.6 Jets

HIGHWAY BRIDGES 5.4.3 General Methods and Equipment

5.6.1.3 5.6.1.3 Test Shafts

508 6.3.3 Steel Elements

HIGHWAY BRIDGES 7.3.6 Structure Backll Material 7.3.6.1 General

Percent Passing 100 060 015*

518 7.5.3 Drainage Blankets

HIGHWAY BRIDGES 7.6 CONSTRUCTION

520 7.6.2.3.2 Wales

8.10.2.3.1 8.10.2.3.1 Dragged

DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION 8.10.3 Pedestrian Walkway Surface Finish

544 8.13.6 Erection

DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION 8.15.2 Earth Loads

HIGHWAY BRIDGES 10.3.1.3 Bars

HIGHWAY BRIDGES 10.4

PLACEMENT OF DUCTS, STEEL, AND ANCHORAGE HARDWARE

7 days 15 days 20 days

DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION 10.8.3 Duct Area

560 10.9.3 Admixtures

DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION 10.10.2 Pretensioning Method Requirements

HIGHWAY BRIDGES 10.11.2 Preparation of Ducts

HIGHWAY BRIDGES 11.3.2.6 Load Indicator Devices

*As determined by a 0.2% offset method.

11.3.3.4 11.3.3.4 Certication

DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION 11.3.6 Iron Castings 11.3.6.1 Materials

570 11.4 FABRICATION

HIGHWAY BRIDGES 11.4.3.2.2 Oxygen Cutting

1.5t 1.5t 1.5t 1.5t 1.75t 1.75t