HB-17 1

Standard Specications
for Highway Bridges

17th Edition 2002
Adopted and Published by the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
444 North Capitol Street, N.W., Suite 249
Washington, D.C. 20001
Copyright 2002 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All
Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This book, or parts thereof, may not be re-
produced in any form without permission of the publishers.
Code: HB-17 ISBN: 156051-171-0
2002 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY
AND TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
20012002
VOTING MEMBERS
Officers:
President: Brad Mallory, Pennsylvania
Vice President: James Codell, Kentucky
Secretary/ Treasurer: Larry King, Pennsylvania
Regional Representatives:
Region I: Joseph Boardman, New York, One-Year Term
James Weinstein, New Jersey, Two-Year Term
Region II: Bruce Saltsman, Tennessee, One-Year Term
Fred Van Kirk, West Virginia, Two-Year Term
Region III: Kirk Brown, Illinois, One-Year Term
Henry Hungerbeeler, Missouri, Two-Year Term
Region IV: Joseph Perkins, Alaska, One-Year Term
Tom Stephens, Nevada, Two-Year Term
NON-VOTING MEMBERS
Immediate Past President: E. Dean Carlson, Kansas
Executive Director: John Horsley, Washington, D.C.
ii
ALABAMA, William F. Conway, George H.
Connor
ALASKA, Richard A. Pratt
ARIZONA, F. Daniel Davis
ARKANSAS, Phil Brand
CALIFORNIA, Richard Land
COLORADO, Mark A. Leonard
CONNECTICUT, Gordon Barton
DELAWARE, Doug Finney, Dennis OShea
D.C., Donald Cooney
FLORIDA, William N. Nickas
GEORGIA, Paul Liles, Brian Summers
HAWAII, Paul Santo
IDAHO, Matthew M. Farrar
ILLINOIS, Ralph E. Anderson
INDIANA, Mary Jo Hamman
IOWA, Norman L. McDonald
KANSAS, Kenneth F. Hurst, Loren R. Risch
KENTUCKY, Stephen E. Goodpaster
LOUISIANA, Hossein Ghara, Mark J. Morvant
MAINE, James E. Tukey
MARYLAND, Earle S. Freedman
MASSACHUSETTS, Alexander K. Bardow
MICHIGAN, Steve Beck
MINNESOTA, Dan Dorgan, Kevin Western
MISSISSIPPI, Harry Lee James
MISSOURI, Shyam Gupta
MONTANA, William S. Fullerton
NEBRASKA, Lyman D. Freemon
NEVADA, William C. Crawford, Jr.
NEWHAMPSHIRE, Mark Richardson
NEWJERSEY, Harry A. Capers, Jr., Richard
W. Dunne
NEWMEXICO, Jimmy D. Camp
NEWYORK, James OConnell, George
Christian
NORTH CAROLINA, Gregory R. Perfettie
NORTH DAKOTA, Terry Udland
OHIO, Timothy Keller
OKLAHOMA, Robert J. Rusch, Veldo Goins
OREGON, Mark E. Hirota
PENNSYLVANIA, R. Scott Christie
PUERTO RICO, Jaime Cabre
RHODE ISLAND, Kazem Farhoumand
SOUTH CAROLINA, Randy R. Cannon, Jeff
Sizemore
SOUTH DAKOTA, John C. Cole
TENNESSEE, Edward P. Wasserman
TEXAS, Mary Lou Ralls
U.S. DOT, Nick E. Mpras
UTAH, David Nazare
VERMONT, James McCarthy
VIRGINIA, Malcolm T. Kerley
WASHINGTON, Jerry Weigel, Tony M. Allen
WEST VIRGINIA, James Sothen
WISCONSIN, Stanley W. Woods
WYOMING, Gregg C. Fredrick, Keith R.
Fulton
ALBERTA, Dilip K. Dasmohapatra
MANITOBA, Ismail Elkholy
NORTHERN MARIANAISLANDS, John C.
Pangalinan
NEWBRUNSWICK, David Cogswell
NORTHAMPTON, R. T. Hughes
NORTHWEST TERRITORIES, John Bowen
NOVASCOTIA, Alan MacRae, Mark Pertus
ONTARIO, Vacant
SASKATCHEWAN, Herv Bachelu
FHWA, Shoukry Elnahal
MASS. METRO. DIST. COMM., David
Lenhardt
N.J. TURNPIKE AUTHORITY, Richard
Raczynski
NYSTATE BRIDGE AUTHORITY, William
Moreau
PORTAUTH. OF NYAND NJ, Joseph J.
Kelly, Joseph Zitelli
BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS, Wade Casey
MILITARYTRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
COMMAND, Robert D. Franz
U.S. ARMYCORPS OF ENGINEERS-DEPT.
OF THE ARMY, Paul Tan
U.S. COAST GUARD, Jacob Patnaik
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE-
FOREST SERVICE, Nelson Hernandez
iii
HIGHWAY SUBCOMMITTEE ON
BRIDGES AND STRUCTURES
2002
TOM LULAY, Oregon, Chairman
SANDRA LARSON, Vice Chairman
JAMES D. COOPER, Federal Highway Administration, Secretary
iv
PREFACE
to
Seventeenth Edition
Major changes and revisions to this edition are as follows:
1. The Interim Specications of 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002 and 2003 have been
adopted and are included.
2. The commentaries from 1996 through 2000 are provided and have been cross-referenced
with each other, where appropriate.
3. In 1997, Section 15, TFE Bearing Surface, Division I, was replaced by Section 14,
Bearings.
4. In 1997, Section 19, Pot Bearings, Division I, was replaced by Section 14, Bearings.
5. In 1997, Section 20, Disc Bearings, Division I, was replaced by Section 14, Bearings.
6. In 2002, Section 16, Steel Tunnel Liner Plates, Division I, became Section 15.
7. In 2002, Section 17, Soil-Reinforced Concrete Structure Interaction Systems, Division
I, became Section 16.
8. In 2002, Section 18, Soil-Thermoplastic Pipe Interaction Systems, Division I, became
Section 17.
9. Anew companion CD-ROM with advance search features is included with each book.
10. The Federal Highway Administration and the States have established a goal that the
LRFD standards be used on all new bridge designs after 2007; only edits related to technical
errors in the seventeenth edition will be made hereafter. These Standard Specications are ap-
plicable to new structure designs prior to 2007 and for the maintenance and rehabilitation of
existing structures.
INTRODUCTION
The compilation of these specications began in 1921 with the organization of the
Committee on Bridges and Structures of the American Association of State Highway
Officials. During the period from 1921, until printed in 1931, the specications were
gradually developed, and as the several divisions were approved from time to time,
they were made available in mimeographed form for use of the State Highway
Departments and other organizations. Acomplete specication was available in 1926
and it was revised in 1928. Though not in printed form, the specications were valu-
able to the bridge engineering profession during the period of development.
The rst edition of the Standard Specications was published in 1931, and it was
followed by the 1935, 1941, 1944, 1949, 1953, 1957, 1961, 1965, 1969, 1973, 1977,
1983, 1989, 1992, and 1996 revised editions. The present seventeenth edition consti-
tutes a revision of the 1996 specications, including those changes adopted since the
publication of the sixteenth edition and those through 2002.
In the past, Interim Specications were usually published in the middle of the cal-
endar year, and a revised edition of this book was generally published every 4 years.
However, since the Federal Highway Administration and the States have established a
goal that the LRFD standards be used on all new bridge designs after 2007, only edits
related to technical errors in the seventeenth edition will be made hereafter. These
Standard Specications are applicable to new structure designs prior to 2007 and for
the maintenance and rehabilitation of existing structures. Future revisions will have
the same status as standards of the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and are approved by at least two-thirds of the
Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures. These revisions are voted on by the
Association Member Departments prior to the publication of a new edition of this book,
and if approved by at least two-thirds of the members, they are included in a new edition
as standards of the Association. Members of the Association are the 50 State Highway
or Transportation Departments, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. Each mem-
ber has one vote. The U.S. Department of Transportation is a nonvoting member.
Future revisions will be displayed on AASHTOs website via a link from the
titles book code listing, HB-17, in the Bookstore of www.transportation.org. An e-mail
notication will also be sent to previous purchasers notifying them that a revision is
available for download. Please check the site periodically to ensure that you have the
most up-to-date and accurate information.
The Standard Specications for Highway Bridges are intended to serve as a stan-
dard or guide for the preparation of State specications and for reference by bridge
engineers.
Primarily, the specications set forth minimum requirements which are consistent
with current practice, and certain modications may be necessary to suit local condi-
tions. They apply to ordinary highway bridges and supplemental specications may be
required for unusual types and for bridges with spans longer than 500 feet.
Specications of the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the
American Welding Society, the American Wood Preservers Association, and the
National Forest Products Association are referred to, or are recognized. Numerous re-
search bulletins are noted for references.
The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials wishes to
express its sincere appreciation to the above organizations, as well as to those univer-
sities and representatives of industry whose research efforts and consultations have
been most helpful in continual improvement of these specications.
Extensive references have been made to the Standard Specifications for
Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing also published by
AASHTO, including equivalent ASTM specications which have been reproduced in
the Associations Standard Specications by permission of the American Society for
Testing and Materials.
v
Attention is also directed to the following publications prepared and published by
the Bridge Subcommittee:
AASHTO Guide for Commonly Recognized (CoRe) Structural Elements1998
Edition
AASHTO Guide Specications for Horizontally Curved Steel Girder Highway
Bridges with Design Examples for I-Girder and Box-Girder Bridges2002
Edition
AASHTO Guide Specifications-Thermal Effects in Concrete Bridge Super-
structures1989 Edition
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specications1998 Edition
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specications, 2nd Edition, SI1998 Edition
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specications, 2nd Edition, US1998 Edition
AASHTO LRFD Movable Highway Bridge Design Specications, 1st Edition
2001 Edition
AASHTO/AWS-D1.5M/D1.5:2001 An American National Standard: Bridge
Welding Code and its Commentary2002 Edition
Bridge Data Exchange (BDX) Technical Data Guide1995 Edition
Construction Handbook for Bridge Temporary Works1995 Edition
Guide Design Specications for Bridge Temporary Works1995 Edition
Guide for Painting Steel Structures1997 Edition
Guide Specications and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway
Bridges1991 Edition
Guide Specications for Alternative Load Factor Design Procedures for Steel
Beam Bridges Using Braced Compact Sections1991 Edition
Guide Specications for Aluminum Highway Bridges1991 Edition
Guide Specications for Design and Construction of Segmental Concrete
Bridges, 2nd Edition1999 Edition
Guide Specications for Design of Pedestrian Bridges, 1997 Edition
Guide Specications for Distribution of Loads for Highway Bridges1994
Edition
Guide Specications for Fatigue Evaluation of Existing Steel Bridges1990
Edition
Guide Specications for Highway Bridge Fabrication with HPS070W Steel
2000 Edition
Guide Specications for Seismic Isolation Design, 2nd Edition1999 Edition
Guide Specications for Strength Design of Truss Bridges (Load Factor
Design)1985 Edition
Guide Specications for Strength Evaluation of Existing Steel and Concrete
Bridges1989 Edition
Guide Specications for Structural Design of Sound Barriers1989 Edition
Guide Specication for the Design of Stress-Laminated Wood Decks1991
Edition
Guidelines for Bridge Management Systems1993 Edition
Manual for Condition Evaluation of Bridges2000 Edition
vi
vii
Movable Bridge Inspection, Evaluation and Maintenance Manual1998 Edition
Standard Specications for Movable Highway Bridges1988 Edition
Standard Specications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires
and Traffic Signals, 4th Edition2001 Edition
Additional bridges and structures publications prepared and published by other
AASHTO committees and task forces are as follows:
Guide Specications for Cathodic Protection of Concrete Bridge Decks1994
Edition
Guide Specications for Polymer Concrete Bridge Deck Overlays1995 Edition
Guide Specications for Shotcrete Repair of Highway Bridges1998 Edition
Inspectors Guide for Shotcrete Repair of Bridges1999 Edition
Manual for Corrosion Protection of Concrete Components in Bridges1992
Edition
Two Parts: Guide Specications for Concrete Overlay Pavements and Bridge
Decks1990 Edition
AASHTO Maintenance Manual: The Maintenance and Management of
Roadways and Bridges1999 Edition
The following have served as chairmen of the Committee since its inception in 1921:
Messrs, E.F. Kelley, who pioneered the work of the Committee, Albin L. Gemeny, R. B.
McMinn, Raymond Archiband, G. S. Paxson, E. M. Johnson, Ward Goodman, Charles
Matlock, Joseph S. Jones, Sidney Poleynard, Jack Freidenrich, Henry W. Derthick,
Robert C. Cassano, Clellon Loveall, James E. Siebels, David Pope, and Tom Lulay. The
Committee expresses its sincere appreciation of the work of these men and of those ac-
tive members of the past, whose names, because of retirement, are no longer on the roll.
Suggestions for the improvement of the specications are welcomed. They should
be sent to the Chairman, Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures, AASHTO, 444
North Capitol Street, N.W., Suite 249, Washington, D.C. 20001. Inquiries as to the
intent or application of the specications should be sent to the same address.
ABBREVIATIONS
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ACI American Concrete Institute
AISC American Institute of Steel Construction
AITC American Institute of Timber Construction
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
ANSI American National Standards Institute
AWS American Welding Society
AWPA American Wood Preservers Association
CRSI Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute
CS Commercial Standards
NDS National Design Specications for Stress Grade Lumber and Its
Fastenings
NFPA National Forest Products Association
RMA Rubber Manufacturers Association
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
SSPC Steel Structures Painting Council
WPA Western Pine Association
WRI Wire Reinforcement Institute
WWPA Western Wood Products Association
ARTICLE PAGE
SECTION 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
SECTION 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
8.16.4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
8.16.8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
8.17.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184.2
8.32.2.2 and 8.32.2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
9.16.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
9.17.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
10.32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
10.34.3.2.1, 10.34.3.2.2 and Figure 10.34.3.1A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
10.34.5.1 and 10.34.5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
10.38.1.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265
10.48.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
10.48.6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281.1
10.49.3.1, 10.49.3.2 and 10.50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283284
10.61 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
12.4.1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
12.6.1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
12.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
12.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
SECTION 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
17.1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
17.4.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
17.4.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370.1
17.6.4.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
18.4.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
DIVISION IICONSTRUCTION
3.1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
SECTION 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
SECTION 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
SECTION 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
COMMENTARIES:
DIVISION I: SECTIONS 8, 10, 12, 14, 17 AND 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-11C-30
DIVISION II: SECTIONS 3 AND 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-31C-35
1997 Interim Specications
Table of Contents
The 1997 Interim Specications include the following revisions and additions to articles of the 16th
edition of the Standard Specications for Highway Bridges, 1996.
DIVISION IDESIGN
viii
AASHTO STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DIVISION I
DESIGN
SECTION 1GENERAL PROVISIONS
1.1 DESIGN ANALYSIS AND GENERAL STRUCTURAL
INTEGRITY FOR BRIDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
1.1.1 Design Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
1.1.2 Structural Integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
1.2 BRIDGE LOCATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
1.3 WATERWAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
1.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
1.3.2 Hydraulic Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
1.3.2.1 Site Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
1.3.2.2 Hydrologic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
1.3.2.3 Hydraulic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
1.4 CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH, AND WATERWAY OPENINGS . .4
1.5 ROADWAY DRAINAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
1.6 RAILROAD OVERPASSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
1.6.1 Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
1.6.2 Blast Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
1.7 SUPERELEVATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
1.8 FLOOR SURFACES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
1.9 UTILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
SECTION 2GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN
2.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
2.1.1 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
2.1.2 Width of Roadway and Sidewalk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
2.2 STANDARD HIGHWAY CLEARANCESGENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
2.2.1 Navigational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
2.2.2 Roadway Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
2.2.3 Vertical Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
2.2.4 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
2.2.5 Curbs and Sidewalks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
2.3 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR BRIDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
2.3.1 Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
2.4 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR UNDERPASSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
2.4.1 Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
2.4.3 Curbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
2.5 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR TUNNELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
2.5.1 Roadway Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
2.5.2 Clearance between Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
2.5.3 Vertical Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
2.5.4 Curbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
2.6 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR DEPRESSED ROADWAYS . . . . . . .10
ix
2.6.1 Roadway Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
2.6.2 Clearance between Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
2.6.3 Curbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
2.7 RAILINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
2.7.1 Vehicular Railing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
2.7.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
2.7.1.2 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
2.7.1.3 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
2.7.2 Bicycle Railing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
2.7.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
2.7.2.2 Geometry and Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
2.7.3 Pedestrian Railing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
2.7.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
2.7.3.2 Geometry and Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
2.7.4 Structural Specications and Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
SECTION 3LOADS
PARTATYPES OF LOADS
3.1 NOTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
3.2 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
3.3 DEAD LOAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
3.4 LIVE LOAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
3.5 OVERLOAD PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
3.6 TRAFFIC LANES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
3.7 HIGHWAY LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
3.7.1 Standard Truck and Lane Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
3.7.2 Classes of Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3.7.3 Designation of Loadings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3.7.4 Minimum Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3.7.5 H Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3.7.6 HS Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3.8 IMPACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3.8.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3.8.1.1 Group AImpact shall be included . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3.8.1.2 Group BImpact shall not be included . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3.8.2 Impact Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3.9 LONGITUDINAL FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
3.10 CENTRIFUGAL FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
3.11 APPLICATION OF LIVE LOAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
3.11.1 Traffic Lane Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
3.11.2 Number and Position of Traffic Lane Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
3.11.3 Lane Loads on Continuous Spans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
3.11.4 Loading for Maximum Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
3.12 REDUCTION IN LOAD INTENSITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
3.13 ELECTRIC RAILWAY LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
3.14 SIDEWALK, CURB, AND RAILING LOADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
3.14.1 Sidewalk Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
3.14.2 Curb Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
3.14.3 Railing Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
3.15 WIND LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
x CONTENTS Division I
3.15.1 Superstructure Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
3.15.1.1 Group II and Group V Loadings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
3.15.1.2 Group III and Group VI Loadings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
3.15.2 Substructure Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
3.15.2.1 Forces from Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
3.15.2.2 Forces Applied Directly to the Substructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
3.15.3 Overturning Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
3.16 THERMAL FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
3.17 UPLIFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
3.18 FORCES FROM STREAM CURRENT AND FLOATING ICE,
AND DRIFT CONDITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
3.18.1 Force of Stream Current on Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
3.18.1.1 Stream Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
3.18.1.2 Pressure Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
3.18.1.3 Drift Lodged Against Pier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
3.18.2 Force of Ice on Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
3.18.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
3.18.2.2 Dynamic Ice Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
3.18.2.3 Static Ice Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
3.19 BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
3.20 EARTH PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
3.21 EARTHQUAKES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
PART BCOMBINATIONS OF LOADS
3.22 COMBINATIONS OF LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
PART CDISTRIBUTION OF LOADS
3.23 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS TO STRINGERS, LONGITUDINAL
BEAMS, AND FLOOR BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
3.23.1 Position of Loads for Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
3.23.2 Bending Moments in Stringers and Longitudinal Beams . . . . . . . . . .32
3.23.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
3.23.2.2 Interior Stringers and Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
3.23.2.3 Outside Roadway Stringers and Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
3.23.2.3.1 Steel-Timber-Concrete T-Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
3.23.2.3.2 Concrete Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
3.23.2.3.3 Total Capacity of Stringers and Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
3.23.3 Bending Moments in Floor Beams (Transverse) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
3.23.4 Precast Concrete Beams Used in Multi-Beam Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
3.24 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS AND DESIGN OF CONCRETE
SLABS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
3.24.1 Span Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
3.24.2 Edge Distance of Wheel Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
3.24.3 Bending Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
3.24.3.1 Case AMain Reinforcement Perpendicular to Traffic
(Spans 2 to 24 Feet Inclusive) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
3.24.3.2 Case BMain Reinforcement Parallel to Traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
3.24.4 Shear and Bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
3.24.5 Cantilever Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
3.24.5.1 Truck Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
3.24.5.1.1 Case AReinforcement Perpendicular to Traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
3.24.5.1.2 Case BReinforcement Parallel to Traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
Division I CONTENTS xi
3.24.5.2 Railing Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
3.24.6 Slabs Supported on Four Sides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
3.24.7 Median Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
3.24.8 Longitudinal Edge Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
3.24.9 Unsupported Transverse Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
3.24.10 Distribution Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
3.25 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON TIMBER FLOORING . . .38
3.25.1 Transverse Flooring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
3.25.2 Plank and Nail Laminated Longitudinal Flooring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
3.25.3 Longitudinal Glued Laminated Timber Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
3.25.3.1 Bending Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
3.25.3.2 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
3.25.3.3 Deections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
3.25.3.4 Stiffener Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
3.25.4 Continuous Flooring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
3.26 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS AND DESIGN OF
COMPOSITE WOOD-CONCRETE MEMBERS . . . . . . . . .40
3.26.1 Distribution of Concentrated Loads for Bending Moment
and Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
3.26.2 Distribution of Bending Moments in Continuous Spans . . . . . . . . . . .40
3.26.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
3.27 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON STEEL
GRID FLOORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
3.27.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
3.27.2 Floors Filled with Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
3.27.3 Open Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
3.28 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS FOR BENDING MOMENT
IN SPREAD BOX GIRDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
3.28.1 Interior Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
3.28.2 Exterior Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
3.29 MOMENTS, SHEARS, AND REACTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
3.30 TIRE CONTACT AREA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
SECTION 4FOUNDATIONS
PARTAGENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS
4.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
4.2 FOUNDATION TYPE AND CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
4.2.1 Selection of Foundation Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
4.2.2 Foundation Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
4.2.2.1 Bearing Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
4.2.2.2 Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
4.2.2.3 Overall Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
4.2.3 Soil, Rock, and Other Problem Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
4.3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND TESTING
PROGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
4.3.1 General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
4.3.2 Minimum Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
4.3.3 Minimum Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
4.3.4 Laboratory Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
4.3.5 Scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
xii CONTENTS Division I
PART BSERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN
4.4 SPREAD FOOTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
4.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
4.4.1.1 Applicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
4.4.1.2 Footings Supporting Non-Rectangular Columns or Piers . . . . . . . . . .45
4.4.1.3 Footings in Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
4.4.1.4 Footings in Sloped Portions of Embankments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
4.4.1.5 Distribution of Bearing Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
4.4.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
4.4.3 Design Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
4.4.4 Soil and Rock Property Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
4.4.5 Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
4.4.5.1 Minimum Embedment and Bench Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
4.4.5.2 Scour Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
4.4.5.3 Footing Excavations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
4.4.5.4 Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
4.4.6 Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
4.4.7 Geotechnical Design on Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
4.4.7.1.1 Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
4.4.7.1.1.1 Eccentric Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
4.4.7.1.1.2 Footing Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
4.4.7.1.1.3 Inclined Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
4.4.7.1.1.4 Ground Surface Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
4.4.7.1.1.5 Embedment Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
4.4.7.1.1.6 Ground Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
4.4.7.1.1.7 Layered Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
4.4.7.1.1.8 Inclined Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
4.4.7.1.2 Factors of Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
4.4.7.2 Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
4.4.7.2.1 Stress Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
4.4.7.2.2 Elastic Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
4.4.7.2.3 Consolidation Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
4.4.7.2.4 Secondary Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
4.4.7.2.5 Tolerable Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
4.4.7.3 Dynamic Ground Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
4.4.8 Geotechnical Design on Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
4.4.8.1.1 Footings on Competent Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
4.4.8.1.2 Footings on Broken or Jointed Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
4.4.8.1.3 Factors of Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
4.4.8.2 Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
4.4.8.2.1 Footings on Competent Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
4.4.8.2.2 Footings on Broken or Jointed Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
4.4.9 Overall Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
4.4.10 Dynamic/Seismic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
4.4.11 Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
4.4.11.1 Loads and Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
4.4.11.1.1 Action of Loads and Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
4.4.11.1.2 Isolated and Multiple Footing Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Division I CONTENTS xiii
xiv CONTENTS Division I
4.4.11.2 Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
4.4.11.2.1 Critical Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
4.4.11.2.2 Distribution of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
4.4.11.3 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
4.4.11.3.2 Footings on Piles or Drilled Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
4.4.11.4 Development of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
4.4.11.4.1 Development Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
4.4.11.5 Transfer of Force at Base of Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
4.4.11.5.1 Transfer of Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
4.4.11.5.2 Lateral Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
4.4.11.5.3 Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.4.11.5.4 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.4.11.5.5 Dowel Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.4.11.5.6 Development Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.4.11.5.7 Splicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.4.11.6 Unreinforced Concrete Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.4.11.6.1 Design Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.4.11.6.2 Pedestals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.5 DRIVEN PILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.5.1.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.5.1.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.5.1.3 Penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.5.1.4 Lateral Tip Restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.5.1.5 Estimated Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.5.1.6 Estimated and Minimum Tip Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.5.1.7 Piles Through Embankment Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.5.1.8 Test Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.5.2 Pile Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.5.2.1 Friction Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.5.2.2 End Bearing Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.5.2.3 Combination Friction and End Bearing Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.5.2.4 Batter Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.5.3 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.5.5 Selection of Soil and Rock Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
4.5.6 Selection of Design Pile Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
4.5.6.1 Ultimate Geotechnical Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
4.5.6.1.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
4.5.6.1.2 Axial Capacity in Cohesive Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
4.5.6.1.3 Axial Capacity in Cohesionless Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
4.5.6.1.4 Axial Capacity on Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
4.5.6.2 Factor of Safety Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
4.5.6.3 Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
4.5.6.4 Group Pile Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
4.5.6.5 Lateral Loads on Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
4.5.6.6 Uplift Loads on Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
4.5.6.6.1 Single Pile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
4.5.6.6.2 Pile Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
4.5.6.7 Vertical Ground Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
4.5.6.7.1 Negative Skin Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
Division I CONTENTS xv
4.5.6.7.2 Expansive Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
4.5.6.8 Dynamic/Seismic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
4.5.7 Structural Capacity of Pile Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
4.5.7.1 Load Capacity Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
4.5.7.2 Piles Extending Above Ground Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
4.5.7.3 Allowable Stress in Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
4.5.7.4 Cross-Section Adjustment for Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
4.5.7.5 Scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
4.5.8 Protection Against Corrosion and Abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
4.5.9 Wave Equation Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
4.5.10 Dynamic Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
4.5.11 Maximum Allowable Driving Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
4.5.12 Tolerable Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
4.5.13 Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
4.5.14 Protection Against Deterioration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
4.5.14.1 Steel Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
4.5.14.2 Concrete Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.14.3 Timber Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.15 Spacing, Clearances, and Embedment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.15.1 Pile Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.15.1.1 Pile Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.15.1.2 Minimum Projection into Cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.15.2 Bent Caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.16 Precast Concrete Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.16.1 Size and Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.16.2 Minimum Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.16.3 Minimum Diameter of Tapered Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.16.4 Driving Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.16.5 Vertical Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.16.6 Spiral Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.16.7 Reinforcement Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.16.8 Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.16.9 Handling Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.17 Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.17.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.17.2 Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.17.3 Minimum Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.17.4 General Reinforcement Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.17.5 Reinforcement into Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.17.6 Shell Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.17.7 Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.17.8 Reinforcement Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.18 Steel H-Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.18.1 Metal Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.18.2 Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.18.3 Caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
4.5.18.4 Lugs, Scabs, and Core-Stoppers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
4.5.18.5 Point Attachments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
4.5.19 Unlled Tubular Steel Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
4.5.19.1 Metal Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
4.5.19.2 Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
4.5.19.3 Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
4.5.19.4 Column Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
4.5.20 Prestressed Concrete Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
4.5.20.1 Size and Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
4.5.20.2 Main Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
4.5.20.3 Vertical Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
4.5.20.4 Hollow Cylinder Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.5.20.5 Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.5.21 Timber Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.5.21.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.5.21.2 Limitations on Untreated Timber Pile Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.5.21.3 Limitations on Treated Timber Pile Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.6 DRILLED SHAFTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.6.1.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.6.1.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.6.1.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.6.1.4 Embedment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.6.1.5 Shaft Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.6.1.6 Batter Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.6.1.7 Shafts Through Embankment Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
4.6.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
4.6.4 Selection of Soil and Rock Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
4.6.4.1 Presumptive Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
4.6.4.2 Measured Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
4.6.5 Geotechnical Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
4.6.5.1 Axial Capacity in Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
4.6.5.1.1 Side Resistance in Cohesive Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
4.6.5.1.2 Side Resistance in Cohesionless Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
4.6.5.1.3 Tip Resistance in Cohesive Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
4.6.5.1.4 Tip Resistance in Cohesionless Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
4.6.5.2 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity in Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
4.6.5.2.1 Soil Layering and Variable Soil Strength with Depth . . . . . . . . . . . .83
4.6.5.2.2 Ground Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
4.6.5.2.3 Enlarged Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
4.6.5.2.4 Group Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
4.6.5.2.4.1 Cohesive Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
4.6.5.2.4.2 Cohesionless Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
4.6.5.2.4.3 Group in Strong Soil Overlying Weaker Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
4.6.5.2.5 Vertical Ground Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
4.6.5.2.6 Method of Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
4.6.5.3 Axial Capacity in Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
4.6.5.3.1 Side Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
4.6.5.3.2 Tip Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
4.6.5.3.3 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity in Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
4.6.5.3.3.1 Rock Stratication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
4.6.5.3.3.2 Rock Mass Discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
4.6.5.3.3.3 Method of Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
4.6.5.4 Factors of Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
4.6.5.5 Deformation of Axially Loaded Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
4.6.5.5.1 Shafts in Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
4.6.5.5.1.1 Cohesive Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
4.6.5.5.1.2 Cohesionless Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
4.6.5.5.1.3 Mixed Soil Prole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
4.6.5.5.2 Shafts Socketed into Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
xvi CONTENTS Division I
4.6.5.6 Lateral Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
4.6.5.6.1 Factors Affecting Laterally Loaded Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
4.6.5.6.1.1 Soil Layering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
4.6.5.6.1.2 Ground Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
4.6.5.6.1.3 Scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
4.6.5.6.1.4 Group Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
4.6.5.6.1.5 Cyclic Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
4.6.5.6.1.6 Combined Axial and Lateral Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
4.6.5.6.1.7 Sloping Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
4.6.5.6.2 Tolerable Lateral Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
4.6.5.7 Dynamic/Seismic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
4.6.6 Structural Design and General Shaft Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
4.6.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
4.6.6.2 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
4.6.6.2.1 Longitudinal Bar Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
4.6.6.2.2 Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
4.6.6.2.3 Transverse Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
4.6.6.2.4 Handling Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
4.6.6.2.5 Reinforcement Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
4.6.6.2.6 Reinforcement into Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
4.6.6.3 Enlarged Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
4.6.6.4 Center-to-Center Shaft Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
4.6.7 Load Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
4.6.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
4.6.7.2 Load Testing Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
4.6.7.3 Load Test Method Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
4.7 NOTE: Article Number Intentionally Not Used
PART CSTRENGTH DESIGN METHOD
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
4.8 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
4.9 DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
4.10 LIMIT STATES, LOAD FACTORS,
AND RESISTANCE FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
4.10.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
4.10.2 Serviceability Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
4.10.3 Strength Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
4.10.4 Strength Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
4.10.5 Load Combinations and Load Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
4.10.6 Performance Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
4.11 SPREAD FOOTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
4.11.1 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
4.11.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
4.11.1.2 Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
4.11.1.3 Scour Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
4.11.1.4 Frost Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
4.11.1.5 Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
4.11.1.6 Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
4.11.1.7 Uplift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
4.11.1.8 Deterioration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
4.11.1.9 Nearby Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
4.11.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
Division I CONTENTS xvii
xviii CONTENTS Division I
4.11.3 Movement Under Serviceability Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
4.11.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
4.11.3.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
4.11.3.3 Movement Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
4.11.3.4 Settlement Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
4.11.3.4.1 Settlement of Footings on Cohesionless Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
4.11.3.4.2 Settlement of Footings on Cohesive Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
4.11.3.4.3 Settlement of Footings on Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
4.11.4 Safety Against Soil Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
4.11.4.1 Bearing Capacity of Foundation Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
4.11.4.1.1 Theoretical Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
4.11.4.1.2 Semi-empirical Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
4.11.4.1.3 Plate Loading Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
4.11.4.1.4 Presumptive Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
4.11.4.1.5 Effect of Load Eccentricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
4.11.4.1.6 Effect of Groundwater Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
4.11.4.2 Bearing Capacity of Foundations on Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
4.11.4.2.1 Semi-empirical Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
4.11.4.2.2 Analytic Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.11.4.2.3 Load Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.11.4.2.4 Presumptive Bearing Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.11.4.2.5 Effect of Load Eccentricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.11.4.3 Failure by Sliding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.11.4.4 Loss of Overall Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.11.5 Structural Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.11.6 Construction Considerations for Shallow Foundations . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.11.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.11.6.2 Excavation Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.11.6.3 Compaction Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.12 DRIVEN PILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.12.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.12.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
4.12.3 Selection of Design Pile Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
4.12.3.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
4.12.3.1.1 Pile Penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
4.12.3.1.2 Groundwater Table and Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
4.12.3.1.3 Effect of Settling Ground and Downdrag Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
4.12.3.1.4 Uplift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
4.12.3.2 Movement Under Serviceability Limit State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
4.12.3.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
4.12.3.2.2 Tolerable Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
4.12.3.2.3 Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
4.12.3.2.3a Cohesive Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
4.12.3.2.3b Cohesionless Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
4.12.3.2.4 Lateral Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
4.12.3.3 Resistance at Strength Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
4.12.3.3.1 Axial Loading of Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
4.12.3.3.2 Analytic Estimates of Pile Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
4.12.3.3.3 Pile of Capacity Estimates Based on In Situ Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
4.12.3.3.4 Piles Bearing on Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
4.12.3.3.5 Pile Load Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
4.12.3.3.6 Presumptive End Bearing Capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
4.12.3.3.7 Uplift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
Division I CONTENTS xix
4.12.3.3.7a Single Pile Uplift Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
4.12.3.3.7b Pile Group Uplift Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
4.12.3.3.8 Lateral Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
4.12.3.3.9 Batter Pile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
4.12.3.3.10 Group Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
4.12.3.3.10a Cohesive Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
4.12.3.3.10c Pile Group in Strong Soil Overlying a Weak
or Compressible Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
4.12.3.3.11 Dynamic/Seismic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
4.12.4 Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
4.12.4.1 Buckling of Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
4.12.5 Construction Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
4.13 DRILLED SHAFTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
4.13.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
4.13.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
4.13.3 Geotechnical Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
4.13.3.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.1.1 Downdrag Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.1.2 Uplift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.2 Movement Under Serviceability Limit State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.2.2 Tolerable Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.2.3 Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.2.3a Settlement of Single Drilled Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.2.3b Group Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.2.4 Lateral Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.3 Resistance at Strength Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.3.1 Axial Loading of Drilled Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.3.2 Analytic Estimates of Drilled Shaft Capacity
in Cohesive Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.3.3 Estimation of Drilled-Shaft Capacity in Cohesionless Soils . . . . .107
4.13.3.3.4 Axial Capacity in Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.3.5 Load Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
4.13.3.3.6 Uplift Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
4.13.3.3.6a Uplift Capacity of a Single Drilled Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
4.13.3.3.6b Group Uplift Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
4.13.3.3.7 Lateral Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
4.13.3.3.8 Group Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
4.13.3.3.8a Cohesive Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
4.13.3.3.8c Group in Strong Soil Overlying Weaker Compressible Soil . . .108
4.13.3.3.9 Dynamic/Seismic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
4.13.4 Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
4.13.4.1 Buckling of Drilled Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
SECTION 5RETAINING WALLS
5.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
5.2 WALL TYPE AND BEHAVIOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
5.2.1 Selection of Wall Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
5.2.1.1 Rigid Gravity and Semi-Gravity Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
xx CONTENTS Division I
5.2.1.2 Nongravity Cantilevered Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
5.2.1.3 Anchored Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
5.2.1.4 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
5.2.1.5 Prefabricated Modular Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
5.2.2 Wall Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
5.2.2.1 Bearing Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
5.2.2.2 Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
5.2.2.3 Overall Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
5.2.2.4 Tolerable Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
5.2.3 Soil, Rock, and Other Problem Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
5.3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND TESTING PROGRAMS . . . .116
5.3.1 General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
5.3.2 Minimum Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
5.3.3 Minimum Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
5.3.4 Laboratory Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
5.3.5 Scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
5.4 NOTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
PART BSERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN
5.5 RIGID GRAVITY AND SEMI-GRAVITY WALL DESIGN . . . . . . . .121
5.5.1 Design Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
5.5.2 Earth Pressure and Surcharge Loadings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
5.5.3 Water Pressure and Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
5.5.4 Seismic Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
5.5.5 Structure Dimensions and External Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
5.5.6 Structure Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
5.5.6.1 Base or Footing Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
5.5.6.2 Wall Stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
5.5.6.3 Counterforts and Buttresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128
5.5.6.4 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128
5.5.6.5 Expansion and Contraction Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
5.5.7 Backll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
5.5.8 Overall Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
5.6 NONGRAVITY CANTILEVERED WALL DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
5.6.8 Corrosion Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
5.7 ANCHORED WALL DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
5.7.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
5.7.6.2 Anchor Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
5.7.9 Anchor Load Testing and Stressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
Division I CONTENTS xxi
5.8 MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EARTH WALL DESIGN . . . . . . .138
5.8.1 Structure Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
5.8.2 External Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
5.8.3 Bearing Capacity and Foundation Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
5.8.4 Calculation of Loads for Internal Stability Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144
5.8.4.1 Calculation of Maximum Reinforcement Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
5.8.4.2 Determination of Reinforcement Tensile Load at the Connection
to the Wall Face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
5.8.5 Determination of Reinforcement Length Required for
Internal Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
5.8.5.1 Location of Zone of Maximum Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
5.8.5.2 Soil Reinforcement Pullout Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
5.8.6 Reinforcement Strength Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
5.8.6.1 Design Life Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
5.8.6.1.1 Steel Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
5.8.6.1.2 Geosynthetic Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
5.8.6.2 Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
5.8.6.2.1 Steel Reinforcements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
5.8.6.2.2 Geosynthetic Reinforcements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
5.8.7 Soil Reinforcement/Facing Connection Strength Design . . . . . . . . . 158
5.8.7.1 Connection Strength for Steel Soil Reinforcements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.8.7.2 Connection Strength for Geosynthetic Reinforcements . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.8.8 Design of Facing Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.8.8.1 Design of Stiff or Rigid Concrete, Steel, and Timber Facings . . . . . .160
5.8.8.2 Design of Flexible Wall Facings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
5.8.8.3 Corrosion Issues for MSE Facing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
5.8.9 Seismic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
5.8.9.1 External Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
5.8.9.2 Internal Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
5.8.9.3 Facing/Soil Reinforcement Connection Design for
Seismic Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164
5.8.10 Determination of Lateral Wall Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164
5.8.11 Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164
5.8.12 Special Loading Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
5.8.12.1 Concentrated Dead Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
5.8.12.2 Traffic Loads and Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
5.8.12.3 Hydrostatic Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
5.8.12.4 Design for Presence of Obstructions in the Reinforced
Soil Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
5.9 PREFABRICATED MODULAR WALL DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
5.9.1 Structure Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
5.9.2 External Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
5.9.3 Bearing Capacity and Foundation Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
5.9.4 Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
5.9.5 Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
5.10 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
5.11 DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
5.12 NOTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
5.13 LIMIT STATES, LOAD FACTORS AND
RESISTANCE FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
xxii CONTENTS Division I
5.13.1 Serviceability Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
5.13.2 Strength Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
5.13.3 Strength Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
5.13.4 Load Combinations and Load Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
5.13.5 Performance Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
5.14 GRAVITY AND SEMI-GRAVITY WALL DESIGN, AND
CANTILEVER WALL DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
5.14.1 Earth Pressure Due to Backll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
5.14.2 Earth Pressure Due to Surcharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176
5.14.5 Movement Under Serviceability Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176
5.14.6 Safety Against Soil Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176
5.14.6.1 Bearing Capacity Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
5.14.6.2 Sliding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
5.14.6.3 Overturning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
5.14.6.4 Overall Stability (Revised Article 5.2.2.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
5.14.7 Safety Against Structural Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
5.14.7.1 Base of Footing Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
5.14.7.2 Wall Stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
5.14.7.3 Counterforts and Buttresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
5.14.7.4 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
5.14.7.5 Expansion and Contraction Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
5.14.8 Backll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
SECTION 6CULVERTS
6.1 CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH, AND WATERWAY
OPENINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
6.2 DEAD LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
6.2.1 Culvert in trench, or culvert untrenched on yielding foundation . . .181
6.2.2 Culvert untrenched on unyielding foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
6.3 FOOTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
6.4 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS THROUGH
EARTH FILLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
6.5 DISTRIBUTION REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
6.6 DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
SECTION 7SUBSTRUCTURES
7.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
7.1.1 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
7.1.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
7.1.3 Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
7.1.4 Foundation and Retaining Wall Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
7.2 NOTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
PART BSERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD
7.3 PIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
7.3.1 Pier Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
7.3.1.1 Solid Wall Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
7.3.1.2 Double Wall Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
7.3.1.3 Bent Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.3.1.4 Single-Column Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.3.2 Pier Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.3.2.1 Collision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.3.2.2 Collision Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.3.2.3 Scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.3.2.4 Facing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.4 TUBULAR PIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.4.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.4.2 Conguration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.5 ABUTMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.5.1 Abutment Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.5.1.1 Stub Abutment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.5.1.2 Partial-Depth Abutment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.5.1.3 Full-Depth Abutment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.5.1.4 Integral Abutment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
7.5.2 Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
7.5.2.1 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
7.5.2.2 Reinforcement for Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
7.5.2.3 Drainage and Backlling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
7.5.3 Integral Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
7.5.4 Abutments on Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
7.5.5 Abutments on Modular Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
7.5.6 Wingwalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
7.5.6.1 Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
7.5.6.2 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
7.6 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
SECTION 8REINFORCED CONCRETE
8.1 APPLICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
8.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
8.1.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
8.1.3 Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192
8.2 CONCRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192
8.3 REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
PART BANALYSIS
8.4 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
8.5 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
8.6 STIFFNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
8.7 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY AND POISSONS RATIO . . . . . . . . . .193
8.8 SPAN LENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
8.9 CONTROL OF DEFLECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
8.9.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
Division I CONTENTS xxiii
8.9.2 Superstructure Depth Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
8.9.3 Superstructure Deection Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
8.10 COMPRESSION FLANGE WIDTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
8.10.1 T-Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
8.10.2 Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
8.11 SLAB AND WEB THICKNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
8.12 DIAPHRAGMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
8.13 COMPUTATION OF DEFLECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
PART CDESIGN
8.14 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
8.14.1 Design Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
8.14.2 Composite Flexural Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
8.14.3 Concrete Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
8.15 SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD (Allowable Stress Design) . . . .197
8.15.1 General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
8.15.2.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
8.15.2.1.1 Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
8.15.2.1.2 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
8.15.2.1.3 Bearing Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
8.15.2.2 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
8.15.3 Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
8.15.4 Compression Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
8.15.5 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
8.15.5.1 Shear Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
8.15.5.2 Shear Stress Carried by Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
8.15.5.2.1 Shear in Beams and One-Way Slabs and Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
8.15.5.2.2 Shear in Compression Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
8.15.5.2.3 Shear in Tension Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
8.15.5.2.4 Shear in Lightweight Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
8.15.5.3 Shear Stress Carried by Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
8.15.5.4 Shear Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
8.15.5.4.3 Shear-Friction Design Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
8.15.5.5 Horizontal Shear Design for Composite Concrete
Flexural Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200
8.15.5.5.5 Ties for Horizontal Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200
8.15.5.6 Special Provisions for Slabs and Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200
8.15.5.7 Special Provisions for Slabs of Box Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201
8.15.5.8 Special Provisions for Brackets and Corbels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201
8.16 STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD (Load Factor Design) . . . . . . . . . . .202
8.16.1 Strength Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202
8.16.1.1 Required Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202
8.16.1.2 Design Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202
8.16.2 Design Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202
8.16.3 Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203
8.16.3.1 Maximum Reinforcement of Flexural Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203
8.16.3.2 Rectangular Sections with Tension Reinforcement Only . . . . . . . . . .203
8.16.3.3 Flanged Sections with Tension Reinforcement Only . . . . . . . . . . . . .203
8.16.3.4 Rectangular Sections with Compression Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . .204
8.16.3.5 Other Cross Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204
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Division I CONTENTS xxv
8.16.4.1 General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204
8.16.4.2 Compression Member Strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204
8.16.4.2.1 Pure Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204
8.16.4.2.2 Pure Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
8.16.4.2.3 Balanced Strain Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
8.16.4.2.4 Combined Flexure and Axial Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
8.16.4.3 Biaxial Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
8.16.4.4 Hollow Rectangular Compression Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
8.16.5 Slenderness Effects in Compression Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206
8.16.5.2 Approximate Evaluation of Slenderness Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206
8.16.6 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207
8.16.6.1 Shear Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207
8.16.6.2 Shear Strength Provided by Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
8.16.6.2.1 Shear in Beams and One-Way Slabs and Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
8.16.6.2.2 Shear in Compression Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
8.16.6.2.3 Shear in Tension Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
8.16.6.2.4 Shear in Lightweight Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
8.16.6.3 Shear Strength Provided by Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
8.16.6.4 Shear Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209
8.16.6.4.4 Shear-Friction Design Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209
8.16.6.5 Horizontal Shear Strength for Composite Concrete
Flexural Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210
8.16.6.5.5 Ties for Horizontal Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210
8.16.6.6 Special Provisions for Slabs and Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210
8.16.6.7 Special Provisions for Slabs of Box Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211
8.16.6.8 Special Provisions for Brackets and Corbels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211
8.16.7 Bearing Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212
8.16.8 Serviceability Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212
8.16.8.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212
8.16.8.2 Service Load Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212
8.16.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212
8.16.8.4 Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212
PART DREINFORCEMENT
8.17 REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
8.17.1 Minimum Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
8.17.2 Distribution of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
8.17.2.1 Flexural Tension Reinforcement in Zones of Maximum Tension . . .213
8.17.2.2 Transverse Deck Slab Reinforcement in T-Girders
and Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
8.17.2.3 Bottom Slab Reinforcement for Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .214
8.17.3 Lateral Reinforcement of Flexural Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .214
8.17.4 Reinforcement for Hollow Rectangular Compression Members . . .214
8.18 REINFORCEMENT OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . .215
8.18.1 Maximum and Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . .215
8.18.2 Lateral Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
8.18.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
8.18.2.2 Spirals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
8.18.2.3 Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
8.18.2.4 Seismic Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
8.19 LIMITS FOR SHEAR REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
xxvi CONTENTS Division I
8.19.1 Minimum Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
8.19.2 Types of Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
8.19.3 Spacing of Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
8.20 SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . .216
8.21 SPACING LIMITS FOR REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
8.22 PROTECTION AGAINST CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
8.23 HOOKS AND BENDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
8.23.1 Standard Hooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
8.23.2 Minimum Bend Diameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
8.24 DEVELOPMENT OF FLEXURAL REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . .218
8.24.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
8.24.2 Positive Moment Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
8.24.3 Negative Moment Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
8.25 DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED BARS AND DEFORMED
WIRE IN TENSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
8.26 DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED BARS IN COMPRESSION . . . .219
8.27 DEVELOPMENT OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220
8.28 DEVELOPMENT OF BUNDLED BARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220
8.29 DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARD HOOKS IN TENSION . . . . . . . .220
8.30 DEVELOPMENT OF WELDED WIRE FABRIC IN TENSION . . . .221
8.30.1 Deformed Wire Fabric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221
8.30.2 Smooth Wire Fabric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222
8.31 MECHANICAL ANCHORAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222
8.32 SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222
8.32.1 Lap Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222
8.32.2 Welded Splices and Mechanical Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222
8.32.3 Splices of Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in Tension . . . . . . . .223
8.32.4 Splices of Bars in Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223
8.32.4.1 Lap Splices in Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223
8.32.4.2 End-Bearing Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223
8.32.4.3 Welded Splices or Mechanical Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223
8.32.5 Splices of Welded Deformed Wire Fabric in Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . .223
8.32.6 Splices of Welded Smooth Wire Fabric in Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .224
SECTION 9PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
9.1 APPLICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225
9.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225
9.1.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225
9.1.3 Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227
9.2 CONCRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
9.3 REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
9.3.1 Prestressing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
9.3.2 Non-Prestressed Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
PART BANALYSIS
9.4 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
9.6 SPAN LENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
9.7 FRAMES AND CONTINUOUS CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
Division I CONTENTS xxvii
9.7.1 Cast-in-Place Post-Tensioned Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
9.7.2 Bridges Composed of Simple-Span Precast Prestressed Girders
Made Continuous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
9.7.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
9.7.2.2 Positive Moment Connection at Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
9.7.2.3 Negative Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
9.7.3 Segmental Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
9.7.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
9.7.3.2 Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
9.7.3.3 Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
9.8 EFFECTIVE FLANGE WIDTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
9.8.1 T-Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
9.8.2 Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
9.8.3 Precast/Prestressed Concrete Beams with Wide Top Flanges . . . . . .230
9.9 FLANGE AND WEB THICKNESSBOX GIRDERS . . . . . . . . . . . .230
9.9.1 Top Flange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
9.9.2 Bottom Flange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
9.9.3 Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
9.10 DIAPHRAGMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
9.10.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
9.10.2 T-Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
9.10.3 Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
9.11 DEFLECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
9.11.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
9.11.2 Segmental Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
9.11.3 Superstructure Deection Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
9.12 DECK PANELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
9.12.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
9.12.2 Bending Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
PART CDESIGN
9.13 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
9.13.1 Design Theory and General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
9.13.2 Basic Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
9.13.3 Composite Flexural Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
9.14 LOAD FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232
9.15 ALLOWABLE STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232
9.15.2 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232
9.15.2.1 Temporary Stresses Before Losses Due to Creep
and Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232
9.15.2.2 Stress at Service Load After Losses Have Occurred . . . . . . . . . . . . .232
9.15.2.3 Cracking Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
9.15.2.4 Anchorage Bearing Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
9.16 LOSS OF PRESTRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
9.16.1 Friction Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
9.16.2 Prestress Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
9.16.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
9.16.2.1.1 Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
9.16.2.1.2 Elastic Shortening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
9.16.2.1.3 Creep of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
9.16.2.1.4 Relaxation of Prestressing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
9.16.2.2 Estimated Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236
9.17 FLEXURAL STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236
9.17.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236
9.17.2 Rectangular Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236
9.17.3 Flanged Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236
9.17.4 Steel Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237
9.18 DUCTILITY LIMITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237
9.18.1 Maximum Prestressing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237
9.18.2 Minimum Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237
9.19 NON-PRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
9.20 SHEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
9.20.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
9.20.2 Shear Strength Provided by Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
9.20.3 Shear Strength Provided by Web Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .239
9.20.4 Horizontal Shear DesignComposite Flexural Members . . . . . . . .239
9.20.4.5 Ties for Horizontal Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
9.21 POST-TENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
9.21.1 Geometry of the Anchorage Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
9.21.2 General Zone and Local Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
9.21.2.1 General Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
9.21.2.2 Local Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
9.21.2.3 Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
9.21.3 Design of the General Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
9.21.3.1 Design Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
9.21.3.2 Nominal Material Strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
9.21.3.3 Use of Special Anchorage Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
9.21.3.4 General Design Principles and Detailing Requirements . . . . . . . . . . .241
9.21.3.5 Intermediate Anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242
9.21.3.6 Diaphragms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
9.21.3.7 Multiple Slab Anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
9.21.4 Application of Strut-and-Tie Models to the Design
of Anchorage Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
9.21.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
9.21.4.2 Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
9.21.4.3 Struts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
9.21.4.4 Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
9.21.5 Elastic Stress Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
9.21.6 Approximate Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
9.21.6.1 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
9.21.6.2 Compressive Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245
9.21.6.3 Bursting Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245
9.21.6.4 Edge-Tension Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245
9.21.7 Design of the Local Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246
9.21.7.1 Dimensions of the Local Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246
9.21.7.2 Bearing Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246
9.21.7.3 Special Anchorage Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247
9.22 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247
9.23 CONCRETE STRENGTH AT STRESS TRANSFER . . . . . . . . . . . . .247
9.24 DECK PANELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247
PART DDETAILING
9.25 FLANGE REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247
9.26 COVER AND SPACING OF STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247
xxviii CONTENTS Division I
9.26.1 Minimum Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247
9.26.2 Minimum Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248
9.26.3 Bundling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248
9.26.4 Size of Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248
9.27 POST-TENSIONING ANCHORAGES AND COUPLERS . . . . . . . . .248
9.28 EMBEDMENT OF PRESTRESSED STRAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249
9.29 BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249
SECTION 10STRUCTURAL STEEL
10.1 APPLICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .251
10.1.1 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .251
10.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
10.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
10.2.2 Structural Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
10.2.3 Steels for Pins, Rollers, and Expansion Rockers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
10.2.4 FastenersRivets and Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
10.2.5 Weld Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
10.2.6 Cast Steel, Ductile Iron Castings, Malleable Castings, Cast Iron,
and Bronze or Copper Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
10.2.6.1 Cast Steel and Ductile Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
10.2.6.2 Malleable Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
10.2.6.3 Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
PART BDESIGN DETAILS
10.3 REPETITIVE LOADING AND TOUGHNESS
CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259
10.3.1 Allowable Fatigue Stress Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259
10.3.2 Load Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259
10.3.3 Charpy V-Notch Impact Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259
10.3.4 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259
10.4 EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF SPAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259
10.5 DEPTH RATIOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
10.6 DEFLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
10.7 LIMITING LENGTHS OF MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .263
10.8 MINIMUM THICKNESS OF METAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265
10.9 EFFECTIVE AREA OF ANGLES AND TEE SECTIONS
IN TENSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265
10.10 OUTSTANDING LEGS OF ANGLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266
10.12 FLEXURAL MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266
10.13 COVER PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266
10.14 CAMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
10.15 HEAT-CURVED ROLLED BEAMS AND WELDED
PLATE GIRDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
10.15.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
10.15.2 Minimum Radius of Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
10.15.3 Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
10.16 TRUSSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268
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xxx CONTENTS Division I
10.16.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268
10.16.2 Truss Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268
10.16.3 Secondary Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268
10.16.4 Diaphragms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268
10.16.5 Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
10.16.6 Working Lines and Gravity Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
10.16.7 Portal and Sway Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
10.16.8 Perforated Cover Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
10.16.9 Stay Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
10.16.10 Lacing Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
10.16.11 Gusset Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
10.16.12 Half-Through Truss Spans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
10.16.13 Fastener Pitch in Ends of Compression Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
10.16.14 Net Section of Riveted or High-Strength Bolted
Tension Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
10.17 BENTS AND TOWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
10.17.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
10.17.2 Single Bents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
10.17.3 Batter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
10.17.4 Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
10.17.5 Bottom Struts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
10.18 SPLICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
10.18.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
10.18.1.1 Design Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
10.18.1.2 Fillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
10.18.1.3 Design Force for Flange Splice Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
10.18.1.4 Truss Chords and Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
10.18.2 Flexural Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273
10.18.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273
10.18.2.2 Flange Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273
10.18.2.3 Web Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275
10.18.4 Tension Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .277
10.18.5 Welded Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .277
10.19 STRENGTH OF CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .278
10.19.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .278
10.19.2 End Connections of Floor Beams and Stringers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
10.19.3 End Connections of Diaphragms and Cross Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
10.20 DIAPHRAGMS AND CROSS FRAMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
10.20.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
10.20.2 Stresses Due to Wind Loading When Top Flanges
Are Continuously Supported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
10.20.2.1 Flanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
10.20.2.2 Diaphragms and Cross Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
10.20.3 Stresses Due to Wind Load When Top Flanges
Are Not Continuously Supported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
10.21 LATERAL BRACING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
10.22 CLOSED SECTIONS AND POCKETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
10.23 WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
10.23.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
10.23.2 Effective Size of Fillet Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
10.23.2.1 Maximum Size of Fillet Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
10.23.2.2 Minimum Size of Fillet Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
10.23.3 Minimum Effective Length of Fillet Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281
Division I CONTENTS xxxi
10.23.4 Fillet Weld End Returns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281
10.23.5 Seal Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281
10.24 FASTENERS (RIVETS AND BOLTS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281
10.24.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281
10.24.2 Hole Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .282
10.24.3 Washer Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .282
10.24.4 Size of Fasteners (Rivets or High-Strength Bolts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
10.24.5 Spacing of Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
10.24.5.1 Pitch and Gage of Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
10.24.5.2 Minimum Spacing of Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
10.24.5.3 Minimum Clear Distance Between Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
10.24.5.4 Maximum Spacing of Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
10.24.6 Maximum Spacing of Sealing and Stitch Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
10.24.6.1 Sealing Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
10.24.6.2 Stitch Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
10.24.7 Edge Distance of Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
10.24.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
10.24.8 Long Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
10.25 LINKS AND HANGERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
10.25.1 Net Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
10.25.2 Location of Pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
10.25.3 Size of Pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
10.25.4 Pin Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
10.25.5 Pins and Pin Nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
10.26 UPSET ENDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
10.27 EYEBARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
10.27.1 Thickness and Net Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
10.27.2 Packing of Eyebars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
10.28 FORKED ENDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
10.29 FIXED AND EXPANSION BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
10.29.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
10.29.2 Bronze or Copper-Alloy Sliding Expansion Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . .285
10.29.3 Rollers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
10.29.4 Sole Plates and Masonry Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
10.29.5 Masonry Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
10.29.6 Anchor Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
10.29.7 Pedestals and Shoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
10.30 FLOOR SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
10.30.1 Stringers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
10.30.2 Floor Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
10.30.3 Cross Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
10.30.4 Expansion Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
10.30.5 End Floor Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287
10.30.6 End Panel of Skewed Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287
10.30.7 Sidewalk Brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287
10.30.8 Stay-in-Place Deck Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287
10.30.8.1 Concrete Deck Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287
10.30.8.2 Metal Stay-in-Place Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287
PART CSERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD
10.31 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287
10.32 ALLOWABLE STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287
xxxii CONTENTS Division I
10.32.1 Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287
10.32.2 Weld Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287
10.32.3 Fasteners (Rivets and Bolts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290
10.32.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290
10.32.3.3 Applied Tension, Combined Tension, and Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292
10.32.3.4 Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292
10.32.4 Pins, Rollers, and Expansion Rockers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292
10.32.5 Cast Steel, Ductile Iron Castings, Malleable Castings,
and Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .293
10.32.5.1 Cast Steel and Ductile Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .293
10.32.5.2 Malleable Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .293
10.32.5.3 Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .293
10.32.5.4 Bronze or Copper-Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .293
10.32.6 Bearing on Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
10.33 ROLLED BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
10.33.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
10.33.2 Bearing Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
10.34 PLATE GIRDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
10.34.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
10.34.2 Flanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
10.34.2.1 Welded Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
10.34.2.2 Riveted or Bolted Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .295
10.34.3 Thickness of Web Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296
10.34.3.1 Girders Not Stiffened Longitudinally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296
10.34.3.2 Girders Stiffened Longitudinally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296
10.34.4 Transverse Intermediate Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .297
10.34.5 Longitudinal Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .298
10.34.6.1 Welded Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .299
10.34.6.2 Riveted or Bolted Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .299
10.35 TRUSSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300
10.35.1 Perforated Cover Plates and Lacing Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300
10.35.2 Compression MembersThickness of Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300
10.36 COMBINED STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .301
10.37 SOLID RIB ARCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302
10.37.1 Moment Amplication and Allowable Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302
10.37.2 Web Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .303
10.37.3 Flange Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .303
10.38 COMPOSITE GIRDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .303
10.38.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .303
10.38.2 Shear Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .304
10.38.3 Effective Flange Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .304
10.38.4 Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .304
10.38.5 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .305
10.38.5.1 Horizontal Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .305
10.38.5.1.1 Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .305
10.38.5.1.2 Ultimate Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .306
10.38.5.1.3 Additional Connectors to Develop Slab Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
10.38.5.2 Vertical Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
10.38.6 Deection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
10.39 COMPOSITE BOX GIRDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
10.39.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
10.39.2 Lateral Distribution of Loads for Bending Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
10.39.3 Design of Web Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
10.39.3.1 Vertical Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
10.39.3.2 Secondary Bending Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308
10.39.4 Design of Bottom Flange Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308
10.39.4.1 Tension Flanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308
10.39.4.2 Compression Flanges Unstiffened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308
10.39.4.3 Compression Flanges Stiffened Longitudinally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308
10.39.4.4 Compression Flanges Stiffened Longitudinally and Transversely . . .311
10.39.4.5 Compression Flange Stiffeners, General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .312
10.39.5 Design of Flange to Web Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .312
10.39.6 Diaphragms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .312
10.39.7 Lateral Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .312
10.39.8 Access and Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .312
10.40 HYBRID GIRDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .312
10.40.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .312
10.40.2.1 Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313
10.40.2.2 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313
10.40.2.3 Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
10.40.3 Plate Thickness Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
10.40.4 Bearing Stiffener Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
10.41 ORTHOTROPIC-DECK SUPERSTRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
10.41.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
10.41.2 Wheel Load Contact Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
10.41.3 Effective Width of Deck Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
10.41.3.1 Ribs and Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
10.41.3.2 Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
10.41.4.1 Local Bending Stresses in Deck Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
10.41.4.2 Bending Stresses in Longitudinal Ribs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
10.41.4.3 Bending Stresses in Transverse Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
10.41.4.4 Intersections of Ribs, Beams, and Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
10.41.4.5 Thickness of Plate Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
10.41.4.5.1 Longitudinal Ribs and Deck Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
10.41.4.5.2 Girders and Transverse Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
10.41.4.6 Maximum Slenderness of Longitudinal Ribs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
10.41.4.7 Diaphragms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
10.41.4.8 Stiffness Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
10.41.4.8.1 Deections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
10.41.4.8.2 Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
10.41.4.9 Wearing Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316
10.41.4.10 Closed Ribs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316
PART DSTRENGTH DESIGN METHOD
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
10.42 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316
10.43 LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316
10.44 DESIGN THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316
10.45 ASSUMPTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316
10.46 DESIGN STRESS FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316
10.47 MAXIMUM DESIGN LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317
10.48 FLEXURAL MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317
Division I CONTENTS xxxiii
10.48.1 Compact Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317
10.48.2 Braced Noncompact Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .318
10.48.3 Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .318
10.48.4 Partially Braced Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319
10.48.5 Transversely Stiffened Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320
10.48.6 Longitudinally Stiffened Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .321
10.48.8 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .321
10.49 SINGLY SYMMETRIC SECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322
10.49.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322
10.49.2 Singly Symmetric Sections with Transverse Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . .322
10.49.3 Longitudinally Stiffened Singly Symmetric Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . .322
10.49.4 Singly Symmetric Braced Noncompact Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .323
10.49.5 Partially Braced Members with Singly Symmetric Sections . . . . . .323
10.50 COMPOSITE SECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .323
10.50.1 Positive Moment Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .324
10.50.1.1 Compact Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .324
10.50.1.2 Noncompact Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325
10.50.2 Negative Moment Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325
10.50.2.2 Noncompact Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .326
10.51 COMPOSITE BOX GIRDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .326
10.51.1 Maximum Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .326
10.51.2 Lateral Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327
10.51.3 Web Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327
10.51.4 Tension Flanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327
10.51.5 Compression Flanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327
10.51.6 Diaphragms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328
10.51.7 Design of Flange to Web Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328
10.52 SHEAR CONNECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328
10.52.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328
10.52.2 Design of Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328
10.52.3 Maximum Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328
10.53 HYBRID GIRDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328
10.53.1 Noncomposite Hybrid Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .329
10.53.1.2 Braced Noncompact Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .329
10.53.1.3 Partially Braced Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .329
10.53.2 Composite Hybrid Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .329
10.53.3 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .329
10.54 COMPRESSION MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330
10.54.1 Axial Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330
10.54.1.1 Maximum Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330
10.54.1.2 Effective Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330
10.54.2 Combined Axial Load and Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330
10.54.2.1 Maximum Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330
10.54.2.2 Equivalent Moment Factor C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
10.55 SOLID RIB ARCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
10.55.1 Moment Amplication and Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
10.55.2 Web Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
10.55.3 Flange Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
10.56 SPLICES, CONNECTIONS, AND DETAILS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
10.56.1 Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
xxxiv CONTENTS Division I
10.56.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
10.56.1.2 Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
10.56.1.3 Bolts and Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
10.56.1.4 Slip-Critical Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333
10.56.2 Bolts Subjected to Prying Action by Connected Parts . . . . . . . . . . .333
10.56.3 Rigid Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333
10.57 OVERLOAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333
10.57.1 Noncomposite Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .334
10.57.2 Composite Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .334
10.57.3 Slip-Critical Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .334
10.58 FATIGUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
10.58.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
10.58.2 Composite Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
10.58.2.1 Slab Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
10.58.2.2 Shear Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
10.58.3 Hybrid Beams and Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
10.59 DEFLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
10.60 ORTHOTROPIC SUPERSTRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
10.61 CONSTRUCTIBILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336
10.61.1 Web Bend Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336
10.61.2 Web Shear Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336
10.61.3 Lateral-Torsional Buckling of the Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336
10.61.4 Compression Flange Local Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336
SECTION 11ALUMINUM DESIGN
11.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
11.2 BRIDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
11.3 SOIL-METAL PLATE INTERACTION SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
11.4 STRUCTURAL SUPPORTS FOR HIGHWAY SIGNS,
LUMINAIRES, AND TRAFFIC SIGNALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
11.5 BRIDGE RAILING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
SECTION 12SOIL-CORRUGATED METAL STRUCTURE
INTERACTION SYSTEMS
12.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .339
12.1.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .339
12.1.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .339
12.1.3 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .339
12.1.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340
12.1.5 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340
12.1.6 Soil Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340
12.1.6.1 Soil Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340
12.1.6.2 Pipe Arch Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340
12.1.6.3 Arch Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340
12.1.7 Abrasive or Corrosive Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341
12.1.8 Minimum Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341
12.1.9 End Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341
12.1.10 Construction and Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341
12.2 SERVICE LOAD DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341
12.2.1 Wall Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341
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xxxvi CONTENTS Division I
12.2.2 Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341
12.2.3 Seam Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341
12.2.4 Handling and Installation Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341
12.3 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .342
12.3.1 Wall Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .342
12.3.2 Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .342
12.3.3 Seam Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .342
12.4 CORRUGATED METAL PIPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .342
12.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .342
12.4.1.2 Service Load Designsafety factor, SF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .342
12.4.1.3 Load Factor Designcapacity modication factor, . . . . . . . . . . . .342
12.4.1.4 Flexibility Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343
12.4.1.5 Minimum Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343
12.4.2 Seam Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343
12.4.3 Section Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344
12.4.3.1 Steel Conduits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344
12.4.3.2 Aluminum Conduits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344
12.4.4 Chemical and Mechanical Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
12.4.5 Smooth-Lined Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
12.5 SPIRAL RIB METAL PIPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
12.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
12.5.2 Soil Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
12.5.2.3 Pipe-Arch Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
12.5.2.4 Special Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
12.5.2.5 Construction and Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
12.5.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
12.5.3.3 Minimum Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .346
12.5.4.1 Steel Conduits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .346
12.5.5.1 Steel Spiral Rib Pipe and Pipe-Arch Requirements
AASHTO M 218 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .346
12.5.5.2 Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe and Pipe-Arch Requirements
AASHTO M 197 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .346
12.6 STRUCTURAL PLATE PIPE STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
12.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
12.6.1.3 Load Factor Designcapacity modication
factor, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
12.6.1.5 Minimum Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
12.6.2 Seam Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
12.6.3.1 Steel Conduits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
12.6.4 Chemical and Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348
12.6.4.1 Aluminum Structural Plate Pipe, Pipe-Arch, and Arch Material
RequirementsAASHTO M 219, Alloy 5052 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348
12.6.4.2 Steel Structural Plate Pipe, Pipe-Arch, and Arch Material
RequirementsAASHTO M 167 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348
12.6.5 Structural Plate Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348
12.7 LONG-SPAN STRUCTURAL PLATE STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . .348
12.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348
12.7.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348
12.7.2.2 Acceptable Special Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
12.7.3 Foundation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
12.7.3.1 Settlement Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
12.7.3.2 Footing Reactions (Arch Structures) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
12.7.3.3 Footing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
12.7.4 Soil Envelope Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
12.7.4.1 Soil Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
12.7.4.2 Construction Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
12.7.4.3 Service Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
12.7.5 End Treatment Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .351
12.7.5.1 Standard Shell End Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .351
12.7.5.2 Balanced Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352
12.7.5.3 Hydraulic Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352
12.7.5.3.1 Backll Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352
12.7.5.3.2 Cut-Off (Toe) Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352
12.7.5.3.3 Hydraulic Uplift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
12.7.5.3.4 Scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
12.7.6 Multiple Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
12.8 STRUCTURAL PLATE BOX CULVERTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
12.8.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
12.8.1.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
12.8.2 Structural Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
12.8.3 Structure Backll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
12.8.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .355
12.8.4.1 Analytical Basis for Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .355
12.8.4.2 Load Factor Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .355
12.8.4.3 Plastic Moment Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .355
12.8.4.4 Footing Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .356
12.8.5 Manufacturing and Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .356
SECTION 13WOOD STRUCTURES
13.1 GENERAL AND NOTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .357
13.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .357
13.1.2 Net Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .357
13.1.3 Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .357
13.1.4 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .357
13.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
13.2.1 Sawn Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
13.2.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
13.2.1.2 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
13.2.2 Glued Laminated Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
13.2.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
13.2.2.2 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
13.2.3 Structural Composite Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
13.2.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
13.2.3.2 Laminated Veneer Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
13.2.3.3 Parallel Strand Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
Division I CONTENTS xxxvii
13.2.3.4 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
13.2.4 Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
13.3 PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
13.3.1 Requirement for Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
13.3.2 Treatment Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
13.3.3 Field Treating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
13.3.4 Fire Retardant Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
13.4 DEFLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
13.5 DESIGN VALUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360
13.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360
13.5.2 Tabulated Values for Sawn Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360
13.5.2.2 Stress Grades in Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360
13.5.3 Tabulated Values for Glued Laminated Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360
13.5.4 Tabulated Values for Structural Composite Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . .360
13.5.5 Adjustments to Tabulated Design Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360
13.5.5.1 Wet Service Factor, C
M
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360
13.5.5.2 Load Duration Factor, C
D
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369
13.5.5.3 Adjustment for Preservative Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369
13.6 BENDING MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369
13.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369
13.6.2 Notching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
13.6.3 Modulus of Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
13.6.4 Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
13.6.4.1 Allowable Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
13.6.4.2 Size Factor, C
F
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
13.6.4.3 Volume Factor, C
V
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .378
13.6.4.4 Beam Stability Factor, C
L
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .378
13.6.4.5 Form Factor, C
f
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379
13.6.5 Shear Parallel to Grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379
13.6.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379
13.6.5.2 Actual Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379
13.6.6 Compression Perpendicular to Grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
13.6.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
13.6.6.3 Bearing Area Factor, C
b
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
13.6.7 Bearing on Inclined Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
13.7 COMPRESSION MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
13.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
13.7.2 Eccentric Loading or Combined Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .381
13.7.3 Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .381
13.7.3.1 Net Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .381
13.7.3.3 Column Stability Factor, C
p
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .381
13.7.3.4 Tapered Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
13.7.3.5 Round Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
13.7.4 Bearing Parallel to Grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
13.8 TENSION MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
13.8.1 Tension Parallel to Grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
13.8.2 Tension Perpendicular to Grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .383
13.9 MECHANICAL CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .383
13.9.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .383
xxxviii CONTENTS Division I
13.9.3 Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .383
13.9.4 Washers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .383
SECTION 14BEARINGS
14.1 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385
14.2 DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385
14.3 NOTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385
14.4 MOVEMENTS AND LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .386
14.4.1 Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387
14.5 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387
14.5.1 Load and Movement Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387
14.5.2 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387
14.5.3 Forces in the Structure Caused by Restraint of Movement
at the Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387
14.5.3.1 Horizontal Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387
14.5.3.2 Bending Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .390
14.6 SPECIAL DESIGN PROVISIONS FOR BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . .390
14.6.1 Metal Rocker and Roller Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .390
14.6.1.1 General Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .390
14.6.1.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .390
14.6.1.3 Geometric Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .390
14.6.1.4 Contact Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .390
14.6.2 PTFE Sliding Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
14.6.2.1 PTFE Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
14.6.2.2 Mating Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
14.6.2.3 Minimum Thickness Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
14.6.2.3.1 PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
14.6.2.3.2 Stainless Steel Mating Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
14.6.2.4 Contact Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
14.6.2.5 Coefficient of Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
14.6.2.6 Attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .392
14.6.2.6.1 PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .392
14.6.2.6.2 Mating Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .392
14.6.3 Bearings with Curved Sliding Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .392
14.6.3.2 Resistance to Lateral Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393
14.6.4 Pot Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393
14.6.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393
14.6.4.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
14.6.4.4 Elastomeric Disc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
14.6.4.5 Sealing Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
14.6.4.5.1 Rings with rectangular cross-sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
14.6.4.5.2 Rings with circular cross-sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
14.6.4.6 Pot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
14.6.4.7 Piston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
14.6.4.8 Lateral Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .395
14.6.5 Steel Reinforced Elastomeric BearingsMethod B . . . . . . . . . . . . .395
14.6.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .395
14.6.5.2 Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .395
14.6.5.3 Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396
14.6.5.3.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396
Division I CONTENTS xxxix
14.6.5.3.2 Compressive Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396
14.6.5.3.3 Compressive Deection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .397
14.6.5.3.4 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .397
14.6.5.3.5 Combined Compression and Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .397
14.6.5.3.6 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
14.6.5.3.7 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
14.6.6 Elastomeric Pads and Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings
Method A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
14.6.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
14.6.6.2 Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
14.6.6.3 Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
14.6.6.3.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
14.6.6.3.2 Compressive Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .399
14.6.6.3.3 Compressive Deection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .399
14.6.6.3.4 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .399
14.6.6.3.5 Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .399
14.6.6.3.5a PEP and CDP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .399
14.6.6.3.5b FGP and Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .399
14.6.6.3.6 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.6.3.7 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.6.4 Resistance to Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.7 Bronze or Copper Alloy Sliding Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.7.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.7.2 Coefficient of Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.7.3 Limits on Load and Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.7.4 Clearances and Mating Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.8 Disc Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.8.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.8.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.8.3 Overall Geometric Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.8.4 Elastomeric Disc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
14.6.8.5 Shear Resisting Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
14.6.8.6 Steel Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
14.6.9 Guides and Restraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
14.6.9.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
14.6.9.2 Design Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
14.6.9.3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
14.6.9.5 Design Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
14.6.9.5.1 Load Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
14.6.9.5.2 Contact Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
14.6.9.6 Attachment of Low-Friction Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
14.6.10 Other Bearing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .402
14.7 LOAD PLATES AND ANCHORAGE FOR BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . .402
14.7.1 Plates for Load Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .402
14.7.2 Tapered Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .402
14.7.3 Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .402
14.8 CORROSION PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .402
SECTION 15STEEL TUNNEL LINER PLATES
15.1 GENERAL AND NOTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403
15.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403
xl CONTENTS Division I
15.1.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403
15.2 LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403
15.3 DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
15.3.1 Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
15.3.2 Joint Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
15.3.3 Minimum Stiffness for Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405
15.3.4 Critical Buckling of Liner Plate Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405
15.3.5 Deection or Flattening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405
15.4 CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . .406
15.4.1 Chemical Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
15.4.2 Minimum Mechanical Properties of Flat Pipe
Before Cold Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
15.4.3 Dimensions and Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
15.5 SECTION PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
15.6 COATINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
15.7 BOLTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
15.8 SAFETY FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
SECTION 16SOIL-REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURE
INTERACTION SYSTEMS
16.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
16.1.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
16.1.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
16.1.3 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
16.1.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
16.1.5 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
16.1.6 Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
16.1.8 End Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
16.4 REINFORCED CONCRETE PIPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
16.4.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
16.4.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
16.4.2.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
16.4.2.2 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
16.4.2.3 Concrete Cover for Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
16.4.3 Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
16.4.3.1 Standard Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
16.4.3.2 Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
16.4.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
16.4.4.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
16.4.4.2.1 Earth Loads and Pressure Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
16.4.4.2.1.1 Standard Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
16.4.4.2.1.2 Nonstandard Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
16.4.4.2.2 Pipe Fluid Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
16.4.4.2.3 Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
16.4.4.3 Minimum Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
16.4.4.4 Design Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
16.4.5 Indirect Design Method Based on Pipe Strength
and Load-Carrying Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
Division I CONTENTS xli
16.4.5.1 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
16.4.5.1.1 Ultimate D-load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415
16.4.5.2 Bedding Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415
16.4.5.2.1 Earth Load Bedding Factor for Circular Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415
16.4.5.2.2 Earth Load Bedding Factor for Arch and Elliptical Pipe . . . . . . . .415
16.4.5.2.3 Live Load Bedding Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415
16.4.5.2.4 Intermediate Trench Widths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415
16.4.6 Direct Design Method for Precast Reinforced Concrete
Circular Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415
16.4.6.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415
16.4.6.2 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415
16.4.6.3 Strength-Reduction Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .417
16.4.6.4 Process and Material Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .417
16.4.6.5 Orientation Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .417
16.4.6.6 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .418
16.4.6.6.1 Reinforcement for Flexural Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .418
16.4.6.6.2 Minimum Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .418
16.4.6.6.3 Maximum Flexural Reinforcement Without Stirrups . . . . . . . . . . .418
16.4.6.6.3.1 Limited by Radial Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .418
16.4.6.6.3.2 Limited by Concrete Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .418
16.4.6.6.4 Crack Width Control (Service Load Design) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .418
16.4.6.6.5 Shear Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .422
16.4.6.6.6 Radial Stirrups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .422
16.4.6.6.6.1 Radial Tension Stirrups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .422
16.4.6.6.6.2 Shear Stirrups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .422
16.4.6.6.6.3 Stirrup Reinforcement Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.4.6.6.6.3.1 Radial Tension Stirrup Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.4.6.6.6.3.2 Shear Stirrup Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.4.6.6.6.3.3 Stirrup Embedment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.4.6.6.6.3.4 Other Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.4.7 Development of Quadrant Mat Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.5 REINFORCED CONCRETE ARCH, CAST-IN-PLACE . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.5.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.5.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.5.2.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.5.2.2 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.5.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.5.3.2 Minimum Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424
16.5.3.4 Splices of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424
16.5.3.5 Footing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424
16.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX, CAST-IN-PLACE . . . . . . . . . . . .424
16.6.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424
16.6.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424
16.6.2.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424
16.6.2.2 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424
16.6.3 Concrete Cover for Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424
16.6.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424
16.6.4.2 Modication of Earth Loads for Soil Structure
Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425
16.6.4.2.1 Embankment Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425
16.6.4.2.2 Trench Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425
xlii CONTENTS Division I
16.6.4.3 Distribution of Concentrated Load Effects to Bottom Slab . . . . . . . .425
16.6.4.4 Distribution of Concentrated Loads in Skewed Culverts . . . . . . . . . .425
16.6.4.5 Span Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425
16.6.4.7 Crack Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425
16.6.4.8 Minimum Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426
16.7 REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX, PRECAST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426
16.7.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426
16.7.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426
16.7.2.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426
16.7.2.2 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426
16.7.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426
16.7.4.2 Modication of Earth Loads for Soil-Structure Interaction . . . . . . . .426
16.7.4.2.1 Embankment Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426
16.7.4.2.2 Trench Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426
16.7.4.3 Distribution of Concentrated Load Effects
in Sides and Bottoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426
16.7.4.5 Span Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .427
16.7.4.7 Crack Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .427
16.8 PRECAST REINFORCED CONCRETE THREE-SIDED
STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .427
16.8.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .427
16.8.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .427
16.8.2.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .427
16.8.2.2 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .427
16.8.4 Geometric Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .427
16.8.5 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .428
16.8.5.2 Distribution of Concentrated Load Effects in Sides . . . . . . . . . . . . . .428
16.8.5.4 Shear Transfer in Transverse Joints Between Culvert
Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .428
16.8.5.5 Span Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .428
16.8.5.6 Strength-Reduction Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .428
16.8.5.7 Crack Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .428
16.8.5.9 Deection Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .428
16.8.5.10 Footing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .429
16.8.5.11 Structure Backll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .429
16.8.5.12 Scour Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .429
SECTION 17SOIL-THERMOPLASTIC PIPE INTERACTION SYSTEMS
17.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
17.1.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
17.1.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
17.1.3 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
Division I CONTENTS xliii
17.1.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
17.1.5 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
17.1.6 Soil Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
17.1.6.1 Soil Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
17.1.8 Minimum Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .432
17.1.9 End Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .432
17.2.1 Wall Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .432
17.2.2 Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .432
17.3.1 Wall Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .433
17.3.2 Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .433
17.4 PLASTIC PIPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .433
17.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .433
17.4.1.3 Load Factor Designcapacity modication factor, . . . . . . . . . . . .434
17.4.1.5 Minimum Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .434
17.4.1.6 Maximum Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .434
17.4.1.7 Local Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .434
17.4.2.1 PE Corrugated Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .434
17.4.2.2 PE Ribbed Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .434
17.4.2.3 Prole Wall PVC Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .434
17.4.3.1 Polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .435
17.4.3.1.1 Smooth wall PE pipe requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .435
17.4.3.1.2 Corrugated PE pipe requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .435
17.4.3.1.3 Ribbed PE pipe requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .435
17.4.3.2 Poly (Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .435
17.4.3.2.1 Smooth wall PVC pipe requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .435
17.4.3.2.2 Ribbed PVC pipe requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .436
DIVISION I-A
SEISMIC DESIGN
SECTION 1INTRODUCTION
1.1 PURPOSE AND PHILOSOPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439
1.2 BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439
1.3 BASIC CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .440
1.4 PROJECT ORGANIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .440
1.5 QUALITY ASSURANCE REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .440
1.6 FLOW CHARTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .441
SECTION 2SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS
2.1 NOTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .445
xliv CONTENTS Division I-A
SECTION 3GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
3.1 APPLICABILITY OF SPECIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .447
3.2 ACCELERATION COEFFICIENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .447
3.3 IMPORTANCE CLASSIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .449
3.4 SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .449
3.5 SITE EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .449
3.5.1 Site Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .449
3.6 ELASTIC SEISMIC RESPONSE COEFFICIENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .450
3.6.1 Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient for Single Mode Analysis . . . .450
3.6.2 Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient for Multimodal Analysis . . . .450
3.7 RESPONSE MODIFICATION FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .450
3.8 DETERMINATION OF ELASTIC FORCES
AND DISPLACEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .450
3.9 COMBINATION OF ORTHOGONAL SEISMIC FORCES . . . . . . . .450
3.10 MINIMUM SEAT-WIDTH REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .451
3.11 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SINGLE SPAN BRIDGES . . . . . .451
3.12 REQUIREMENTS FOR TEMPORARY BRIDGES AND STAGED
CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .452
SECTION 4ANALYSIS REQUIREMENTS
4.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .453
4.2 SELECTION OF ANALYSIS METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .453
4.2.1 Special Requirements for Single-Span Bridges
and Bridges in SPC A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .453
4.2.2 Special Requirements for Curved Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .453
4.2.3 Special Requirements for Critical Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .454
4.3 UNIFORM LOAD METHODPROCEDURE 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .454
4.4 SINGLE MODE SPECTRAL ANALYSIS METHOD
PROCEDURE 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .454
4.5 MULTIMODE SPECTRAL ANALYSIS METHOD
PROCEDURE 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .455
4.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .455
4.5.2 Mathematical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456
4.5.2(A) Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456
4.5.2(B) Substructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456
4.5.3 Mode Shapes and Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456
4.5.4 Multimode Spectral Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456
4.5.5 Combination of Mode Forces and Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456
4.6 TIME HISTORY METHODPROCEDURE 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456
SECTION 5DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES
IN SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY A
5.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .457
5.2 DESIGN FORCES FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE
CATEGORY A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .457
5.3 DESIGN DISPLACEMENTS FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE
CATEGORY A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .457
5.4 FOUNDATION AND ABUTMENT DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY A . . . . . . .457
5.5 STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
Division I-A CONTENTS xlv
5.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
IN SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B
6.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .459
CATEGORY B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .459
6.2.1 Design Forces for Structural Members and Connections . . . . . . . . .459
6.2.2 Design Forces for Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .459
6.2.3 Design Forces for Abutments and Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . .460
6.3 DESIGN DISPLACEMENTS FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE
CATEGORY B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .460
6.3.1 Minimum Support Length Requirements for Seismic
Performance Category B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .460
FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B . . . . . . .460
6.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .460
6.4.2 Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .460
6.4.2(A) Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .460
6.4.2(B) Foundation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .461
6.4.2(C) Special Pile Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .461
6.4.3 Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .461
6.4.3(A) Free-Standing Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .461
6.4.3(B) Monolithic Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .462
6.5 STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
6.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .462
6.5.2 P-delta Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .462
6.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .462
6.6.2 Minimum Transverse Reinforcement Requirements
for Seismic Performance Category B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .462
6.6.2(A) Transverse Reinforcement for Connement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .462
6.6.2(B) Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement for Connement . . . . . . . . . . .463
IN SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES C AND D
7.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .465
CATEGORIES C AND D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .465
7.2.1 Modied Design Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .465
7.2.1(A) Modied Design Forces for Structural Members
and Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .465
7.2.1(B) Modied Design Forces for Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .465
7.2.2 Forces Resulting from Plastic Hinging in the Columns,
Piers, or Bents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .466
xlvi CONTENTS Division I-A
7.2.2(A) Single Columns and Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .466
7.2.2(B) Bents with Two or More Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .466
7.2.3 Column and Pile Bent Design Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .467
7.2.4 Pier Design Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .467
7.2.5 Connection Design Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .467
7.2.5(A) Longitudinal Linkage Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .467
7.2.5(B) Hold-Down Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .467
7.2.5(C) Column and Pier Connections to Cap Beams and Footings . . . . . . . .467
7.2.6 Foundation Design Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .467
7.2.7 Abutment and Retaining Wall Design Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .468
7.3 DESIGN DISPLACEMENT FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE
CATEGORIES C AND D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .468
7.3.1 Minimum Support Length Requirements for Seismic Performance
Categories C and D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .468
FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES
C AND D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .468
7.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .468
7.4.2 Foundation Requirements for Seismic Performance
Category C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .469
7.4.2(A) Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .469
7.4.2(C) Special Pile Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .469
7.4.3 Abutment Requirements for Seismic Performance
Category C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
7.4.3(A) Free-Standing Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
7.4.3(B) Monolithic Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
7.4.4 Additional Requirements for Foundations
for Seismic Performance Category D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
7.4.4(A) Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
7.4.5 Additional Requirements for Abutments
for Seismic Performance Category D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
7.5 STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC
PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES C AND D . . . . . . . . . . . .471
7.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
7.5.2 P-delta Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES
C AND D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
7.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
7.6.2 Column Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
7.6.2(A) Vertical Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
7.6.2(B) Flexural Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
7.6.2(C) Column Shear and Transverse Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .472
7.6.2(D) Transverse Reinforcement for Connement at Plastic Hinges . . . . . .472
7.6.2(E) Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement for Connement . . . . . . . . . . .473
7.6.2(F) Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .473
7.6.3 Pier Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .473
7.6.4 Column Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .474
7.6.5 Construction Joints in Piers and Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .474
Division I-A CONTENTS xlvii
DIVISION II
CONSTRUCTION
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .476
SECTION ISTRUCTURE EXCAVATION AND BACKFILL
1.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .477
1.2 WORKING DRAWINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .477
1.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .477
1.4 CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .477
1.4.1 Depth of Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .477
1.4.2 Foundation Preparation and Control of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
1.4.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
1.4.2.2 Excavations Within Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
1.4.2.3 Foundations on Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
1.4.2.4 Other Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
1.4.2.5 Approval of Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
1.4.3 Backll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
1.5 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .479
1.5.1 Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .479
1.5.2 Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .479
SECTION 2REMOVAL OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
2.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .481
2.3 CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .481
2.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .481
2.3.2 Salvage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .481
2.3.3 Partial Removal of Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .481
2.3.4 Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .482
SECTION 3TEMPORARY WORKS
3.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .483
3.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .483
3.1.2 Working Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .483
3.1.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .483
3.1.4 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .483
3.1.5 Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .483
3.2 FALSEWORK AND FORMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .484
3.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .484
3.2.2 Falsework Design and Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .484
3.2.2.1 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .484
3.2.2.2 Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .484
3.2.2.3 Deections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .484
3.2.2.4 Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .484
3.2.2.5 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .484
3.2.3 Formwork Design and Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .485
3.2.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .485
xlviii CONTENTS Division II
3.2.3.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .485
3.2.3.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .485
3.2.3.4 Tube Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .485
3.2.3.5 Stay-in-Place Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .486
3.2.4 Removal of Falsework and Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .486
3.2.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .486
3.2.4.2 Time of Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .486
3.2.4.3 Extent of Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .486
3.3 COFFERDAMS AND SHORING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
3.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
3.3.2 Protection of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
3.3.3 Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
3.4 TEMPORARY WATER CONTROL SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
3.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
3.4.2 Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
3.4.3 Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
3.5 TEMPORARY BRIDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .488
3.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .488
3.5.2 Detour Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .488
3.5.3 Haul Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .488
3.5.4 Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .488
SECTION 4DRIVEN FOUNDATION PILES
4.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .489
4.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .489
4.2.1 Steel Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .489
4.2.1.1 Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .489
4.2.2 Timber Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .489
4.2.3 Concrete Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .489
4.3 MANUFACTURE OF PILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.3.1 Precast Concrete Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.3.1.1 Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.3.1.2 Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.3.1.3 Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.3.1.4 Curing and Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.3.1.5 Prestressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.3.1.5.1 Working Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.3.1.6 Storage and Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.3.2 Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.3.2.1 Inspection of Metal Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.3.2.2 Placing Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.4 DRIVING PILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .491
4.4.1 Pile Driving Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .491
4.4.1.1 Hammers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .491
4.4.1.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .491
4.4.1.1.2 Drop Hammers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .491
4.4.1.1.3 Air Steam Hammers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .491
4.4.1.1.4 Diesel Hammers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .491
4.4.1.1.5 Vibratory Hammers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .492
4.4.1.1.6 Additional Equipment or Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .492
Division II CONTENTS xlix
4.4.1.2 Driving Appurtenances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .492
4.4.1.2.1 Hammer Cushion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .492
4.4.1.2.2 Pile Drive Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .492
4.4.1.2.3 Pile Cushion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .492
4.4.1.2.4 Leads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .492
4.4.1.2.5 Followers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .492
4.4.1.2.6 Jets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.2 Preparation for Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.2.1 Site Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.2.1.1 Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.2.1.2 Preboring to Facilitate Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.2.1.3 Predrilled Holes in Embankments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.2.2 Preparation of Piling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.2.2.1 Collars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.2.2.2 Pointing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.2.2.3 Pile Shoes and Lugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.3 Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.3.1 Driving of Test Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.3.2 Accuracy of Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .494
4.4.4 Determination of Bearing Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .494
4.4.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .494
4.4.4.2 Method AEmpirical Pile Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .494
4.4.4.3 Method BWave Equation Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .494
4.4.4.4 Method CDynamic Load Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .495
4.4.4.5 Method DStatic Load Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .495
4.4.5 Splicing of Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
4.4.5.1 Steel Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
4.4.5.2 Concrete Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
4.4.5.3 Timber Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
4.4.6 Defective Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
4.4.7 Pile Cut-off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
4.4.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
4.4.7.2 Timber Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
4.5.1 Method of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .497
4.5.1.1 Timber, Steel, and Concrete Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .497
4.5.1.1.1 Piles Furnished . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .497
4.5.1.1.2 Piles Driven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .497
4.5.1.2 Pile Splices, Pile Shoes, and Pile Lugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .497
4.5.1.3 Load Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .497
4.5.2 Basis of Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .497
SECTION 5DRILLED PILES AND SHAFTS
5.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .499
5.2 SUBMITTALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .499
5.2.1 Contractor Qualications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .499
5.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500
5.3.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500
5.3.2 Reinforcing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500
5.3.3 Casings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500
5.4 CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500
l CONTENTS Division II
5.4.1 Protection of Existing Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500
5.4.2 Construction Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500
5.4.3 General Methods and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500
5.4.4 Dry Construction Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500
5.4.5 Wet Construction Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500
5.4.6 Temporary Casing Construction Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501
5.4.7 Permanent Casing Construction Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501
5.4.8 Alternative Construction Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501
5.4.9 Excavations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501
5.4.10 Casings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501
5.4.11 Slurry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .502
5.4.12 Excavation Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .502
5.4.13 Reinforcing Steel Cage Construction and Placement . . . . . . . . . . . .502
5.4.14 Concrete Placement, Curing, and Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .503
5.4.15 Test Shafts and Bells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .503
5.4.16 Construction Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .503
5.4.17 Integrity Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .504
5.5 DRILLED SHAFT LOAD TESTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .504
5.6.1 Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .504
5.6.1.1 Drilled Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .504
5.6.1.2 Bell Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .504
5.6.1.3 Test Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.1.4 Test Bells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.1.5 Exploration Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.1.6 Permanent Casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.1.7 Load Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.2 Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.2.1 Drilled Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.2.2 Bell Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.2.3 Test Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.2.4 Test Bells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.2.5 Exploration Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.2.6 Permanent Casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.2.7 Load Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.2.8 Unexpected Obstructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
SECTION 6GROUND ANCHORS
6.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .507
6.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .507
6.3.2 Grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .507
6.3.3 Steel Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .508
6.3.4 Corrosion Protection Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .508
6.3.5 Miscellaneous Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .508
6.4 FABRICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .508
6.4.1 Bond Length and Tendon Bond Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .508
6.4.1.1 Grout Protected Ground Anchor Tendon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .508
6.4.1.2 Encapsulation Protected Ground Anchor Tendon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509
6.4.2 Unbonded Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509
6.4.3 Anchorage and Trumpet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509
6.4.4 Tendon Storage and Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509
6.5 INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509
Division II CONTENTS li
6.5.1 Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509
6.5.2 Tendon Insertion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .510
6.5.3 Grouting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .510
6.5.4 Trumpet and Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .510
6.5.5 Testing and Stressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .510
6.5.5.1 Testing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .510
6.5.5.2 Performance Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .511
6.5.5.3 Proof Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .511
6.5.5.4 Creep Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .512
6.5.5.5 Ground Anchor Load Test Acceptance Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .512
6.5.5.6 Lock Off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .513
SECTION 7EARTH RETAINING SYSTEMS
7.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .515
7.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .515
7.3.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .515
7.3.1.1 Cast-in-Place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .515
7.3.1.2 Pneumatically Applied Mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .515
7.3.1.3 Precast Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .515
7.3.1.4 Segmental Concrete Facing Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .515
7.3.3 Structural Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
7.3.4 Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
7.3.5 Drainage Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
7.3.5.1 Pipe and Perforated Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
7.3.5.2 Geotextile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
7.3.5.3 Permeable Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
7.3.5.4 Geocomposite Drainage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
7.3.6 Structure Backll Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
7.3.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
7.3.6.2 Crib and Cellular Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
7.3.6.3 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
7.4 EARTHWORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .517
7.4.1 Structure Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .517
7.4.2 Foundation Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .517
7.4.3 Structure Backll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .517
7.5 DRAINAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .517
7.5.1 Concrete Gutters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .517
7.5.2 Weep Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .517
7.5.3 Drainage Blankets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518
7.5.4 Geocomposite Drainage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518
7.6 CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518
7.6.1 Concrete and Masonry Gravity Walls,
Reinforced Concrete Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518
7.6.2 Sheet Pile and Soldier Pile Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518
7.6.2.1 Sheet Pile Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518
7.6.2.2 Soldier Pile Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .519
7.6.2.3 Anchored Sheet Pile and Soldier Pile Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .519
7.6.2.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .519
7.6.2.3.2 Wales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520
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7.6.2.3.3 Concrete Anchor Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520
7.6.2.3.4 Tie-rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520
7.6.2.3.5 Ground Anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520
7.6.2.3.6 Earthwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520
7.6.3 Crib Walls and Cellular Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520
7.6.3.1 Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520
7.6.3.2 Crib Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520
7.6.3.3 Concrete Monolithic Cell Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .521
7.6.3.4 Member Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .521
7.6.3.5 Backlling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .521
7.6.4 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .521
7.6.4.1 Facing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .521
7.6.4.2 Soil Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .522
7.6.4.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .522
SECTION 8CONCRETE STRUCTURES
8.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525
8.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525
8.1.2 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525
8.1.3 Construction Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525
8.2 CLASSES OF CONCRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525
8.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525
8.2.2 Normal Weight Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525
8.2.3 Lightweight Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525
8.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525
8.3.1 Cements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525
8.3.2 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .526
8.3.3 Fine Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .526
8.3.4 Coarse Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .526
8.3.5 Lightweight Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .526
8.3.6 Air-Entraining and Chemical Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .526
8.3.7 Mineral Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
8.3.8 Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
8.4 PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
8.4.1 Mix Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
8.4.1.1 Responsibility and Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
8.4.1.2 Trial Batch Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
8.4.1.3 Approval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
8.4.2 Water Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
8.4.3 Cement Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
8.4.4 Mineral Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
8.4.5 Air-Entraining and Chemical Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
8.5 MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
8.5.1 Storage of Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
8.5.2 Storage of Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
8.5.3 Measurement of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .529
8.5.4 Batching and Mixing Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .529
8.5.4.1 Batching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .529
8.5.4.2 Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .529
8.5.5 Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .529
8.5.6 Sampling and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .529
Division II CONTENTS liii
8.5.7 Evaluation of Concrete Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530
8.5.7.1 Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530
8.5.7.2 For Controlling Construction Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530
8.5.7.3 For Acceptance of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530
8.5.7.4 For Control of Mix Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530
8.5.7.5 Steam and Radiant Heat-Cured Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530
8.6 PROTECTION OF CONCRETE FROM ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .531
8.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .531
8.6.2 Rain Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .531
8.6.3 Hot Weather Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .531
8.6.4 Cold Weather Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .531
8.6.4.1 Protection During Cure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .531
8.6.4.2 Mixing and Placing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .531
8.6.4.3 Heating of Mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .531
8.6.5 Special Requirements for Bridge Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .532
8.6.6 Concrete Exposed to Salt Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .532
8.6.7 Concrete Exposed to Sulfate Soils or Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .532
8.7 HANDLING AND PLACING CONCRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .532
8.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .532
8.7.2 Sequence of Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .532
8.7.2.1 Vertical Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .532
8.7.2.2 Superstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .533
8.7.2.3 Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .533
8.7.2.4 Box Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .533
8.7.2.5 Precast Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .533
8.7.3 Placing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .533
8.7.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .533
8.7.3.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .533
8.7.4 Consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .534
8.7.5 Underwater Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .534
8.7.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .534
8.7.5.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .534
8.7.5.3 Cleanup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .535
8.8 CONSTRUCTION JOINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .535
8.8.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .535
8.8.2 Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .535
8.8.3 Bonding and Doweling to Existing Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .535
8.8.4 Forms at Construction Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .535
8.9 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION JOINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .535
8.9.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .535
8.9.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .536
8.9.2.1 Premolded Expansion Joint Fillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .536
8.9.2.2 Polystyrene Board Fillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .536
8.9.2.3 Contraction Joint Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .536
8.9.2.4 Pourable Joint Sealants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .536
8.9.2.5 Metal Armor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .536
8.9.2.6 Waterstops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .536
8.9.2.6.1 Rubber Waterstops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .536
8.9.2.6.2 Polyvinylchloride Waterstops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .536
8.9.2.6.3 Copper Waterstops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537
8.9.2.6.4 Testing of Waterstop Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537
8.9.3 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537
8.9.3.1 Open Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537
liv CONTENTS Division II
8.9.3.2 Filled Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537
8.9.3.3 Sealed Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537
8.9.3.4 Waterstops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537
8.9.3.5 Expansion Joint Armor Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537
8.10 FINISHING PLASTIC CONCRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537
8.10.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537
8.10.2 Roadway Surface Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538
8.10.2.1 Striking Off and Floating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538
8.10.2.2 Straightedging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538
8.10.2.3 Texturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538
8.10.2.3.1 Dragged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
8.10.2.3.2 Broomed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
8.10.2.3.3 Tined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
8.10.2.4 Surface Testing and Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
8.10.3 Pedestrian Walkway Surface Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
8.10.4 Troweled and Brushed Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
8.10.5 Surface Under Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
8.11 CURING CONCRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
8.11.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
8.11.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
8.11.2.1 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
8.11.2.2 Liquid Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
8.11.2.3 Waterproof Sheet Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
8.11.3 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
8.11.3.1 Forms-In-Place Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
8.11.3.2 Water Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
8.11.3.3 Liquid Membrane Curing Compound Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
8.11.3.4 Waterproof Cover Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
8.11.3.5 Steam or Radiant Heat Curing Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .541
8.11.4 Bridge Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .541
8.12 FINISHING FORMED CONCRETE SURFACES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .541
8.12.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .541
8.12.2 Class 1Ordinary Surface Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .541
8.12.3 Class 2Rubbed Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .542
8.12.4 Class 3Tooled Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .542
8.12.5 Class 4Sandblasted Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .542
8.12.6 Class 5Wire Brushed or Scrubbed Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .542
8.13 PRECAST CONCRETE MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .543
8.13.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .543
8.13.3 Materials and Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .543
8.13.4 Curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .543
8.13.5 Storage and Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .543
8.13.6 Erection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .544
8.13.7 Epoxy Bonding Agents for Precast Segmental Box Girders . . . . . . .544
8.13.7.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .544
8.13.7.1.1 Test 1Sag Flow of Mixed Epoxy Bonding Agent . . . . . . . . . . . .544
8.13.7.1.2 Test 2Gel Time of Mixed Epoxy Bonding Agent . . . . . . . . . . . .544
8.13.7.1.3 Test 3Open Time of Bonding Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .544
8.13.7.1.4 Test 4Three-Point Tensile Bending Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .545
8.13.7.1.5 Test 5Compression Strength of Cured Epoxy
Bonding Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .545
8.13.7.1.6 Test 6Temperature Deection of Epoxy Bonding Agent . . . . . .545
8.13.7.1.7 Test 7Compression and Shear Strength of Cured Epoxy
Division II CONTENTS lv
lvi CONTENTS Division II
Bonding Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .545
8.13.7.2 Mixing and Installation of Epoxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .546
8.14 MORTAR AND GROUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .546
8.14.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .546
8.14.2 Materials and Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .546
8.14.3 Placing and Curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .547
8.15 APPLICATION OF LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .547
8.15.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .547
8.15.2 Earth Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .547
8.15.3 Construction Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .547
8.15.4 Traffic Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .547
8.16.1 Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .547
8.16.2 Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .548
SECTION 9REINFORCING STEEL
9.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .549
9.2 MATERIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .549
9.2.1 Uncoated Reinforcing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .549
9.2.2 Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .549
9.2.3 Stainless Steel Reinforcing Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .549
9.2.4 Mill Test Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .549
9.3 BAR LISTS AND BENDING DIAGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .549
9.4 FABRICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
9.4.1 Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
9.4.2 Hooks and Bend Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
9.4.3 Identication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
9.5 HANDLING, STORING, AND SURFACE CONDITION
OF REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
9.6 PLACING AND FASTENING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
9.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
9.6.2 Support Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
9.6.3 Precast Concrete Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
9.6.4 Wire Bar Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
9.6.5 Adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
9.6.6 Repair of Damaged Epoxy Coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
9.7 SPLICING OF BARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
9.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
9.7.2 Lap Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
9.7.3 Welded Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
9.7.4 Mechanical Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
9.8 SPLICING OF WELDED WIRE FABRIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .552
9.9 SUBSTITUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .552
9.10 MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .552
9.11 PAYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .552
SECTION 10PRESTRESSING
10.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .553
10.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .553
10.1.2 Details of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .553
10.2 SUPPLEMENTARY DRAWINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .553
Division II CONTENTS lvii
10.2.2 Composite Placing Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .554
10.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .554
10.3.1 Prestressing Steel and Anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .554
10.3.1.1 Strand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .554
10.3.1.2 Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .554
10.3.1.3 Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .554
10.3.2 Post-Tensioning Anchorages and Couplers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .554
10.3.2.1 Bonded Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .554
10.3.2.2 Unbonded Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .554
10.3.2.3 Special Anchorage Device Acceptance Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .555
10.3.2.3.7 Cyclic Loading Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .555
10.3.2.3.8 Sustained Loading Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .555
10.3.2.3.9 Monotonic Loading Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .555
10.4 PLACEMENT OF DUCTS, STEEL, AND ANCHORAGE
HARDWARE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .556
10.4.1 Placement of Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .556
10.4.1.1 Vents and Drains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .556
10.4.2 Placement of Prestressing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .556
10.4.2.1 Placement for Pretensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .556
10.4.2.2 Placement for Post-Tensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .557
10.4.2.2.1 Protection of Steel After Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .557
10.4.3 Placement of Anchorage Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .557
10.5 IDENTIFICATION AND TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .557
10.5.1 Pretensioning Method Tendons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558
10.5.2 Post-Tensioning Method Tendons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558
10.5.3 Anchorage Assemblies and Couplers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558
10.6 PROTECTION OF PRESTRESSING STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558
10.7 CORROSION INHIBITOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558
10.8 DUCTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558
10.8.1 Metal Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
10.8.2 Polyethylene Duct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
10.8.3 Duct Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
10.8.4 Duct Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
10.9 GROUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
10.9.1 Portland Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
10.9.2 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
10.9.3 Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
10.10 TENSIONING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
10.10.1 General Tensioning Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
10.10.1.1 Concrete Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
10.10.1.2 Prestressing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
10.10.1.3 Sequence of Stressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .561
10.10.1.4 Measurement of Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .561
10.10.2 Pretensioning Method Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .561
10.10.3 Post-Tensioning Method Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .562
10.11 GROUTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .562
10.11.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .562
10.11.2 Preparation of Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .562
10.11.3 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .562
10.11.4 Mixing of Grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .562
10.11.5 Injection of Grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .563
10.11.6 Temperature Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .563
lviii CONTENTS Division II
10.12.1 Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .563
10.12.2 Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .563
SECTION 11STEEL STRUCTURES
11.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565
11.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565
11.1.2 Notice of Beginning of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565
11.1.3 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565
11.1.4 Inspectors Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565
11.2.1 Shop Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
11.2.2 Erection Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
11.2.3 Camber Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
11.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
11.3.1 Structural Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
11.3.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
11.3.1.2 Carbon Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
11.3.1.3 High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
11.3.1.4 High-Strength Low-Alloy, Quenched and Tempered Structural
Steel Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
11.3.1.5 High-Yield Strength, Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steel Plate . . .566
11.3.1.6 Eyebars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .567
11.3.1.7 Structural Tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .567
11.3.2 High-Strength Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .567
11.3.2.1 Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .567
11.3.2.2 Identifying Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .567
11.3.2.3 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .567
11.3.2.4 Galvanized High-Strength Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
11.3.2.5 Alternative Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
11.3.2.6 Load Indicator Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
11.3.3 Welded Stud Shear Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
11.3.3.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
11.3.3.2 Test Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
11.3.3.3 Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
11.3.3.4 Certication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.3.5 Check Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.4 Steel Forgings and Steel Shafting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.4.1 Steel Forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.4.2 Cold Finished Carbon Steel Shafting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.5 Steel Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.5.1 Mild Steel Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.5.2 Chromium Alloy-Steel Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.6 Iron Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.6.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.6.2 Workmanship and Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.6.3 Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.7 Galvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.4 FABRICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
11.4.1 Identication of Steels During Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
11.4.2 Storage of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
11.4.3 Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
Division II CONTENTS lix
11.4.3.1 Direction of Rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
11.4.3.2 Plate Cut Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
11.4.3.2.1 Edge Planing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
11.4.3.2.2 Oxygen Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
11.4.3.2.3 Visual Inspection and Repair of Plate Cut Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
11.4.3.3 Bent Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
11.4.3.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
11.4.3.3.2 Cold Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
11.4.3.3.3 Hot Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
11.4.4 Fit of Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
11.4.5 Abutting Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
11.4.6 Facing of Bearing Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
11.4.7 Straightening Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
11.4.8 Bolt Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
11.4.8.1 Holes for High-Strength Bolts and Unnished
Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
11.4.8.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
11.4.8.1.2 Punched Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572
11.4.8.1.3 Reamed or Drilled Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572
11.4.8.1.4 Accuracy of Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572
11.4.8.2 Accuracy of Hole Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572
11.4.8.2.1 Accuracy Before Reaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572
11.4.8.2.2 Accuracy After Reaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572
11.4.8.3 Numerically Controlled Drilled Field Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572
11.4.8.4 Holes for Ribbed Bolts, Turned Bolts,
or Other Approved Bearing Type Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572
11.4.8.5 Preparation of Field Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573
11.4.9 Pins and Rollers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573
11.4.9.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573
11.4.9.2 Boring Pin Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573
11.4.9.3 Threads for Bolts and Pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573
11.4.10 Eyebars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573
11.4.11 Annealing and Stress Relieving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573
11.4.12 Curved Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574
11.4.12.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574
11.4.12.2 Heat Curving Rolled Beams and Welded Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574
11.4.12.2.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574
11.4.12.2.2 Type of Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574
11.4.12.2.3 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574
11.4.12.2.4 Position for Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574
11.4.12.2.5 Sequence of Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575
11.4.12.2.6 Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575
11.4.12.2.7 Measurement of Curvature and Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575
11.4.13 Orthotropic-Deck Superstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575
11.4.13.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575
11.4.13.2 Flatness of Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575
11.4.13.3 Straightness of Longitudinal Stiffeners Subject to Calculated
Compressive Stress, Including Orthotropic-Deck Ribs . . . . . . .576
11.4.13.4 Straightness of Transverse Web Stiffeners and Other Stiffeners
Not Subject to Calculated Compressive Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576
11.4.14 Full-Sized Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576
11.4.15 Marking and Shipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576
11.5 ASSEMBLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576
lx CONTENTS Division II
11.5.1 Bolting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576
11.5.2 Welded Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576
11.5.3 Preassembly of Field Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576
11.5.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576
11.5.3.2 Bolted Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .577
11.5.3.3 Check AssemblyNumerically Controlled Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . .577
11.5.3.4 Field Welded Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .577
11.5.4 Match Marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .577
11.5.5 Connections Using Unnished, Turned, or Ribbed Bolts . . . . . . . . .577
11.5.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .577
11.5.5.2 Turned Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .577
11.5.5.3 Ribbed Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .577
11.5.6 Connections Using High-Strength Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
11.5.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
11.5.6.2 Bolted Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
11.5.6.3 Surface Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
11.5.6.4 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
11.5.6.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
11.5.6.4.2 Rotational-Capacity Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .579
11.5.6.4.3 Requirement for Washers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .580
11.5.6.4.4 Turn-of-Nut Installation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .580
11.5.6.4.5 Calibrated Wrench Installation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .580
11.5.6.4.6 Alternative Design Bolts Installation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .581
11.5.6.4.7 Direct Tension Indicator Installation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .581
11.5.6.4.7a Verication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .581
11.5.6.4.7b Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .582
11.5.6.4.8 Lock-Pin and Collar Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .582
11.5.6.4.9 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .582
11.5.7 Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .583
11.6 ERECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .583
11.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .583
11.6.2 Handling and Storing Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .583
11.6.3 Bearings and Anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .583
11.6.4 Erection Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .583
11.6.4.1 Conformance to Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .583
11.6.4.2 Erection Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .584
11.6.4.3 Maintaining Alignment and Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .584
11.6.5 Field Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .584
11.6.6 Pin Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .584
11.6.7 Mists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .584
11.7.2 Basis of Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .585
SECTION 12STEEL GRID FLOORING
12.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587
12.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587
12.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587
12.2.1 Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587
12.2.2 Protective Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587
Division II CONTENTS lxi
12.2.3 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587
12.2.4 Skid Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587
12.3 ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587
12.4 PROVISION FOR CAMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
12.5 FIELD ASSEMBLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
12.6 CONNECTION TO SUPPORTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
12.7 WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
12.8 REPAIRING DAMAGED GALVANIZED COATINGS . . . . . . . . . . . .588
12.9 PLACEMENT OF CONCRETE FILLER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
12.9.1 Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
12.9.2 Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589
SECTION 13PAINTING
13.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591
13.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591
13.1.2 Protection of Public and Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591
13.1.3 Protection of the Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591
13.1.4 Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591
13.2 PAINTING METAL STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591
13.2.1 Coating Systems and Paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591
13.2.2 Weather Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591
13.2.3 Surface Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .592
13.2.3.1 Blast Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .592
13.2.3.2 Steam Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .593
13.2.3.3 Solvent Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .593
13.2.3.4 Hand Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .593
13.2.4 Application of Paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .593
13.2.4.1 Application of Zinc-Rich Primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .594
13.2.5 Measurement and Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .594
13.3 PAINTING GALVANIZED SURFACES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .594
13.4 PAINTING TIMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .595
13.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .595
13.4.2 Preparation of Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .595
13.4.3 Paint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .595
13.4.4 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .595
13.4.5 Painting Treated Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .595
13.4.6 Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .595
13.5 PAINTING CONCRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .595
13.5.2 Paint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .595
13.5.3 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .595
SECTION 14STONE MASONRY
14.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597
14.1.1 Rubble Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597
14.1.2 Ashlar Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597
14.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597
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14.2.1.1 Rubble Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597
14.2.1.2 Ashlar Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597
14.2.2 Shipment and Storage of Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597
14.2.3 Mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597
14.3 MANUFACTURE OF STONE FOR MASONRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598
14.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598
14.3.2 Surface Finishes of Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598
14.3.3 Rubble Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598
14.3.3.1 Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598
14.3.3.2 Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598
14.3.3.3 Dressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598
14.3.4 Ashlar Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598
14.3.4.1 Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598
14.3.4.2 Dressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598
14.3.4.3 Stretchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .599
14.3.5 Arch Ring Stones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .599
14.4 CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .599
14.4.2 Mixing Mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .599
14.4.3 Selection and Placing of Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .599
14.4.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .599
14.4.3.2 Rubble Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .599
14.4.3.3 Ashlar Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .600
14.4.4 Beds and Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .600
14.4.5 Headers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .600
14.4.6 Cores and Backing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .600
14.4.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .600
14.4.6.2 Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .600
14.4.6.3 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .600
14.4.6.4 Leveling Courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .600
14.4.7 Facing for Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .601
14.4.8 Copings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .601
14.4.8.1 Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .601
14.4.8.2 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .601
14.4.9 Dowels and Cramps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .601
14.4.10 Weep Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .601
14.4.11 Pointing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .601
14.4.12 Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .602
SECTION 15CONCRETE BLOCK AND BRICK MASONRY
15.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .603
15.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .603
15.2.1 Concrete Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .603
15.2.2 Brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .603
15.2.4 Mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .603
15.2.5 Grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .603
15.2.6 Sampling and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .603
15.2.6.1 Mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .603
15.2.6.2 Grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .604
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15.3 CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .604
15.3.2 Laying Block and Brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .604
15.3.3 Placement of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .604
15.3.4 Grouting of Voids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .604
15.3.5 Copings, Bridge Seats, and Backwalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .605
SECTION 16TIMBER STRUCTURES
16.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .607
16.1.1 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .607
16.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .607
16.2.1 Lumber and Timber (Solid Sawn or Glued Laminated) . . . . . . . . . .607
16.2.2 Steel Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .607
16.2.3 Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
16.2.4 Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
16.2.5 Galvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
16.2.6 Timber Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
16.2.6.1 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
16.2.6.2 Split Ring Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
16.2.6.3 Shear-Plate Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
16.2.6.4 Spike-Grid Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
16.3 FABRICATION AND CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .609
16.3.1 Workmanship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .609
16.3.2 Storage of Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .609
16.3.3 Treated Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .609
16.3.3.1 Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .609
16.3.3.2 Framing and Boring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .609
16.3.3.3 Cuts and Abrasions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .610
16.3.3.4 Bored Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .610
16.3.3.5 Temporary Attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .610
16.3.4 Installation of Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .610
16.3.5 Holes for Bolts, Dowels, Rods, and Lag Screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .610
16.3.6 Bolts and Washers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .610
16.3.7 Countersinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
16.3.8 Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
16.3.9 Framed Bents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
16.3.9.1 Mud Sills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
16.3.9.2 Concrete Pedestals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
16.3.9.3 Sills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
16.3.9.4 Posts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
16.3.9.5 Caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
16.3.9.6 Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
16.3.10 Stringers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
16.3.11 Plank Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .612
16.3.12 Nail Laminated or Strip Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .612
16.3.13 Glue Laminated Panel Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .612
16.3.14 Composite Wood-Concrete Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .612
16.3.15 Wheel Guards and Railing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .612
16.3.16 Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .613
16.4 PAINTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .613
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16.5 MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .613
16.6 PAYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .613
SECTION 17PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT OF WOOD
17.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .615
17.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .615
17.2.1 Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .615
17.2.2 Preservatives and Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .615
17.2.3 Coal-tar Roong Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .615
17.3 IDENTIFICATION AND INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .615
17.3.1 Branding and Job Site Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .615
17.3.2 Inspection at Treatment Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .616
17.3.3 Certicate of Compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .616
SECTION 18BEARINGS
18.1 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .617
18.2 APPLICABLE DOCUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .617
18.2.1 AASHTO Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .617
18.2.2 ASTMStandards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .617
18.2.3 Other Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .618
18.3 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .618
18.4 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .618
18.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .618
18.4.1.1 Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .618
18.4.2 Special Material Requirements for Metal Rocker and
Roller Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .618
18.4.3 Special Material Requirements for PTFE Sliding Surfaces . . . . . . .619
18.4.3.1 PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .619
18.4.3.2 Adhesives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .619
18.4.3.3 Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .619
18.4.3.4 Interlocked Bronze and Filled PTFE Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .619
18.4.4 Special Material Requirements for Pot Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .619
18.4.5 Special Material Requirements for Steel Reinforced
Elastomeric Bearings and Elastomeric Pads . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.5.1 Elastomer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.5.2 Fabric Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.5.3 Bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.6 Special Material Requirements for Bronze or
Copper Alloy Sliding Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.6.1 Bronze and Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.6.1.1 Bronze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.6.1.2 Rolled Copper-Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.6.2 Oil Impregnated Metal Powder Sintered Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.7 Special Material Requirements for Disc Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.7.1 Elastomeric Rotational Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.8 Special Material Requirements for Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.8.1 Low-friction Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.8.2 Adhesive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
18.4.9 Special Requirements for Bedding Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
Division II CONTENTS lxv
18.4.9.1 Fabric-Reinforced Elastomeric Bedding Pads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
18.4.9.2 Sheet Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
18.4.9.3 Caulk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
18.4.9.4 Grout and Mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
18.5 FABRICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
18.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
18.5.2 Special Fabrication Requirements for Metal Rocker and
Roller Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
18.5.2.1 Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
18.5.2.2 Lubricant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
18.5.3 Special Fabrication Requirements for PTFE Sliding Bearings . . . .625
18.5.3.1 Fabrication of PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .625
18.5.3.2 Attachment of PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .625
18.5.3.2.1 Flat Sheet PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .625
18.5.3.2.2 Curved Sheet PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .625
18.5.3.2.3 Woven PTFE Fabric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .625
18.5.3.3 Stainless Steel Mating Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .625
18.5.3.4 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .625
18.5.4 Special Fabrication Requirements for Curved Sliding Bearings . . .625
18.5.5 Special Fabrication Requirements for Pot Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . .625
18.5.5.1 Pot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .625
18.5.5.2 Sealing Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .625
18.5.6 Special Fabrication Requirements for Steel Reinforced
Elastomeric Bearings and Elastomeric Pads . . . . . . . . . . . . .626
18.5.6.1 Requirements for All Elastomeric Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .626
18.5.6.2 Steel Laminated Elastomeric Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .626
18.5.6.3 Fabric Reinforced Elastomeric Pads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .626
18.5.6.4 Plain Elastomeric Pads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .626
18.5.7 Special Fabrication Requirements for Bronze and
Copper Alloy Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .626
18.5.7.1 Bronze Sliding Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .626
18.5.7.2 Copper Alloy Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .626
18.5.8 Special Fabrication Requirements for Disc Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . .626
18.5.8.1 Steel Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .626
18.5.9 Special Fabrication Requirements for Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .626
18.5.10 Special Requirements for Load Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
18.5.11 Special Requirements for Anchor Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
18.6 CORROSION PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
18.7 TESTING AND ACCEPTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
18.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
18.7.1.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
18.7.1.2 Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
18.7.1.3 Test Pieces to be Supplied to the Engineer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
18.7.1.4 Tapered Sole Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
18.7.2 Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
18.7.2.1 Material Certication Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
18.7.2.2 Material Friction Test (Sliding Surfaces Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .628
18.7.2.3 Dimensional Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .628
18.7.2.4 Clearance Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .628
18.7.2.5 Short-term Compression Proof Load Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .628
18.7.2.6 Long-term Compression Proof Load Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .628
lxvi CONTENTS Division II
18.7.2.7 Bearing Friction Test (for sliding surfaces only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .628
18.7.2.8 Long-term Deterioration Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .629
18.7.2.9 Bearing Horizontal Force Capacity (Fixed or
Guided Bearings Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .629
18.7.3 Performance Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .629
18.7.4 Special Testing Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .629
18.7.4.1 Special Test Requirements for Rocker and Roller Bearings . . . . . . . .629
18.7.4.2 Special Test Requirements for PTFE Sliding Bearings . . . . . . . . . . .629
18.7.4.3 Special Test Requirements for Curved Sliding Bearings . . . . . . . . . .630
18.7.4.4 Special Test Requirements for Pot Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .630
18.7.4.4.1 Material Certication Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .630
18.7.4.4.2 Testing by the Engineer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .630
18.7.4.4.3 Bearing Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .630
18.7.4.5 Test Requirements for Elastomeric Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .630
18.7.4.5.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .630
18.7.4.5.2 Frequency of Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .630
18.7.4.5.3 Ambient Temperature Tests on the Elastomer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .631
18.7.4.5.4 Low Temperature Tests on the Elastomer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .631
18.7.4.5.5 Visual Inspection of the Finished Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .631
18.7.4.5.6 Short-Duration Compression Tests on Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .631
18.7.4.5.7 Long-Duration Compression Tests on Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .631
18.7.4.5.8 Shear Modulus Tests on Materials from Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . .631
18.7.4.7 Test Requirements for Bronze and Copper Alloy Bearings . . . . . . . .631
18.7.4.8 Test Requirements for Disc Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .632
18.7.4.8.1 Material Certication Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .632
18.7.4.8.2 Testing by the Engineer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .632
18.7.4.8.3 Bearing Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .632
18.7.5 Cost of Transporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .632
18.7.6 Use of Tested Bearings in the Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .632
18.8 PACKING, SHIPPING AND STORING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .632
18.9 INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .632
18.9.1 General Installation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .632
18.9.2 Special Installation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .633
18.9.2.1 Installation of Rocker and Roller Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .633
18.9.2.2 Installation of Elastomeric Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .633
18.9.2.3 Installation of Guideways and Restraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .633
18.9.2.4 Installation of Anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .633
18.10 DOCUMENTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .633
18.10.2 Marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .633
18.10.3 Certication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .633
18.11 MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .634
18.12 PAYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .634
SECTION 19BRIDGE DECK JOINT SEALS
19.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .635
19.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .635
19.4 MANUFACTURE AND FABRICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .635
19.4.1 Compression Seal Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .635
19.4.2 Joint Seal Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .635
Division II CONTENTS lxvii
19.5 INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .635
19.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .635
19.5.2 Compression Seal Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .636
19.5.3 Joint Seal Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .636
SECTION 20RAILINGS
20.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
20.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
20.1.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
20.1.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
20.1.4 Line and Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
20.2 METAL RAILING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
20.2.1 Materials and Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
20.2.1.1 Steel Railing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
20.2.1.2 Aluminum Railing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
20.2.1.3 Metal Beam Railing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
20.2.1.4 Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
20.2.2 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
20.2.3 Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .638
20.3 CONCRETE RAILING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .638
20.3.1 Materials and Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .638
20.4 TIMBER RAILING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .638
20.5 STONE AND BRICK RAILINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .638
20.6 TEMPORARY RAILING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .638
20.7.1 Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .638
20.7.2 Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .638
SECTION 21WATERPROOFING
21.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639
21.1.1 Waterproong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639
21.1.2 Dampproong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639
21.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639
21.2.1 Asphalt Membrane Waterproong System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639
21.2.1.1 Asphalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639
21.2.1.2 Primer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639
21.2.1.3 Fabric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639
21.2.2 Preformed Membrane Waterproong Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639
21.2.2.1 Primer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639
21.2.2.2 Preformed Membrane Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639
21.2.2.3 Mastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .640
21.2.3 Protective Covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .640
21.2.4 Dampproong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .640
21.2.5 Inspection and Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .640
21.3 SURFACE PREPARATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .640
21.4 APPLICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .640
21.4.1 Asphalt Membrane Waterproong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .641
21.4.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .641
21.4.1.2 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .641
21.4.1.3 Special Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .641
21.4.1.4 Damage Patching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .641
21.4.2 Preformed Membrane Waterproong Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .642
21.4.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .642
21.4.2.2 Installation on Bridge Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .642
21.4.2.3 Installation on Other Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .642
21.4.3 Protective Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .642
21.4.4 Dampproong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .643
SECTION 22SLOPE PROTECTION
22.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
22.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
22.1.2 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
22.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
22.3.1 Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
22.3.2 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
22.3.3 Filter Fabric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
22.3.4 Grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
22.3.5 Sacked Concrete Riprap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
22.3.6 Portland Cement Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
22.3.7 Pneumatically Applied Mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
22.3.8 Precast Portland Cement Concrete Blocks
and Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
22.3.10 Geocomposite Drain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
22.4 CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
22.4.1 Preparation of Slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
22.4.2 Bedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
22.4.3 Filter Fabric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
22.4.4 Geocomposite Drain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
22.4.5 Hand Placing Stones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
22.4.6 Machine-Placed Stones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
22.4.6.1 Dry Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
22.4.6.2 Underwater Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
22.4.7 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
22.4.7.1 Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
22.4.7.2 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .648
22.4.8 Grouted Riprap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .648
22.4.9 Sacked Concrete Riprap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .648
22.4.10 Concrete Slope Paving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .648
22.4.10.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .648
22.4.10.2 Cast-in-Place Slope Paving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .649
22.4.10.3 Precast Slope Paving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .649
22.5.1.1 Stone Riprap and Filter Blanket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .649
22.5.1.2 Sacked Concrete Riprap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .649
22.5.1.3 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .649
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22.5.1.4 Cast-in-Place Concrete Slope Paving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
22.5.1.5 Precast Concrete Slope Paving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
22.5.1.6 Filter Fabric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
22.5.2 Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
22.5.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
22.5.2.2 Stone Riprap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
22.5.2.3 Sacked Concrete Riprap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
22.5.2.4 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
22.5.2.5 Cast-in-Place Concrete Slope Paving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
22.5.2.6 Precast Concrete Slope Paving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
22.5.2.7 Filter Blanket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
22.5.2.8 Filter Fabric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
22.5.2.9 Geocomposite Drain System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
SECTION 23MISCELLANEOUS METAL
23.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
23.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
23.3 FABRICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
23.4 GALVANIZING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
23.5 MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
23.6 PAYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
SECTION 24PNEUMATICALLY APPLIED MORTAR
24.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
24.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
24.2.1 Cement, Aggregate, Water, and Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
24.2.3 Anchor Bolts or Studs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
24.3 PROPORTIONING AND MIXING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
24.3.1 Proportioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
24.3.2 Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
24.4 SURFACE PREPARATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .654
24.4.1 Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .654
24.4.2 Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .654
24.4.3 Concrete or Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .654
24.5 INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .654
24.5.1 Placement of Reinforcing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .654
24.5.2 Placement of Mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .654
24.5.2.1 Weather Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .655
24.5.2.2 Protection of Adjacent Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .655
24.5.3 Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .655
24.5.4 Curing and Protecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .655
SECTION 25STEEL AND CONCRETE TUNNEL LINERS
25.1 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .657
25.2 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .657
Division II CONTENTS lxix
25.3 MATERIALS AND FABRICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .657
25.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .657
25.3.2 Forming and Punching of Steel Liner Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .657
25.4 INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658
25.4.1 Steel Liner Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658
25.4.2 Precast Concrete Liner Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658
25.4.3 Grouting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658
25.5 MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658
25.6 PAYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658
SECTION 26METAL CULVERTS
26.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
26.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
26.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
26.3.1 Corrugated Metal Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
26.3.2 Structural Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
26.3.3 Nuts and Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
26.3.4 Mixing of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
26.3.5 Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
26.3.6 Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .660
26.3.7 Protective Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .660
26.3.8 Bedding and Backll Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .660
26.3.8.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .660
26.3.8.2 Long-Span Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .660
26.3.8.3 Box Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .660
26.4 ASSEMBLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .660
26.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .660
26.4.2 Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .660
26.4.2.1 Field Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .661
26.4.2.2 Joint Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .661
26.4.2.3 Soil Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .661
26.4.2.4 Joint Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .661
26.4.3 Assembly of Long-Span Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .662
26.5 INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .662
26.5.1 Placing CulvertsGeneral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .662
26.5.2 Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .662
26.5.3 Bedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .664
26.5.4 Structural Backll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .665
26.5.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .665
26.5.4.2 Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .665
26.5.4.3 Long-Span Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .665
26.5.4.4 Box Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .666
26.5.4.5 Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .666
26.5.5 Arch Substructures and Headwalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .666
26.5.6 Inspection Requirements for CMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .667
26.6 CONSTRUCTION PRECAUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .667
26.7 MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .667
26.8 PAYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .667
SECTION 27CONCRETE CULVERTS
27.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .669
lxx CONTENTS Division II
27.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .669
27.3.1 Reinforced Concrete Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .669
27.3.2 Joint Sealants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .669
27.3.2.1 Cement Mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .669
27.3.2.2 Flexible Watertight Gaskets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .669
27.3.2.3 Other Joint Sealant Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .670
27.3.3 Bedding, Haunch, Lower Side and Backll or Overll Material . . .670
27.3.3.1 Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular, Arch, and Elliptical Pipe . . . .670
27.3.3.2 Precast Reinforced Concrete Box Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .670
27.4 ASSEMBLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .670
27.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .670
27.4.2 Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .670
27.5 INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .670
27.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .670
27.5.2 Bedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .670
27.5.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .670
27.5.2.2 Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular Arch and Elliptical Pipe . . . . .673
27.5.3 Placing Culvert Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .673
27.5.4 Haunch, Lower Side and Backll or Overll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .674
27.5.4.1 Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular Arch and Elliptical Pipe . . . . .674
27.5.4.1.1 Haunch Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .674
27.5.4.1.2 Lower Side Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .677
27.5.4.1.3 Overll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .677
27.5.4.2.1 Backll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .677
27.5.4.3 Placing of Haunch, Lower Side and Backll or Overll . . . . . . . . . .677
27.5.4.4 Cover Over Culvert During Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .678
27.6 MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .678
27.7 PAYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .678
SECTION 28WEARING SURFACES
28.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .679
28.2 LATEX MODIFIED CONCRETE TYPE WEARING SURFACE . . .679
28.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .679
28.2.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .679
28.2.2.1 Portland Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .679
28.2.2.2 Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .679
28.2.2.3 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .679
28.2.2.4 Latex Emulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .679
28.2.2.5 Latex Modied Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .680
28.2.3.1 New Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .680
28.2.3.2 Existing Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .680
28.2.4 Proportioning and Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .681
28.2.5 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .681
28.2.5.1 Weather Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .681
28.2.5.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .681
28.2.5.3 Placing and Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .682
28.2.5.3.1 Construction Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .682
28.2.5.3.2 Placing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .682
Division II CONTENTS lxxi
28.2.5.3.3 Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .682
28.2.6 Curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .682
28.2.7 Acceptance Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .682
SECTION 29EMBEDMENT ANCHORS
29.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .685
29.2 PREQUALIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .685
29.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .685
29.4 CONSTRUCTION METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .685
29.5 INSPECTION AND TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .685
29.6 MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .686
29.7 PAYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .686
SECTION 30THERMOPLASTIC PIPE
30.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .687
30.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .687
30.1.2 Workmanship and Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .687
30.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .687
30.3.1 Thermoplastic Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .687
30.3.2 Bedding Material and Structural Backll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .687
30.4 ASSEMBLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .688
30.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .688
30.4.2 Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .688
30.4.2.1 Field Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .688
30.5 INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .688
30.5.1 General Installation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .688
30.5.2 Trench Widths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .688
30.5.3 Foundation and Bedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .689
30.5.4 Structural Backll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .689
30.5.5 Minimum Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .689
30.5.6 Installation Deection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .689
30.6 MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .689
30.7 PAYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .689
LIST OF FIGURES
DIVISION I
DESIGN
SECTION 2GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN
Figure 2.3.1 Clearance Diagram for Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Figure 2.4A Clearance Diagrams for Underpasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Figure 2.5 Clearance Diagram for TunnelsTwo-Lane Highway Traffic . .9
Figure 2.7.4A Pedestrian Railing, Bicycle Railing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Figure 2.7.4B Traffic Railing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
SECTION 3LOADS
Figure 3.7.6A Standard H Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
lxxii CONTENTS Figures
Figure 3.7.6B Lane Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Figure 3.7.7A Standard HS Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Figure 4.4.3A Design Terminology for Spread Footing Foundations . . . . . . .48
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1A Denition Sketch for Loading and Dimensions
for Footings Subjected to Eccentric or Inclined Loads,
Modied after EPRI (1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1B Contact Pressure for Footing Loaded Eccentrically
About One Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1C Contact Pressure for Footing Loaded Eccentrically
About Two Axes, Modied after AREA (1980) . . . . . . . . . .53
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.4A Modied Bearing Capacity Factors for Footings
on Sloping Ground, Modied after Meyerhof (1957) . . . . .54
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.4B Modied Bearing Capacity Factors for Footing Adjacent
Sloping Ground, Modied after Meyerhof (1957) . . . . . . . . .54
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.6A Denition Sketch for Inuence of Ground Water Table
on Bearing Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.7A Typical Two-Layer Soil Proles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.7B Modied Bearing Capacity Factor for Two-Layer Cohesive
Soil with Softer Soil Overlying Stiffer Soil, EPRI (1983) . .56
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.8A Denition Sketch for Footing Base Inclination . . . . . . . . . . . .57
Figure 4.4.7.2.1A Boussinesg Vertical Stress Contours for Continuous
and Square Footings, Modied after Sowers (1979) . . . . . .58
Figure 4.4.7.2.3A Typical Consolidation Compression Curve
for Overconsolidated SoilVoid Ratio
Versus Vertical Effective Stress, EPRI (1983) . . . . . . . . . . .60
Figure 4.4.7.2.3B Typical Consolidation Compression Curve
for Overconsolidated SoilVoid Strain
Versus Vertical Effective Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Figure 4.4.7.2.3C Reduction Factor to Account for Effects of Three-
Dimensional Consolidation Settlement, EPRI (1983) . . . . .60
Figure 4.4.7.2.3D Percentage of Consolidation as a Function of Time
Factor, T, EPRI (1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
Figure 4.4.8.1.1A Allowable Contact Stress for Footings on Rock with Tight
Discontinuities, Peck, et al. (1974) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
Figure 4.4.8.2.2A Relationship Between Elastic Modulus and Uniaxial
Compressive Strength for Intact Rock, Modied
after Deere (1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Figure 4.5.4A Design Terminology for Driven Pile Foundations . . . . . . . . . .71
Figure 4.6.3A Design Terminology for Drilled Shaft Foundations . . . . . . . . .81
Figure 4.6.5.1.1A Identication of Portions of Drilled Shafts Neglected
for Estimation of Drilled Shaft Side Resistance
in Cohesive Soil, Reese and ONeill (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
Figure 4.6.5.3.1A Procedure for Estimating Average Unit Shear for Smooth
Wall Rock-Socketed Shafts, Horvath et al. (1983) . . . . . . . .85
Figure 4.6.5.5.1.1A Load Transfer in Side Resistance Versus Settlement Drilled
Shafts in Cohesive Soil, after Reese and ONeill (1988) . . .87
Figure 4.6.5.5.1.1B Load Transfer in Tip Bearing Settlement Drilled Shafts
in Cohesive Soil, after Reese and ONeill (1988) . . . . . . . . .87
Figure 4.6.5.5.1.2A Load Transfer in Side Resistance Versus Settlement Drilled Shafts
in Cohesionless Soil, after Reese and ONeill (1988) . . . . . .88
Figures CONTENTS lxxiii
Figure 4.6.5.5.1.2B Load Transfer in Tip Bearing Versus Settlement Drilled Shafts
in Cohesionless Soil, after Reese and ONeill (1988) . . . . . .88
Figure 4.6.5.5.2A Inuence Coefficient for Elastic Settlement of Rock-Socketed
Drilled Shafts, Modied after Pells and Turner (1979) . . . .89
Figure 4.6.5.5.2B Inuence Coefficient for Elastic Uplift Displacement of
Rock-Socketed Drilled Shafts, Modied after Pells and
Turner (1979) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
Figure 4.12.3.2.1-1 Location of Equivalent Footing after Duncan and Buchignami
(1976) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104.1
Figure 5.2A Typical Mechanically Stabilized Earth Gravity Walls . . . . .112
Figure 5.2B Typical Prefabricated Modular Gravity Walls . . . . . . . . . . .113
Figure 5.2C Typical Rigid Gravity, Semi-Gravity Cantilever, Nongravity
Cantilever, and Anchored Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
Figure 5.5.1A Terms Used in Design of Rigid Gravity and Semi-Gravity
Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
Figure 5.5.2A Computational Procedures for Active Earth Pressures
(Coulomb Analysis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
Figure 5.5.2B Procedure to Determine Lateral Pressure Due to Point and
Line Loads, Modied after Terzaghi (1954) . . . . . . . . . . . .123
Figure 5.5.2C Computational Procedures for Passive Earth Pressures for Slop-
ing Wall with Horizontal Backll (Caquot and Kerisel Analy-
sis), Modied after U.S. Department of Navy (1982) . . . . . .124
Figure 5.5.2D Computational Procedures for Passive Earth Pressures for Ver-
tical Wall with Sloping Backll (Caquot and Kerisel Analysis),
Modied after U.S. Department of Navy (1982) . . . . . . . . .125
Figure 5.5.5A Design Criteria for Rigid Retaining Walls,
(Coulomb Analysis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
Figure 5.6.2A Simplied Earth Pressure Distributions for Permanent
Flexible Cantilevered Walls with Discrete Vertical Wall
Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
Figure 5.6.2B Simplied Earth Pressure Distributions and Design
Procedures for Permanent Flexible Cantilevered Walls
with Continuous Vertical Wall Elements, Modied after
Teng (1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
Figure 5.6.2C Simplied Earth Pressure Distributions for Temporary
Flexible Cantilevered Walls with Discrete Vertical Wall
Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
Figure 5.6.2D Simplied Earth Pressure Distributions for Temporary
Flexible Cantilevered Walls with Continuous Vertical
Wall Elements, Modied after Teng (1962) . . . . . . . . . . . .131
Figure 5.7.1A Typical Terms Used in Flexible Anchored Wall Design . . . .133
Figure 5.7.2A Guidelines for Estimating Earth Pressure on Walls with
Two or More Levels of Anchors Constructed from the Top
Down, Modied after Terzaghi and Peck (1967) . . . . . . . .134
Figure 5.7.2B Settlement Proles Behind Braced or Anchored Walls,
Modied after Clough and ORourke (1990) . . . . . . . . . . .135
Figure 5.8.1A MSE Wall Element Dimensions Needed for Design . . . . . . .139
Figure 5.8.2A External Stability for Wall with Horizontal Backslope
and Traffic Surcharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
Figure 5.8.2B External Stability for Wall with Sloping Backslope . . . . . . .141
Figure 5.8.2C External Stability for Wall with Broken Backslope . . . . . . .142
Figure 5.8.2D Overall and Compound Stability of Complex MSE
Wall Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
Figure 5.8.3A Calculation of Vertical Stress for Bearing Capacity
Calculations (for Horizontal Backslope Condition) . . . . .144
lxxiv CONTENTS Figures
Figure 5.8.3B Calculation of Vertical Stress for Bearing Capacity
Calculations (for Sloping Backslope Condition) . . . . . . . .145
Figure 5.8.4.1A Calculation of Vertical Stress for Horizontal Backslope
Condition, Including Live Load and Dead Load
Surcharges for Internal Stability Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
Figure 5.8.4.1B Calculation of Vertical Stress for Sloping Backslope
Condition for Internal Stability Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
Figure 5.8.4.1C Variation of the Coefficient of Lateral Stress Ratio K
r
/K
a
with Depth in a Mechanically Stabilized Earth Wall . . . .149
Figure 5.8.5.1A Location of Potential Failure Surface for Internal Stability
Design of MSE Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
Figure 5.8.5.2A Default Values for the Pullout Friction Factor, F* . . . . . . . .151
Figure 5.8.6A Parameters for Metal Reinforcement Strength
Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
Figure 5.8.6B Parameters for Geosynthetic Reinforcement Strength
Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154
Figure 5.8.7.2A Determination of Hinge Height for Segmental Concrete
Block Faced MSE Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Figure 5.8.9.1A Seismic External Stability of a MSE Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
Figure 5.8.9.2A Seismic Internal Stability of a MSE Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
Figure 5.8.10A Empirical Curve for Estimating Anticipated Lateral
Displacement During Construction for MSE Walls . . . . .165
Figure 5.8.12.1A Distribution of Stress from Concentrated Vertical Load
P
v
for Internal and External Stability Calculations . . . . .166
Figure 5.8.12.1B Distribution of Stress from Concentrated Horizontal
Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167
Figure 5.8.12.1C Superposition of Concentrated Dead Loads for External
Stability Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168
Figure 5.8.12.1D Location of Maximum Tensile Force Line in Case of
Large Surcharge Slabs (Inextensible Reinforcements) . . .169
Figure 5.8.12.4A Structural Connection of Soil Reinforcement Around
Backll Obstructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
Figure 5.9.2A Lateral Earth Pressures for Prefabricated Modular Walls,
Case IContinuous Pressure Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172
Figure 5.9.3B Lateral Earth Pressures for Prefabricated Modular Walls,
Case IIIrregular Pressure Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
Figure 5.14.6-1 Earth Loads and Stability Criteria for Walls with Clayey
Soils in the Backll or Foundation (after Duncan et al.,
1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
Figure 5.14.6-2 Earth Loads and Stability Criteria for Walls with Granular
Backlls and Foundations on Sand or Gravel
(after Duncan et al., 1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
Figure 5.14.6-3 Earth Loads and Stability Criteria for Walls with Granular
Backlls and Foundations on Rock
(after Duncan et al., 1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
Figure 5.14.7-1 Contact Pressure Distribution for Structural Design
of Footings on Soil and Rock at Strength Limit States . . .179
SECTION 7SUBSTRUCTURES
Figure 7.5.4A Limiting Values of Differential Settlement Based on Field
Surveys of Simple and Continuous Span Structures
of Various Span Lengths, Moulton, et al. (1985) . . . . . . . .186
Figures CONTENTS lxxv
Figure 8.15.5.8 Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202
Figure 8.16.4.4.1 Denition of Wall Slenderness Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206
Figure 8.16.6.8 Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211
Figure 8.29.1 Hooked-Bar Details for Development of Standard Hooks . .221
Figure 8.29.4 Hooked-Bar Tie Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221
Figure 9.16.2.1.1 Mean Annual Relative Humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235
Figure 10.3.1C Illustrative Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .264
Figure C10.18.2.3.4 Positive Flexure Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-101
Figure C10.18.2.3.4 Negative Flexure Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-101
Figure 10.18.5A Splice Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .278
Figure 10.34.3.1A Web Thickness Versus Girder Depth for Noncomposite
Symmetrical Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296
Figure 10.39.4.3A Longitudinal StiffenersBox Girder Compression
Flange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .309
Figure 10.39.4.3B Spacing and Size of Transverse Stiffeners (for Flange
Stiffened Longitudinally and Transversely) . . . . . . . . . . . .310
Figure 10.40.2.1A Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313
Figure 10.40.2.1B Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313
Figure 10.50A Plastic Stress Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .323
Figure 1 Article C10.50.1.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-130
INTERACTION SYSTEMS
Figure 12.7.1A Standard Terminology of Structural Plate Shapes
Including Long-Span Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
Figure 12.7.4A Typical Structural Backll Envelope and Zone
of Structure Inuence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .351
Figure 12.7.4B Assumed Pressure Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352
Figure 12.7.5A Standard Structure End Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353
Figure 12.8.2A Standard Terminology of Structural Plate Box Culvert
Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .355
Figure 13.7.1A Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .381
SECTION 14BEARINGS
Figure 14.4 Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .388
Figure 14.5.2-1 Typical Bearing Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .389
Figure 14.6.3.2-1 Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393
Figure C14.6.4.3-1 Pot BearingCritical Dimensions for Clearances . . . . . . .C-17
lxxvi CONTENTS Figures
Figure 14.6.5.2-1 Map of Low Temperature Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396
Figure 14.6.5.3.3-1 Load Deection Behavior of Elastomeric Bearings . . . . . . . .396
Figure C14.6.5.3.3-1 Load Deection Behavior of Elastomeric Bearings . . . . . . .C-21
Figure C14.6.5.3.6-1 Elastomeric BearingInteraction Between Compressive
Stress and Rotation Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-22
SECTION 15STEEL TUNNEL LINER PLATES
Figure 15.2.3A Diagram for Coefficient C
d
for Tunnels in Soil
( = Friction Angle) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
INTERACTION SYSTEMS
Figure 16.4A Heger Pressure Distribution and Arching Factors . . . . . . . .413
Figure 16.4B Standard Embankment Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .414
Figure 16.4C Standard Trench Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .414
Figure 16.4D Trench Beddings, Miscellaneous Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .416
Figure 16.4E Embankment Beddings, Miscellaneous Shapes . . . . . . . . . . .417
Figure 16.4F Suggested Design Pressure Distribution Around a Buried
Concrete Pipe for Analysis by Direct Design . . . . . . . . . . .420
Figure 16.4G Essential Features of Types of Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .420
Figure 16.4H General Relationship of Vertical Earth Load
and Lateral Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421
Figure 16.6A Concrete Box Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424
DIVISION I-A
SEISMIC DESIGN
SECTION 1INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.6A Design Procedure Flow Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .442
Figure 1.6B Sub Flow Chart for Seismic Performance Categories B,
C, and D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .443
Figure C3.2 Schematic Representation Showing How Effective
Peak Acceleration and Effective Peak Velocity
Are Obtained from a Response Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . .C-42
Figure 3.2A Acceleration CoefficientContinental United States . . . . . .447
Figure 3.2B Acceleration CoefficientAlaska, Hawaii
and Puerto Rico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .448
Figure C3.5A Average Acceleration Spectra for Different Site Conditions
(after Seed, et al., 1976) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-44
Figure C3.5B Normalized Response Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-45
Figure C3.5C Ground Motion Spectra for A = 0.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-46
Figure C3.5D Ground Motion Spectra for A = 0.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-46
Figure C3.5E Comparison of Free Field Ground Motion Spectra and
Lateral Design Force Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-47
Figure 3.10 Dimensions for Minimum Support Length
Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .452
Figures CONTENTS lxxvii
Figure 4.4A Bridge Deck Subjected to Assumed Transverse
and Longitudinal Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .455
Figure C4.4A Plan View of a Bridge Subjected to a Transverse
Earthquake Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-54
Figure 4.4B Bridge Deck Subjected to Equivalent Transverse
and Longitudinal Seismic Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .455
Figure C4.4B Displacement Function Describing the Transverse
Position of the Bridge Deck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-54
Figure C4.4C Deected Shape Due to Uniform Static Loading . . . . . . . . .C-55
Figure C4.4D Transverse Free Vibration of the Bridge in
Assumed Mode Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-55
Figure C4.4E Characteristic Static Loading Applied to the
Bridge System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-56
Figure C4.5.2 Iterative Procedure for Including Abutment Soil
Effects in the Seismic Analysis of Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . .C-57
SECTION 7DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES IN SEISMIC
PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES C AND D
Figure C7.2.2A Development of Approximate Overstrength
Interaction Curves from Nominal Strength
Curves (after Gajer and Wagh) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-65
Figure C7.6.2A Conning Pressure Provided by a Spirally
Reinforced Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-69
Figure C7.6.2B Conning Pressure Provided by a Rectangular
Reinforced Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-70
Figure C7.6.2C Tie Details in a Rectangular Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-71
Figure C7.6.2D Tie Details in a Square Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-71
DIVISION II
CONSTRUCTION
Figure 16.3 Nail Placement Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .613
Figure 26.5 Typical Cross-Section Showing Materials
Around the Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .663
Figure 26.5.2 A-D: Foundation Improvement Methods When Required . .664
Figure 26.5.3 V Shaped Bed (Foundation) for Larger Pipe Arch,
Horizontal Ellipse and Underpass Structures . . . . . . . . . .665
Figure 26.5.4 End Treatment of Skewed Flexible Culvert . . . . . . . . . . . . . .666
Figure 27.5A Standard Embankment Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .671
Figure 27.5B Standard Trench Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .672
Figure 27.5C Trench Beddings, Miscellaneous Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .673
lxxviii CONTENTS Figures
Figure 27.5D Embankment Beddings, Miscellaneous Shapes . . . . . . . . . . .674
Figure 27.5E Box Sections, Embankment/Trench Bedding . . . . . . . . . . . . .678
SECTION 30THERMOPLASTIC PIPE
Figure 30.5.1 Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .688
LIST OF TABLES
DIVISION I
DESIGN
SECTION 3LOADS
Table 3.22.1A Table of Coefficients and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Table 3.23.1 Distribution of Wheel Loads in Longitudinal Beams . . . . . . .33
Table 3.23.3.1 Distribution of Wheel Loads in Transverse Beams . . . . . . . . .34
Table 4.2.3A Problem Conditions Requiring Special Consideration . . . . . 44
Table 4.4.7.1A Bearing Capacity Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Table 4.4.7.2.2A Elastic Constants of Various Soils, Modied after U.S.
Department of Navy (1982) and Bowles (1982) . . . . . . . . . .59
Table 4.4.7.2.2B Elastic Shape and Rigidity Factor, EPRI (1983) . . . . . . . . . . .59
Table 4.4.8.1.2A Values of Coefficient N
ms
for Estimation of the Ultimate
Bearing Capacity of Footings on Broken or Jointed Rock
(Modied after Hoek (1983)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Table 4.4.8.1.2B Typical Range of Uniaxial Compressive Strength (C
o
) as a
Function of Rock Category and Rock Type . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
Table 4.4.8.2.2A Summary of Poissons Ration for Intact Rock, Modied
after Kulhawy (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
Table 4.4.8.2.2B Summary of Elastic Moduli for Intact Rock, Modied after
Kulhawy (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
Table 4.5.6.2A Recommended Factor of Safety on Ultimate Geotechnical
Capacity Based on Specied Construction Control . . . . . .72
Table 4.5.7.3A Allowable Working Stress for Round Timber Piles . . . . . . . . .73
Table 4.6.5.1.1A Recommended Values of and f
si
for Estimation of
Drilled Shaft Side Resistance in Cohesive Soil,
Reese and ONeill (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
Table 4.6.5.1.4A Recommended Values of q
T
* for Estimation of Drilled Shaft
Tip Resistance in Cohesionless Soil, after Reese and ONeill
(1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
Table 4.10.6-1 Performance Factors for Strength Limit States for Shallow
Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
Table 4.10.6-2 Performance Factors for Geotechnical Strength Limit States
in Axially Loaded Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
Table 4.10.6-3 Performance Factors for Geotechnical Strength Limit
States in Axially Loaded Drilled Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
Table 4.11.4.1.4-1 Presumptive Allowable Bearing Pressures for Spread
Footing Foundations, Modied after U.S. Department
of the Navy, 1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99
Table 4.11.4.2.4-1 Presumptive Bearing Pressures (tsf) for Foundations on
Rock (after Putnam, 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
Tables CONTENTS lxxix
SECTION 5RETAINING WALLS
Table 5.5.2A Relationship Between Soil Backll Type and Wall
Rotation to Mobilize Active and Passive Earth Pressures
Behind Rigid Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
Table 5.5.2B Ultimate Friction Factors and Friction Angles
for Dissimilar Materials, after U.S. Department
of the Navy (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128
Table 5.6.2A General Notes and Legend Simplied Earth Pressure
Distributions for Permanent and Temporary Flexible
Cantilevered Walls with Discrete Vertical Wall Elements . .131
Table 5.7.6.2A Presumptive Ultimate Values of Load Transfer
for Preliminary Design of Anchors in Soil, Modied
after Cheney (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
Table 5.7.6.2B Presumptive Ultimate Values of Load Transfer
for Preliminary Design of Anchors in Rock, Modied
after Cheney (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
Table 5.8.5.2A Default Values for the Scale Effect Correction Factor,
(innity sign*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
Table 5.8.6.1.2A Minimum Requirements for Geosynthetic Products
to Allow Use of Defaulted Reduction Factor
for Long-Term Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
Table 5.8.6.1.2B Default of Minimum Values for the Total Geosynthetic
Ultimate Limit State Strength Reduction Factor, RF . . . .157
Table 5.8.7.2A Default and Minimum Values for the Total Geosynthetic
Ultimate Limit State Strength Reduction Factor
at the Facing Connection, RF
c
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
Table 8.9.2 Recommended Minimum Depths for Constant Depth
Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
Table 8.14.3 Effective Length Factors, k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
Table 8.23.2.1 Minimum Diameters of Bend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
Table 8.32.3.2 Tension Lap Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223
Table 9.16.2.2 Estimate of Prestress Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236
Table 10.2A Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258
Table 10.2B Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258
Table 10.3.1A Allowable Fatigue Stress Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
Table 10.3.1B Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
Table 10.3.2A Stress Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265
Table 10.3.3A Temperature Zone Designations for Charpy V-Notch
Impact Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265
Table 10.24.2 Nominal Hole Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .282
Table 10.32.1A Allowable StressesStructural Steel (In pounds per
square inch) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .288
Table 10.32.3A Allowable Stresses for Low-Carbon Steel Bolts and Power
Driven Rivets (in psi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290
lxxx CONTENTS Tables
Table 10.32.3B Allowable Stresses on High-Strength Bolts or Connected
Material (ksi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290
Table 10.32.3C Nominal Slip Resistance for Slip-Critical Connections
(Slip Resistance per Unit of Bolt Area, F
s
, ksi) . . . . . . . . . .291
Table 10.32.4.3A Allowable StressesSteel Bars and Steel Forgings . . . . . . . .293
Table 10.32.5.1A Allowable StressesCast Steel and Ductile Iron . . . . . . . . .294
Table 10.36A Bending-Compression Interaction Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . .302
Table 10.48.1.2A Limitations for Compact Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .318
Table 10.48.2.1A Limitations for Braced Noncompact Sections . . . . . . . . . . . .318
Table 10.56A Design Strength of Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .332
Table 10.57A Design Slip Resistance for Slip-Critical Connections (Slip
Resistance per Unit of Bolt Area, F
s
= T
b
, ksi) . . . . . . .334
INTERACTION SYSTEMS
Table 12.7.2A Minimum Requirements for Long-Span Structures
with Acceptable Special Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348
Table 12.8.2A Geometric Requirements for Box Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
Table 12.8.4A C
2
, Adjustment Coefficient Values for Number
of Wheels Per Axle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .356
Table 12.8.4B P, Crown Moment Proportioning Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .356
Table 12.8.4C R
h
, Haunch Moment Reduction Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .356
Table 13.2.1A Net Dry Dimensions for Dressed Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
Table 13.2.2A Standard Net Finished Widths of Glue Laminated Timber
Manufactured from Western Species or Southern Pine . . .359
Table 13.5.1A Tabulated Design Values for Visually Graded
Lumber and Timbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .361
Table 13.5.1B Tabulated Design Values for Mechanically Graded
Dimension Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .368
Table 13.5.2A Tabulated Design Values for Bearing Parallel to Grain . . . .369
Table 13.5.3A Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Softwood
Timber with Members Stressed Primarily in Bending . . .370
Table 13.5.3B Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Softwood
Timber with Members Stressed Primarily in Axial Tension
or Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .373
Table 13.5.4A Representative Tabulated Design Values for Laminated
Veneer Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .375
Table 13.5.4B Representative Tabulated Design Values for Parallel Strand
Lumber, Design Values in Pounds Per Square Inch (psi) . . .376
Table 13.5.5A Load Duration Factor, C
D
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
Table 13.6.1A Values of the Bearing Area Factor, C
b
, for Small
Bearing Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
Table 13.7.1A Support Condition Coefficients for Tapered Columns . . . . .382
SECTION 14BEARINGS
Table 14.5.2-1 Bearing Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .389
Table 14.6.2.4-1 Limits on Contact Stress for PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .392
Table 14.6.2.5-1 Design Coefficients of Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .392
Tables CONTENTS lxxxi
Table 14.6.5.2-1 Elastomer Properties at Different Hardnesses . . . . . . . . . . .395
Table 14.6.5.2-2 Low Temperature Zones and Elastomer Grades . . . . . . . . . .396
SECTION 15 STEEL TUNNEL LINER PLATES
Table 15.3.2.2 Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405
Table 15.5A Section Properties for Four-Flange Liner Plate . . . . . . . . . . .406
Table 15.5B Section Properties for Two-Flange Liner Plate . . . . . . . . . . .406
INTERACTION SYSTEMS
Table 16.4A Standard Embankment Installation Soils and Minimum
Compaction Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
Table 16.4B Standard Trench Installation Soils and Minimum
Table 16.4C Equivalent USCS and AASHTO Soil Classications
for SIDD Soil Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
Table 16.4D Design Values of Parameters in Bedding
Factor Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .418
Table 16.4E Bedding Factors for Circular Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .419
Table 16.4F Bedding Factors, B
LL
, for HS 20 Live Loadings . . . . . . . . . . .419
DIVISION I-A
SEISMIC DESIGN
Table 3.4 Seismic Performance Category (SPC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .449
Table 3.5.1 Site Coefficient (S) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .450
Table 3.7 Response Modication Factor (R) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .451
Table 4.2A Minimum Analysis Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .453
Table 4.2B Regular Bridge Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .453
SECTION 7DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES IN SEISMIC
PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES C AND D
Table C7.2.2A Recommended Increased Values of Materials Properties . . .C-66
DIVISION II
CONSTRUCTION
SECTION 8CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Table 8.2 Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .526
Table 8.3 Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
lxxxii CONTENTS Tables
SECTION 11STEEL STRUCTURES
Table 11.4.3.3.2 Minimum Cold-Bending Radii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
Table 11.5A Required Fastener Tension Minimum Bolt Tension
in Pounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
Table 11.5B Nut Rotation from the Snug-Tight Condition Geometry
of Outer Faces of Bolted Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .579
Table 11.5C Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .582
SECTION 13PAINTING
Table 13.2.1 Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .592
SECTION 15CONCRETE BLOCK AND BRICK MASONRY
Table 15.1 Grouting Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .605
Table 16.1 Typical Dimensions of Timber Connectors
(dimensions in inches) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
SECTION 18BEARINGS
Table 18.4.3.1-1 Physical Properties of PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .619
Table 18.4.5.1-1A Material Testspolychloroprene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .621
Table 18.4.5.1-1B Material Testspolyisoprene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .622
Table 18.4.7.1-1 Physical Properties of Polyether Urethane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
Table 18.5.1.5-1 Fabrication Tolerances and Surface Finish Requirements . .624
Table 26.4 Categories of Pipe Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .661
Table 26.6 Minimum Cover for Construction Loads (Round,
Pipe-Arch, Ellipse and Underpass Shapes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .667
Table 27.5A Standard Embankment Installation Soils and Minimum
Table 27.5B Standard Trench Installation Soils and Minimum
Compaction Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
Table 27.5C Equivalent USCS and AASHTO Soil Classications
or SIDD Soil Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .677
APPENDICES:
ALive Load Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .691
BTruck Train Loadings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .695
CColumns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .696
Tables CONTENTS lxxxiii
DPlastic Section Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .700
EMetric Equivalents and Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .701
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .797
COMMENTARYInterim SpecicationsBridges1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-1
COMMENTARYInterim SpecicationsBridges1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-11
COMMENTARYInterim SpecicationsBridges1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-39
COMMENTARYInterim SpecicationsBridges1999/2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-91
As referenced in Section 4.12.3.3.7b and 4.13.2, the following gures have been reprinted
from the 1993 Commentary of the 1993 Interims to the Standard Specications for Highway
Bridges:
Figure C4.12.3.7.2-1 Uplift of Group of Closely-Spaced Piles in Cohesionless
Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104.1
Figure C4.12.3.7.2-2 Uplift of Group of Piles in Cohesive Soils after Tomlinson
(1987) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104.1
Figure C4.13.3.3.4-1 Elastic Settlement Inuence Factor as a Function of Embed-
ment Ratio and Modulus Ratio after Donald, Sloan and
Chiu, 1980, as presented by Reese and ONeill (1988) . . . .104.1
Figure C4.13.3.3.4-4 Bearing Capacity Coefficient, K
sp
after Canadian
Geotechnical Society (1985) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104.1
lxxxiv CONTENTS Commentary
Division I
DESIGN
Section 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS
1.1 DESIGN ANALYSIS AND GENERAL
STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY FOR BRIDGES
The intent of these Specications is to produce in-
tegrity of design in bridges.
1.1.1 Design Analysis
When these Specications provide for empirical for-
mulae, alternate rational analyses, based on theories or
tests and accepted by the authority having jurisdiction,
will be considered as compliance with these Specica-
tions.
1.1.2 Structural Integrity
Designs and details for new bridges should address
structural integrity by considering the following:
(a) The use of continuity and redundancy to provide
one or more alternate load paths.
(b) Structural members and bearing seat widths that
are resistant to damage or instability.
(c) External protection systems to minimize the ef-
fects of reasonably conceived severe loads.
1.2 BRIDGE LOCATIONS
The general location of a bridge is governed by the
route of the highway it carries, which, in the case of a new
highway, could be one of several routes under considera-
tion. The bridge location should be selected to suit the par-
ticular obstacle being crossed. Stream crossings should be
located with regard to initial capital cost of bridgeworks
and the minimization of total cost including river channel
training works and the maintenance measures necessary
to reduce erosion. Highway and railroad crossings should
provide for possible future works such as road widening.
1.3 WATERWAYS
1.3.1 General
1.3.1.1 Selecting favorable stream crossings should
be considered in the preliminary route determination to
minimize construction, maintenance, and replacement
costs. Natural stream meanders should be studied and, if
necessary, channel changes, river training works, and
other construction that would reduce erosion problems
and prevent possible loss of the structure should be con-
sidered. The foundations of bridges constructed across
channels that have been realigned should be designed for
possible deepening and widening of the relocated channel
due to natural causes. On wide ood plains, the lowering
of approach embankments to provide overow sections
that would pass unusual oods over the highway is a
means of preventing loss of structures. Where relief
bridges are needed to maintain the natural ow distribu-
tion and reduce backwater, caution must be exercised in
proportioning the size and in locating such structures to
avoid undue scour or changes in the course of the main
river channel.
1.3.1.2 Usually, bridge waterways are sized to pass
a design ood of a magnitude and frequency consistent
with the type or class of highway. In the selection of the
waterway opening, consideration should be given to the
amount of upstream ponding, the passage of ice and de-
bris and possible scour of the bridge foundations. Where
oods exceeding the design ood have occurred, or where
superoods would cause extensive damage to adjoining
property or the loss of a costly structure, a larger water-
way opening may be warranted. Due consideration should
be given to any federal, state, and local requirements.
1.3.1.3 Relief openings, spur-dikes, debris deectors
and channel training works should be used where needed
to minimize the effect of adverse ood ow conditions.
Where scour is likely to occur, protection against damage
from scour should be provided in the design of bridge
piers and abutments. Embankment slopes adjacent to
structures subject to erosion should be adequately pro-
3
tected by rip-rap, exible mattresses, retards, spur dikes
or other appropriate construction. Clearing of brush and
trees along embankments in the vicinity of bridge open-
ings should be avoided to prevent high ow velocities and
possible scour. Borrow pits should not be located in areas
which would increase velocities and the possibility of
scour at bridges.
1.3.2 Hydraulic Studies
Hydraulic studies of bridge sites are a necessary part of
the preliminary design of a bridge and reports of such
studies should include applicable parts of the following
outline:
1.3.2.1 Site Data
(a) Maps, stream cross sections, aerial photographs.
(b) Complete data on existing bridges, including dates
of construction and performance during past oods.
(c) Available high water marks with dates of occur-
rence.
(d) Information on ice, debris, and channel stability.
(e) Factors affecting water stages such as high water
from other streams, reservoirs, ood control projects,
and tides.
(f) Geomorphic changes in channel ow.
1.3.2.2 Hydrologic Analysis
(a) Flood data applicable to estimating oods at site,
including both historical oods and maximum oods
of record.
(b) Flood-frequency curve for site.
(c) Distribution of ow and velocities at site for ood
discharges to be considered in design of structure.
(d) Stage-discharge curve for site.
1.3.2.3 Hydraulic Analysis
(a) Backwater and mean velocities at bridge opening
for various trial bridge lengths and selected discharges.
(b) Estimated scour depth at piers and abutments of
proposed structures.
(c) Effect of natural geomorphic stream pattern
changes on the proposed structure.
(d) Consideration of geomorphic changes on nearby
structures in the vicinity of the proposed structure.
1.4 CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH, AND
WATERWAY OPENINGS
Culvert location, length, and waterway openings
should be in accordance with the AASHTO Guide on the
Hydraulic Design of Culverts in Highway Drainage
Guidelines.
1.5 ROADWAY DRAINAGE
The transverse drainage of the roadway should be pro-
vided by a suitable crown in the roadway surface and lon-
gitudinal drainage by camber or gradient. Water owing
downgrade in a gutter section should be intercepted and
not permitted to run onto the bridge. Short, continuous
span bridges, particularly overpasses, may be built with-
out inlets and the water from the bridge roadway carried
downslope by open or closed chutes near the end of the
bridge structure. Longitudinal drainage on long bridges
should be provided by scuppers or inlets which should be
of sufficient size and number to drain the gutters ade-
quately. Downspouts, where required, should be made of
rigid corrosion-resistant material not less than 4 inches in
least dimension and should be provided with cleanouts.
The details of deck drains should be such as to prevent the
discharge of drainage water against any portion of the
structure or on moving traffic below, and to prevent ero-
sion at the outlet of the downspout. Deck drains may be
connected to conduits leading to storm water outfalls at
ground level. Overhanging portions of concrete decks
should be provided with a drip bead or notch.
1.6 RAILROAD OVERPASSES
1.6.1 Clearances
Structures designed to overpass a railroad shall be in
accordance with standards established and used by the af-
fected railroad in its normal practice. These overpass
structures shall comply with applicable Federal, State, and
local laws.
Regulations, codes, and standards should, as a mini-
mum, meet the specications and design standards of the
American Railway Engineering Association, the Associa-
tion of American Railroads, and AASHTO.
1.6.2 Blast Protection
On bridges over railroads with steam locomotives,
metal likely to be damaged by locomotive gases, and all
concrete surfaces less than 20 feet above the tracks, shall
be protected by blast plates. The plates shall be placed to
4 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 1.3.1.3
take account of the direction of blast when the locomotive
is on level or superelevated tracks by centering them on a
line normal to the plane of the two rails at the centerline
of the tracks. The plates shall be not less than 4 feet wide
and shall be cast-iron, a corrosion and blast-resisting alloy,
or asbestos-board shields, so supported that they may be
readily replaced. The thickness of plates and other parts in
direct contact with locomotive blast shall be not less than
3
4 inch for cast iron,
3
8 inch for alloy,
1
2 inch for plain as-
bestos-board, and
7
16 inch for corrugated asbestos-board.
Bolts shall be not less than
5
8 inch in diameter. Pockets
which may hold locomotive gases shall be avoided as far
as practical. All fastenings shall be galvanized or made of
corrosion-resistant material.
1.7 SUPERELEVATION
The superelevation of the oor surface of a bridge on
a horizontal curve shall be provided in accordance with
the standard practice of the commission for the highway
construction, except that the superelevation shall not ex-
ceed 0.10 foot per foot width of roadway.
1.8 FLOOR SURFACES
All bridge oors shall have skid-resistant characteris-
tics.
1.9 UTILITIES
Where required, provisions shall be made for trolley
wire supports and poles, lighting pillars, electric conduits,
telephone conduits, water pipes, gas pipes, sanitary sew-
ers, and other utility appurtenances.
1.6.2 DIVISION IDESIGN 5
Section 2
GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN
2.1 GENERAL
2.1.1 Notations
A
f
area of anges (Article 2.7.4.3)
b ange width (Article 2.7.4.3)
C modication factor for concentrated load, P, used in
the design of rail members (Article 2.7.1.3.1)
D clear unsupported distance between ange compo-
nents (Article 2.7.4.3)
d depth of Wor I section (Article 2.7.4.3)
F
a
allowable axial stress (Article 2.7.4.3)
F
b
allowable bending stress (Article 2.7.4.2)
F
v
allowable shear stress (Article 2.7.4.2)
F
y
minimum yield stress (Article 2.7.4.2)
f
a
axial compression stress (Article 2.7.4.3)
h height of top rail above reference surface (Figure
2.7.4B)
L post spacing (Figure 2.7.4B)
P railing design loading 10 kips (Article 2.7.1.3
and Figure 2.7.4B)
P railing design loading equal to P, P/2 or P/3 (Article
2.7.1.3.5)
t ange or web thickness (Article 2.7.4.3)
w pedestrian or bicycle loading (Articles 2.7.2.2 and
2.7.3.2)
2.1.2 Width of Roadway and Sidewalk
The width of roadway shall be the clear width mea-
sured at right angles to the longitudinal center line of the
bridge between the bottoms of curbs. If brush curbs or
curbs are not used, the clear width shall be the minimum
width measured between the nearest faces of the bridge
railing.
The width of the sidewalk shall be the clear width,
measured at right angles to the longitudinal center line of
the bridge, from the extreme inside portion of the handrail
to the bottom of the curb or guardtimber. If there is a truss,
girder, or parapet wall adjacent to the roadway curb, the
width shall be measured to the extreme walk side of these
members.
2.2 STANDARD HIGHWAY CLEARANCES
GENERAL
2.2.1 Navigational
Permits for the construction of crossings over naviga-
ble streams must be obtained from the U.S. Coast Guard
and other appropriate agencies. Requests for such permits
from the U.S. Coast Guard should be addressed to the ap-
propriate District Commander. Permit exemptions are al-
lowed on nontidal waterways which are not used as a
means to transport interstate or foreign commerce, and are
not susceptible to such use in their natural condition or by
reasonable improvement.
2.2.2 Roadway Width
For recommendations on roadway widths for various
volumes of traffic, see AASHTO A Policy on Geometric
Design of Highways and Streets, or A Policy on Design
StandardsInterstate System.
2.2.3 Vertical Clearance
Vertical clearance on state trunk highways and inter-
state systems in rural areas shall be at least 16 feet over
the entire roadway width with an allowance for resurfac-
ing. On state trunk highways and interstate routes through
urban areas, a 16-foot clearance shall be provided except
in highly developed areas. A16-foot clearance should be
provided in both rural and urban areas where such clear-
ance is not unreasonably costly and where needed for de-
fense requirements. Vertical clearance on all other high-
ways shall be at least 14 feet over the entire roadway
width with an allowance for resurfacing.
2.2.4 Other
The channel openings and clearances shall be accept-
able to agencies having jurisdiction over such matters.
Channel openings and clearances shall conform in
width, height, and location to all federal, state, and local
requirements.
7
2.2.5 Curbs and Sidewalks
The face of the curb is dened as the vertical or slop-
ing surface on the roadway side of the curb. Horizontal
measurements of roadway curbs are from the bottom of
the face, or, in the case of stepped back curbs, from the
bottom of the lower face. Maximum width of brush curbs,
if used, shall be 9 inches.
Where curb and gutter sections are used on the road-
way approach, at either or both ends of the bridge, the
curb height on the bridge may equal or exceed the curb
height on the roadway approach. Where no curbs are used
on the roadway approaches, the height of the bridge curb
above the roadway shall be not less than 8 inches, and
preferably not more than 10 inches.
Where sidewalks are used for pedestrian traffic on
urban expressways, they shall be separated from the
bridge roadway by the use of a combination railing as
shown in Figure 2.7.4B.
In those cases where a New Jersey type parapet or a
curb is constructed on a bridge, particularly in urban areas
that have curbs and gutters leading to a bridge, the same
widths between curbs on the approach roadways will be
maintained across the bridge structure. Aparapet or other
railing installed at or near the curb line shall have its ends
properly ared, sloped, or shielded.
2.3 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR BRIDGES
2.3.1 Width
The horizontal clearance shall be the clear width and
the vertical clearance the clear height for the passage of
vehicular traffic as shown in Figure 2.3.1.
The roadway width shall generally equal the width of
the approach roadway section including shoulders. Where
curbed roadway sections approach a structure, the same
section shall be carried across the structure.
The provisions of Article 2.2.3 shall be used.
2.4 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES
FOR UNDERPASSES
See Figure 2.4A.
2.4.1 Width
The pier columns or walls for grade separation struc-
tures shall generally be located a minimum of 30 feet from
the edges of the through-traffic lanes. Where the practical
limits of structure costs, type of structure, volume and de-
sign speed of through traffic, span arrangement, skew, and
terrain make the 30-foot offset impractical, the pier or
wall may be placed closer than 30 feet and protected by
the use of guardrail or other barrier devices. The guardrail
or other device shall be independently supported with the
roadway face at least 2 feet 0 inches from the face of pier
or abutment.
The face of the guardrail or other device shall be at
least 2 feet 0 inches outside the normal shoulder line.
A vertical clearance of not less than 14 feet shall be
provided between curbs, or if curbs are not used, over the
entire width that is available for traffic.
2.4.3 Curbs
Curbs, if used, shall match those of the approach road-
way section.
2.5 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR TUNNELS
See Figure 2.5.
2.5.1 Roadway Width
The horizontal clearance shall be the clear width and
the vertical clearance the clear height for the passage of
vehicular traffic as shown in Figure 2.5.
Unless otherwise provided, the several parts of the
structures shall be constructed to secure the following
limiting dimensions or clearances for traffic.
8 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 2.2.5
FIGURE 2.3.1 Clearance Diagram for Bridges
FIGURE 2.4A Clearance Diagrams for Underpasses (See Article 2.4 for General Requirements.)
*The barrier to face of wall or pier distance should not be less than the dynamic deection of the barrier for impact by a full-sized automobile at
impact conditions of approximately 25 degrees and 60 miles per hour. For information on dynamic deection of various barriers, see AASHTO Road-
side Design Guide.
FIGURE 2.5 Clearance Diagram for TunnelsTwo-Lane Highway Traffic
The clearances and width of roadway for two-lane traf-
c shall be not less than those shown in Figure 2.5. The
roadway width shall be increased at least 10 feet and
preferably 12 feet for each additional traffic lane.
2.5.2 Clearance between Walls
The minimum width between walls of two-lane tunnels
shall be 30 feet.
The vertical clearance between curbs shall be not less
than 14 feet.
2.5.4 Curbs
The width of curbs shall be not less than 18 inches. The
height of curbs shall be as specied for bridges.
For heavy traffic roads, roadway widths greater than
the above minima are recommended.
If traffic lane widths exceed 12 feet the roadway width
may be reduced 2 feet 0 inches from that calculated from
Figure 2.5.
2.6 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR
DEPRESSED ROADWAYS
2.6.1 Roadway Width
The clear width between curbs shall be not less than
that specied for tunnels.
2.6.2 Clearance between Walls
The minimum width between walls for depressed road-
ways carrying two lanes of traffic shall be 30 feet.
2.6.3 Curbs
The width of curbs shall be not less than 18 inches. The
height of curbs shall be as specied for bridges.
2.7 RAILINGS
Railings shall be provided along the edges of struc-
tures for protection of traffic and pedestrians. Other suit-
able applications may be warranted on bridge-length cul-
verts as addressed in the AASHTO Roadside Design
Guide.
Except on urban expressways, a pedestrian walkway
may be separated from an adjacent roadway by a traffic
railing or barrier with a pedestrian railing along the edge
of the structure. On urban expressways, the separation
shall be made by a combination railing.
2.7.1 Vehicular Railing
2.7.1.1 General
2.7.1.1.1 Although the primary purpose of traffic
railing is to contain the average vehicle using the struc-
ture, consideration should also be given to (a) protection
of the occupants of a vehicle in collision with the railing,
(b) protection of other vehicles near the collision, (c) pro-
tection of vehicles or pedestrians on roadways underneath
the structure, and (d) appearance and freedom of view
from passing vehicles.
2.7.1.1.2 Materials for traffic railings shall be con-
crete, metal, timber, or a combination thereof. Metal ma-
terials with less than 10-percent tested elongation shall
not be used.
2.7.1.1.3 Traffic railings should provide a smooth,
continuous face of rail on the traffic side with the posts set
back from the face of rail. Structural continuity in the rail
members, including anchorage of ends, is essential. The
railing system shall be able to resist the applied loads at
all locations.
2.7.1.1.4 Protrusions or depressions at rail joints
shall be acceptable provided their thickness or depth is no
greater than the wall thickness of the rail member or
3
8
inch, whichever is less.
2.7.1.1.5 Careful attention shall be given to the treat-
ment of railings at the bridge ends. Exposed rail ends,
posts, and sharp changes in the geometry of the railing
shall be avoided. Asmooth transition by means of a con-
tinuation of the bridge barrier, guardrail anchored to the
bridge end, or other effective means shall be provided to
protect the traffic from direct collision with the bridge rail
ends.
2.7.1.2 Geometry
2.7.1.2.1 The heights of rails shall be measured rela-
tive to the reference surface which shall be the top of the
roadway, the top of the future overlay if resurfacing is an-
ticipated, or the top of curb when the curb projection is
greater than 9 inches from the traffic face of the railing.
2.7.1.2.2 Traffic railings and traffic portions of
combination railings shall not be less than 2 feet 3 inches
from the top of the reference surface. Parapets designed
with sloping traffic faces intended to allow vehicles to
ride up them under low angle contacts shall be at least 2
feet 8 inches in height.
2.7.1.2.3 The lower element of a traffic or combina-
tion railing should consist of either a parapet projecting
at least 18 inches above the reference surface or a rail
centered between 15 and 20 inches above the reference
surface.
2.7.1.2.4 For traffic railings, the maximum clear
opening below the bottom rail shall not exceed 17 inches
and the maximum opening between succeeding rails shall
not exceed 15 inches. For combination railings, accom-
modating pedestrian or bicycle traffic, the maximum
opening between railing members shall be governed by
Articles 2.7.2.2.2 and 2.7.3.2.1, respectively.
2.7.1.2.5 The traffic faces of all traffic rails must be
within 1 inch of a vertical plane through the traffic face of
the rail closest to traffic.
2.7.1.3 Loads
2.7.1.3.1 When the height of the top of the top traffic
rail exceeds 2 feet 9 inches, the total transverse load dis-
tributed to the traffic rails and posts shall be increased by
the factor C. However, the maximum load applied to any
one element need not exceed P, the transverse design load.
2.7.1.3.2 Rails whose traffic face is more than 1 inch
behind a vertical plane through the face of the traffic rail
closest to traffic or centered less than 15 inches above the
reference surface shall not be considered to be traffic rails
for the purpose of distributing P or CP, but may be con-
sidered in determining the maximum clear vertical open-
ing, provided they are designed for a transverse loading
equal to that applied to an adjacent traffic rail or P/2,
whichever is less.
2.7.1.3.3 Transverse loads on posts, equal to P, or CP,
shall be distributed as shown in Figure 2.7.4B. A load
equal to one-half the transverse load on a post shall si-
multaneously be applied longitudinally, divided among
not more than four posts in a continuous rail length. Each
traffic post shall also be designed to resist an indepen-
dently applied inward load equal to one-fourth the out-
ward transverse load.
2.7.1.3.4 The attachment of each rail required in a
traffic or combination railing shall be designed to resist a
vertical load equal to one-fourth of the transverse design
load of the rail. The vertical load shall be applied alter-
nately upward or downward. The attachment shall also be
designed to resist an inward transverse load equal to one-
fourth the transverse rail design load.
2.7.1.3.5 Rail members shall be designed for a mo-
ment, due to concentrated loads, at the center of the panel
and at the posts of PL/6 where L is the post spacing and
P is equal to P, P/2, or P/3, as modied by the factor C
where required. The handrail members of combination
railings shall be designed for a moment at the center of the
panel and at the posts of 0.1wL
2
.
2.7.1.3.6 The transverse force on concrete parapet
and barrier walls shall be spread over a longitudinal length
of 5 feet.
2.7.1.3.7 Railings other than those shown in Figure
2.7.4B are permissible provided they meet the require-
ments of this Article. Railing congurations that have
been successfully tested by full-scale impact tests are ex-
empt from the provisions of this Article.
2.7.2 Bicycle Railing
2.7.2.1 General
2.7.2.1.1 Bicycle railing shall be used on bridges
specically designed to carry bicycle traffic, and on
bridges where specic protection of bicyclists is deemed
necessary.
2.7.2.1.2 Railing components shall be designed
with consideration to safety, appearance, and when the
bridge carries mixed traffic freedom of view from passing
vehicles.
2.7.2.2 Geometry and Loads
2.7.2.2.1 The minimum height of a railing used to
protect a bicyclist shall be 54 inches, measured from the
top of the surface on which the bicycle rides to the top of
the top rail.
2.7.2.2.2 Within a band bordered by the bikeway
surface and a line 27 inches above it, all elements of the
railing assembly shall be spaced such that a 6-inch sphere
will not pass through any opening. Within a band bor-
dered by lines 27 and 54 inches, elements shall be spaced
such that an 8-inch sphere will not pass through any
opening. If a railing assembly employs both horizontal
and vertical elements, the spacing requirements shall
apply to one or the other, but not to both. Chain link fence
2.7.1.2.2 DIVISION IDESIGN 11
is exempt from the rail spacing requirements listed
above. In general, rails should project beyond the face of
posts and/or pickets.
2.7.2.2.3 The minimum design loadings for bicycle
railing shall be w 50 pounds per linear foot transversely
and vertically, acting simultaneously on each rail.
2.7.2.2.4 Design loads for rails located more than 54
inches above the riding surface shall be determined by the
designer.
2.7.2.2.5 Posts shall be designed for a transverse
load of wL(where Lis the post spacing) acting at the cen-
ter of gravity of the upper rail, but at a height not greater
than 54 inches.
2.7.2.2.6 Refer to Figures 2.7.4A and 2.7.4B for
more information concerning the application of loads.
2.7.3 Pedestrian Railing
2.7.3.1 General
2.7.3.1.1 Railing components shall be proportioned
commensurate with the type and volume of anticipated
12 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 2.7.2.2.2
FIGURE 2.7.4A Pedestrian Railing, Bicycle Railing
pedestrian traffic. Consideration should be given to ap-
pearance, safety and freedom of view from passing vehi-
cles.
2.7.3.1.2 Materials for pedestrian railing may be
concrete, metal, timber, or a combination thereof.
2.7.3.2 Geometry and Loads
2.7.3.2.1 The minimum height of a pedestrian railing
shall be 42 inches measured from the top of the walkway
to the top of the upper rail member. Within a band bor-
dered by the walkway surface and a line 27 inches above
it, all elements of the railing assembly shall be spaced
such that a 6-inch sphere will not pass through any open-
ing. For elements between 27 and 42 inches above the
walking surface, elements shall be spaced such that an
eight-inch sphere will not pass through any opening.
2.7.3.2.2 The minimum design loading for pedestrian
railing shall be w 50 pounds per linear foot, transversely
and vertically, acting simultaneously on each longitudinal
member. Rail members located more than 5 feet 0 inches
above the walkway are excluded from these requirements.
2.7.3.2.3 Posts shall be designed for a transverse load
of wL (where L is the post spacing) acting at the center of
gravity of the upper rail or, for high rails, at 5 feet 0 inches
maximum above the walkway.
2.7.3.2.4 Refer to Figures 2.7.4A and 2.7.4B for
more information concerning the application of loads.
2.7.4 Structural Specications and Guidelines
2.7.4.1 Railings shall be designed by the elastic meth-
od to the allowable stresses for the appropriate material.
FIGURE 2.7.4B Traffic Railing
TRAFFIC RAILING
For aluminum alloys the design stresses given in the
Specications for Aluminum Structures Fifth Edition, De-
cember 1986, for Bridge and Similar Type Structures pub-
lished by the Aluminum Association, Inc. for alloys 6061-
T6 (Table A.6), 6351-T5 (Table A.6) and 6063-T6 (Table
A.6) shall apply, and for cast aluminum alloys the design
stresses given for alloys A444.0-T4 (Table A.9), A356.0-
T61 (Table A.9) and A356.0-T6 (Table A.9) shall apply.
For fabrication and welding of aluminum railing, see
Article 11.5.
2.7.4.2 The allowable unit stresses for steel shall be
as given in Article 10.32, except as modied below.
For steels not generally covered by these Specica-
tions, but having a guaranteed yield strength, F
y
, the al-
lowable unit stress, shall be derived by applying the gen-
eral formulas as given in these Specications under Unit
Stresses except as indicated below.
The allowable unit stress for shear shall be F
v

0.33F
y
.
Round or oval steel tubes may be proportioned using
an allowable bending stress, F
b
0.66F
y
, provided the R/t
ratio (radius/thickness) is less than or equal to 40.
Square and rectangular steel tubes and steel W and
I sections in bending with tension and compression
on extreme bers of laterally supported compact sec-
tions having an axis of symmetry in the plane of
loading may be designed for an allowable stress F
b

0.60F
y
.
2.7.4.3 The requirements for a compact section are
as follows:
(a) The width to thickness ratio of projecting elements
of the compression ange of Wand I sections shall not
exceed
(b) The width to thickness ratio of the compression
ange of square or rectangular tubes shall not exceed
b
t F
y
6000
2 2 ( ) -
b
t F
y
1600
2 1 ( ) -
FIGURE 2.7.4B (Continued)
(c) The D/t ratio of webs shall not exceed
(d) If subject to combined axial force and bending, the
D/t ratio of webs shall not exceed
but need not be less than
(e) the distance between lateral supports in inches of
Wor I sections shall not exceed
or
20 000 000
2
, ,
( )
A
dF
f
y
- 7
2 400
2 6
,
( )
b
F
y
-
D
t F
y
<
7 000
2 5
,
( ) -
D
t
f
F
F
a
a
y
<
_
,
1
]
1
1
13 300 1 1 43
2 4
, .
( ) -
D
t F
y
13 000
2 3
,
( ) -
2.7.4.3 DIVISION IDESIGN 15
Section 3
LOADS
Part A
TYPES OF LOADS
3.1 NOTATIONS
A maximum expected acceleration of bedrock at the site
a length of short span of slab (Article 3.24.6)
B buoyancy (Article 3.22)
b width of pier or diameter of pile (Article 3.18.2.2.4)
b length of long span of slab (Article 3.24.6)
C combined response coefficient
C stiffness parameter K(W/L) (Article 3.23.4.3)
C centrifugal force in percent of live load (Article 3.10.1)
CF centrifugal force (Article 3.22)
C
n
coefficient for nose inclination (Article 3.18.2.2.1)
C
M
steel bending stress coefficient (Article 3.25.1.5)
C
R
steel shear stress coefficient (Article 3.25.1.5)
D parameter used in determination of load fraction of wheel load (Article 3.23.4.3)
D degree of curve (Article 3.10.1)
D dead load (Article 3.22)
D.F. fraction of wheel load applied to beam (Article 3.28.1)
DL contributing dead load
E width of slab over which a wheel load is distributed (Article 3.24.3)
E earth pressure (Article 3.22)
EQ equivalent static horizontal force applied at the center of gravity of the structure
E
c
modulus of elasticity of concrete (Article 3.26.3)
E
s
modulus of elasticity of steel (Article 3.26.3)
E
w
modulus of elasticity of wood (Article 3.26.3)
F horizontal ice force on pier (Article 3.18.2.2.1)
F
b
allowable bending stress (Article 3.25.1.3)
F
v
allowable shear stress (Article 3.25.1.3)
g 32.2 ft./sec.
2
I impact fraction (Article 3.8.2)
I gross exural moment of inertia of the precast member (Article 3.23.4.3)
ICE ice pressure (Article 3.22)
J gross Saint-Venant torsional constant of the precast member (Article 3.23.4.3)
K stream ow force constant (Article 3.18.1)
K stiffness constant (Article 3.23.4)
K wheel load distribution constant for timber ooring (Article 3.25.1.3)
k live load distribution constant for spread box girders (Article 3.28.1)
L loaded length of span (Article 3.8.2)
L loaded length of sidewalk (Article 3.14.1.1)
17
L live load (Article 3.22)
L span length (Article 3.23.4)
LF longitudinal force from live load (Article 3.22)
M
D
moment capacity of dowel (Article 3.25.1.4)
M
x
primary bending moment (Article 3.25.1.3)
M
y
total transferred secondary moment (Article 3.25.1.4)
N
B
number of beams (Article 3.28.1)
N
L
number of traffic lanes (Article 3.23.4)
n number of dowels (Article 3.25.1.4)
P live load on sidewalk (Article 3.14.1.1)
P stream ow pressure (Article 3.18.1)
P total uniform force required to cause unit horizontal deection of whole structure
P load on one rear wheel of truck (Article 3.24.3)
P wheel load (Article 3.24.5)
P design wheel load (Article 3.25.1.3)
P
15
12,000 pounds (Article 3.24.3)
P
20
16,000 pounds (Article 3.24.3)
p effective ice strength (Article 3.18.2.2.1)
p proportion of load carried by short span (Article 3.24.6.1)
R radius of curve (Article 3.10.1)
R normalized rock response
R rib shortening (Article 3.22)
R
D
shear capacity of dowel (Article 3.25.1.4)
R
x
primary shear (Article 3.25.1.3)
R
y
total secondary shear transferred (Article 3.25.1.4)
S design speed (Article 3.10.1)
S soil amplication spectral ratio
S shrinkage (Article 3.22)
S average stringer spacing (Article 3.23.2.3.1)
S spacing of beams (Article 3.23.3)
S width of precast member (Article 3.23.4.3)
S effective span length (Article 3.24.1)
S span length (Article 3.24.8.2)
S beam spacing (Article 3.28.1)
s effective deck span (Article 3.25.1.3)
SF stream ow (Article 3.22)
T period of vibration
T temperature (Article 3.22)
t thickness of ice (Article 3.18.2.2.4)
t deck thickness (Article 3.25.1.3)
V variable spacing of truck axles (Figure 3.7.7A)
V velocity of water (Article 3.18.1)
W combined weight on the rst two axles of a standard HS Truck (Figure 3.7.7A)
W width of sidewalk (Article 3.14.1.1)
W wind load on structure (Article 3.22)
W total dead weight of the structure
W
e
width of exterior girder (Article 3.23.2.3.2)
W overall width of bridge (Article 3.23.4.3)
W roadway width between curbs (Article 3.28.1)
WL wind load on live load (Article 3.22)
w width of pier or diameter of circular-shaft pier at the level of ice action (Article 3.18.2.2.1)
X distance from load to point of support (Article 3.24.5.1)
x subscript denoting direction perpendicular to longitudinal stringers (Article 3.25.1.3)
18 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 3.1
3.2 GENERAL
3.2.1 Structures shall be designed to carry the following
loads and forces:
Dead load.
Live load.
Impact or dynamic effect of the live load.
Wind loads.
Other forces, when they exist, as follows:
Longitudinal forces; centrifugal force; thermal forces;
earth pressure; buoyancy; shrinkage stresses; rib short-
ening; erection stresses; ice and current pressure; and
earthquake stresses.
Provision shall be made for the transfer of forces be-
tween the superstructure and substructure to reect the ef-
fect of friction at expansion bearings or shear resistance at
elastomeric bearings.
3.2.2 Members shall be proportioned either with refer-
ence to service loads and allowable stresses as provided
in Service Load Design (Allowable Stress Design) or, al-
ternatively, with reference to load factors and factored
strength as provided in Strength Design (Load Factor De-
sign).
3.2.3 When stress sheets are required, a diagram or no-
tation of the assumed loads shall be shown and the
stresses due to the various loads shall be shown separately.
3.2.4 Where required by design conditions, the concrete
placing sequence shall be indicated on the plans or in the
special provisions.
3.2.5 The loading combinations shall be in accordance
with Article 3.22.
3.2.6 When a bridge is skewed, the loads and forces car-
ried by the bridge through the deck system to pin connec-
tions and hangers should be resolved into vertical, lateral,
and longitudinal force components to be considered in the
design.
3.3 DEAD LOAD
3.3.1 The dead load shall consist of the weight of the
entire structure, including the roadway, sidewalks, car
tracks, pipes, conduits, cables, and other public utility
services.
3.3.2 The snow and ice load is considered to be offset
by an accompanying decrease in live load and impact and
shall not be included except under special conditions.
3.3.2.1 If differential settlement is anticipated in a
structure, consideration should be given to stresses result-
ing from this settlement.
3.3.3 If a separate wearing surface is to be placed when
the bridge is constructed, or is expected to be placed in the
future, adequate allowance shall be made for its weight in
the design dead load. Otherwise, provision for a future
wearing surface is not required.
3.3.4 Special consideration shall be given to the neces-
sity for a separate wearing surface for those regions where
the use of chains on tires or studded snow tires can be
anticipated.
3.1 DIVISION IDESIGN 19
Z reduction for ductility and risk assessment
(with appropriate script) coefficient applied to actual loads for service load and load factor designs (Article 3.22)
load factor (Article 3.22)
PL
proportional limit stress perpendicular to grain (Article 3.25.1.4)
B
load combination coefficient for buoyancy (Article 3.22.1)
C
load combination coefficient for centrifugal force (Article 3.22.1)
D
load combination coefficient for dead load (Article 3.22.1)
E
load combination coefficient for earth pressure (Article 3.22.1)
EQ
load combination coefficient for earthquake (Article 3.22.1)
ICE
load combination coefficient for ice (Article 3.22.1)
L
load combination coefficient for live load (Article 3.22.1)
R
load combination coefficient for rib shortening, shrinkage, and temperature (Article 3.22.1)
S
load combination coefficient for stream ow (Article 3.22.1)
W
load combination coefficient for wind (Article 3.22.1)
WL
load combination coefficient for wind on live load (Article 3.22.1)
Poissons ratio (Article 3.23.4.3)
3.3.5 Where the abrasion of concrete is not expected,
the traffic may bear directly on the concrete slab. If con-
sidered desirable,
1
4 inch or more may be added to the
slab for a wearing surface.
3.3.6 The following weights are to be used in comput-
ing the dead load:
#/cu.ft.
Steel or cast steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Cast iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Timber (treated or untreated) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Concrete, plain or reinforced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Compacted sand, earth, gravel, or ballast . . . . . 120
Loose sand, earth, and gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Macadam or gravel, rolled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Cinder lling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Pavement, other than wood block . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Railway rails, guardrails, and fastenings
(per linear foot of track) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Stone masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Asphalt plank, 1 in. thick . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 lb. sq. ft.
3.4 LIVE LOAD
The live load shall consist of the weight of the applied
moving load of vehicles, cars, and pedestrians.
3.5 OVERLOAD PROVISIONS
3.5.1 For all loadings less than H 20, provision shall be
made for an infrequent heavy load by applying Loading
Combination IA (see Article 3.22), with the live load as-
sumed to be H or HS truck and to occupy a single lane
without concurrent loading in any other lane. The over-
load shall apply to all parts of the structure affected, ex-
cept the roadway deck, or roadway deck plates and stiff-
ening ribs in the case of orthotropic bridge super-
structures.
3.5.2 Structures may be analyzed for an overload that is
selected by the operating agency in accordance with
Loading Combination Group IB in Article 3.22.
3.6 TRAFFIC LANES
3.6.1 The lane loading or standard truck shall be as-
sumed to occupy a width of 10 feet.
3.6.2 These loads shall be placed in 12-foot wide design
traffic lanes, spaced across the entire bridge roadway
width measured between curbs.
3.6.3 Fractional parts of design lanes shall not be used,
but roadway widths from 20 to 24 feet shall have two de-
sign lanes each equal to one-half the roadway width.
3.6.4 The traffic lanes shall be placed in such numbers
and positions on the roadway, and the loads shall be
placed in such positions within their individual traffic
lanes, so as to produce the maximum stress in the mem-
ber under consideration.
3.7 HIGHWAY LOADS
3.7.1 Standard Truck and Lane Loads*
3.7.1.1 The highway live loadings on the roadways
of bridges or incidental structures shall consist of standard
trucks or lane loads that are equivalent to truck trains. Two
systems of loading are provided, the H loadings and the
HS loadingsthe HS loadings being heavier than the cor-
responding H loadings.
3.7.1.2 Each lane load shall consist of a uniform load
per linear foot of traffic lane combined with a single con-
centrated load (or two concentrated loads in the case of
continuous spanssee Article 3.11.3), so placed on the
span as to produce maximum stress. The concentrated
load and uniform load shall be considered as uniformly
distributed over a 10-foot width on a line normal to the
center line of the lane.
3.7.1.3 For the computation of moments and shears,
different concentrated loads shall be used as indicated in
Figure 3.7.6B. The lighter concentrated loads shall be
used when the stresses are primarily bending stresses, and
the heavier concentrated loads shall be used when the
stresses are primarily shearing stresses.
*Note: The system of lane loads dened here (and illustrated in Figure
3.7.6.B) was developed in order to give a simpler method of calculating
moments and shears than that based on wheel loads of the truck.
Appendix B shows the truck train loadings of the 1935 Specications
of AASHO and the corresponding lane loadings.
In 1944, the HS series of trucks was developed. These approximate the
effect of the corresponding 1935 truck preceded and followed by a train
of trucks weighing three-fourths as much as the basic truck.
3.7.2 Classes of Loading
There are four standard classes of highway loading:
H 20, H 15, HS 20, and HS 15. Loading H 15 is 75% of
Loading H 20. Loading HS 15 is 75% of Loading HS 20.
If loadings other than those designated are desired, they
shall be obtained by proportionately changing the weights
shown for both the standard truck and the corresponding
lane loads.
3.7.3 Designation of Loadings
The policy of affixing the year to loadings to identify
them was instituted with the publication of the 1944 Edi-
tion in the following manner:
H 15 Loading, 1944 Edition shall be
designated................................................. H 15-44
H 20 Loading, 1944 Edition shall be
designated................................................. H 20-44
H 15-S 12 Loading, 1944 Edition shall be
designated................................................. HS 15-44
H 20-S 16 Loading, 1944 Edition shall be
designated................................................. HS 20-44
The affix shall remain unchanged until such time as the
loading specication is revised. The same policy for iden-
tication shall be applied, for future reference, to loadings
previously adopted by AASHTO.
3.7.4 Minimum Loading
Bridges supporting Interstate highways or other high-
ways which carry, or which may carry, heavy truck traf-
c, shall be designed for HS 20-44 Loading or an Alter-
nate Military Loading of two axles four feet apart with
each axle weighing 24,000 pounds, whichever produces
the greatest stress.
3.7.5 H Loading
The H loadings consist of a two-axle truck or the cor-
responding lane loading as illustrated in Figures 3.7.6A
and 3.7.6B. The H loadings are designated H followed by
a number indicating the gross weight in tons of the stan-
dard truck.
3.7.6 HS Loading
The HS loadings consist of a tractor truck with semi-
trailer or the corresponding lane load as illustrated in Fig-
ures 3.7.7A and 3.7.6B. The HS loadings are designated
by the letters HS followed by a number indicating the
gross weight in tons of the tractor truck. The variable axle
spacing has been introduced in order that the spacing of
axles may approximate more closely the tractor trailers
now in use. The variable spacing also provides a more sat-
isfactory loading for continuous spans, in that heavy axle
loads may be so placed on adjoining spans as to produce
maximum negative moments.
3.8 IMPACT
3.8.1 Application
Highway Live Loads shall be increased for those struc-
tural elements in Group A, below, to allow for dynamic,
vibratory and impact effects. Impact allowances shall not
be applied to items in Group B. It is intended that impact
be included as part of the loads transferred from super-
structure to substructure, but shall not be included in loads
transferred to footings nor to those parts of piles or
columns that are below ground.
3.8.1.1 Group AImpact shall be included.
(1) Superstructure, including legs of rigid frames.
(2) Piers, (with or without bearings regardless of type)
excluding footings and those portions below the
ground line.
(3) The portions above the ground line of concrete or
steel piles that support the superstructure.
3.8.1.2 Group BImpact shall not be included.
(1) Abutments, retaining walls, piles except as speci-
ed in Article 3.8.1.1 (3).
(2) Foundation pressures and footings.
(3) Timber structures.
(4) Sidewalk loads.
(5) Culverts and structures having 3 feet or more
cover.
3.8.2 Impact Formula
3.8.2.1 The amount of the impact allowance or in-
crement is expressed as a fraction of the live load stress,
and shall be determined by the formula:
in which,
I impact fraction (maximum 30 percent);
I
L
+
50
125
1 ( ) 3-
FIGURE 3.7.6A Standard H Trucks
*In the design of timber oors and orthotropic steel decks (excluding transverse beams) for H 20 Loading, one
axle load of 24,000 pounds or two axle loads of 16,000 pounds each spaced 4 feet apart may be used, whichever
produces the greater stress, instead of the 32,000-pound axle shown.
**For slab design, the center line of wheels shall be assumed to be 1 foot from face of curb. (See Article 3.24.2.)
L length in feet of the portion of the span that is
loaded to produce the maximum stress in the
member.
3.8.2.2 For uniformity of application, in this formula,
the loaded length, L, shall be as follows:
(a) For roadway oors: the design span length.
(b) For transverse members, such as oor beams: the
span length of member center to center of supports.
(c) For computing truck load moments: the span
length, or for cantilever arms the length from the mo-
ment center to the farthermost axle.
(d) For shear due to truck loads: the length of the
loaded portion of span from the point under consider-
ation to the far reaction; except, for cantilever arms,
use a 30% impact factor.
(e) For continuous spans: the length of span under
consideration for positive moment, and the average of
two adjacent loaded spans for negative moment.
3.8.2.3 For culverts with cover
00 to 1-0 inc. I 30%
1-1 to 2-0 inc. I 20%
2-1 to 2-11 inc. I 10%
3.9 LONGITUDINAL FORCES
Provision shall be made for the effect of a longitudinal
force of 5% of the live load in all lanes carrying traffic
headed in the same direction. All lanes shall be loaded for
bridges likely to become one directional in the future. The
load used, without impact, shall be the lane load plus the
concentrated load for moment specied in Article 3.7,
with reduction for multiple-loaded lanes as specied in
Article 3.12. The center of gravity of the longitudinal
force shall be assumed to be located 6 feet above the oor
slab and to be transmitted to the substructure through the
superstructure.
FIGURE 3.7.6B Lane Loading
*For the loading of continuous spans involving lane loading refer to Article 3.11.3 which provides for an
additional concentrated load.
FIGURE 3.7.7A Standard HS Trucks
*In the design of timber oors and orthotropic steel decks (excluding transverse beams) for H 20 Loading, one
axle load of 24,000 pounds or two axle loads of 16,000 pounds each, spaced 4 feet apart may be used, whichever
produces the greater stress, instead of the 32,000-pound axle shown.
**For slab design, the center line of wheels shall be assumed to be 1 foot from face of curb. (See Article 3.24.2.)
3.10 CENTRIFUGAL FORCES
3.10.1 Structures on curves shall be designed for a hor-
izontal radial force equal to the following percentage of
the live load, without impact, in all traffic lanes:
where,
C the centrifugal force in percent of the live load,
without impact;
S the design speed in miles per hour;
D the degree of curve;
R the radius of the curve in feet.
3.10.2 The effects of superelevation shall be taken into
account.
3.10.3 The centrifugal force shall be applied 6 feet
above the roadway surface, measured along the center line
of the roadway. The design speed shall be determined with
regard to the amount of superelevation provided in the
roadway. The traffic lanes shall be loaded in accordance
with the provisions of Article 3.7 with one standard truck
on each design traffic lane placed in position for maxi-
mum loading.
3.10.4 Lane loads shall not be used in the computation
of centrifugal forces.
3.10.5 When a reinforced concrete oor slab or a steel
grid deck is keyed to or attached to its supporting mem-
bers, it may be assumed that the deck resists, within its
plane, the shear resulting from the centrifugal forces act-
ing on the live load.
3.11 APPLICATION OF LIVE LOAD
3.11.1 Traffic Lane Units
In computing stresses, each 10-foot lane load or single
standard truck shall be considered as a unit, and fractions
of load lane widths or trucks shall not be used.
3.11.2 Number and Position of Traffic Lane Units
The number and position of the lane load or truck loads
shall be as specied in Article 3.7 and, whether lane or
truck loads, shall be such as to produce maximum stress,
subject to the reduction specied in Article 3.12.
3.11.3 Lane Loads on Continuous Spans
For the determination of maximum negative moment
in the design of continuous spans, the lane load shown in
Figure 3.7.6B shall be modied by the addition of a sec-
ond, equal weight concentrated load placed in one other
span in the series in such position to produce the maxi-
mum effect. For maximum positive moment, only one
concentrated load shall be used per lane, combined with
as many spans loaded uniformly as are required to pro-
duce maximum moment.
3.11.4 Loading for Maximum Stress
3.11.4.1 On both simple and continuous spans, the
type of loading, whether lane load or truck load, to be
used shall be the loading which produces the maximum
stress. The moment and shear tables given in Appendix
A show which types of loading controls for simple
spans.
3.11.4.2 For continuous spans, the lane loading shall
be continuous or discontinuous; only one standard H or
HS truck per lane shall be considered on the structure.
3.12 REDUCTION IN LOAD INTENSITY
3.12.1 Where maximum stresses are produced in any
member by loading a number of traffic lanes simultane-
ously, the following percentages of the live loads may be
used in view of the improbability of coincident maximum
loading:
Percent
One or two lanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
Three lanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Four lanes or more . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.12.2 The reduction in load intensity specied in Arti-
cle 3.12.1 shall not be applicable when distribution factors
from Table 3.23.1 are used to determine moments in lon-
gitudinal beams.
3.12.3 The reduction in intensity of loads on transverse
members such as floor beams shall be determined as
in the case of main trusses or girders, using the number
of traffic lanes across the width of roadway that must
be loaded to produce maximum stresses in the floor
beam.
C S D
S
R
0 00117
6 68
3 2
2
2
.
.
( ) -
3.13 ELECTRIC RAILWAY LOADS
If highway bridges carry electric railway traffic, the
railway loads shall be determined from the class of traffic
which the bridge may be expected to carry. The possibil-
ity that the bridge may be required to carry railroad freight
cars shall be given consideration.
3.14 SIDEWALK, CURB, AND RAILING
LOADING
3.14.1 Sidewalk Loading
3.14.1.1 Sidewalk oors, stringers, and their imme-
diate supports shall be designed for a live load of 85
pounds per square foot of sidewalk area. Girders, trusses,
arches, and other members shall be designed for the fol-
lowing sidewalk live loads:
Spans 0 to 25 feet in length . . . . . . . . . . . . .85 lb./ft.
2
Spans 26 to 100 feet in length . . . . . . . . . . .60 lb./ft.
2
Spans over 100 feet in length according to the formula
in which
P live load per square foot, max. 60-lb. per sq. ft.
L loaded length of sidewalk in feet.
W width of sidewalk in feet.
3.14.1.2 In calculating stresses in structures that sup-
port cantilevered sidewalks, the sidewalk shall be fully
loaded on only one side of the structure if this condition
produces maximum stress.
3.14.1.3 Bridges for pedestrian and/or bicycle traffic
shall be designed for a live load of 85 PSF.
3.14.1.4 Where bicycle or pedestrian bridges are ex-
pected to be used by maintenance vehicles, special design
consideration should be made for these loads.
3.14.2 Curb Loading
3.14.2.1 Curbs shall be designed to resist a lateral
force of not less than 500 pounds per linear foot of curb,
applied at the top of the curb, or at an elevation 10 inches
above the oor if the curb is higher than 10 inches.
3.14.2.2 Where sidewalk, curb, and traffic rail form
an integral system, the traffic railing loading shall be ap-
plied and stresses in curbs computed accordingly.
3.14.3 Railing Loading
For Railing Loads, see Article 2.7.1.3.
3.15 WIND LOADS
The wind load shall consist of moving uniformly dis-
tributed loads applied to the exposed area of the structure.
The exposed area shall be the sum of the areas of all mem-
bers, including oor system and railing, as seen in eleva-
tion at 90 degrees to the longitudinal axis of the structure.
The forces and loads given herein are for a base wind ve-
locity of 100 miles per hour. For Group II and Group V
loadings, but not for Group III and Group VI loadings,
they may be reduced or increased in the ratio of the square
of the design wind velocity to the square of the base wind
velocity provided that the maximum probable wind ve-
locity can be ascertained with reasonable accuracy, or
provided that there are permanent features of the terrain
which make such changes safe and advisable. If a change
in the design wind velocity is made, the design wind ve-
locity shall be shown on the plans.
3.15.1 Superstructure Design
3.15.1.1 Group II and Group V Loadings
3.15.1.1.1 A wind load of the following intensity
shall be applied horizontally at right angles to the longi-
tudinal axis of the structure:
For trusses and arches ........75 pounds per square foot
For girders and beams ........50 pounds per square foot
3.15.1.1.2 The total force shall not be less than 300
pounds per linear foot in the plane of the windward chord
and 150 pounds per linear foot in the plane of the leeward
chord on truss spans, and not less than 300 pounds per lin-
ear foot on girder spans.
3.15.1.2 Group III and Group VI Loadings
Group III and Group VI loadings shall comprise the
loads used for Group II and Group Vloadings reduced by
70% and a load of 100 pounds per linear foot applied at
right angles to the longitudinal axis of the structure and
6 feet above the deck as a wind load on a moving live load.
P
L
W
+
_
,
_
,
30
3 000 55
50
3 3
,
( ) -
When a reinforced concrete floor slab or a steel grid
deck is keyed to or attached to its supporting members,
it may be assumed that the deck resists, within its plane,
the shear resulting from the wind load on the moving
live load.
3.15.2 Substructure Design
Forces transmitted to the substructure by the super-
structure and forces applied directly to the substructure by
wind loads shall be as follows:
3.15.2.1 Forces from Superstructure
3.15.2.1.1 The transverse and longitudinal forces
transmitted by the superstructure to the substructure for
various angles of wind direction shall be as set forth in the
following table. The skew angle is measured from the per-
pendicular to the longitudinal axis and the assumed wind
direction shall be that which produces the maximum
stress in the substructure. The transverse and longitudinal
forces shall be applied simultaneously at the elevation of
the center of gravity of the exposed area of the super-
structure.
The loads listed above shall be used in Group II and
Group V loadings as given in Article 3.22.
3.15.2.1.2 For Group III and Group VI loadings,
these loads may be reduced by 70% and a load per linear
foot added as a wind load on a moving live load, as given
in the following table:
This load shall be applied at a point 6 feet above the
deck.
3.15.2.1.3 For the usual girder and slab bridges hav-
ing maximum span lengths of 125 feet, the following
wind loading may be used in lieu of the more precise load-
ing specied above:
W (wind load on structure)
50 pounds per square foot, transverse
12 pounds per square foot, longitudinal
Both forces shall be applied simultaneously.
WL (wind load on live load)
100 pounds per linear foot, transverse
40 pounds per linear foot, longitudinal
Both forces shall be applied simultaneously.
3.15.2.2 Forces Applied Directly
to the Substructure
The transverse and longitudinal forces to be applied di-
rectly to the substructure for a 100-mile per hour wind
shall be calculated from an assumed wind force of 40
pounds per square foot. For wind directions assumed
skewed to the substructure, this force shall be resolved
into components perpendicular to the end and front ele-
vations of the substructure. The component perpendicular
to the end elevation shall act on the exposed substructure
area as seen in end elevation and the component perpen-
dicular to the front elevation shall act on the exposed areas
and shall be applied simultaneously with the wind loads
from the superstructure. The above loads are for Group II
and Group V loadings and may be reduced by 70%
for Group III and Group VI loadings, as indicated in Arti-
cle 3.22.
3.15.3 Overturning Forces
The effect of forces tending to overturn structures
shall be calculated under Groups II, III, V, and VI of
Article 3.22 assuming that the wind direction is at right
angles to the longitudinal axis of the structure. In addition,
an upward force shall be applied at the windward quarter
point of the transverse superstructure width. This force
shall be 20 pounds per square foot of deck and sidewalk
plan area for Group II and Group V combinations and
6 pounds per square foot for Group III and Group VI
combinations.
3.16 THERMAL FORCES
Provision shall be made for stresses or movements re-
sulting from variations in temperature. The rise and fall in
temperature shall be xed for the locality in which the
structure is to be constructed and shall be computed from
an assumed temperature at the time of erection. Due con-
sideration shall be given to the lag between air tempera-
ture and the interior temperature of massive concrete
members or structures.
The range of temperature shall generally be as follows:
3.17 UPLIFT
3.17.1 Provision shall be made for adequate attachment
of the superstructure to the substructure by ensuring that
the calculated uplift at any support is resisted by tension
members engaging a mass of masonry equal to the largest
force obtained under one of the following conditions:
(a) 100% of the calculated uplift caused by any load-
ing or combination of loadings in which the live plus
impact loading is increased by 100%.
(b) 150% of the calculated uplift at working load
level.
3.17.2 Anchor bolts subject to tension or other elements
of the structure stressed under the above conditions shall
be designed at 150% of the allowable basic stress.
3.18 FORCES FROM STREAM CURRENT AND
FLOATING ICE, AND DRIFT CONDITIONS
All piers and other portions of structures that are sub-
ject to the force of owing water, oating ice, or drift shall
be designed to resist the maximum stresses induced
thereby.
3.18.1 Force of Stream Current on Piers
3.18.1.1 Stream Pressure
3.18.1.1.1 The effect of owing water on piers and
drift build-up, assuming a second-degree parabolic veloc-
ity distribution and thus a triangular pressure distribution,
shall be calculated by the formula:
P
avg
K(V
avg
)
2
(3-4)
where,
P
avg
average stream pressure, in pounds per square
foot,
V
avg
average velocity of water in feet per second,
computed by dividing the ow rate by the ow
area,
K a constant, being 1.4 for all piers subjected to
drift build-up and square-ended piers, 0.7 for
circular piers, and 0.5 for angle-ended piers
where the angle is 30 degrees or less.
The maximum stream ow pressure, P
max
, shall be
equal to twice the average stream ow pressure, P
avg
, com-
puted by Equation 3-4. Stream ow pressure shall be a tri-
angular distribution with P
max
located at the top of water
elevation and a zero pressure located at the ow line.
3.18.1.1.2 The stream ow forces shall be computed
by the product of the stream ow pressure, taking into ac-
count the pressure distribution, and the exposed pier area.
In cases where the corresponding top of water elevation is
above the low beam elevation, stream ow loading on the
superstructure shall be investigated. The stream ow pres-
sure acting on the superstructure may be taken as P
max
with
a uniform distribution.
3.18.1.2 Pressure Components
When the direction of stream ow is other than normal
to the exposed surface area, or when bank migration or a
change of stream bed meander is anticipated, the effects
of the directional components of stream ow pressure
shall be investigated.
3.18.1.3 Drift Lodged Against Pier
Where a signicant amount of drift lodged against a
pier is anticipated, the effects of this drift buildup shall be
considered in the design of the bridge opening and the
bridge components. The overall dimensions of the drift
buildup shall reect the selected pier locations, site con-
ditions, and known drift supply upstream. When it is an-
ticipated that the ow area will be signicantly blocked
by drift buildup, increases in high water elevations,
stream velocities, stream ow pressures, and the potential
increases in scour depths shall be investigated.
3.18.2 Force of Ice on Piers
3.18.2.1 General
Ice forces on piers shall be selected, having regard
to site conditions and the mode of ice action to be ex-
pected. Consideration shall be given to the following
modes:
(a) Dynamic ice pressure due to moving ice-sheets
and ice-oes carried by streamow, wind, or currents.
(b) Static ice pressure due to thermal movements of
continuous stationary ice-sheets on large bodies of
water.
(c) Static pressure resulting from ice-jams.
(d) Static uplift or vertical loads resulting from adher-
ing ice in waters of uctuating level.
3.18.2.2 Dynamic Ice Force
3.18.2.2.1 Horizontal forces resulting from the pres-
sure of moving ice shall be calculated by the formula:
F C
n
p t w (3-5)
where,
F horizontal ice force on pier in pounds;
C
n
coefficient for nose inclination from table;
p effective ice strength in pounds per square inch;
t thickness of ice in contact with pier in inches;
w width of pier or diameter of circular-shaft pier at
the level of ice action in inches.
Inclination of Nose to vertical C
n
0 to 15 1.00
15 to 30 0.75
30 to 45 0.50
3.18.2.2.2 The effective ice strength p shall normally
be taken in the range of 100 to 400 pounds per square inch
on the assumption that crushing or splitting of the ice
takes place on contact with the pier. The value used shall
be based on an assessment of the probable condition of the
ice at time of movement, on previous local experience,
and on assessment of existing structure performance. Rel-
evant ice conditions include the expected temperature of
the ice at time of movement, the size of moving sheets and
oes, and the velocity at contact. Due consideration shall
be given to the probability of extreme rather than average
conditions at the site in question.
3.18.2.2.3 The following values of effective ice
strength appropriate to various situations may be used as
a guide.
(a) In the order of 100 psi where breakup occurs
at melting temperatures and where the ice runs as
small cakes and is substantially disintegrated in its
structure.
(b) In the order of 200 psi where breakup occurs at
melting temperatures, but the ice moves in large pieces
and is internally sound.
(c) In the order of 300 psi where at breakup there is an
initial movement of the ice sheet as a whole or where
large sheets of sound ice may strike the piers.
(d) In the order of 400 psi where breakup or major ice
movement may occur with ice temperatures signi-
cantly below the melting point.
3.18.2.2.4 The preceding values for effective ice
strength are intended for use with piers of substantial mass
and dimensions. The values shall be modied as neces-
sary for variations in pier width or pile diameter, and de-
sign ice thickness by multiplying by the appropriate coef-
cient obtained from the following table:
3.18.2.2.5 Piers should be placed with their longitu-
dinal axis parallel to the principal direction of ice action.
The force calculated by the formula shall then be taken to
act along the direction of the longitudinal axis. A force
transverse to the longitudinal axis and amounting to not
less than 15% of the longitudinal force shall be considered
to act simultaneously.
3.18.2.2.6 Where the longitudinal axis of a pier can-
not be placed parallel to the principal direction of ice ac-
tion, or where the direction of ice action may shift, the
total force on the pier shall be computed by the formula
and resolved into vector components. In such conditions,
forces transverse to the longitudinal axis shall in no case
be taken as less than 20% of the total force.
3.18.2.2.7 In the case of slender and exible piers,
consideration should be given to the vibrating nature of
dynamic ice forces and to the possibility of high momen-
tary pressures and structural resonance.
3.18.2.3 Static Ice Pressure
Ice pressure on piers frozen into ice sheets on large
bodies of water shall receive special consideration where
there is reason to believe that the ice sheets are subject to
signicant thermal movements relative to the piers.
3.19 BUOYANCY
Buoyancy shall be considered where it affects the de-
sign of either substructure, including piling, or the super-
structure.
3.20 EARTH PRESSURE
3.20.1 Structures which retain lls shall be proportioned
to withstand pressure as given by Coulombs Equation or
by other expressions given in Section 5, Retaining
Walls; provided, however, that no structure shall be de-
signed for less than an equivalent uid weight (mass) of
30 pounds per cubic foot.
3.20.2 For rigid frames a maximum of one-half of the
moment caused by earth pressure (lateral) may be used to
reduce the positive moment in the beams, in the top slab,
or in the top and bottom slab, as the case may be.
3.20.3 When highway traffic can come within a hori-
zontal distance from the top of the structure equal to one-
half its height, the pressure shall have added to it a live
load surcharge pressure equal to not less than 2 feet of
earth.
3.20.4 Where an adequately designed reinforced con-
crete approach slab supported at one end by the bridge is
provided, no live load surcharge need be considered.
3.20.5 All designs shall provide for the thorough
drainage of the back-lling material by means of weep
holes and crushed rock, pipe drains or gravel drains, or by
perforated drains.
3.21 EARTHQUAKES
In regions where earthquakes may be anticipated,
structures shall be designed to resist earthquake motions
by considering the relationship of the site to active faults,
the seismic response of the soils at the site, and the dy-
namic response characteristics of the total structure in ac-
cordance with Division I-ASeismic Design.
Part B
COMBINATIONS OF LOADS
3.22 COMBINATIONS OF LOADS
3.22.1 The following Groups represent various combi-
nations of loads and forces to which a structure may be
subjected. Each component of the structure, or the foun-
dation on which it rests, shall be proportioned to with-
stand safely all group combinations of these forces that
are applicable to the particular site or type. Group loading
combinations for Service Load Design and Load Factor
Design are given by:
Group (N) [
D
D
L
(L I)
C
CF
E
E

B
B
S
SF
W
W
WL
WL

L
LF
R
(R S T)

EQ
EQ
ICE
ICE] (3-10)
where,
N group number;
load factor, see Table 3.22.1A;
coefficient, see Table 3.22.1A;
D dead load;
L live load;
I live load impact;
E earth pressure;
B buoyancy;
W wind load on structure;
WL wind load on live load100 pounds per linear
foot;
LF longitudinal force from live load;
CF centrifugal force;
R rib shortening;
S shrinkage;
T temperature;
EQ earthquake;
SF stream ow pressure;
ICE ice pressure.
TABLE 3.22.1A Table of Coefficients and
3.22.2 For service load design, the percentage of the
basic unit stress for the various groups is given in Table
3.22.1A.
The loads and forces in each group shall be taken as ap-
propriate from Articles 3.3 to 3.21. The maximum section
required shall be used.
3.22.3 For load factor design, the gamma and beta fac-
tors given in Table 3.22.1A shall be used for designing
structural members and foundations by the load factor
concept.
3.22.4 When long span structures are being designed by
load factor design, the gamma and beta factors specied
for Load Factor Design represent general conditions and
should be increased if, in the Engineers judgment,
expected loads, service conditions, or materials of
construction are different from those anticipated by the
specications.
3.22.5 Structures may be analyzed for an overload that
is selected by the operating agency. Size and conguration
of the overload, loading combinations, and load distribu-
tion will be consistent with procedures dened in permit
policy of that agency. The load shall be applied in Group
IB as dened in Table 3.22.1A. For all loadings less than
H 20, Group IA loading combination shall be used (see
Article 3.5).
Part C
DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS
3.23 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS TO
STRINGERS, LONGITUDINAL BEAMS,
AND FLOOR BEAMS*
3.23.1 Position of Loads for Shear
3.23.1.1 In calculating end shears and end reactions
in transverse oor beams and longitudinal beams and
stringers, no longitudinal distribution of the wheel load
shall be assumed for the wheel or axle load adjacent to the
transverse oor beam or the end of the longitudinal beam
or stringer at which the stress is being determined.
3.23.1.2 Lateral distribution of the wheel loads at
ends of the beams or stringers shall be that produced by
assuming the ooring to act as a simple span between
stringers or beams. For wheels or axles in other positions
on the span, the distribution for shear shall be determined
by the method prescribed for moment, except that the cal-
culations of horizontal shear in rectangular timber beams
shall be in accordance with Article 13.3.
3.23.2 Bending Moments in Stringers and
Longitudinal Beams**
3.23.2.1 General
In calculating bending moments in longitudinal beams
or stringers, no longitudinal distribution of the wheel
loads shall be assumed. The lateral distribution shall be
determined as follows.
3.23.2.2 Interior Stringers and Beams
The live load bending moment for each interior
stringer shall be determined by applying to the stringer the
fraction of a wheel load (both front and rear) determined
in Table 3.23.1.
3.23.2.3 Outside Roadway Stringers and Beams
3.23.2.3.1 Steel-Timber-Concrete T-Beams
3.23.2.3.1.1 The dead load supported by the outside
roadway stringer or beam shall be that portion of the oor
slab carried by the stringer or beam. Curbs, railings, and
wearing surface, if placed after the slab has cured, may be
distributed equally to all roadway stringers or beams.
3.23.2.3.1.2 The live load bending moment for out-
side roadway stringers or beams shall be determined by
applying to the stringer or beam the reaction of the wheel
load obtained by assuming the ooring to act as a simple
span between stringers or beams.
3.23.2.3.1.3 When the outside roadway beam or
stringer supports the sidewalk live load as well as traffic
live load and impact and the structure is to be designed by
the service load method, the allowable stress in the beam
or stringer may be increased by 25% for the combination
of dead load, sidewalk live load, traffic live load, and im-
pact, providing the beam is of no less carrying capacity
than would be required if there were no sidewalks. When
the combination of sidewalk live load and traffic live load
plus impact governs the design and the structure is to be
designed by the load factor method, 1.25 may be used as
the beta factor in place of 1.67.
3.23.2.3.1.4 In no case shall an exterior stringer have
less carrying capacity than an interior stringer.
*Provisions in this Article shall not apply to orthotropic deck bridges.
**In view of the complexity of the theoretical analysis involved in the
distribution of wheel loads to stringers, the empirical method herein de-
scribed is authorized for the design of normal highway bridges.
3.23.2.3.1.5 In the case of a span with concrete oor
supported by 4 or more steel stringers, the fraction of the
wheel load shall not be less than:
where, S 6 feet or less and is the distance in feet be-
tween outside and adjacent interior stringers, and
where, S is more than 6 feet and less than 14 feet. When
S is 14 feet or more, use footnote f, Table 3.23.1.
3.23.2.3.2 Concrete Box Girders
3.23.2.3.2.1 The dead load supported by the exterior
girder shall be determined in the same manner as for steel,
timber, or concrete T-beams, as given in Article
3.23.2.3.1.
3.23.2.3.2.2 The factor for the wheel load distribu-
tion to the exterior girder shall be W
e
/7, where W
e
is the
width of exterior girder which shall be taken as the top
slab width, measured from the midpoint between girders
to the outside edge of the slab. The cantilever dimension
of any slab extending beyond the exterior girder shall
preferably not exceed half the girder spacing.
3.23.2.3.3 Total Capacity of Stringers and Beams
The combined design load capacity of all the beams
and stringers in a span shall not be less than required to
support the total live and dead load in the span.
S
S 4 0 0 25 . . +
S
5 5 .
3.23.2.3.1.4 DIVISION IDESIGN 33
TABLE 3.23.1 Distribution of Wheel Loads in
Longitudinal Beams
Bridge Designed
Bridge Designed for for Two or more
Kind of Floor One Traffic Lane Traffic Lanes
Timber:
a
Plank
b
S/4.0 S/3.75
Nail laminated
c
4 thick or multiple
layer
d
oors over 5
thick S/4.5 S/4.0
Nail laminated
c
6 or more thick S/5.0 S/4.25
If S exceeds 5 If S exceeds 6.5
use footnote f. use footnote f.
Glued laminated
e
Panels on glued
laminated stringers
4 thick S/4.5 S/4.0
If S exceeds 6 f S exceeds 7.5
On steel stringers
4 thick S/4.5 S/4.0
If S exceeds 5.5 f S exceeds 7
Concrete:
On steel I-Beam
stringers
g
and
prestressed
concrete girders S/7.0 S/5.5
If S exceeds 10 f S exceeds 14
On concrete
T-Beams S/6.5 S/6.0
On timber
stringers S/6.0 S/5.0
Concrete box
girders
h
S/8.0 S/7.0
On steel box girders See Article 10.39.2.
On prestressed con-
crete spread box
Beams See Article 3.28.
Steel grid:
(Less than 4 thick) S/4.5 S/4.0
(4 or more) S/6.0 S/5.0
If S exceeds 6 f S exceeds 10.5
Steel bridge
Corrugated plank
i
(2 min. depth) S/5.5 S/4.5
S = average stringer spacing in feet.
a
Timber dimensions shown are for nominal thickness.
b
Plank oors consist of pieces of lumber laid edge to edge with the
wide faces bearing on the supports (see Article 16.3.11Division II).
c
Nail laminated oors consist of pieces of lumber laid face to face
with the narrow edges bearing on the supports, each piece being nailed
to the preceding piece (see Article 16.3.12Division II).
d
Multiple layer oors consist of two or more layers of planks, each
layer being laid at an angle to the other (see Article 16.3.11Division II).
e
Glued laminated panel oors consist of vertically glued laminated
members with the narrow edges of the laminations bearing on the sup-
ports (see Article 16.3.13Division II).
f
In this case the load on each stringer shall be the reaction of the
wheel loads, assuming the ooring between the stringers to act as a sim-
ple beam.
g
Design of I-Beam Bridges by N. M. NewmarkProceedings,
ASCE, March 1948.
h
The sidewalk live load (see Article 3.14) shall be omitted for inte-
rior and exterior box girders designed in accordance with the wheel load
distribution indicated herein.
i
Distribution factors for Steel Bridge Corrugated Plank set forth
above are based substantially on the following reference:
Journal of Washington Academy of Sciences, Vol. 67, No. 2, 1977
Wheel Load Distribution of Steel Bridge Plank, by Conrad P. Heins,
Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Maryland.
These distribution factors were developed based on studies using
6 2 steel corrugated plank. The factors should yield safe results for
other corrugated congurations provided primary bending stiffness is
the same as or greater than the 6 2 corrugated plank used in the stud-
ies.
3.23.3 Bending Moments in Floor Beams
(Transverse)
3.23.3.1 In calculating bending moments in oor
beams, no transverse distribution of the wheel loads shall
be assumed.
3.23.3.2 If longitudinal stringers are omitted and the
oor is supported directly on oor beams, the beams shall
be designed for loads determined in accordance with
Table 3.23.3.1.
3.23.4 Precast Concrete Beams Used
in Multi-Beam Decks
3.23.4.1 A multi-beam bridge is constructed with
precast reinforced or prestressed concrete beams that are
placed side by side on the supports. The interaction be-
tween the beams is developed by continuous longitudinal
shear keys used in combination with transverse tie as-
semblies which may, or may not, be prestressed, such as
bolts, rods, or prestressing strands, or other mechanical
means. Full-depth rigid end diaphragms are needed to en-
sure proper load distribution for channel, single- and
multi-stemmed tee beams.
3.23.4.2 In calculating bending moments in multi-
beam precast concrete bridges, conventional or pre-
stressed, no longitudinal distribution of wheel load shall
be assumed.
3.23.4.3 The live load bending moment for each sec-
tion shall be determined by applying to the beam the frac-
tion of a wheel load (both front and rear) determined by
the following equation:
where,
S width of precast member;
D (5.75 0.5N
L
) 0.7N
L
(1 0.2C)
2
(3-12)
N
L
number of traffic lanes from Article 3.6;
C K(W/L) fow W/L < 1
K for W/L 1 (3-13)
where,
W overall width of bridge measured perpendicular
to the longitudinal girders in feet;
L span length measured parallel to longitudinal
girders in feet; for girders with cast-in-place end
diaphragms, use the length between end dia-
phragms;
K {(1 ) I/J}
1/2
If the value of I/ J exceeds 5.0, or the skew exceeds
45 degrees, the live load distribution should be deter-
mined using a more precise method, such as the Articulate
Plate Theory or Grillage Analysis. The Load Fraction,
S/D, need not be greater than 1.
where,
I moment of inertia;
J Saint-Venant torsion constant;
Poissons ratio for girders.
In lieu of more exact methods, J may be estimated using
the following equations:
Load
S
D
Fraction -11) (3
TABLE 3.23.3.1 Distribution of Wheel Loads
in Transverse Beams
For Non-voided Rectangular Beams, Channels, Tee
Beams:
J {(1/3)bt
3
(1 0.630t/b)}
where,
b the length of each rectangular component within
the section,
t the thickness of each rectangular component
within the section.
The anges and stems of stemmed or channel sections are
considered as separate rectangular components whose
values are summed together to calculate J. Note that for
Rectangular Beams with Circular Voids the value of J
can usually be approximated by using the equation above
for rectangular sections and neglecting the voids.
For Box-Section Beams:
where
b the overall width of the box,
d the overall depth of the box,
t the thickness of either web,
t
f
the thickness of either ange.
The formula assumes that both anges are the same thick-
ness and uses the thickness of only one ange. The same
is true of the webs.
For preliminary design, the following values of K may
be used:
3.24 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS AND DESIGN
OF CONCRETE SLABS*
3.24.1 Span Lengths (See Article 8.8)
3.24.1.1 For simple spans the span length shall be the
distance center to center of supports but need not exceed
clear span plus thickness of slab.
3.24.1.2 The following effective span lengths shall
be used in calculating the distribution of loads and bend-
ing moments for slabs continuous over more than two
supports:
(a) Slabs monolithic with beams or slabs monolithic
with walls without haunches and rigid top ange pre-
stressed beams with top ange width to minimum
thickness ratio less than 4.0. S shall be the clear span.
(b) Slabs supported on steel stringers, or slabs sup-
ported on thin top ange prestressed beams with top
ange width to minimum thickness ratio equal to or
greater than 4.0. S shall be the distance between
edges of top ange plus one-half of stringer top ange
width.
(c) Slabs supported on timber stringers. S shall be the
clear span plus one-half thickness of stringer.
3.24.2 Edge Distance of Wheel Loads
3.24.2.1 In designing slabs, the center line of the
wheel load shall be 1 foot from the face of the curb. If
curbs or sidewalks are not used, the wheel load shall be 1
foot from the face of the rail.
3.24.2.2 In designing sidewalks, slabs and support-
ing members, a wheel load located on the sidewalk shall
be 1 foot from the face of the rail. In service load design,
the combined dead, live, and impact stresses for this load-
ing shall be not greater than 150% of the allowable
stresses. In load factor design, 1.0 may be used as the beta
factor in place of 1.67 for the design of deck slabs. Wheel
loads shall not be applied on sidewalks protected by a
traffic barrier.
3.24.3 Bending Moment
The bending moment per foot width of slab shall be
calculated according to methods given under Cases Aand
J
tt b t d t
bt dt t t
f f
f f

+
2
2 2
2 2
( ) ( )
*The slab distribution set forth herein is based substantially on the
Westergaard theory. The following references are furnished concern-
ing the subject of slab design.
Public Roads, March 1930, Computation of Stresses in Bridge Slabs
Due to Wheel Loads, by H. M. Westergaard.
University of Illinois, Bulletin No. 303, Solutions for Certain Rec-
tangular Slabs Continuous over Flexible Supports, by Vernon P. Jensen;
Bulletin 304, ADistribution Procedure for the Analysis of Slabs Con-
tinuous over Flexible Beams, by Nathan M. Newmark; Bulletin 315,
Moments in Simple Span Bridge Slabs with Stiffened Edges, by Ver-
non P. Jensen; and Bulletin 346, Highway Slab Bridges with Curbs;
Laboratory Tests and Proposed Design Method.
B, unless more exact methods are used considering tire
contact area. The tire contact area needed for exact meth-
ods is given in Article 3.30.
In Cases Aand B:
S effective span length, in feet, as dened under
Span Lengths Articles 3.24.1 and 8.8;
E width of slab in feet over which a wheel load is
distributed;
P load on one rear wheel of truck (P
15
or P
20
);
P
15
12,000 pounds for H 15 loading;
P
20
16,000 pounds for H 20 loading.
3.24.3.1 Case AMain Reinforcement
Perpendicular to Traffic (Spans 2 to 24
Feet Inclusive)
The live load moment for simple spans shall be deter-
mined by the following formulas (impact not included):
HS 20 Loading:
HS 15 Loading:
In slabs continuous over three or more supports, a conti-
nuity factor of 0.8 shall be applied to the above formulas
for both positive and negative moment.
3.24.3.2 Case BMain Reinforcement Parallel
to Traffic
For wheel loads, the distribution width, E, shall be
(4 0.06S) but shall not exceed 7.0 feet. Lane loads are
distributed over a width of 2E. Longitudinally reinforced
slabs shall be designed for the appropriate HS loading.
For simple spans, the maximum live load moment per
foot width of slab, without impact, is closely approxi-
mated by the following formulas:
HS 20 Loading:
Spans up to and including 50 feet: LLM 900S
foot-pounds
Spans 50 feet to 100 feet: LLM 1,000
(1.30S-20.0)
foot-pounds
HS 15 Loading:
Use
3
4 of the values obtained from the formulas for
HS 20 Loading
Moments in continuous spans shall be determined by
suitable analysis using the truck or appropriate lane
loading.
3.24.4 Shear and Bond
Slabs designed for bending moment in accordance
with Article 3.24.3 shall be considered satisfactory in
bond and shear.
3.24.5 Cantilever Slabs
3.24.5.1 Truck Loads
Under the following formulas for distribution of loads
on cantilever slabs, the slab is designed to support the load
independently of the effects of any edge support along the
end of the cantilever. The distribution given includes the
effect of wheels on parallel elements.
3.24.5.1.1 Case AReinforcement
Perpendicular to Traffic
Each wheel on the element perpendicular to traffic
shall be distributed over a width according to the follow-
ing formula:
E 0.8X 3.75 (3-17)
The moment per foot of slab shall be (P/E) X foot-
pounds, in which X is the distance in feet from load to
point of support.
3.24.5.1.2 Case BReinforcement
Parallel to Traffic
The distribution width for each wheel load on the ele-
ment parallel to traffic shall be as follows:
E 0.35X 3.2, but shall not exceed 7.0 feet (3-18)
The moment per foot of slab shall be (P/E) X foot-
pounds.
3.24.5.2 Railing Loads
Railing loads shall be applied in accordance with Arti-
cle 2.7. The effective length of slab resisting post loadings
shall be equal to E 0.8X 3.75 feet where no parapet
S
P Moment in foot pounds
+
_
,

2
32
3
15
( -16)
per foot width of slab
S
P Moment in foot pounds
+
_
,

2
32
3
20
( -15)
per foot width of slab
is used and equal to E 0.8X 5.0 feet where a parapet
is used, where X is the distance in feet from the center of
the post to the point under investigation. Railing and
wheel loads shall not be applied simultaneously.
3.24.6 Slabs Supported on Four Sides
3.24.6.1 For slabs supported along four edges and re-
inforced in both directions, the proportion of the load car-
ried by the short span of the slab shall be given by the fol-
lowing equations:
where,
p proportion of load carried by short span;
a length of short span of slab;
b length of long span of slab.
3.24.6.2 Where the length of the slab exceeds 1
1
2
times its width, the entire load shall be carried by the
transverse reinforcement.
3.24.6.3 The distribution width, E, for the load taken
by either span shall be determined as provided for other
slabs. The moments obtained shall be used in designing
the center half of the short and long slabs. The reinforce-
ment steel in the outer quarters of both short and long
spans may be reduced by 50%. In the design of the sup-
porting beams, consideration shall be given to the fact that
the loads delivered to the supporting beams are not uni-
formly distributed along the beams.
3.24.7 Median Slabs
Raised median slabs shall be designed in accordance
with the provisions of this article with truck loadings so
placed as to produce maximum stresses. Combined dead,
live, and impact stresses shall not be greater than 150% of
the allowable stresses. Flush median slabs shall be de-
signed without overstress.
3.24.8 Longitudinal Edge Beams
3.24.8.1 Edge beams shall be provided for all slabs
having main reinforcement parallel to traffic. The beam
may consist of a slab section additionally reinforced, a
beam integral with and deeper than the slab, or an integral
reinforced section of slab and curb.
3.24.8.2 The edge beam of a simple span shall be de-
signed to resist a live load moment of 0.10 PS, where,
P wheel load in pounds P
15
or P
20
;
S span length in feet.
3.24.8.3 For continuous spans, the moment may be
reduced by 20% unless a greater reduction results from a
more exact analysis.
3.24.9 Unsupported Transverse Edges
The design assumptions of this article do not provide for
the effect of loads near unsupported edges. Therefore, at the
ends of the bridge and at intermediate points where the con-
tinuity of the slab is broken, the edges shall be supported by
diaphragms or other suitable means. The diaphragms shall
be designed to resist the full moment and shear produced
by the wheel loads which can come on them.
3.24.10 Distribution Reinforcement
3.24.10.1 To provide for the lateral distribution of the
concentrated live loads, reinforcement shall be placed
transverse to the main steel reinforcement in the bottoms
of all slabs except culvert or bridge slabs where the depth
of ll over the slab exceeds 2 feet.
3.24.10.2 The amount of distribution reinforcement
shall be the percentage of the main reinforcement steel
required for positive moment as given by the following
formulas:
where, S the effective span length in feet.
3.24.10.3 For main reinforcement perpendicular to
traffic, the specied amount of distribution reinforcement
shall be used in the middle half of the slab span, and not
less than 50% of the specied amount shall be used in the
outer quarters of the slab span.
For main reinforcement parallel to traffic,
- 21)
For main reinforcement perpendicular to traffic,
- 22)
Percentage
S
Maximum
Percentage
S
Maximum
100
50 3
220
67 3
% (
% (
For concentrated load at center p
b
a b
,
+
3
3 3
(3- 20)
For uniformly distributed load p
b
a b
,
+
4
4 4
(3-19)
3.25 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON
TIMBER FLOORING
For the calculation of bending moments in timber
ooring each wheel load shall be distributed as follows.
3.25.1 Transverse Flooring
3.25.1.1 In the direction of ooring span, the wheel
load shall be distributed over the width of tire as given in
Article 3.30.
Normal to the direction of ooring span, the wheel load
shall be distributed as follows:
Plank oor: the width of plank, but not less than 10
inches.
Non-interconnected* nail laminated panel oor: 15
inches, but not to exceed panel width.
Non-interconnected glued laminated panel oor: 15
inches plus thickness of oor, but not to exceed panel
width. Continuous nail laminated oor and interconnected
nail laminated panel oor, with adequate shear transfer
between panels**: 15 inches plus thickness of oor, but
not to exceed panel width.
Interconnected* glued laminated panel oor, with ad-
equate shear transfer between panels**, not less than 6
inches thick: 15 inches plus twice thickness of oor, but
not to exceed panel width.
3.25.1.2 For transverse ooring the span shall be
taken as the clear distance between stringers plus one-half
the width of one stringer, but shall not exceed the clear
span plus the oor thickness.
3.25.1.3 One design method for interconnected
glued laminated panel oors is as follows: For glued lam-
inated panel decks using vertically laminated lumber with
the panel placed in a transverse direction to the stringers
and with panels interconnected using steel dowels, the de-
termination of the deck thickness shall be based on the fol-
lowing equations for maximum unit primary moment and
shear. The maximum shear is for a wheel position as-
sumed to be 15 inches or less from the center line of the
support. The maximum moment is for a wheel position as-
sumed to be centered between the supports.
where,
M
x
primary bending moment in inch-pounds per
inch;
R
x
primary shear in pounds per inch;
x denotes direction perpendicular to longitudinal
stringers;
P design wheel load in pounds;
s effective deck span in inches;
t deck thickness, in inches, based on moment or
shear, whichever controls;
K design constant depending on design load as
follows:
H 15 K 0.47
H 20 K 0.51
F
b
allowable bending stress, in pounds per square
inch, based on load applied parallel to the wide
face of the laminations (see Tables 13.2.2Aand B);
F
v
allowable shear stress, in pounds per square inch,
based on load applied parallel to the wide face of
the laminations (see Tables 13.2.2Aand B).
3.25.1.4 The determination of the minimum size and
spacing required of the steel dowels required to transfer
the load between panels shall be based on the following
equation:
where,
n number of steel dowels required for the given
spans;
PL
proportional limit stress perpendicular to grain
(for Douglas r or Southern pine, use 1,000 psi);
R
y
total secondary shear transferred, in pounds, de-
termined by the relationship:
n
R
R
M
M
PL
y
D
y
D
+
1
]
1
1
1 000
3
,
(
- 27)
M P s K
P
whichever is greater
x

(. log ) (
. (
(
(
51 3
034 3
3
3
10
- 23)
R - 24)
Thus, t =
6M
F
- 25)
or,
t =
3R
2F
- 26)
x
x
b
x
v
*The terms interconnected and non-interconnected refer to the joints
between the individual nail laminated or glued laminated panels.
**This shear transfer may be accomplished using mechanical fasten-
ers, splines, or dowels along the panel joint or other suitable means.
The equations are developed for deck panel spans equal to or greater
than the width of the tire (as specied in Article 3.30), but not greater
than 200 inches.
M
y
total secondary moment transferred, in inch-
pound, determined by the relationship,
R
D
and M
D
shear and moment capacities, respec-
tively, as given in the following table:
3.25.1.5 In addition, the dowels shall be checked to
ensure that the allowable stress of the steel is not exceeded
using the following equation:
where,
minimum yield point of steel pins in
pounds per square inch (see Table
10.32.1A);
n, R
y
, M
y
as previously dened;
C
R
, C
M
steel stress coefficients as given in pre-
ceding table.
3.25.2 Plank and Nail Laminated Longitudinal
Flooring
3.25.2.1 In the direction of the span, the wheel load
shall be distributed over 10 inches.
3.25.2.2 Normal to the direction of the span the
wheel load shall be distributed as follows:
Plank oor: 20 inches;
Non-interconnected nail laminated oor: width of tire
plus thickness of oor, but not to exceed panel
width. Continuous nail laminated oor and inter-
connected nail laminated oor, with adequate shear
transfer between panels*, not less than 6 inches
thick: width of tire plus twice thickness of oor.
3.25.2.3 For longitudinal ooring the span shall be
taken as the clear distance between oor beams plus one-
half the width of one beam but shall not exceed the clear
span plus the oor thickness.
3.25.3 Longitudinal Glued Laminated Timber
Decks
3.25.3.1 Bending Moment
In calculating bending moments in glued laminated
timber longitudinal decks, no longitudinal distribution of
wheel loads shall be assumed. The lateral distribution
shall be determined as follows.
The live load bending moment for each panel shall be
determined by applying to the panel the fraction of a
wheel load determined from the following equations:
TWO OR MORE TRAFFIC LANES
greater.
ONE TRAFFIC LANE
greater.
where, W
p
Width of Panel; in feet (3.5 W
p
4.5)
L Length of span for simple span bridges and the
length of the shortest span for continuous bridges in
feet.
Load Fraction
W
L
or
W
whichever is
p p

.
.
, =
+ 4 25
28
5 50
Load Fraction
W
L
or
W
whichever is
p p

.
.
, =
+ 3 75
28
5 00
= +
1
n
(C R C M ) - 32)
R y M y
(3
M
Ps
s
Ps s
s
y
=
=

>
1 600
10 50 3
20
30
10
50
,
( ) (
( )
( )
for s inches - 30)
M for s inches (3- 31)
y
R Ps for s inches
R
P
s
s for inches
y
y
=
= >
6 1 000 50 3
2
20 50 3 29
/ , (
) ( )
- 28)
or,
( s -
*This shear transfer may be accomplished using mechanical fasteners,
splines, or dowels along the panel joint or spreader beams located at in-
tervals along the panels or other suitable means.
3.25.3.2 Shear
When calculating the end shears and end reactions for
each panel, no longitudinal distribution of the wheel
loads shall be assumed. The lateral distribution of the
wheel load at the supports shall be that determined by the
equation:
Wheel Load Fraction per Panel
For wheel loads in other positions on the span, the lateral
distribution for shear shall be determined by the method
prescribed for moment.
3.25.3.3 Deections
The maximum deection may be calculated by apply-
ing to the panel the wheel load fraction determined by the
method prescribed for moment.
3.25.3.4 Stiffener Arrangement
The transverse stiffeners shall be adequately attached
to each panel, at points near the panel edges, with either
steel plates, thru-bolts, C-clips or aluminum brackets. The
stiffener spacing required will depend upon the spacing
needed in order to prevent differential panel movement;
however, a stiffener shall be placed at mid-span with ad-
ditional stiffeners placed at intervals not to exceed 10 feet.
The stiffness factor EI of the stiffener shall not be less than
80,000 kip-in
2
.
3.25.4 Continuous Flooring
If the ooring is continuous over more than two spans,
the maximum bending moment shall be assumed as being
80% of that obtained for a simple span.
3.26 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS AND
DESIGN OF COMPOSITE WOOD-
CONCRETE MEMBERS
3.26.1 Distribution of Concentrated Loads for
Bending Moment and Shear
3.26.1.1 For freely supported or continuous slab
spans of composite wood-concrete construction, as de-
scribed in Article 16.3.14, Division II, the wheel loads
shall be distributed over a transverse width of 5 feet for
bending moment and a width of 4 feet for shear.
3.26.1.2 For composite T-beams of wood and con-
crete, as described in Article 20.19.2, Division II, the ef-
fective ange width shall not exceed that given in Article
10.38.3. Shear connectors shall be capable of resisting
both vertical and horizontal movement.
3.26.2 Distribution of Bending Moments in
Continuous Spans
3.26.2.1 Both positive and negative moments shall
be distributed in accordance with the following table:
3.26.2.2 Impact should be considered in computing
stresses for concrete and steel, but neglected for wood.
3.26.3 Design
The analysis and design of composite wood-concrete
members shall be based on assumptions that account for
the different mechanical properties of the components. A
suitable procedure may be based on the elastic properties
of the materials as follows:
1 for slab in which the net concrete thickness is
less than half the overall depth of the compos-
ite section
2 for slab in which the net concrete thickness is
at least half the overall depth of the composite
section
18.75 (for Douglas r and Southern pine)
in which,
E
c
modulus of elasticity of concrete;
E
w
modulus of elasticity of wood;
E
s
modulus of elasticity of steel.
E
s
E
w
E
c
E
w
E
c
E
w
=
W
but not less than
p
4 00
1
.
.
3.27 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON
STEEL GRID FLOORS*
3.27.1 General
3.27.1.1 The grid oor shall be designed as continu-
ous, but simple span moments may be used and reduced
as provided in Article 3.24.
3.27.1.2 The following rules for distribution of loads
assume that the grid oor is composed of main elements
that span between girders, stringers, or cross beams, and
secondary elements that are capable of transferring load
between the main elements.
3.27.1.3 Reinforcement for secondary elements shall
consist of bars or shapes welded to the main steel.
3.27.2 Floors Filled with Concrete
3.27.2.1 The distribution and bending moment shall
be as specied for concrete slabs, Article 3.24. The fol-
lowing items specied in that article shall also apply to
concrete lled steel grid oors:
Longitudinal edge beams
Unsupported transverse edges
Span lengths
3.27.2.2 The strength of the composite steel and con-
crete slab shall be determined by means of the trans-
formed area method. The allowable stresses shall be as
set forth in Articles 8.15.2, 8.16.1, and 10.32.
3.27.3 Open Floors
3.27.3.1 Awheel load shall be distributed, normal to
the main elements, over a width equal to 1
1
4 inches per
ton of axle load plus twice the distance center to center of
main elements. The portion of the load assigned to each
main element shall be applied uniformly over a length
equal to the rear tire width (20 inches for H 20, 15 inches
for H 15).
3.27.3.2 The strength of the section shall be deter-
mined by the moment of inertia method. The allowable
stresses shall be as set forth in Article 10.32.
3.27.3.3 Edges of open grid steel oors shall be sup-
ported by suitable means as required. These supports may
be longitudinal or transverse, or both, as may be required
to support all edges properly.
3.27.3.4 When investigating for fatigue, the mini-
mum cycles of maximum stress shall be used.
3.28 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS FOR BENDING
MOMENT IN SPREAD BOX GIRDERS**
3.28.1 Interior Beams
The live load bending moment for each interior beam in
a spread box beam superstructure shall be determined by
applying to the beam the fraction (D.F.) of the wheel load
(both front and rear) determined by the following equation:
where,
N
L
number of design traffic lanes (Article 3.6);
N
B
number of beams (4 N
B
10);
S beam spacing in feet (6.57 S 11.00);
L span length in feet;
k 0.07 W N
L
(0.10N
L
0.26) 0.20N
B
0.12;
(3-34)
W numeric value of the roadway width between
curbs expressed in feet (32 W 66).
3.28.2 Exterior Beams
The live load bending moment in the exterior beams
shall be determined by applying to the beams the reaction
of the wheel loads obtained by assuming the ooring to
act as a simple span (of length S) between beams, but shall
not be less than 2N
L
/N
B
.
3.29 MOMENTS, SHEARS, AND REACTIONS
Maximum moments, shears, and reactions are given
in tables, Appendix A, for H 15, H 20, HS 15, and HS 20
loadings. They are calculated for the standard truck or
the lane loading applied to a single lane on freely sup-
ported spans. It is indicated in the table whether the
standard truck or the lane loadings produces the maxi-
mum stress.
D F
N
N
k
S
L
L
B
. . ( +
2
3- 33)
*Provisions in this article shall not apply to orthotropic bridge super-
structures.
**The provisions of Article 3.12, Reduction in Load Intensity, were
not applied in the development of the provisions presented in Articles
3.28.1 and 3.28.2.
3.30 TIRE CONTACT AREA
The tire contact area for the Alternate Military Load-
ing or HS 20-44 shall be assumed as a rectangle with a
length in the direction of traffic of 10 inches, and a width
of tire of 20 inches. For other design vehicles, the tire con-
tact should be determined by the engineer.
Section 4
FOUNDATIONS
Part A
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS
4.1 GENERAL
Foundations shall be designed to support all live and
dead loads, and earth and water pressure loadings in ac-
cordance with the general principles specied in this sec-
tion. The design shall be made either with reference to ser-
vice loads and allowable stresses as provided in SERVICE
LOAD DESIGN or, alternatively, with reference to load
factors, and factored strength as provided in STRENGTH
DESIGN.
4.2 FOUNDATION TYPE AND CAPACITY
4.2.1 Selection of Foundation Type
Selection of foundation type shall be based on an
assessment of the magnitude and direction of loading,
depth to suitable bearing materials, evidence of previous
ooding, potential for liquefaction, undermining or
scour, swelling potential, frost depth and ease and cost of
construction.
4.2.2 Foundation Capacity
Foundations shall be designed to provide adequate
structural capacity, adequate foundation bearing capacity
with acceptable settlements, and acceptable overall sta-
bility of slopes adjacent to the foundations. The tolerable
level of structural deformation is controlled by the type
and span of the superstructure.
4.2.2.1 Bearing Capacity
The bearing capacity of foundations may be estimated
using procedures described in Articles 4.4, 4.5, or 4.6 for
service load design and Articles 4.11, 4.12, or 4.13 for
strength design, or other generally accepted theories. Such
theories are based on soil and rock parameters measured
by in situ and/or laboratory tests. The bearing capacity
may also be determined using load tests.
4.2.2.2 Settlement
The settlement of foundations may be determined
using procedures described in Articles 4.4, 4.5, or 4.6 for
service load design and Articles 4.11, 4.12, or 4.13 for
strength design, or other generally accepted methodolo-
gies. Such methods are based on soil and rock parameters
measured directly or inferred from the results of in situ
and/or laboratory tests.
4.2.2.3 Overall Stability
The overall stability of slopes in the vicinity of
foundations shall be considered as part of the design of
foundations.
4.2.3 Soil, Rock, and Other Problem Conditions
Geologic and environmental conditions can inuence
the performance of foundations and may require special
consideration during design. To the extent possible, the
presence and inuence of such conditions shall be evalu-
ated as part of the subsurface exploration program. Arep-
resentative, but not exclusive, listing of problem condi-
tions requiring special consideration is presented in Table
4.2.3Afor general guidance.
4.3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND
TESTING PROGRAMS
The elements of the subsurface exploration and testing
programs shall be the responsibility of the designer based
on the specic requirements of the project and his or her
experience with local geologic conditions.
4.3.1 General Requirements
As a minimum, the subsurface exploration and testing
programs shall dene the following, where applicable:
Soil strata
Depth, thickness, and variability
43
Identication and classication
Relevant engineering properties (i.e., shear
strength, compressibility, stiffness, permeability,
expansion or collapse potential, and frost suscep-
tibility)
Rock strata
Depth to rock
Quality (i.e., soundness, hardness, jointing and
presence of joint lling, resistance to weathering,
if exposed, and solutioning)
Compressive strength (e.g., uniaxial compres-
sion, point load index)
Expansion potential
Ground water elevation
Ground surface elevation
Local conditions requiring special consideration
Exploration logs shall include soil and rock strata de-
scriptions, penetration resistance for soils (e.g., SPT or
q
c
), and sample recovery and RQD for rock strata. The
drilling equipment and method, use of drilling mud, type
of SPThammer (i.e. safety, donut, hydraulic) or cone pen-
etrometer (i.e., mechanical or electrical), and any unusual
subsurface conditions such as artesian pressures, boulders
or other obstructions, or voids shall also be noted on the
exploration logs.
4.3.2 Minimum Depth
Where substructure units will be supported on spread
footings, the minimum depth of the subsurface explo-
ration shall extend below the anticipated bearing level a
minimum of two footing widths for isolated, individual
footings where L 2B, and four footing widths for foot-
ings where L 5B. For intermediate footing lengths, the
minimum depth of exploration may be estimated by lin-
ear interpolation as a function of L between depths of 2B
and 5B below the bearing level. Greater depths may be re-
quired where warranted by local conditions.
TABLE 4.2.3A Problem Conditions Requiring Special Consideration
Problem
Type Description Comments
Organic soil; highly plastic clay Low strength and high compressibility
Sensitive clay Potentially large strength loss upon large straining
Micaceous soil Potentially high compressibility (often saprolitic)
Soil Expansive clay/silt; expansive slag Potentially large expansion upon wetting
Liqueable soil Complete strength loss and high deformations due to earthquake
loading
Collapsible soil Potentially large deformations upon wetting (Caliche; Loess)
Pyritic soil Potentially large expansion upon oxidation
Laminated rock Low strength when loaded parallel to bedding
Expansive shale Potentially large expansion upon wetting; degrades readily upon
exposure to air/water
Pyritic shale Expands upon exposure to air/water
Rock Soluble rock Soluble in owing and standing water (Limestone, Limerock,
Gypsum)
Cretaceous shale Indicator of potentially corrosive ground water
Weak claystone (Red Beds) Low strength and readily degradable upon exposure to air/water
Gneissic and Schistose Rock Highly distorted with irregular weathering proles and steep
discontinuities
Subsidence Typical in areas of underground mining or high ground water
extraction
Sinkholes/solutioning Karst topography; typical of areas underlain by carbonate rock
strata
Condition Negative skin friction/ Additional compressive/uplift load on deep foundations due to
expansion loading settlement/uplift of soil
Corrosive environments Acid mine drainage; degradation of certain soil/rock types
Permafrost/frost Typical in northern climates
Capillary water Rise of water level in silts and ne sands leading to strength loss
Where substructure units will be supported on deep
foundations, the depth of the subsurface exploration shall
extend a minimum of 20 feet below the anticipated pile or
shaft tip elevation. Where pile or shaft groups will be
used, the subsurface exploration shall extend at least two
times the maximum pile group dimension below the an-
ticipated tip elevation, unless the foundations will be end
bearing on or in rock. For piles bearing on rock, a mini-
mum of 10 feet of rock core shall be obtained at each ex-
ploration location to insure the exploration has not been
terminated on a boulder. For shafts supported on or ex-
tending into rock, a minimum of 10 feet of rock core, or a
length of rock core equal to at least three times the shaft
diameter for isolated shafts or two times the maximum
shaft group dimension for a shaft group, whichever is
greater, shall be obtained to insure the exploration has not
terminated in a boulder and to determine the physical
characteristics of rock within the zone of foundation in-
uence for design.
4.3.3 Minimum Coverage
A minimum of one soil boring shall be made for each
substructure unit. (See Article 7.1.1 for denition of sub-
structure unit.) For substructure units over 100 feet in
width, a minimum of two borings shall be required.
4.3.4 Laboratory Testing
Laboratory testing shall be performed as necessary to
determine engineering properties including unit weight,
shear strength, compressive strength and compressibility.
In the absence of laboratory testing, engineering proper-
ties may be estimated based on published test results or
local experience.
4.3.5 Scour
The probable depth of scour shall be determined by
subsurface exploration and hydraulic studies. Refer to
Article 1.3.2 and FHWA (1988) for general guidance
regarding hydraulic studies and design.
Part B
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD
4.4 SPREAD FOOTINGS
4.4.1 General
4.4.1.1 Applicability
Provisions of this Article shall apply for design of iso-
lated footings, and to combined footings and mats (foot-
ings supporting more than one column, pier, or wall).
4.4.1.2 Footings Supporting Non-Rectangular
Columns or Piers
Footings supporting circular or regular polygon-
shaped concrete columns or piers may be designed as-
suming that the columns or piers act as square members
with the same area for location of critical sections for mo-
ment, shear, and development of reinforcement.
4.4.1.3 Footings in Fill
Footings located in ll are subject to the same bearing
capacity, settlement, and dynamic ground stability con-
siderations as footings in natural soil in accordance with
Articles 4.4.7.1 through 4.4.7.3. The behavior of both the
ll and underlying natural soil shall be considered.
4.4.1.4 Footings in Sloped Portions of
Embankments
The earth pressure against the back of footings and
columns within the sloped portion of an embankment
shall be equal to the at-rest earth pressure in accordance
with Article 5.5.2. The resistance due to the passive earth
pressure of the embankment in front of the footing shall
be neglected to a depth equal to a minimum depth of
3 feet, the depth of anticipated scour, freeze thaw action,
and/or trench excavation in front of the footing,
whichever is greater.
4.4.1.5 Distribution of Bearing Pressure
Footings shall be designed to keep the maximum soil
and rock pressures within safe bearing values. To prevent
unequal settlement, footings shall be designed to keep the
bearing pressure as nearly uniform as practical. For foot-
ings supported on piles or drilled shafts, the spacing be-
tween piles and drilled shafts shall be designed to ensure
nearly equal loads on deep foundation elements as may be
practical.
When footings support more than one column, pier, or
wall, distribution of soil pressure shall be consistent with
properties of the foundation materials and the structure,
and with the principles of geotechnical engineering.
4.4.2 Notations
The following notations shall apply for the design of
spread footings on soil and rock:
A Contact area of footing (ft
2
)
A Effective footing area for computation of
bearing capacity of a footing subjected to
eccentric load (ft
2
); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.1)
b
c
, b
, b
q
Base inclination factors (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.1.1.8)
B Width of footing (ft); (Minimum plan di-
mension of footing unless otherwise noted)
B Effective width for load eccentric in direc-
tion of short side, L unchanged (ft)
c Soil cohesion (ksf)
c Effective stress soil cohesion (ksf)
c* Reduced effective stress soil cohesion for
punching shear (ksf); (See Article 4.4.7.1)
c
a
Adhesion between footing and foundation
soil or rock (ksf); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.3)
c
v
Coefficient of consolidation (ft
2
/yr); (See
Article 4.4.7.2.3)
c
1
Shear strength of upper cohesive soil
layer below footing (ksf); (See Article
4.4.7.1.1.7)
c
2
Shear strength of lower cohesive soil
layer below footing (ksf); (See Article
4.4.7.1.1.7)
C
c
Compression index (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
C
cr
Recompression index (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
C
c
Compression ratio (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
C
o
Uniaxial compressive strength of intact
rock (ksf)
C
r
Recompression ratio (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
C
Coefficient of secondary compression de-

ned as change in height per log cycle of
time (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.4)
D Inuence depth for water below footing
(ft); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.6)
D
f
Depth to base of footing (ft)
e Void ratio (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
e
f
Void ratio at nal vertical effective stress
(dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
e
o
Void ratio at initial vertical effective stress
e
p
Void ratio at maximum past vertical effec-
tive stress (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
e
B
Eccentricity of load in the B direction mea-
sured from centroid of footing (ft); (See Ar-
ticle 4.4.7.1.1.1)
e
L
Eccentricity of load in the L direction mea-
sured from centroid of footing (ft); (See
Article 4.4.7.1.1.1)
E
o
Modulus of intact rock (ksf)
E
m
Rock mass modulus (ksf); (See Article
4.4.8.2.2)
E
s
Soil modulus (ksf)
F Total force on footing subjected to an in-
clined load (k); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.1)
f
c
Unconned compressive strength of con-
crete (ksf)
FS Factor of safety against bearing capacity,
overturning or sliding shear failure (dim)
H Depth from footing base to top of second
cohesive soil layer for two-layer cohesive
soil prole below footing (ft); (See Article
4.4.7.1.1.7)
H
c
Height of compressible soil layer (ft)
H
crit
Critical thickness of the upper layer of a
two-layer system beyond which the under-
lying layer will have little effect on the bear-
ing capacity of footings bearing in the upper
layer (ft); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7)
H
d
Height of longest drainage path in com-
pressible soil layer (ft)
H
s
Height of slope (ft); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.4)
i Slope angle from horizontal of ground sur-
face below footing (deg)
i
c
, i
, i
q
Load inclination factors (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.1.1.3)
I
Inuence coefficient to account for rigidity

and dimensions of footing (dim); (See Arti-
cle 4.4.8.2.2)
Center-to-center spacing between adjacent
footings (ft)
L Length of footing (ft)
L Effective footing length for load eccentric
in direction of long side, B unchanged (ft)
L
1
Length (or width) of footing having positive
contact pressure (compression) for footing
loaded eccentrically about one axis (ft)
n Exponential factor relating B/L or L/B ra-
tios for inclined loading (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.1.1.3)
N Standard penetration resistance (blows/ft)
N
1
Standard penetration resistance corrected
for effects of overburden pressure (blows/
ft); (See Article 4.4.7.2.2)
N
c
, N
, N
q
Bearing capacity factors based on the value
of internal friction of the foundation soil
(dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1)
N
m
Modied bearing capacity factor to account
for layered cohesive soils below footing
(dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7)
N
ms
Coefficient factor to estimate q
ult
for rock
N
s
Stability number (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.1.1.4)
N
cq
, N
q
Modied bearing capacity factors for ef-
fects of footing on or adjacent sloping
ground (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.4)
P Tangential component of force on footing
(k)
P
max
Maximum resisting force between footing
base and foundation soil or rock for sliding
failure (k)
q Effective overburden pressure at base of
footing (ksf)
Q Normal component of force on footing (k)
q
aii
Allowable uniform bearing pressure or con-
tact stress (ksf)
q
c
Cone penetration resistance (ksf)
q
max
Maximum footing contact pressure (ksf)
Q
max
Maximum normal component of load sup-
ported by foundation soil or rock at ultimate
bearing capacity (k)
q
min
Minimum magnitude of footing contact
pressure (ksf)
q
o
Vertical stress at base of loaded area (ksf);
(See Article 4.4.7.2.1)
q
ult
Ultimate bearing capacity for uniform bear-
ing pressure (ksf)
q
1
Ultimate bearing capacity of footing sup-
ported in the upper layer of a two-layer sys-
tem assuming the upper layer is innitely
thick (ksf); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7)
q
2
Ultimate bearing capacity of a ctitious
footing of the same size and shape as the ac-
tual footing, but supported on surface of the
second (lower) layer of a two-layer system
(ksf); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7)
R Resultant of pressure on base of footing (k)
r Radius of circular footing or B/2 for square
footing (ft); (See Article 4.4.8.2.2)
RQD Rock Quality Designation (dim)
s
c
, s
, s
q
Footing shape factors (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.1.1.2)
s
u
Undrained shear strength of soil (ksf)
S
c
Consolidation settlement (ft); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
S
e
Elastic or immediate settlement (ft); (See
Article 4.4.7.2.2)
S
s
Secondary settlement (ft); (See Article
4.4.7.2.4)
S
t
Total settlement (ft); (See Article 4.4.7.2)
t Time to reach specified average degree
of consolidation (yr); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
t
1
, t
2
Arbitrary time intervals for determination
of S
s
(yr); (See Article 4.4.7.2.4)
T Time factor (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
z
w
Depth from footing base down to the high-
est anticipated ground water level (ft); (See
Article 4.4.7.1.1.6)
Angle of inclination of the footing base
from the horizontal (radian)
Reduction factor (dim); (See Article

4.4.8.2.2)
Length to width ratio of footing (dim)
m
Punching index BL/[2(B L)H] (dim);
(See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7)
z
Factor to account for footing shape and
rigidity (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.2)
Total unit weight of soil or rock (kcf)
Buoyant unit weight of soil or rock (kcf)
m
Moist unit weight of soil (kcf)
Angle of friction between footing and foun-
dation soil or rock (deg); (See Article
4.4.7.1.1.3)
Differential settlement between adjacent
footings (ft); (See Article 4.4.7.2.5)
v
Vertical strain (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
vf
Vertical strain at nal vertical effective
stress (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
vo
Initial vertical strain (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
vp
Vertical strain at maximum past vertical
effective stress (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
Angle of load eccentricity (deg)
Shear strength ratio (c
2
/c
1
) for two layered
cohesive soil system below footing (dim);
c
Reduction factor to account for three-di-
mensional effects in settlement analysis
Poissons ratio (dim)
f
Final vertical effective stress in soil at depth
interval below footing (ksf); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3)
o
Initial vertical effective stress in soil at
depth interval below footing (ksf); (See Ar-
ticle 4.4.7.2.3)
p
Maximum past vertical effective stress in
soil at depth interval below footing (ksf);
Angle of internal friction (deg)
Effective stress angle of internal friction
(deg)
* Reduced effective stress soil friction angle
for punching shear (ksf); (See Article
4.4.7.1)
The notations for dimension units include the follow-
ing: dim Dimensionless; deg degree; ft foot; k
kip; k/ft kip/ft; ksf kip/ft
2
; kcf kip/ft
3
; lb pound;
in. inch; and psi pound per square inch. The dimen-
sional units provided with each notation are presented for
illustration only to demonstrate a dimensionally correct
combination of units for the footing capacity procedures
presented herein. If other units are used, the dimensional
correctness of the equations shall be conrmed.
4.4.3 Design Terminology
Refer to Figure 4.4.3Afor terminology used in the de-
sign of spread footing foundations.
4.4.4 Soil and Rock Property Selection
Soil and rock properties dening the strength and com-
pressibility characteristics of the foundation materials are
required for footing design. Foundation stability and set-
tlement analyses for design shall be conducted using soil
and rock properties based on the results of eld and/or
laboratory testing.
4.4.5 Depth
4.4.5.1 Minimum Embedment and Bench Width
Footings not otherwise founded on sound, non-de-
gradeable rock surfaces shall be embedded a sufficient
FIGURE 4.4.3A Design Terminology for Spread Footing Foundations
depth to provide adequate bearing, scour and frost heave
protection, or 2 feet to the bottom of footing, whichever is
greatest. For footings constructed on slopes, a minimum
horizontal distance of 4 feet, measured at the top of foot-
ing, shall be provided between the near face of the foot-
ing and the face of the nished slope.
4.4.5.2 Scour Protection
Footings supported on soil or degradable rock strata
shall be embedded below the maximum computed scour
depth or protected with a scour countermeasure. Footings
supported on massive, competent rock formations which
are highly resistant to scour shall be placed directly on the
cleaned rock surface. Where required, additional lateral
resistance should be provided by drilling and grouting
steel dowels into the rock surface rather than blasting to
embed the footing below the rock surface.
Footings on piles may be located above the lowest an-
ticipated scour level provided the piles are designed for
this condition. Assume that only one-half of the maximum
anticipated scour has occurred when designing for earth-
quake loading. Where footings on piles are subject to
damage by boulders or debris during ood scour, ade-
quate protection shall be provided. Footings shall be con-
structed so as to neither pose an obstacle to water traffic
nor be exposed to view during low ow.
4.4.5.3 Footing Excavations
Footing excavations below the ground water table, par-
ticularly in granular soils having relatively high perme-
ability, shall be made such that the hydraulic gradient in
the excavation bottom is not increased to a magnitude that
would cause the foundation soils to loosen or soften due
to the upward ow of water. Further, footing excavations
shall be made such that hydraulic gradients and material
removal do not adversely affect adjacent structures. Seep-
age forces and gradients may be evaluated by ow net
procedures or other appropriate methods. Dewatering or
cutoff methods to control seepage shall be used where
necessary.
Footing excavations in nonresistant, easily weathered
moisture sensitive rocks shall be protected from weather-
ing immediately after excavation with a lean mix concrete
or other approved materials.
4.4.5.4 Piping
Piping failures of ne materials through rip-rap or
through drainage backlls behind abutments shall be pre-
vented by properly designed, graded soil lters or geotex-
tile drainage systems.
4.4.6 Anchorage
Footings founded on inclined, smooth rock surfaces
and which are not restrained by an overburden of resistant
material shall be effectively anchored by means of rock
anchors, rock bolts, dowels, keys, benching or other suit-
able means. Shallow keying or benching of large footing
areas shall be avoided where blasting is required for rock
removal.
4.4.7 Geotechnical Design on Soil
Spread footings on soil shall be designed to support the
design loads with adequate bearing and structural capac-
ity, and with tolerable settlements in conformance with
Articles 4.4.7 and 4.4.11. In addition, the capacity of
footings subjected to seismic and dynamic loads, shall
be evaluated in conformance with Articles 4.4.7.3 and
4.4.10.
The location of the resultant of pressure (R) on the base
of the footings shall be maintained within B/6 of the cen-
ter of the footing.
The ultimate bearing capacity (for general shear fail-
ure) may be estimated using the following relationship for
continuous footings (i.e., L 5B):
q
ult
cN
c
0.5BN
qN
q
(4.4.7.1-1)
The allowable bearing capacity shall be determined
as:
q
all
q
ult
/FS (4.4.7.1-2)
Refer to Table 4.4.7.1Afor values of N
c
, N
, and N
q
.
If local or punching shear failure is possible, the value
of q
ult
may be estimated using reduced shear strength pa-
rameters c* and * in Equation (4.4.7.1-1) as follows:
c* 0.67c (4.4.7.1-3)
* tan
1
(0.67tan ) (4.4.7.1-4)
Effective stress methods of analysis and drained shear
strength parameters shall be used to determine bearing
capacity factors for drained loading conditions in all soils.
Additionally, the bearing capacity of cohesive soils shall
be checked for undrained loading conditions using bear-
ing capacity factors based on undrained shear strength
parameters.
4.4.7.1.1 Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity
Amodied form of the general bearing capacity equa-
tion may be used to account for the effects of footing
shape, ground surface slope, base inclination, and inclined
loading as follows:
q
ult
cN
c
s
c
b
c
i
c
0.5BN
qN
q
s
q
b
q
i
q
(4.4.7.1.1-1)
Reduced footing dimensions shall be used to account
for the effects of eccentric loading.
4.4.7.1.1.1 Eccentric Loading
For loads eccentric relative to the centroid of the foot-
ing, reduced footing dimensions (B and L) shall be used
to determine bearing capacity factors and modiers (i.e.,
slope, footing shape, and load inclination factors), and to
calculate the ultimate load capacity of the footing. The re-
duced footing dimensions shall be determined as follows:
B B 2e
B
(4.4.7.1.1.1-1)
L L 2e
L
(4.4.7.1.1.1-2)
The effective footing area shall be determined as
follows:
A BL (4.4.7.1.1.1-3)
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1Afor loading denitions and
footing dimensions.
The value of q
ult
obtained using the reduced footing di-
mensions represents an equivalent uniform bearing pres-
sure and not the actual contact pressure distribution be-
neath the footing. This equivalent pressure may be
multiplied by the reduced area to determine the ultimate
load capacity of the footing from the standpoint of bear-
ing capacity. The actual contact pressure distribution (i.e.,
trapezoidal for the conventional assumption of a rigid
TABLE 4.4.7.1A Bearing Capacity Factors
footing and a positive pressure along each footing edge)
shall be used for structural design of the footing.
The actual distribution of contact pressure for a rigid
footing with eccentric loading about one axis is shown
in Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1B. For an eccentricity (e
L
) in the L
direction, the actual maximum and minimum contact
pressures may be determined as follows:
for e
L
L/6:
q
max
Q[1 (6e
L
/L)]/BL (4.4.7.1.1.1-4)
q
min
Q[1 (6e
L
/L)]/BL (4.4.7.1.1.1-5)
for L/6 e
L
L/2:
q
max
2Q/(3B[L/2) e
L
]) (4.4.7.1.1.1-6)
q
min
0 (4.4.7.1.1.1-7)
L
1
3[(L/2) e
L
] (4.4.7.1.1.1-8)
For an eccentricity (e
) in the B direction, the maxi-

mum and minimum contact pressures may be determined
using Equations 4.4.7.1.1.1-4 through 4.4.7.1.1.1-8 by re-
placing terms labeled L by B, and terms labeled B by L.
Footings on soil shall be designed so that the eccen-
tricity of loading is less than
1
6 of the footing dimension
in any direction.
4.4.7.1.1.2 Footing Shape
For footing shapes other than continuous footings (i.e.,
L 5B), the following shape factors shall be applied to
Equation 4.4.7.1.1-1:
s
c
1 (B/L) (N
q
/N
c
) (4.4.7.1.1.2-1)
s
q
1 (B/L) tan (4.4.7.1.1.2-2)
s
1 0.4 (B/L) (4.4.7.1.1.2-3)

For circular footings, B equals L. For cases in which
the loading is eccentric, the terms L and B shall be re-
placed by L and B, respectively, in the above equations.
4.4.7.1.1.3 Inclined Loading
For inclined loads, the following inclination factors
shall be applied in Equation 4.4.7.1.1-1:
i
c
i
q
[(1 i
q
)/N
c
tan ] (for 0)
(4.4.7.1.1.3-1)
i
c
1 (nP/BLcN
c
) (for 0) (4.4.7.1.1.3-2)
i
q
[1 P/(Q BLc cot)]
n
(4.4.7.1.1.3-3)
i
[1 P/(Q BLc cot)]

(n 1)
(4.4.7.1.1.3-4)
n [(2 L/B)/(1 L/B)]cos
2
[(2 B/L)/(1 B/L)]sin

2
(4.4.7.1.1.3-5)
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1Afor loading denitions and
footing dimensions. For cases in which the loading is ec-
centric, the terms L and B shall be replaced by L and B,
respectively, in the above equations.
Failure by sliding shall be considered by comparing
the tangential component of force on the footing (P) to the
maximum resisting force (P
max
) by the following:
P
max
Qtan BLc
a
(4.4.7.1.1.3-6)
FS P
max
/P 1.5 (4.4.7.1.1.3-7)
In determining P
max
, the effect of passive resistance
provided by footing embedment shall be ignored, and BL
shall represent the actual footing area in compression as
shown in Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1B or Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1C.
4.4.7.1.1.4 Ground Surface Slope
For footings located on slopes or within 3B of a slope
crest, q
ult
may be determined using the following revised
version of Equation 4.4.7.1.1-1:
q
ult
cN
cq
s
c
b
c
i
c
0.5BN
q
s
(4.4.7.1.1.4-1)
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.4Afor values of N
cq
and N
q
for footings on slopes and Figures 4.4.7.1.1.4B for values
of N
cq
and N
q
for footings at the top of slopes. For foot-
ings in or above cohesive soil slopes, the stability number
in the gures, N
s
, is dened as follows:
N
s
H
s
/c (4.4.7.1.1.4-2)
Overall stability shall be evaluated for footings on or
adjacent to sloping ground surfaces as described in Arti-
cle 4.4.9.
4.4.7.1.1.5 Embedment Depth
The shear strength of soil above the base of footings is
neglected in determining q
ult
using Equation 4.4.7.1.1-1.
If other procedures are used, the effect of embedment
shall be consistent with the requirements of the procedure
followed.
52 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 4.4.7.1.1.5
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.1B Contact Pressure for Footing Loaded Eccentrically About One Axis
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.1A Denition Sketch for Loading and Dimensions for Footings
Subjected to Eccentric or Inclined Loads
Modied after EPRI (1983)
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.1C Contact Pressure for Footing Loaded Eccentrically About Two Axes
Modied after AREA (1980)
4.4.7.1.1.6 Ground Water
Ultimate bearing capacity shall be determined using
the highest anticipated ground water level at the footing
location. The effect of ground water level on the ultimate
bearing capacity shall be considered by using a weighted
average soil unit weight in Equation 4.4.7.1.1-1. If
37, the following equations may be used to determine the
weighted average unit weight:
for z
w
B: use
m
(no effect) (4.4.7.1.1.6-1)
for z
w
B: use (z
w
/B)(
m
)
(4.4.7.1.1.6-2)
for z
w
0: use (4.4.7.1.1.6-3)
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.6A for denition of terms
used in these equations. If 37, the following equa-
tions may be used to determine the weighted average unit
weight:
(2D z
w
)(z
w
m
/D
2
) (/D
2
)(D z
w
)
2
(4.4.7.1.1.6-4)
D 0.5Btan(45 /2)
(4.4.7.1.1.6-5)
4.4.7.1.1.7 Layered Soils
If the soil prole is layered, the general bearing capac-
ity equation shall be modied to account for differences
in failure modes between the layered case and the homo-
geneous soil case assumed in Equation 4.4.7.1.1-1.
Undrained Loading
For undrained loading of a footing supported on the
upper layer of a two-layer cohesive soil system, q
ult
may
be determined by the following:
q
ult
c
1
N
m
q (4.4.7.1.1.7-1)
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.6A Denition Sketch for Inuence of Ground Water Table on Bearing Capacity
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.7Afor the denition of c
1
. For
undrained loading, c
1
equals the undrained soil shear
strength s
ul
, and
1
0.
If the bearing stratum is a cohesive soil which overlies
a stiffer cohesive soil, refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.7B to de-
termine N
m
. If the bearing stratum overlies a softer layer,
punching shear should be assumed and N
m
may be calcu-
lated by the following:
N
m
(1/
m
s
c
N
c
) s
c
N
c
(4.4.7.1.1.7-2)
Drained Loading
For drained loading of a footing supported on a strong
layer overlying a weak layer in a two-layer system, q
ult
may be determined using the following:
q
ult
[q
2
(1/K)c
1
cot
1
] exp{2[1
(B/L)]Ktan
1
(H/B)} (1/K)c
1
cot
1
(4.4.7.1.1.7-3)
The subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the upper and lower
layers, respectively. K (1 sin
2
1
)/(1 sin
2
1
)
and q
2
equals q
ult
of a ctitious footing of the same size and
shape as the actual footing but supported on the
second (or lower) layer. Reduced shear strength values shall
be used to determine q
2
in accordance with Article 4.4.7.1.
If the upper layer is a cohesionless soil and equals
25 to 50, Equation 4.4.7.1.1.7-3 reduces to
q
ult
q
2
exp{0.67[1 (B/L)]H/B} (4.4.7.1.1.7-4)
The critical depth of the upper layer beyond which the
bearing capacity will generally be unaffected by the pres-
ence of the lower layer is given by the following:
H
crit
[3B1n(q
1
/q
2
)]/[2(1 B/L)] (4.4.7.1.1.7-5)
In the equation, q
1
equals the bearing capacity of the
upper layer assuming the upper layer is of innite extent.
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.7A
Typical Two-Layer Soil Proles
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.7B Modied Bearing Capacity Factor for
Two-Layer Cohesive Soil with Softer Soil Overlying
Stiffer Soil EPRI (1983)
4.4.7.1.1.8 Inclined Base
Footings with inclined bases are generally not recom-
mended. Where footings with inclined bases are neces-
sary, the following factors shall be applied in Equation
4.4.7.1.1-1:
b
q
b
(1 tan)
2
(4.4.7.1.1.8-1)
b
c
b
(1 b)/(N
c
tan) (for 0)
(4.4.7.1.1.8-2)
b
c
1 [2/( 2)] (for 0)
(4.4.7.1.1.8-3)
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.8Afor denition sketch.
Where footings must be placed on sloping surfaces,
refer to Article 4.4.6 for anchorage requirements.
4.4.7.1.2 Factors of Safety
Spread footings on soil shall be designed for Group 1
loadings using a minimum factor of safety (FS) of 3.0
against a bearing capacity failure.
4.4.7.2 Settlement
The total settlement includes elastic, consolidation,
and secondary components and may be determined using
the following:
S
t
S
e
S
c
S
s
(4.4.7.2-1)
Elastic settlement shall be determined using the unfac-
tored dead load, plus the unfactored component of live
and impact loads assumed to extend to the footing level.
Consolidation and secondary settlement may be deter-
mined using the full unfactored dead load only.
Other factors which can affect settlement (e.g., em-
bankment loading, lateral and/or eccentric loading, and
for footings on granular soils, vibration loading from dy-
namic live loads or earthquake loads) should also be con-
sidered, where appropriate. Refer to Gifford, et al., (1987)
for general guidance regarding static loading conditions
and Lam and Martin (1986) for guidance regarding dy-
namic/seismic loading conditions.
4.4.7.2.1 Stress Distribution
Figure 4.4.7.2.1A may be used to estimate the distri-
bution of vertical stress increase below circular (or
square) and long rectangular footings (i.e., where L
5B). For other footing geometries, refer to Poulos and
Davis (1974).
Some methods used for estimating settlement of foot-
ings on sand include an integral method to account for the
effects of vertical stress increase variations. Refer to Gif-
ford, et al., (1987) for guidance regarding application of
these procedures.
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.8A Denition Sketch for Footing Base Inclination
4.4.7.2.2 Elastic Settlement
The elastic settlement of footings on cohesionless
soils and stiff cohesive soils may be estimated using the
following:
S
e
[q
o
(1
2
)A ]/E
s
z
(4.4.7.2.2-1)
Refer to Table 4.4.7.2.2Afor approximate values of E
s
and for various soil types, and Table 4.4.7.2.2B for val-
ues of
z
for various shapes of exible and rigid footings.
Unless E
s
varies signicantly with depth, E
s
should be de-
termined at a depth of about
1
2 to
2
3 of B below the foot-
ing. If the soil modulus varies signicantly with depth, a
weighted average value of E
s
may be used.
Refer to Gifford, et al., (1987) for general guidance re-
garding the estimation of elastic settlement of footings on
sand.
4.4.7.2.3 Consolidation Settlement
The consolidation settlement of footings on saturated
or nearly saturated cohesive soils may be estimated using
FIGURE 4.4.7.2.1A Boussinesg Vertical Stress Contours for Continuous and Square Footings
Modied after Sowers (1979)
TABLE 4.4.7.2.2A Elastic Constants of Various Soils
Modied after U.S. Department of the Navy (1982) and Bowles (1982)
TABLE 4.4.7.2.2B Elastic Shape and Rigidity
Factors EPRI (1983)
the following when laboratory test results are expressed in
terms of void ratio (e):
For initial overconsolidated soils (i.e.,
p

0
):
S
c
[H
c
/(1 e
o
)][(C
cr
log{
p
/
o
}
C
c
log{
f
/
p
})] (4.4.7.2.3-1)
For initial normally consolidated soils (i.e.,
p

o
):
S
c
[H
c
/(1 e
o
)][C
c
log(
f
/
p
)] (4.4.7.2.3-2)
If laboratory test results are expressed in terms of ver-
tical strain (
v
), consolidation settlement may be estimated
using the following:
For initial overconsolidated soils (i.e.,
p

o
):
S
c
H
c
[C
re
log(
p
/
o
) C
ce
log(
f
/
p
)]
(4.4.7.2.3-3)
For initial normally consolidated soils (i.e.,
p

o
):
S
c
H
c
C
ce
log(
f
/
p
) (4.4.7.2.3-4)
Refer to Figures 4.4.7.2.3Aand 4.4.7.2.3B for the de-
nition of terms used in the equations.
To account for the decreasing stress with increased
depth below a footing, and variations in soil compress-
ibility with depth, the compressible layer should be di-
vided into vertical increments (i.e., typically 5 to 10 feet
for most normal width footings for highway applications),
and the consolidation settlement of each increment ana-
lyzed separately. The total value of S
c
is the summation of
S
c
for each increment.
If the footing width is small relative to the thickness
of the compressible soil, the effect of three-dimensional
(3-D) loading may be considered using the following:
S
c(3-D)

c
S
c(1-D)
(4.4.7.2.3-5)
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.2.3C for values of
c
.
The time (t) to achieve a given percentage of the total
estimated 1-D consolidation settlement may be estimated
using the following:
t TH
d
2
/c
v
(4.4.7.2.3-6)
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.2.3D for values of T for constant
and linearly varying excess pressure distributions. See
Winterkorn and Fang (1975) for values of T for other ex-
FIGURE 4.4.7.2.3A Typical Consolidation
Compression Curve for Overconsolidated Soil
Void Ratio Versus Vertical Effective Stress
EPRI (1983)
FIGURE 4.4.7.2.3B Typical Consolidation
Compression Curve for Overconsolidated Soil
Void Strain Versus Vertical Effective Stress
FIGURE 4.4.7.2.3C Reduction Factor to Account for
Effects of Three-Dimensional Consolidation Settlement
EPRI (1983)
cess pressure distributions. Values of c
v
may be estimated
from the results of laboratory consolidation testing of
undisturbed soil samples or from in-situ measurements
using devices such as a piezoprobe or piezocone.
4.4.7.2.4 Secondary Settlement
Secondary settlement of footings on cohesive soil may
be estimated using the following:
S
s
C
H
c
log(t
2
/t
1
) (4.4.7.2.4-1)
t
1
is the time when secondary settlement begins (typi-
cally at a time equivalent to 90-percent average degree of
consolidation), and t
2
is an arbitrary time which could rep-
resent the service life of the structure. Values of C
may
be estimated from the results of consolidation testing of
undisturbed soil samples in the laboratory.
4.4.7.2.5 Tolerable Movement
Tolerable movement criteria (vertical and horizontal)
for footings shall be developed consistent with the func-
tion and type of structure, anticipated service life, and
consequences of unacceptable movements on structure
performance. Foundation displacement analyses shall be
based on the results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing to
characterize the load-deformation behavior of the foun-
dation soils. Displacement analyses should be conducted
to determine the relationship between estimated settle-
ment and footing bearing pressure to optimize footing size
with respect to supported loads.
Tolerable movement criteria for foundation settlement
shall be developed considering the angular distortion
(/) between adjacent footings. / shall be limited to
0.005 for simple span bridges and 0.004 for continuous
span bridges (Moulton, et al., 1985). These / limits are
not applicable to rigid frame structures. Rigid frames shall
be designed for anticipated differential settlements based
on the results of special analysis.
Tolerable movement criteria for horizontal foundations
displacement shall be developed considering the potential
effects of combined vertical and horizontal movement.
Where combined horizontal and vertical displacements
are possible, horizontal movements should be limited to 1
inch or less. Where vertical displacements are small, hor-
izontal displacements should be limited to 1
1
2 inch or less
(Moulton, et al. 1985). If estimated or actual movements
exceed these levels, special analysis and/or measures to
limit movements should be considered.
4.4.7.3 Dynamic Ground Stability
Refer to Division I-ASeismic Design and Lam and
Martin (1986a; 1986b) for guidance regarding the devel-
opment of ground and seismic parameters and methods
used for evaluation of dynamic ground stability.
4.4.8 Geotechnical Design on Rock
Spread footings supported on rock shall be designed to
support the design loads with adequate bearing and struc-
tural capacity and with tolerable settlements in confor-
mance with Articles 4.4.8 and 4.4.11. In addition, the re-
sponse of footings subjected to seismic and dynamic
loading shall be evaluated in conformance with Article
4.4.10. For footings on rock, the location of the resultant
FIGURE 4.4.7.2.3D Percentage of Consolidation as a Function of Time Factor, T
EPRI (1983)
of pressure (R) on the base of footings shall be maintained
within B/4 of the center of the footing.
The bearing capacity and settlement of footings on
rock is inuenced by the presence, orientation and condi-
tion of discontinuities, weathering proles, and other sim-
ilar features. The methods used for design of footings on
rock should consider these factors as they apply at a par-
ticular site, and the degree to which they should be incor-
porated in the design.
For footings on competent rock, reliance on simple and
direct analyses based on uniaxial compressive rock
strengths and RQD may be applicable. Competent rock is
dened as a rock mass with discontinuities that are tight
or open not wider than
1
8 inch. For footings on less com-
petent rock, more detailed investigations and analyses
should be used to account for the effects of weathering,
the presence and condition of discontinuities, and other
geologic factors.
4.4.8.1.1 Footings on Competent Rock
The allowable contact stress for footings supported on
level surfaces in competent rock may be determined using
Figure 4.4.8.1.1A(Peck, et al. 1974). In no instance shall
the maximum allowable contact stress exceed the allow-
able bearing stress in the concrete. The RQD used in Fig-
ure 4.4.8.1.1A shall be the average RQD for the rock
within a depth of B below the base of the footing, where
the RQD values are relatively uniform within that inter-
val. If rock within a depth of 0.5B below the base of the
footing is of poorer quality, the RQD of the poorer rock
shall be used to determine q
all
.
4.4.8.1.2 Footings on Broken or Jointed Rock
The design of footings on broken or jointed rock must
account for the condition and spacing of joints and other
discontinuities. The ultimate bearing capacity of footings
on broken or jointed rock may be estimated using the fol-
lowing relationship:
q
ult
N
ms
C
o
(4.4.8.1.2-1)
Refer to Table 4.4.8.1.2A for values of N
ms
. Values of
C
o
should preferably be determined from the results of
laboratory testing of rock cores obtained within 2B of the
base of the footing. Where rock strata within this interval
are variable in strength, the rock with the lowest capacity
FIGURE 4.4.8.1.1A Allowable Contact Stress for Footings on Rock with Tight Discontinuities
Peck, et al. (1974)
should be used to determine q
ult
. Alternatively, Table
4.4.8.1.2B may be used as a guide to estimate C
o
. For
rocks dened by very poor quality, the value of q
ult
should
be determined as the value of q
ult
for an equivalent soil
mass.
4.4.8.1.3 Factors of Safety
Spread footings on rock shall be designed for Group 1
loadings using a minimum factor of safety (FS) of 3.0
against a bearing capacity failure.
4.4.8.2 Settlement
4.4.8.2.1 Footings on Competent Rock
For footings on competent rock, elastic settlements will
generally be less than
1
2 inch when footings are designed
in accordance with Article 4.4.8.1.1. When elastic settle-
ments of this magnitude are unacceptable or when the rock
is not competent, an analysis of settlement based on rock
mass characteristics must be made. For rock masses which
have time-dependent settlement characteristics, the proce-
dure in Article 4.4.7.2.3 may be followed to determine the
time-dependent component of settlement.
4.4.8.2.2 Footings on Broken or Jointed Rock
Where the criteria for competent rock are not met, the
inuence of rock type, condition of discontinuities and de-
gree of weathering shall be considered in the settlement
analysis.
The elastic settlement of footings on broken or jointed
rock may be determined using the following:
For circular (or square) footings;
q
o
(1
2
)rI
/E
m
, with I
( )/
z
(4.4.8.2.2-1)
For rectangular footings;
TABLE 4.4.8.1.2A Values of Coefficient N
ms
for Estimation of the Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Footings on
Broken or Jointed Rock (Modied after Hoek, (1983))
q
o
(1
2
)BI
/E
m
, with I
(L/B)
1/2
/
z
(4.4.8.2.2-2)
Values of I
p
may be computed using the
z
values pre-
sented in Table 4.4.7.2.2B from Article 4.4.7.2.2 for rigid
footings. Values of Poissons ratio () for typical rock
types are presented in Table 4.4.8.2.2A. Determination of
the rock mass modulus (E
m
) should be based on the results
of in-situ and laboratory tests. Alternatively, values of E
m
may be estimated by multiplying the intact rock modulus
(E
o
) obtained from uniaxial compression tests by a reduc-
tion factor (
E
) which accounts for frequency of disconti-
nuities by the rock quality designation (RQD), using the
following relationships (Gardner, 1987):
E
m

E
E
o
(4.4.8.2.2-3)
E
0.0231(RQD) 1.32 0.15 (4.4.8.2.2-4)
For preliminary design or when site-specic test data can-
not be obtained, guidelines for estimating values of E
o
(such as presented in Table 4.4.8.2.2B or Figure
4.4.8.2.2A) may be used. For preliminary analyses or for
nal design when in-situ test results are not available, a
value of
E
0.15 should be used to estimate E
m
.
Refer to Article 4.4.7.2.3.
4.4.9 Overall Stability
The overall stability of footings, slopes, and founda-
tion soil or rock shall be evaluated for footings located on
TABLE 4.4.8.1.2B Typical Range of Uniaxial Compressive Strength (C
o
) as a Function of
Rock Category and Rock Type
TABLE 4.4.8.2.2A Summary of Poissons Ratio for Intact Rock
Modied after Kulhawy (1978)
TABLE 4.4.8.2.2B Summary of Elastic Moduli for Intact Rock
Modied after Kulhawy (1978)
or near a slope by limiting equilibrium methods of analy-
sis which employ the Modied Bishop, simplied Janbu,
Spenser or other generally accepted methods of slope sta-
bility analysis. Where soil and rock parameters and
ground water levels are based on in-situ and/or laboratory
tests, the minimum factor of safety shall be 1.3 (or 1.5
where abutments are supported above a slope). Otherwise,
the minimum factor of safety shall be 1.5 (or 1.8 where
abutments are supported above a retaining wall).
4.4.10 Dynamic/Seismic Design
Refer to Division I-A and Lam and Martin (1986a;
1986b) for guidance regarding the design of footings sub-
jected to dynamic and seismic loads.
4.4.11 Structural Design
4.4.11.1 Loads and Reactions
4.4.11.1.1 Action of Loads and Reactions
Footings shall be considered as under the action of
downward forces, due to the superimposed loads, resisted
by an upward pressure exerted by the foundation materi-
als and distributed over the area of the footings as deter-
mined by the eccentricity of the resultant of the downward
forces. Where piles are used under footings, the upward
reaction of the foundation shall be considered as a series
of concentrated loads applied at the pile centers, each pile
being assumed to carry the computed portion of the total
footing load.
FIGURE 4.4.8.2.2A Relationship Between Elastic Modulus and Uniaxial Compressive Strength for Intact Rock
Modied after Deere (1968)
4.4.11.1.2 Isolated and Multiple Footing Reactions
When a single isolated footing supports a column, pier
or wall, the footing shall be assumed to act as a cantilever.
When footings support more than one column, pier, or
wall, the footing slab shall be designed for the actual con-
ditions of continuity and restraint.
4.4.11.2 Moments
4.4.11.2.1 Critical Section
External moment on any section of a footing shall be
determined by passing a vertical plane through the foot-
ing, and computing the moment of the forces acting over
the entire area of the footing on one side of that vertical
plane. The critical section for bending shall be taken at the
face of the column, pier, or wall. In the case of columns
that are not square or rectangular, the section shall be
taken at the side of the concentric square of equivalent
area. For footings under masonry walls, the critical sec-
tion shall be taken halfway between the middle and edge
of the wall. For footings under metallic column bases, the
critical section shall be taken halfway between the column
face and the edge of the metallic base.
4.4.11.2.2 Distribution of Reinforcement
Reinforcement of one-way and two-way square foot-
ings shall be distributed uniformly across the entire width
of footing.
Reinforcement of two-way rectangular footings shall
be distributed uniformly across the entire width of footing
in the long direction. In the short direction, the portion of
the total reinforcement given by Equation 4.4.11.2.2-1
shall be distributed uniformly over a band width (centered
on center line of column or pier) equal to the length of the
short side of the footing. The remainder of reinforcement
required in the short direction shall be distributed uni-
formly outside the center band width of footing.
is the ratio of the footing length to width.
4.4.11.3 Shear
Computation of shear in footings, and location of crit-
ical section, shall be in accordance with Articles 8.15.5.6
or 8.16.6.6. Location of critical section shall be measured
from the face of column, pier or wall, for footings sup-
porting a column, pier, or wall. For footings supporting
a column or pier with metallic base plates, the critical
section shall be measured from the location dened in
Article 4.4.11.2.
4.4.11.3.2 Footings on Piles or Drilled Shafts
Shear on the critical section shall be in accordance with
the following:
Entire reaction from any pile or drilled shaft whose
center is located d
p
/2 or more outside the critical
section shall be considered as producing shear on
that section.
Reaction from any pile or drilled shaft whose center
is located d
p
/2 or more inside the critical section
shall be considered as producing no shear on that
section.
For the intermediate position of pile or drilled shaft
centers, the portion of the pile or shaft reaction to be
considered as producing shear on the critical section
shall be based on linear interpolation between full
value at d
p
/2 outside the section and zero value at
d
p
/2 inside the section.
4.4.11.4 Development of Reinforcement
4.4.11.4.1 Development Length
Computation of development of reinforcement in
footings shall be in accordance with Articles 8.24
through 8.32.
Critical sections for development of reinforcement
shall be assumed at the same locations as dened in Arti-
cle 4.4.11.2 and at all other vertical planes where changes
in section or reinforcement occur. See also Article
8.24.1.5.
4.4.11.5 Transfer of Force at Base of Column
4.4.11.5.1 Transfer of Force
All forces and moments applied at base of column or
pier shall be transferred to top of footing by bearing on
concrete and by reinforcement.
4.4.11.5.2 Lateral Forces
Lateral forces shall be transferred to supporting foot-
ing in accordance with shear-transfer provisions of Arti-
cles 8.15.5.4 or 8.16.6.4.
Reinforcement in band width
Total reinforcement in short direction
-1)
=
+
2
1
4 4 11 2 2
( )
( . . . .

4.4.11.5.3 Bearing
Bearing on concrete at contact surface between sup-
porting and supported member shall not exceed concrete
bearing strength for either surface as given in Articles
8.15.2 or 8.16.7.
4.4.11.5.4 Reinforcement
Reinforcement shall be provided across interface be-
tween supporting and supported member either by ex-
tending main longitudinal reinforcement into footings or
by dowels. Reinforcement across interface shall be suffi-
cient to satisfy all of the following:
Reinforcement shall be provided to transfer all force
that exceeds concrete bearing strength in supporting
or supported member.
If required loading conditions include uplift, total
tensile force shall be resisted by reinforcement.
Area of reinforcement shall not be less than 0.005
times gross area of supported member, with a mini-
mum of four bars.
4.4.11.5.5 Dowel Size
Diameter of dowels, if used, shall not exceed diameter
of longitudinal reinforcement by more than 0.15 inch.
4.4.11.5.6 Development Length
For transfer of force by reinforcement, development of
reinforcement in supporting and supported member shall
be in accordance with Articles 8.24 through 8.32.
4.4.11.5.7 Splicing
At footings, No. 14 and 18 main longitudinal rein-
forcement, in compression only, may be lap spliced with
footing dowels to provide the required area, but not less
than that required by Article 4.4.11.5.4. Dowels shall not
be larger than No. 11 and shall extend into the column a
distance of not less than the development length of the No.
14 or 18 bars or the splice length of the dowels, whichever
is greater; and into the footing a distance of not less than
the development length of the dowels.
4.4.11.6 Unreinforced Concrete Footings
4.4.11.6.1 Design Stress
Design stresses in plain concrete footings or pedestals
shall be computed assuming a linear stress distribution.
For footings and pedestals cast against soil, effective
thickness used in computing stresses shall be taken as the
overall thickness minus 3 inches. Extreme ber stress in
tension shall not exceed that specied in Article
8.15.2.1.1. Bending need not be considered unless pro-
jection of footing from face to support member exceeds
footing thickness.
4.4.11.6.2 Pedestals
The ratio of unsupported height to average least lateral
dimension of plain concrete pedestals shall not exceed 3.
4.5 DRIVEN PILES
4.5.1 General
The provisions of this article shall apply to the design
of axially and laterally loaded driven piles in soil or ex-
tending through soil to rock.
4.5.1.1 Application
Piling may be considered when footings cannot be
founded on rock, or on granular or stiff cohesive soils
within a reasonable depth. At locations where soil condi-
tions would normally permit the use of spread footings but
the potential for scour exists, piles may be used as a pro-
tection against scour. Piles may also be used where an un-
acceptable amount of settlement of spread footings may
occur.
4.5.1.2 Materials
Piles may be structural steel sections, steel pipe, pre-
cast concrete, cast-in-place concrete, prestressed con-
crete, timber, or a combination of materials. In every case,
materials shall be supplied in accordance with the provi-
sions of this article.
4.5.1.3 Penetration
Pile penetration shall be determined based on vertical
and lateral load capacities of both the pile and subsurface
materials. In general, the design penetration for any pile
shall be not less than 10 feet into hard cohesive or dense
granular material nor less than 20 feet into soft cohesive
or loose granular material. Where the depth to dense ma-
terial or rock is less than 10 feet, spread footings should
be considered. Piles for trestle or pile bents shall meet the
above requirements and, additionally, unless refusal is en-
countered, shall penetrate not less than
1
3 the unsupported
length of the pile.
4.5.1.4 Lateral Tip Restraint
No piling shall be used to penetrate a soft or loose
upper stratum overlying a hard or rm stratum unless the
piles penetrate the hard or rm stratum by a sufficient dis-
tance to x the ends against lateral movement of the pile
tip. Driving points or shoes may be necessary to accom-
plish this penetration.
4.5.1.5 Estimated Lengths
Estimated pile lengths for each substructure shall be
shown on the plans and shall be based upon careful eval-
uation of available subsurface information, static and lat-
eral capacity calculations, and/or past experience.
4.5.1.6 Estimated and Minimum Tip Elevation
Estimated and minimum pile tip elevations for each
substructure should be shown on the contract plans. Esti-
mated pile tip elevations shall reect the elevation where
the required ultimate pile capacity can be obtained. Min-
imum pile tip elevations shall reect the penetration re-
quired to support lateral pile loads (including scour con-
siderations where appropriate) and/or penetration of
overlying, unsuitable soil strata.
4.5.1.7 Piles Through Embankment Fill
Piles to be driven through embankments shall pene-
trate a minimum of 10 feet through original ground unless
refusal on bedrock or competent bearing strata occurs at a
lesser penetration. Fill used for embankment construction
shall be a select material which shall not obstruct pile pen-
etration to the required depth. The maximum size of any
rock particles in the ll shall not exceed 6 inches. Pre-
drilling or spudding pile locations may be required, par-
ticularly for displacement piles.
4.5.1.8 Test Piles
Test piles shall be considered for each substructure unit
(See Article 7.1.1 for denition of substructure unit) to de-
termine pile installation characteristics, evaluate pile ca-
pacity with depth and to establish contractor pile order
lengths. Piles may be tested by static loading, dynamic
testing, conducting driveability studies, or a combination
thereof, based upon the knowledge of subsurface condi-
tions. The number of test piles required may be increased
in non-uniform subsurface conditions. Test piles may not
be required where previous experience exists with the
same pile type and ultimate pile capacity in similar sub-
surface conditions.
4.5.2 Pile Types
Piles shall be classied as friction or end bearing
or a combination of both according to the manner in
which load transfer is developed.
4.5.2.1 Friction Piles
A pile shall be considered to be a friction pile if the
major portion of support capacity is derived from soil re-
sistance mobilized along the side of the embedded pile.
4.5.2.2 End Bearing Piles
A pile shall be considered to be an end bearing pile if
the major portion of support capacity is derived from the
resistance of the foundation material on which the pile tip
rests.
4.5.2.3 Combination Friction and End Bearing
Piles
Under certain soil conditions and for certain pile ma-
terials, the bearing capacity of a pile may be considered as
the sum of the resistance mobilized on the embedded shaft
and that developed at the pile tip, even though the forces
that are mobilized simultaneously are not necessarily
maximum values.
4.5.2.4 Batter Piles
When the lateral resistance of the soil surrounding the
piles is inadequate to counteract the horizontal forces
transmitted to the foundation, or when increased rigidity
of the entire structure is required, batter piles should be
used in the foundation. Where negative skin friction loads
are expected, batter piles should be avoided, and an alter-
nate method of providing lateral restraint should be used.
4.5.3 Notations
driven pile foundations:
A
s
Area of pile circumference (ft
2
)
A
t
Area of pile tip (ft
2
)
B Pile diameter or width (ft)
f
c
Concrete compression strength (ksi)
f
pe
Concrete compression stress due to prestressing
after all losses (ksi)
FS Factor of safety (dim)
F
y
Yield strength of steel (ksi)
L Pile length (ft)
Q
all
Design capacity (k)
Q
S
Ultimate shaft resistance (k)
Q
T
Ultimate tip resistance (k)
Q
ult
Ultimate pile capacity (k)
r
s
Unit side resistance (ksi)
R
s
Side resistance (k)
r
t
Unit tip resistance (ksi)
R
t
Tip resistance (k)
Percentage of reinforcement (dim)
a
Allowable stress (ksi)
ing: dim Dimensionless; ft foot; square feet ft
2
;
k kip; ksi kip/in.
2
; and in. inch. The dimensional
units provided with each notation are presented for illus-
tration only to demonstrate a dimensionally correct com-
bination of units for the footing capacity procedures pre-
sented herein. If other units are used, the dimensional
correctness of the equations shall be conrmed.
sign of driven pile foundations.
4.5.5 Selection of Soil and Rock Properties
pressibility characteristics of the foundation materials, are
required for driven pile design. Refer to Article 4.3 for
guidelines for subsurface exploration to obtain soil and
rock properties.
4.5.6 Selection of Design Pile Capacity
The design pile capacity is the maximum load the
pile shall support with tolerable movement. In determin-
ing the design pile capacity, the following items shall be
considered:
Ultimate geotechnical capacity; and
Structural capacity of the pile section.
4.5.6.1 Ultimate Geotechnical Capacity
The ultimate axial capacity of a driven pile shall be de-
termined from:
Q
ult
Q
S
Q
T
(4.5.6.1-1)
The allowable design axial capacity shall be deter-
mined from:
Q
all
Q
ult
/FS (4.5.6.1-2)
4.5.6.1.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity
In determining the design axial capacity, consideration
shall be given to:
The difference between the supporting capacity of a
single pile and that of a group of piles;
The capacity of an underlying strata to support the
load of the pile group;
The effects of driving piles on adjacent structures or
slopes;
The possibility of scour and its effect on axial and
lateral capacity;
The effects of negative skin friction or downdrag
loads from consolidating soil and the effects of up-
lift loads from expansive or swelling soils;
The inuence of construction techniques such as
augering or jetting on capacity; and
The inuence of uctuations in the elevation of the
ground water table on capacity.
4.5.6.1.2 Axial Capacity in Cohesive Soils
The ultimate axial capacity of piles in cohesive soils
may be calculated using a total stress method (e.g., Tom-
linson, 1957) for undrained loading conditions, or an ef-
fective stress method (e.g., Meyerhof, 1976) for drained
loading conditions. The axial capacity may also be calcu-
lated from in-situ testing methods such as the cone pene-
tration (e.g., Schmertmann, 1978) or pressuremeter tests
(e.g., Baguelin, 1978).
4.5.6.1.3 Axial Capacity in Cohesionless Soils
The ultimate axial capacity of piles in cohesionless
soils may be calculated using an empirical effective stress
method (e.g., Nordlund, 1963) or from in-situ testing
methods and analysis such as the cone penetration (e.g.,
Schmertmann, 1978) or pressuremeter tests (e.g.,
Baguelin, 1978).
4.5.6.1.4 Axial Capacity on Rock
For piles driven to competent rock, the structural ca-
pacity in Article 4.5.7 will generally govern the design
axial capacity. For piles driven to weak rock such as shale
and mudstone or poor quality weathered rock, a static load
test is recommended. Pile relaxation should be considered
in certain kinds of rock when performing load tests.
4.5.6.2 Factor of Safety Selection
The selection of the factor of safety to be applied to
the ultimate axial geotechnical capacity shall consider
the reliability of the ultimate soil capacity determination
and pile installation control. Recommended values for
the factor of safety depending upon the degree of con-
struction control specified on the plans are presented in
Table 4.5.6.2A. All factors of safety are based on full-
time observation of pile installation. The design pile ca-
pacity shall be specified on the plans so the factor of
safety can be adjusted if the specified construction con-
trol is altered.
4.5.6.3 Settlement
The settlement of axially loaded piles and pile groups
at the allowable loads shall be estimated. Elastic analysis,
load transfer and/or nite element techniques (e.g., Vesic,
1977 or Poulos and Davis, 1980) may be used. The set-
tlement of the pile or pile group shall not exceed the tol-
erable movement limits of the structure.
4.5.6.4 Group Pile Loading
Group pile capacity should be determined as the prod-
uct of the group efficiency, number of piles in the group,
FIGURE 4.5.4A Design Terminology for Driven Pile Foundations
and the capacity of a single pile. In general, a group effi-
ciency value of 1.0 should be used except for friction piles
in cohesive soils. The efficiency factor for friction piles in
cohesive soils with a center-to-center pile spacing less
than 3.0B should be 0.7. Center-to-center pile spacings
less than 2.5B are not recommended.
4.5.6.5 Lateral Loads on Piles
The design of laterally loaded piles is usually governed
by lateral movement criteria. The design of laterally
loaded piles shall account for the effects of soil/rock-
structure interaction between the pile and ground (e.g.,
Reese, 1984). Methods of analysis evaluating the ultimate
capacity or deection of laterally loaded piles (e.g.,
Broms, 1964a and 1964b; Singh, et al., 1971) may be used
for preliminary design only as a means to evaluate appro-
priate pile sections.
4.5.6.6 Uplift Loads on Piles
The uplift design capacity of single piles and pile
groups shall be determined in accordance with Articles
4.5.6.6.1 and 4.5.6.6.2, respectively. Proper provision
shall be made for anchorage of the pile into the pile cap.
4.5.6.6.1 Single Pile
The uplift design capacity for a single pile shall not ex-
ceed one-third of the ultimate frictional capacity deter-
mined by a static analysis method. Alternatively, the uplift
capacity of a single pile can be determined by uplift load
tests in conformance with ASTM D 3689 (ASTM, 1988).
If determined by load tests, the allowable uplift design ca-
pacity shall not exceed 50% of the failure uplift load.
4.5.6.6.2 Pile Group
The uplift design capacity for a pile group shall be the
lesser of: (1) The single pile uplift design capacity multi-
plied by the number of piles in the group, or (2) two-thirds
of the effective weight of the pile group and the soils con-
tained within a block dened by the perimeter of the
group and the embedded length of the piles, or (3) one-
half the effective weight of the pile group and the soil con-
tained within a block dened by the perimeter of the
group and the embedded pile length plus one-half the total
soil shear on the peripheral surface of the group.
4.5.6.7 Vertical Ground Movement
The potential for external loading on a pile by vertical
ground movements shall be considered as part of the de-
sign. Vertical ground movements may result in negative
skin friction or downdrag loads due to settlement of com-
pressible soils or may result in uplift loads due to heave of
expansive soils. For design purposes, the full magnitude
of maximum vertical ground movement shall be assumed.
4.5.6.7.1 Negative Skin Friction
The potential for external loading on a pile by negative
skin friction/downdrag due to settlement of compressible
soil shall be considered as a part of the design. Evaluation
of negative skin friction shall include a load-transfer
method of analysis to determine the neutral point (i.e.,
point of zero relative displacement) and load distribution
along shaft (e.g., Fellenius, 1984, Reese and ONeill,
1988). Due to the possible time dependence associated
with vertical ground movement, the analysis shall con-
sider the effect of time on load transfer between the
ground and shaft and the analysis shall be performed for
the time period relating to the maximum axial load trans-
fer to the pile. If necessary, negative skin friction loads
that cause excessive settlement may be reduced by appli-
cation of bitumen or other viscous coatings to the pile sur-
faces before installation.
4.5.6.7.2 Expansive Soil
Piles driven in swelling soils may be subjected to up-
lift forces in the zone of seasonal moisture change. Piles
shall extend a sufficient distance into moisturestable
soils to provide adequate resistance to swelling uplift
forces. In addition, sufficient clearance shall be provided
between the ground surface and the underside of pile caps
or grade beams to preclude the application of uplift loads
at the pile cap. Uplift loads may be reduced by application
of bitumen or other viscous coatings to the pile surface in
the swelling zone.
TABLE 4.5.6.2A Recommended Factor of Safety on
Ultimate Geotechnical Capacity Based on Specied
Construction Control
Increasing Construction
Control
Subsurface exploration
(1)
X X X X X
Static calculation X X X X X
Dynamic formula X
Wave equation X X X X
Dynamic measurement X X
and analysis
Static load test X X
Factor of safety 3.50 2.75 2.25
(2)
2.00 1.90
(1)
X Construction Control Specied on Contract Plans.
(2)
For any combination of construction control that includes an
approved static load test, a factor of safety of 2.0 may be used.
4.5.6.8 Dynamic/Seismic Design
Refer to Division I-Afor guidance regarding the design
of driven piles subjected to dynamic and seismic loads.
4.5.7 Structural Capacity of Pile Section
4.5.7.1 Load Capacity Requirements
Piles shall be designed as structural members capable
of safely supporting all loads imposed on them by the
structure or surrounding soil.
4.5.7.2 Piles Extending Above Ground Surface
For portions of piles in air or water, or in soil not ca-
pable of providing adequate lateral support throughout the
pile length to prevent buckling, the structural design pro-
visions for compression members of Sections 8, 9, 10, and
13 shall apply except: timber piles shall be designed in ac-
cordance with Article 13.5 using the allowable unit
stresses given in Article 13.2 for lumber and in Table
4.5.7.3A.
4.5.7.3 Allowable Stresses in Piles
The maximum allowable stress on a pile shall not ex-
ceed the following limits in severe subsurface conditions.
Where pile damage or deterioration is possible, it may be
prudent to use a lower stress level than the maximum al-
lowable stress.
For steel H-piles, the maximum allowable stress
shall not exceed 0.25F
y
over the cross-sectional area
of the pile, not including the area of any tip rein-
forcement. The maximum allowable stress may be
increased to 0.33F
y
in conditions where pile damage
is unlikely. Static and/or dynamic load test and eval-
uation conrming satisfactory results should be per-
formed when using 0.33F
y
.
For unlled steel pipe piles, the maximum allowable
stress shall not exceed 0.25F
y
over the minimum
cross-sectional area of the pile. The maximum al-
lowable stress may be increased to 0.33F
y
in condi-
tions where pile damage is unlikely. Static and/or
dynamic load test and evaluation conrming satis-
factory results should be performed when using
0.33F
y
.
For concrete lled steel pipe piles, the maximum
allowable stress shall not exceed 0.25F
y
0.40f
c
applied over the cross-sectional area of the steel

pipe and on the cross-sectional area of the concrete,
respectively.
For precast concrete piles, the maximum allowable
stress shall not exceed 0.33f
c
on the gross cross-sec-
tional area of the concrete.
For prestressed concrete piles fully embedded in
soils providing lateral support, the maximum allow-
able stress shall not exceed 0.33f
c
0.27f
pe
on the
gross cross-sectional area of the concrete.
For round timber piles, the maximum allowable
stress shall not exceed the values in Table 4.5.7.3A
for the pile tip area. For sawn timber piles, the val-
ues applicable to wet condition for allowable com-
pression parallel to grain shall be used in accordance
with Article 13.2.
4.5.7.4 Cross-Section Adjustment for Corrosion
For concrete-lled pipe piles where corrosion may be
expected,
1
16 inch shall be deducted from the shell thick-
TABLE 4.5.7.3A Allowable Working Stress for
Round Timber Piles
Allowable Unit Working
Stress Compression
Parallel to Grain for
Normal Duration of
Species Loading
a
(psi)
Ash, white 1,200
Beech 1,300
Birch 1,300
Chestnut , 900
Cypress, Southern 1,200
Cypress, Tidewater red 1,200
Douglas Fir, coast type 1,200
Douglas Fir, inland 1,100
Elm, rock 1,300
Elm, soft , 850
Gum, black and red , 850
Hemlock, Eastern , 800
Hemlock, West Coast 1,000
Hickory 1,650
Larch 1,200
Maple, hard 1,300
Oak, red and white 1,100
Pecan 1,650
Pine, Lodgepole , 800
Pine, Norway , 850
Pine, Southern 1,200
Pine, Southern, dense 1,400
Poplar, yellow , 800
Redwood 1,100
Spruce, Eastern , 850
Tupelo , 850
ness to allow for reduction in section due to corrosion.
Area of shell shall be included in determining percentage
of reinforcement, .
4.5.7.5 Scour
subsurface exploration and hydraulic studies as described
in Article 4.3.5. If heavy scour is expected, consideration
shall be given to designing the portion of the pile that
would be exposed as a column. In all cases, the pile length
shall be determined such that the design structural load
may be safely supported entirely below the probable scour
depth. The pile shall be of adequate cross-section to with-
stand the driving necessary to penetrate through the an-
ticipated scour depth to the design embedment.
4.5.8 Protection Against Corrosion and Abrasion
Where conditions of exposure warrant, concrete en-
casement or other corrosion protection shall be used on
steel piles and steel shells. Exposed steel piles or steel
shells shall not be used in salt or brackish water, and only
with caution in fresh water. Where the piling is exposed to
the abrasive action of the bed load of materials, the sec-
tion shall be increased in thickness or positive protection
shall be provided.
4.5.9 Wave Equation Analysis
The constructability of the pile foundation design
should be evaluated using a wave equation computer pro-
gram. The wave equation should be used to conrm that
the design pile section can be installed to the desired
depth, ultimate capacity, and within the allowable driving
stress levels specied in Article 4.5.11 using an appropri-
ately sized driving system.
4.5.10 Dynamic Monitoring
Dynamic monitoring may be specied for piles in-
stalled in difficult subsurface conditions such as soils with
obstructions and boulders, or a steeply sloping bedrock
surface to evaluate compliance with structural pile capac-
ity. Dynamic monitoring may also be considered for ge-
otechnical capacity verication where the size of the proj-
ect or other limitations deter static load testing.
4.5.11 Maximum Allowable Driving Stresses
Maximum allowable driving stresses in pile material
for top driven piles shall not exceed the following limits:
Steel piles 0.90F
y
(Compression)
0.90F
y
(Tension)
Concrete piles 0.85f
c
(Compression)
0.70F
y
of Steel Reinforcement
(Tension)
Prestressed concrete piles 0.85f
c
f
pe
(Compression)
Normal environments 3 f
c
f
pe
(Tension)
(f
c
and f
pe
must be in psi.
The resulting max stress
is also in psi.)
Severe corrosive
environments f
pe
(Tension)
Timber piles 3
a
(Compression)
3
a
(Tension)
Driving stresses may be estimated by performing wave
equation analyses or by dynamic monitoring of force and
acceleration at the pile head during pile driving.
4.5.12 Tolerable Movement
Tolerable axial and lateral displacement criteria for driv-
en pile foundations shall be developed by the structural
engineer consistent with the function and type of struc-
ture, xity of bearings, anticipated service life, and con-
sequences of unacceptable displacements on the structural
performance. Driven pile displacement analyses shall be
based on the results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing to
characterize the load deformation behavior of the founda-
tion materials. Refer to Article 4.4.7.2.5 for additional
guidance regarding tolerable vertical and horizontal
movement criteria.
4.5.13 Buoyancy
The effect of hydrostatic pressure shall be considered
in the design as provided in Article 3.19.
4.5.14 Protection Against Deterioration
4.5.14.1 Steel Piles
Asteel pile foundation design shall consider that steel
piles may be subject to corrosion, particularly in ll soils,
low ph soils (acidic) and marine environments. A eld
electric resistivity survey, or resistivity testing and ph test-
ing of soil and ground water samples should be used to
evaluate the corrosion potential. Methods of protecting
steel piling in corrosive environments include use of pro-
tective coatings, cathodic protection, and increased pile
steel area.
4.5.14.2 Concrete Piles
A concrete pile foundation design shall consider that
deterioration of concrete piles can occur due to sulfates in
soil, ground water, or sea water; chlorides in soils and
chemical wastes; acidic ground water and organic acids.
Laboratory testing of soil and ground water samples for
sulfates and ph is usually sufficient to assess pile deterio-
ration potential. A full chemical analysis of soil and
ground water samples is recommended when chemical
wastes are suspected. Methods of protecting concrete pil-
ing can include dense impermeable concrete, sulfate re-
sisting portland cement, minimum cover requirements for
reinforcing steel, and use of epoxies, resins, or other pro-
tective coatings.
4.5.14.3 Timber Piles
Atimber pile foundation design shall consider that de-
terioration of timber piles can occur due to decay from
wetting and drying cycles or from insects or marine bor-
ers. Methods of protecting timber piling include pressure
treating with creosote or other wood preservers.
4.5.15 Spacing, Clearances, and Embedment
4.5.15.1 Pile Footings
4.5.15.1.1 Pile Spacing
Pile footings shall be proportioned such that the mini-
mum center-to-center pile spacing shall exceed the greater
of 2 feet 6 inches or 2.5 pile diameters/widths. The dis-
tance from the side of any pile to the nearest edge of the
pile footing shall not be less than 9 inches.
4.5.15.1.2 Minimum Projection into Cap
The tops of piles shall project not less than 12 inches
into concrete after all damaged pile material has been re-
moved, but in special cases, it may be reduced to 6
inches.
4.5.15.2 Bent Caps
Where a reinforced concrete beam is cast-in-place
and used as a bent cap supported by piles, the concrete
cover at the sides of the piles shall be a minimum of 6
inches. The piles shall project at least 6 inches and
preferably 9 inches into the cap, although concrete piles
may project a lesser distance into the cap if the projec-
tion of the pile reinforcement is sufficient to provide ad-
equate bond.
4.5.16 Precast Concrete Piles
4.5.16.1 Size and Shape
Precast concrete piles shall be of approved size and
shape but may be either of uniform section or tapered. In
general, tapered piling shall not be used for trestle con-
struction except for the portion of the pile which lies
below the ground line; nor shall tapered piles be used in
any location where the piles are to act as columns.
4.5.16.2 Minimum Area
In general, concrete piles shall have a cross-sectional
area, measured above the taper, of not less than 98 square
inches. In saltwater a minimum cross-sectional area of
140 square inches shall be used. If a square section is em-
ployed, the corners shall be chamfered at least 1 inch.
4.5.16.3 Minimum Diameter of Tapered Piles
The diameter of tapered piles measured at the point
shall be not less than 8 inches. In all cases the diameter
shall be considered as the least dimension through the
center.
4.5.16.4 Driving Points
Piles preferably shall be cast with a driving point and,
for hard driving, preferably shall be shod with a metal
shoe of approved pattern.
4.5.16.5 Vertical Reinforcement
Vertical reinforcement shall consist of not less than
four bars spaced uniformly around the perimeter of the
pile, except that if more than four bars are used, the num-
ber may be reduced to four in the bottom 4 feet of the pile.
The amount of reinforcement shall be at least 1
1
2 percent
of the total section measured above the taper.
4.5.16.6 Spiral Reinforcement
The full length of vertical steel shall be enclosed with
spiral reinforcement or equivalent hoops. The spiral rein-
forcement at the ends of the pile shall have a pitch of 3
inches and gage of not less than No. 5 (U.S. Steel Wire
Gage). In addition, the top 6 inches of the pile shall have
ve turns of spiral winding at 1-inch pitch. For the re-
mainder of the pile, the lateral reinforcement shall be a
No. 5 gage spiral with not more than 6-inch pitch, or
1
4-
inch round hoops spaced on not more than 6-inch centers.
4.5.16.7 Reinforcement Cover
The reinforcement shall be placed at a clear distance
from the face of the pile of not less than 2 inches and,
when piles are used in saltwater or alkali soils, this clear
distance shall not be less than 3 inches.
4.5.16.8 Splices
Piles may be spliced provided that the splice develops
the full strength of the pile. Splices should be detailed on
the contract plans. Any alternative method of splicing that
provides equal results may be considered for approval.
4.5.16.9 Handling Stresses
In computing stresses due to handling, the static loads
shall be increased by 50% as an allowance for impact and
shock.
4.5.17 Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles
4.5.17.1 Materials
Cast-in-place concrete piles shall be, in general, cast in
metal shells that shall remain permanently in place. How-
ever, other types of cast-in-place piles, plain or reinforced,
cased or uncased, may be used if the soil conditions per-
mit their use and if their design and method of placing are
satisfactory.
4.5.17.2 Shape
Cast-in-place concrete piles may have a uniform cross-
section or may be tapered over any portion.
4.5.17.3 Minimum Area
The minimum area at the butt of the pile shall be 100
inches and the minimum diameter at the tip of the pile
shall be 8 inches. Above the butt or taper, the minimum
size shall be as specied for precast piles.
4.5.17.4 General Reinforcement Requirements
Cast-in-place piles, carrying axial loads only where the
possibility of lateral forces being applied to the piles is in-
signicant, need not be reinforced where the soil provides
adequate lateral support. Those portions of cast-in-place
concrete piles that are not supported laterally shall be de-
signed as reinforced concrete columns in accordance with
Articles 8.15.4 and 8.16.4, and the reinforcing steel shall
extend 10 feet below the plane where the soil provides ad-
equate lateral restraint. Where the shell is smooth pipe and
more than 0.12 inch in thickness, it may be considered as
load carrying in the absence of corrosion. Where the shell
is corrugated and is at least 0.075 inch in thickness, it may
be considered as providing connement in the absence of
corrosion.
4.5.17.5 Reinforcement into Superstructure
Sufficient reinforcement shall be provided at the junc-
tion of the pile with the superstructure to make a suitable
connection. The embedment of the reinforcement into the
cap shall be as specied for precast piles.
4.5.17.6 Shell Requirements
The shell shall be of sufficient thickness and strength
so that it will hold its original form and show no harmful
distortion after it and adjacent shells have been driven and
the driving core, if any, has been withdrawn. The plans
shall stipulate that alternative designs of the shell must be
approved by the Engineer before any driving is done.
4.5.17.7 Splices
Piles may be spliced provided the splice develops the
full strength of the pile. Splices should be detailed on the
contract plans. Any alternative method of splicing pro-
viding equal results may be considered for approval.
4.5.17.8 Reinforcement Cover
The reinforcement shall be placed a clear distance of
not less than 2 inches from the cased or uncased sides.
When piles are in corrosive or marine environments, or
when concrete is placed by the water or slurry displace-
ment methods, the clear distance shall not be less than
3 inches for uncased piles and piles with shells not suffi-
ciently corrosion resistant.
4.5.18 Steel H-Piles
4.5.18.1 Metal Thickness
Steel piles shall have a minimum thickness of web of
0.400 inch. Splice plates shall not be less than
3
8 in. thick.
4.5.18.2 Splices
Piles shall be spliced to develop the net section of pile.
The anges and web shall be either spliced by butt weld-
ing or with plates that are welded, riveted, or bolted.
Splices shall be detailed on the contract plans. Prefabri-
cated splicers may be used if the splice can develop the
net section of the pile in compression, tension, shear, and
bending.
4.5.18.3 Caps
In general, caps are not required for steel piles embed-
ded in concrete.
4.5.18.4 Lugs, Scabs, and Core-Stoppers
These devices may be used to increase the bearing ca-
pacity of the pile where necessary. They may consist of
structural shapeswelded, riveted, or boltedof plates
welded between the anges, or of timber or concrete
blocks securely fastened.
4.5.18.5 Point Attachments
If pile penetration through cobbles, boulders, debris ll
or obstructions is anticipated, pile tips shall be reinforced
with structural shapes or with prefabricated cast steel
points. Cast steel points shall meet the requirements of
ASTM A27.
4.5.19 Unlled Tubular Steel Piles
4.5.19.1 Metal Thickness
Piles shall have a minimum thickness not less than in-
dicated in the following table:
Outside Diameter Less than 14 inches
14 inches and over
Wall Thickness 0.25 inch 0.375 inch
4.5.19.2 Splices
Piles shall be spliced to develop the full section of the
pile. The piles shall be spliced either by butt welding or
by the use of welded sleeves. Splices shall be detailed on
the contract plans.
4.5.19.3 Driving
Tubular steel piles may be driven either closed or open
ended. Closure plates should not extend beyond the
perimeter of the pile.
4.5.19.4 Column Action
Where the piles are to be used as part of a bent struc-
ture or where heavy scour is anticipated that would expose
a portion of the pile, the pile will be investigated for col-
umn action. The provisions of Article 4.5.8 shall apply to
unlled tubular steel piles.
4.5.20 Prestressed Concrete Piles
4.5.20.1 Size and Shape
Prestressed concrete piles that are generally octagonal,
square or circular shall be of approved size and shape. Air
entrained concrete shall be used in piles that are subject to
freezing and thawing or wetting and drying. Concrete in
prestressed piles shall have a minimum compressive
strength, f
c
, of 5,000 psi at 28 days. Prestressed concrete
piles may be solid or hollow. For hollow piles, precau-
tionary measures should be taken to prevent breakage due
to internal water pressure during driving, ice pressure in
trestle piles, and gas pressure due to decomposition of ma-
terial used to form the void.
4.5.20.2 Main Reinforcement
Main reinforcement shall be spaced and stressed so as
to provide a compressive stress on the pile after losses, f
pe
,
general not less than 700 psi to prevent cracking during
handling and installation. Piles shall be designed to resist
stresses developed during handling as well as under ser-
vice load conditions. Bending stresses shall be investi-
gated for all conditions of handling, taking into account
the weight of the pile plus 50-percent allowance for im-
pact, with tensile stresses limited to 5f
c
.
4.5.20.3 Vertical Reinforcement
The full length of vertical reinforcement shall be en-
closed within spiral reinforcement. For piles up to 24
inches in diameter, spiral wire shall be No. 5 (U.S. Steel
Wire Gage). Spiral reinforcement at the ends of these piles
shall have a pitch of 3 inches for approximately 16 turns.
In addition, the top 6 inches of pile shall have ve turns of
spiral winding at 1-inch pitch. For the remainder of the
pile, the vertical steel shall be enclosed with spiral rein-
forcement with not more than 6-inch pitch. For piles hav-
ing diameters greater than 24 inches, spiral wire shall be
No. 4 (U.S. Steel Wire Gage). Spiral reinforcement at the
end of these piles shall have a pitch of 2 inches for ap-
proximately 16 turns. In addition, the top 6 inches of pile
shall have four turns of spiral winding at 1
1
2 inches. For
the remainder of the pile, the vertical steel shall be en-
closed with spiral reinforcement with not more than 4-
inch pitch. The reinforcement shall be placed at a clear
distance from the face of the prestressed pile of not less
than 2 inches.
4.5.20.4 Hollow Cylinder Piles
Large diameter hollow cylinder piles shall be of ap-
proved size and shape. The wall thickness for cylinder
piles shall not be less than 5 inches. The grouting of post-
tensioning tendons shall be in accordance with Article
4.33.9, Division II.
4.5.20.5 Splices
When prestressed concrete piles are spliced, the splice
shall be capable of developing the full section of the pile.
Splices shall be detailed on the contract plans.
4.5.21 Timber Piles
4.5.21.1 Materials
Timber piles shall conform to the requirements of the
Specications for Wood Products, AASHTO M 168.
Timber piles shall be treated or untreated as indicated on
the contract plans. Preservative treatment shall conform to
the requirements of Section 16, Preservative Treatments
for Lumber.
4.5.21.2 Limitations on Untreated Timber
Pile Use
Untreated timber piles may be used for temporary con-
struction, revetments, fenders, and similar work, and in
permanent construction under the following conditions:
For foundation piling when the cutoff is below per-
manent ground water level.
For trestle construction when it is economical to do
so, although treated piles are preferable.
They shall not be used where they will, or may, be
exposed to marine borers.
They shall not be used where seismic design con-
siderations are critical.
4.5.21.3 Limitations on Treated Timber Pile Use
Treated timber piles shall not be used where seismic
design considerations are critical.
4.6 DRILLED SHAFTS
4.6.1 General
The provisions of this article shall apply to the design
of axially and laterally loaded drilled shafts in soil or ex-
tending through soil to or into rock.
4.6.1.1 Application
Drilled shafts may be considered when spread footings
cannot be founded on suitable soil or rock strata within a
reasonable depth and when piles are not economically vi-
able due to high loads or obstructions to driving. Drilled
shafts may be used in lieu of spread footings as a protec-
tion against scour. Drilled shafts may also be considered
to resist high lateral or uplift loads when deformation tol-
erances are small.
4.6.1.2 Materials
Shafts shall be cast-in-place concrete and may include
deformed bar steel reinforcement, structural steel sections,
and/or permanent steel casing as required by design. In
every case, materials shall be supplied in accordance with
the provisions of this Standard.
4.6.1.3 Construction
Drilled shafts may be constructed using the dry, casing,
or wet method of construction, or a combination of meth-
ods. In every case, hole excavation, concrete placement,
and all other aspects of shaft construction shall be
performed in conformance with the provisions of this
Standard.
4.6.1.4 Embedment
Shaft embedment shall be determined based on verti-
cal and lateral load capacities of both the shaft and sub-
surface materials.
4.6.1.5 Shaft Diameter
For rock-socketed shafts which require casing through
the overburden soils, the socket diameter should be at
least 6 inches less than the inside diameter of the casing
to facilitate drill tool insertion and removal through the
casing. For rock-socketed shafts not requiring casing
through the overburden soils, the socket diameter can be
equal to the shaft diameter through the soil.
4.6.1.6 Batter Shafts
The use of battered shafts to increase the lateral capac-
ity of foundations is not recommended due to their diffi-
culty of construction and high cost. Instead, consideration
should rst be given to increasing the shaft diameter to ob-
tain the required lateral capacity.
4.6.1.7 Shafts Through Embankment Fill
Shafts extending through embankments shall extend a
minimum of 10 feet into original ground unless bedrock
or competent bearing strata occurs at a lesser penetration.
Fill used for embankment construction shall be random
ll material having adequate capacity which shall not ob-
struct shaft construction to the required depth. Negative
skin friction loads due to settlement and consolidation of
embankment or underlying soils shall be evaluated for
shafts in embankments. (See Article 4.6.5.2.5.)
4.6.2 Notations
drilled shaft foundations in soil and rock:
a Tip bearing factor to account for large diameter
shaft tip (dim); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3)
A Area of shaft (ft
2
)
A
t
Area of shaft tip (ft
2
)
b Tip bearing factor to account for large diameter
shaft tip (dim); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3)
B Shaft diameter (ft); (See Article 4.6.3)
B
b
Diameter of enlarged base (ft); (See Article
4.6.3)
B
l
Least width of shaft group (ft); (See Article
4.6.5.2.4.3)
B
r
Diameter of rock socket (ft); (See Article 4.6.3)
B
t
Tip diameter (ft); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3)
C
m
Uniaxial compressive strength of rock mass
(ksf); (See Article 4.6.5.3.1)
C
o
Uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock
(ksf)
D Shaft length (ft); (See Article 4.6.3)
D
r
Length of rock socket (ft); (See Article 4.6.3)
E
c
Elastic modulus of concrete shaft or reinforced
shaft (ksf)
E
o
Elastic modulus of intact rock (ksf)
E
m
Elastic modulus of rock mass (ksf)
FS Factor of safety (dim)
f
si
Ultimate load transfer along shaft (ksf); (See Ar-
ticles 4.6.5.1.1 and 4.6.5.1.2)
H Distance from shaft tip to top of weak soil layer
(ft); (See Article 4.6.5.2.4.3)
i Depth interval (dim); (See Articles 4.6.5.1.1 and
4.6.5.1.2)
I
s
Displacement inuence factor for rock-socketed
shafts loaded in compression (dim); (See Article
4.6.5.5.2)
I
u
Displacement inuence factor for rock-socketed
shafts loaded in uplift (dim); (See Article
4.6.5.5.2)
N Standard penetration resistance (blows/ft)
N Standard penetration test blow count corrected
for effects of overburden (blows/ft)
N
c
Bearing capacity factor (dim); (See Article
4.6.5.1.3)
N
i
Number of depth intervals into which shaft is di-
vided for determination of side resistance (dim);
(See Articles 4.6.5.1.1 and 4.6.5.1.2)
P Lateral load on shaft (k)
Q Total axial compression load applied to shaft butt
(k)
q
E
Ultimate unit tip capacity for an equivalent shaft
for a group of shafts supported in strong layer
overlying weaker layer (ksf); (See Article
4.6.5.2.4.3)
q
Lo
Ultimate unit tip capacity of an equivalent shaft
bearing in weaker underlying soil layer (ksf);
Q
u
Total axial uplift load applied to shaft butt (k)
q
UP
Ultimate unit tip capacity of an equivalent shaft
bearing in stronger upper soil layer (ksf); (See
Article 4.6.5.2.4.3)
Q
S
Ultimate side resistance in soil (k); (See Articles
4.6.5.1.1 and 4.6.5.1.2)
q
SR
Ultimate unit shear resistance along shaft/rock
interface (psi); (See Article 4.6.5.3.1)
Q
SR
Ultimate side resistance of rock socket (k); (See
Article 4.6.5.3.1)
q
T
Ultimate unit tip resistance for shafts (ksf); (See
Articles 4.6.5.1.3 and 4.6.5.1.4)
q
TR
Ultimate unit tip resistance for shafts reduced for
size effects (ksf); (See Equations 4.6.5.1.3-3 and
4.6.5.1.4-2)
Q
T
Ultimate tip resistance in soil (k); (See Articles
4.6.5.1.3 and 4.6.5.1.4)
Q
TR
Ultimate tip resistance of rock socket (k); (See
Article 4.6.5.3.2)
Q
ult
Ultimate axial load capacity (k); (See Article
4.6.5.1)
RQD Rock Quality Designation (dim)
s
ui
Incremental undrained shear strength as a func-
tion over ith depth interval (ksf); (See Article
4.6.5.1.1)
s
ut
Undrained shear strength within 2B below shaft
tip (ksf); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3)
W Weight of shaft (k)
z
i
Depth to midpoint of ith interval (ft); (See Arti-
cle 4.6.5.1.2)
Adhesion factor (dim)
i
Adhesion factor as a function over ith depth in-
terval (dim); (See Article 4.6.5.1.1)
E
Reduction factor to estimate rock mass modulus
and uniaxial strength from the modulus and
uniaxial strength of intact rock (dim); (See Article
4.6.5.3.1)
i
Load transfer factor in the ith interval (dim); (See
Article 4.6.5.1.2)
i
Effective soil unit weight in ith interval (kcf);
z
i
ith increment of shaft length (ft)
Factor to account for reduced individual capac-
ity of closely spaced shafts in group (dim); (See
Article 4.6.5.2.4.1)
e
Elastic shortening of shaft (ft); (See Articles
4.6.5.5.1.1 and 4.6.5.5.1.2)
s
Total settlement displacement at butt for shaft
with rock socket (ft); (See Article 4.6.5.5.2)
u
Total uplift displacement at butt for shaft with
rock socket (ft); (See Equation 4.6.5.5.2)
3.1415 (dim)
Poissons ratio (dim)
c
Unconned compressive strength of rock mass
or concrete, whichever is weaker (psi); (See Ar-
ticle 4.6.5.3.1)
vi
Effective vertical stress at midpoint of ith depth
interval (ksf); (See Article 4.6.5.1.2)
ing: dim Dimensionless; deg degree; ft foot; k
kip; k/ft kip/ft; ksf kip/ft
2
; and kcf kip/ft
3
. The di-
mensional units provided with each notation are presented
for illustration only to demonstrate a dimensionally cor-
rect combination of units for the shaft capacity and settle-
ment procedures presented below. If other units are used,
the dimensional correctness of the equations should be
conrmed.
Refer to Figure 4.6.3Afor terminology used in design
of drilled shafts.
4.6.4 Selection of Soil and Rock Properties
pressibility characteristics of the foundation materials are
required for drilled shaft design.
4.6.4.1 Presumptive Values
Presumptive values for allowable bearing pressures on
soil and rock may be used only for guidance, preliminary
design or design of temporary structures. The use of pre-
sumptive values shall be based on the results of subsur-
face exploration to identify soil and rock conditions. All
values used for design shall be conrmed by eld and/or
laboratory testing.
4.6.4.2 Measured Values
Foundation stability and settlement analyses for nal
design shall be performed using soil and rock properties
based on the results of eld and/or laboratory testing.
4.6.5 Geotechnical Design
Drilled shafts shall be designed to support the design
loads with adequate bearing and structural capacity, and
with tolerable settlements in conformance with Articles
4.6.5 and 4.6.6. In addition, the response of drilled shafts
subjected to seismic and dynamic loads, materials and
shaft shall be evaluated in conformance with Articles
4.4.7.3 (dynamic ground stability) and 4.6.5.7, respec-
tively.
Shaft design shall be based on working stress princi-
ples using maximum unfactored loads derived from cal-
culations of dead and live loads from superstructures, sub-
structures, earth (i.e., sloping ground), wind and traffic.
Allowable axial and lateral loads may be determined by
separate methods of analysis.
The design methods presented herein for determining
axial load capacity assume drilled shafts of uniform cross-
section, with vertical alignment, concentric axial loading,
and a relatively horizontal ground surface. The effects of
an enlarged base, group action, and sloping ground are
treated separately.
4.6.5.1 Axial Capacity in Soil
The ultimate axial capacity (Q
ult
) of drilled shafts shall
be determined in accordance with the following for com-
pression and uplift loading, respectively:
Q
ult
Q
S
Q
T
W (4.6.5.1-1)
Q
ult
0.7Q
S
W (4.6.5.1-2)
The allowable or working axial load shall be deter-
mined as:
Q
all
Q
ult
/FS (4.6.5.1-3)
Shafts in cohesive soils may be designed by total and
effective stress methods of analysis, for undrained and
drained loading conditions, respectively. Shafts in cohe-
sionless soils shall be designed by effective stress meth-
ods of analysis for drained loading conditions.
4.6.5.1.1 Side Resistance in Cohesive Soil
For shafts in cohesive soil loaded under undrained
loading conditions, the ultimate side resistance may be es-
timated using the following:
The ultimate unit load transfer in side resistance at any
depth f
si
is equal to the product of
i
and s
ui
. Refer to Table
4.6.5.1.1Afor guidance regarding selection of
i
and lim-
iting values of f
si
for shafts excavated dry in open or cased
holes. Environmental, long-term loading or construction
factors may dictate that a depth greater than 5 feet should
be ignored in estimating Q
S
. Refer to Figure 4.6.5.1.1A
for identication of portions of drilled shaft not consid-
ered in contributing to the computed value of Q
S
. For
shafts in cohesive soil under drained loading conditions,
Q
S
may be determined using the procedure in Article
4.6.5.1.2.
Where time-dependent changes in soil shear strength
may occur (e.g., swelling of expansive clay or downdrag
from a consolidating clay), effective stress methods (Ar-
ticle 4.6.5.1.2) should be used to compute Q
S
in the zone
where such changes may occur.
4.6.5.1.2 Side Resistance in Cohesionless Soil
For shafts in cohesionless soil or for effective stress
analysis of shafts in cohesive soils under drained loading
conditions, the ultimate side resistance of axially loaded
drilled shafts may be estimated using the following:
The value of
i
may be determined using the follow-
ing:
The value of
i
should be determined from measure-
ments from undisturbed samples along the length of the
shaft or from empirical correlations with SPT or other in-
situ test methods. The ultimate unit load transfer in side

i i i
z = > > 1 5 0 135 0 25 4 6 5 1 2 2 . . ; . ( . . . . ) 1.2
Q B z z
S
i
N
i i i i
=
=

1
4 6 5 1 2 ( . . . . -1)
Q B S z
S
i
N
i ui i
=
=

1
4 6 5 1 1 ( . . . . -1)
FIGURE 4.6.3A Design Terminology for Drilled Shaft Foundations
resistance at any depth, f
si
, is equal to the product of
i
and
vi
. The limiting value of f
si
for shafts in cohesionless soil
is 4 ksf.
4.6.5.1.3 Tip Resistance in Cohesive Soil
For axially loaded shafts in cohesive soil subjected to
undrained loading conditions, the ultimate tip resistance
of drilled shafts may be estimated using the following:
Q
T
q
T
A
t
N
c
s
ut
A
t
(4.6.5.1.3-1)
Values of the bearing capacity factor N
c
may be deter-
mined using the following:
N
c
6.0[1 0.2(D/B
t
)]; N
c
9 (4.6.5.1.3-2)
The limiting value of unit end bearing (q
T
N
c
s
ut
) is
80 ksf.
The value of s
ut
should be determined from the results
of in-situ and/or laboratory testing of undisturbed samples
FIGURE 4.6.5.1.1A Identication of Portions of Drilled Shafts Neglected for Estimation of
Drilled Shaft Side Resistance in Cohesive Soil
Reese and ONeill (1988)
TABLE 4.6.5.1.1A Recommended Values of and f
si
for Estimation of Drilled Shaft Side Resistance in
Cohesive Soil Reese and ONeill (1988)
obtained within a depth of 2B below the tip of the shaft.
If the soil within 2B of the tip is of soft consistency, the
value of N
c
should be reduced by one-third.
If B
t
6.25 feet (75 inches) and shaft settlements will
not be evaluated, the value of q
T
should be reduced to q
TR
as follows:
q
TR
F
r
q
T
(2.5/[aB
t
/12 2.5b])q
T
(4.6.5.1.3-3)
a 0.0071 0.0021(D/B
t
); a 0.015 (4.6.5.1.3-4)
b 0.45(s
ut
)
0.5
; 0.5 b 1.5 (4.6.5.1.3-5)
The limiting value of q
TR
is 80 ksf.
For shafts in cohesive soil under drained loading con-
ditions, Q
T
may be estimated using the procedure de-
scribed in Article 4.6.5.1.4.
4.6.5.1.4 Tip Resistance in Cohesionless Soil
For axially loaded drilled shafts in cohesionless soils
or for effective stress analysis of axially loaded drilled
shafts in cohesive soil, the ultimate tip resistance may be
estimated using the following:
Q
T
q
T
A
t
(4.6.5.1.4-1)
The value of q
T
may be determined from the results of
standard penetration testing using uncorrected blow count
readings within a depth of 2B below the tip of the shaft.
Refer to Table 4.6.5.1.4Afor recommended values of q
T
.
If B
t
4.2 feet (50 inches) and shaft settlements will
not be evaluated, the value of q
T
should be reduced to q
TR
as follows:
q
TR
(50/12B
t
)q
T
(4.6.5.1.4-2)
4.6.5.2 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity in Soil
4.6.5.2.1 Soil Layering and Variable Soil Strength
with Depth
The design of shafts in layered soil deposits or soil de-
posits having variable strength with depth requires evalu-
ation of soil parameters characteristic of the respective
layers or depths. Q
S
in such soil deposits may be estimated
by dividing the shaft into layers according to soil type and
properties, determining Q
S
for each layer, and summing
values for each layer to obtain the total Q
S
. If the soil
below the shaft tip is of variable consistency, Q
T
may be
estimated using the predominant soil strata within 2B
below the shaft tip.
For shafts extending through soft compressible layers
to tip bearing on rm soil or rock, consideration shall be
TABLE 4.6.5.1.4A Recommended Values of q
T
*
for Estimation of Drilled Shaft Tip Resistance in
Cohesionless Soil after Reese and ONeill (1988)
Standard
Penetration Resistance
N
(Blows/Foot) Value of qT
(uncorrected) (ksf)
0 to 75 1.20 N
Above 75 90
*Ultimate value or value at settlement of 5 percent of base diameter.
given to the effects of negative skin friction (Article
4.6.5.2.5) due to the consolidation settlement of soils sur-
rounding the shaft. Where the shaft tip would bear on a
thin rm soil layer underlain by a softer soil unit, the shaft
shall be extended through the softer soil unit to eliminate
the potential for a punching shear failure into the softer
deposit.
4.6.5.2.2 Ground Water
The highest anticipated water level shall be used for
design.
4.6.5.2.3 Enlarged Bases
An enlarged base (bell or underream) may be used at
the shaft tip in stiff cohesive soil to increase the tip bear-
ing area and reduce the unit end bearing pressure, or to
provide additional resistance to uplift loads.
The tip capacity of an enlarged base shall be deter-
mined assuming that the entire base area is effective in
transferring load. Allowance of full effectiveness of the
enlarged base shall be permitted only when cleaning of
the bottom of the drilled hole is specied and can be ac-
ceptably completed before concrete placement.
4.6.5.2.4 Group Action
Evaluation of group shaft capacity assumes the effects
of negative skin friction (if any) are negligible.
4.6.5.2.4.1 Cohesive Soil
Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesive soil
shall consider the presence and contact of a cap with the
ground surface and the spacing between adjacent shafts.
For a shaft group with a cap in rm contact with the
ground, Q
ult
may be computed as the lesser of (1) the sum
of the individual capacities of each shaft in the group or
(2) the capacity of an equivalent pier dened in the
perimeter area of the group. For the equivalent pier, the
shear strength of soil shall not be reduced by any factor
(e.g.,
1
) to determine the Q
S
component of Q
ult
, the total
base area of the equivalent pier shall be used to determine
the Q
T
component of Q
ult
, and the additional capacity of
the cap shall be ignored.
If the cap is not in rm contact with the ground, or if
the soil at the surface is loose or soft, the individual ca-
pacity of each shaft should be reduced to times Q
T
for an
isolated shaft, where 0.67 for a center-to-center
(CTC) spacing of 3B and 1.0 for a CTC spacing of
6B. For intermediate spacings, the value of may be de-
termined by linear interpolation. The group capacity may
then be computed as the lesser of (1) the sum of the mod-
ied individual capacities of each shaft in the group, or (2)
the capacity of an equivalent pier as described above.
4.6.5.2.4.2 Cohesionless Soil
Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesionless
soil shall consider the spacing between adjacent shafts.
Regardless of cap contact with the ground, the individual
capacity of each shaft should be reduced to times Q
T
for
an isolated shaft, where 0.67 for a center-to-center
(CTC) spacing of 3B and 1.0 for a CTC spacing of
8B. For intermediate spacings, the value of may be de-
termined by linear interpolation. The group capacity may
be computed as the lesser of (1) the sum of the modied
individual capacities of each shaft in the group or (2) the
capacity of an equivalent pier circumscribing the group,
including resistance over the entire perimeter and base
areas.
4.6.5.2.4.3 Group in Strong Soil Overlying
Weaker Soil
If a group of shafts is embedded in a strong soil deposit
which overlies a weaker deposit (cohesionless and cohe-
sive soil), consideration shall be given to the potential for
a punching failure of the tip into the weaker soil strata. For
this case, the unit tip capacity of the equivalent shaft (q
E
)
may be determined using the following:
q
E
q
LO
(H/10B
1
)(q
UP
q
LO
) q
UP
(4.6.5.2.4.3-1)
If the underlying soil unit is a weaker cohesive soil
strata, careful consideration shall be given to the potential
for large settlements in the weaker layer.
4.6.5.2.5 Vertical Ground Movement
The potential for external loading on a shaft by verti-
cal ground movement (i.e., negative skin friction/down-
drag due to settlement of compressible soil or uplift due
to heave of expansive soil) shall be considered as a part of
design. For design purposes, it shall be assumed that the
full magnitude of maximum potential vertical ground
movement occurs.
Evaluation of negative skin friction shall include a
load-transfer method of analysis to determine the neutral
point (i.e., point of zero relative displacement) and load
distribution along shaft (e.g., Reese and ONeill, 1988).
Due to the possible time dependence associated with ver-
tical ground movement, the analysis shall consider the ef-
fect of time on load transfer between the ground and shaft
and the analysis shall be performed for the time period re-
lating to the maximum axial load transfer to the shaft.
Shafts designed for and constructed in expansive soil
shall extend to a sufficient depth into moisture-stable soils
to provide adequate anchorage to resist uplift movement.
In addition, sufficient clearance shall be provided between
the ground surface and underside of caps or beams con-
necting shafts to preclude the application of uplift loads at
the shaft/cap connection from swelling ground conditions.
Uplift capacity shall rely only on side resistance in con-
formance with Article 4.6.5.1. If the shaft has an enlarged
base, Q
S
shall be determined in conformance with Article
4.6.5.2.3.
4.6.5.2.6 Method of Construction
The load capacity and deformation behavior of drilled
shafts can be greatly affected by the quality and method(s)
of construction. The effects of construction methods are
incorporated in design by application of a factor of safety
consistent with the expected construction method(s) and
level of eld quality control measures (Article 4.6.5.4).
Where the spacing between shafts in a group is re-
stricted, consideration shall be given to the sequence of
construction to minimize the effect of adjacent shaft con-
struction operations on recently constructed shafts.
4.6.5.3 Axial Capacity in Rock
Drilled shafts are socketed into rock to limit axial dis-
placements, increase load capacity and/or provide xity
for resistance to lateral loading. In determining the axial
capacity of drilled shafts with rock sockets, the side resis-
tance from overlying soil deposits may be ignored.
Typically, axial compression load is carried solely by
the side resistance on a shaft socketed into rock until a
total shaft settlement (
s
) on the order of 0.4 inches oc-
curs. At this displacement, the ultimate side resistance,
Q
SR
, is mobilized and slip occurs between the concrete
and rock. As a result of this slip, any additional load is
transferred to the tip.
The design procedures assume the socket is con-
structed in reasonably sound rock that is little affected by
construction (i.e., does not rapidly degrade upon excava-
tion and/or exposure to air or water) and which is cleaned
prior to concrete placement (i.e., free of soil and other de-
bris). If the rock is degradable, consideration of special
construction procedures, larger socket dimensions, or re-
duced socket capacities should be considered.
4.6.5.3.1 Side Resistance
The ultimate side resistance (Q
SR
) for shafts socketed
into rock may be determined using the following:
Q
SR
B
r
D
r
(0.144q
SR
) (4.6.5.3.1-1)
Refer to Figure 4.6.5.3.1Afor values of q
SR
. For uplift
loading Q
ult
of a rock socket shall be limited to 0.7Q
SR
.
The design of rock sockets shall be based on the un-
conned compressive strength of the rock mass (C
m
) or
concrete, whichever is weaker (
c
). C
m
may be estimated
using the following relationship:
C
m

E
C
o
(4.6.5.3.1-2)
Refer to Article 4.4.8.2.2 for the procedure to deter-
mine
E
as a function of RQD.
4.6.5.3.2 Tip Resistance
Evaluation of ultimate tip resistance (Q
TR
) for rock-
socketed drilled shafts shall consider the inuence of rock
discontinuities. Q
TR
for rock-socketed drilled shafts may
be determined using the following:
Q
TR
N
ms
C
o
A
t
(4.6.5.3.2-1)
Preferably, values of C
o
should be determined from the
results of laboratory testing of rock cores obtained within
2B of the base of the footing. Where rock strata within this
interval are variable in strength, the rock with the lowest
capacity should be used to determine Q
TR
. Alternatively,
Table 4.4.8.1.2B may be used as a guide to estimate C
o
.
For rocks dened by very poor quality, the value of Q
TR
cannot be less than the value of Q
T
for an equivalent soil
mass.
4.6.5.3.3 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity in Rock
4.6.5.3.3.1 Rock Stratication
Rock stratication shall be considered in the design of
rock sockets as follows:
FIGURE 4.6.5.3.1A Procedure for Estimating Average Unit Shear for Smooth Wall Rock-Socketed Shafts
Horvath, et al. (1983)
Sockets embedded in alternating layers of weak and
strong rock shall be designed using the strength of
the weaker rock.
The side resistance provided by soft or weathered
rock should be neglected in determining the required
socket length where a socket extends into more com-
petent underlying rock. Rock is dened as soft when
the uniaxial compressive strength of the weaker rock
is less than 20% of that of the stronger rock, or
weathered when the RQD is less than 20%.
Where the tip of a shaft would bear on thin rigid rock
strata underlain by a weaker unit, the shaft shall be
extended into or through the weaker unit (depending
on load capacity or deformation requirements) to
eliminate the potential for failure due to exural ten-
sion or punching failure of the thin rigid stratum.
Shafts designed to bear on strata in which the rock
surface is inclined should extend to a sufficient depth
to ensure that the shaft tip is fully bearing on the rock.
Shafts designed to bear on rock strata in which bed-
ding planes are not perpendicular to the shaft axis
shall extend a minimum depth of 2B into the dipping
strata to minimize the potential for shear failure
along natural bedding planes and other slippage sur-
faces associated with stratication.
4.6.5.3.3.2 Rock Mass Discontinuities
The strength and compressibility of rock will be af-
fected by the presence of discontinuities (joints and frac-
tures). The inuence of discontinuities on shaft behavior
will be dependent on their attitude, frequency and condi-
tion, and shall be evaluated on a case-by-case basis as nec-
essary.
4.6.5.3.3.3 Method of Construction
The effect of the method of construction on the engi-
neering properties of the rock and the contact between the
rock and shaft shall be considered as a part of the design
process.
4.6.5.4 Factors of Safety
Drilled shafts in soil or socketed in rock shall be de-
signed for a minimum factor of safety of 2.0 against bear-
ing capacity failure (end bearing, side resistance or com-
bined) when the design is based on the results of a load test
conducted at the site. Otherwise, shafts shall be designed
for a minimum factor of safety 2.5. The minimum recom-
mended factors of safety are based on an assumed normal
level of eld quality control during shaft construction. If a
normal level of eld quality control cannot be assured,
higher minimum factors of safety shall be used.
4.6.5.5 Deformation of Axially Loaded Shafts
The settlement of axially loaded shafts at working or
allowable loads shall be estimated using elastic or load
transfer analysis methods. For most cases, elastic analysis
will be applicable for design provided the stress levels in
the shaft are moderate relative to Q
ult
. Where stress levels
are high, consideration should be given to methods of load
transfer analysis.
4.6.5.5.1 Shafts in Soil
Settlements should be estimated for the design or
working load.
4.6.5.5.1.1 Cohesive Soil
The short-term settlement of shafts in cohesive soil
may be estimated using Figures 4.6.5.5.1.1A and
4.6.5.5.1.1B. The curves presented indicate the propor-
tions of the ultimate side resistance (Q
S
) and ultimate tip
resistance (Q
T
) mobilized at various magnitudes of settle-
ment. The total axial load on the shaft (Q) is equal to the
sum of the mobilized side resistance (Q
S
) and mobilized
tip resistance (Q
t
).
The settlement in Figure 4.6.5.5.1.1Aincorporates the
effects of elastic shortening of the shaft provided the shaft
is of typical length (i.e., D 100 ft). For longer shafts, the
effects of elastic shortening may be estimated using the
following:
e
PD/AE
c
(4.6.5.5.1.1-1)
For a shaft with an enlarged base in cohesive soil, the
diameter of the shaft at the base (B
b
) should be used in
Figure 4.6.5.5.1.1B to estimate shaft settlement at the tip.
Refer to Article 4.4.7.2.3 for procedures to estimate the
consolidation settlement component for shafts extending
into cohesive soil deposits.
4.6.5.5.1.2 Cohesionless Soil
The short-term settlement of shafts in cohesion-
less soil may be estimated using Figures 4.6.5.5.1.2A
and 4.6.5.5.1.2B. The curves presented indicate the
proportions of the ultimate side resistance (Q
S
) and
ultimate tip resistance (Q
T
) mobilized at various magni-
tudes of settlement. The total axial load on the shaft (Q)
is equal to the sum of the mobilized side resistance (Q
S
)
and mobilized tip resistance (Q
t
). Elastic shortening
of the shaft shall be estimated using the following rela-
tionship:
e
PD/AE
c
(4.6.5.5.1.2-1)
4.6.5.5.1.3 Mixed Soil Prole
The short-term settlement of shafts in a mixed soil pro-
le may be estimated by summing the proportional settle-
ment components from layers of cohesive and cohesion-
less soil comprising the subsurface prole.
4.6.5.5.2 Shafts Socketed into Rock
In estimating the displacement of rock-socketed drilled
shafts, the resistance to deformation provided by overly-
ing soil deposits may be ignored. Otherwise, the load
transfer to soil as a function of displacement may be esti-
mated in accordance with Article 4.6.5.5.1.
The butt settlement (
s
) of drilled shafts fully sock-
eted into rock may be determined using the following
which is modied to include elastic shortening of the
shaft:
s
Q[(I
s
/B
r
E
m
) (D
r
/AE
c
)] (4.6.5.5.2-1)
Refer to Figure 4.6.5.5.2Ato determine I
ps
.
The uplift displacement (
u
) at the butt of drilled shafts
fully socketed into rock may be determined using the fol-
lowing which is modied to include elastic shortening of
the shaft:
u
Q
u
[(I
u
/B
r
E
m
) (D/AE
c
)] (4.6.5.5.2-2)
Refer to Figure 4.6.5.5.2B to determine I
pu
.
The rock mass modulus (E
m
) should be deter-
mined based on the results of in-situ testing (e.g.,
pressure-meter) or estimated from the results of labora-
tory tests in which E
m
is the modulus of intact rock spec-
imens, and (E
o
) is estimated in accordance with Article
4.4.8.2.2.
For preliminary design or when site-specic test
data cannot be obtained, guidelines for estimating
values of E
o
, such as presented in Table 4.4.8.2.2B or
Figure 4.4.8.2.2A, may be used. For preliminary analyses
or for nal design when in-situ test results are not
available, a value of
E
0.15 should be used to esti-
mate E
m
.
Tolerable axial displacement criteria for drilled shaft
foundations shall be developed by the structural designer
consistent with the function and type of structure, xity of
bearings, anticipated service life, and consequences of un-
acceptable displacements on the structure performance.
Drilled shaft displacement analyses shall be based on the
results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing to characterize
FIGURE 4.6.5.5.1.1A Load Transfer in
Side Resistance Versus Settlement Drilled Shafts in
Cohesive Soil
After Reese and ONeill (1988)
FIGURE 4.6.5.5.1.1B Load Transfer in
Tip Bearing Settlement Drilled Shafts in
Cohesive Soil
the load-deformation behavior of the foundation materials.
Refer to Article 4.4.7.2.5 for additional guidance regarding
tolerable vertical and horizontal movement criteria.
4.6.5.6 Lateral Loading
The design of laterally loaded drilled shafts shall ac-
count for the effects of soil/rock-structure interaction be-
tween the shaft and ground (e.g., Reese, 1984; Borden and
Gabr, 1987). Methods of analysis evaluating the ultimate
capacity or deection of laterally loaded shafts (e.g.,
Broms, 1964a,b; Singh, et al., 1971) may be used for pre-
liminary design only as a means to determine approximate
shaft dimensions.
4.6.5.6.1 Factors Affecting Laterally Loaded Shafts
4.6.5.6.1.1 Soil Layering
The design of laterally loaded drilled shafts in layered
soils shall be based on evaluation of the soil parameters
characteristic of the respective layers.
4.6.5.6.1.2 Ground Water
The highest anticipated water level shall be used for
design.
4.6.5.6.1.3 Scour
The potential for loss of lateral capacity due to scour
shall be considered in the design. Refer to Article 1.3.2
and FHWA (1988) for general guidance regarding hy-
draulic studies and design. If heavy scour is expected,
consideration shall be given to designing the portion of
the shaft that would be exposed as a column. In all cases,
the shaft length shall be determined such that the design
structural load can be safely supported entirely below the
probable scour depth.
4.6.5.6.1.4 Group Action
There is no reliable rational method for evaluating
the group action for closely spaced, laterally loaded
shafts. Therefore, as a general guide, drilled shafts
in a group may be considered to act individually when
the center-to-center (CTC) spacing is greater than 2.5B
in the direction normal to loading, and CTC 8B in
the direction parallel to loading. For shaft layouts
not conforming to these criteria, the effects of shaft inter-
action shall be considered in the design. As a general
guide, the effects of group action for in-line CTC 8B
may be considered using the ratios (CGS, 1985) appear-
ing on page 89.
FIGURE 4.6.5.5.1.2A Load Transfer in
Side Resistance Versus Settlement Drilled Shafts in
Cohesionless Soil
FIGURE 4.6.5.5.1.2B Load Transfer in
Tip Bearing Versus Settlement Drilled Shafts in
Cohesionless Soil
Ratio of Lateral
CTC Shaft Spacing Resistance of Shaft in
for In-line Loading Group to Single Shaft
8B 1.00
6B 0.70
4B 0.40
3B 0.25
4.6.5.6.1.5 Cyclic Loading
The effects of traffic, wind, and other nonseismic
cyclic loading on the load-deformation behavior of later-
ally loaded drilled shafts shall be considered during de-
sign. Analysis of drilled shafts subjected to cyclic load-
ing may be considered in the COM624 analysis (Reese,
1984).
4.6.5.6.1.6 Combined Axial and Lateral Loading
The effects of lateral loading in combination with axial
loading shall be considered in the design. Analysis of
drilled shafts subjected to combined loading may be con-
sidered in the COM624 analysis (Reese, 1984).
4.6.5.6.1.7 Sloping Ground
For drilled shafts which extend through or below
sloping ground, the potential for additional lateral
loading shall be considered in the design. The
general method of analysis developed by Borden
and Gabr (1987) may be used for the analysis of shafts
in stable slopes. For shafts in marginally stable slopes,
additional consideration should be given for low
factors of safety against slope failure or slopes showing
ground creep, or when shafts extend through fills over-
lying soft foundation soils and bear into more competent
underlying soil or rock formations. For unstable ground,
detailed explorations, testing and analysis are required to
evaluate potential additional lateral loads due to slope
movements.
4.6.5.6.2 Tolerable Lateral Movements
Tolerable lateral displacement criteria for drilled shaft
foundations shall be developed by the structural designer
consistent with the function and type of structure, xity of
bearings, anticipated service life, and consequences of un-
acceptable displacements on the structure performance.
Drilled shaft lateral displacement analysis shall be based
on the results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing to char-
acterize the load-deformation behavior of the foundation
materials.
FIGURE 4.6.5.5.2A Inuence Coefficient for
Elastic Settlement of Rock-Socketed Drilled Shafts
Modied after Pells and Turner (1979)
FIGURE 4.6.5.5.2B Inuence Coefficient for
Elastic Uplift Displacement of Rock-Socketed
Drilled Shafts
Modied after Pells and Turner (1979)
4.6.5.7 Dynamic/Seismic Design
Refer to Division I-A and Lam and Martin (1986a;
1986b) for guidance regarding the design of drilled shafts
subjected to dynamic and seismic loads.
4.6.6 Structural Design and General Shaft
Dimensions
4.6.6.1 General
Drilled shafts shall be designed to insure that the shaft
will not collapse or suffer loss of serviceability due to ex-
cessive stress and/or deformation. Shafts shall be de-
signed to resist failure following applicable procedures
presented in Section 8.
All shafts should be sized in 6-inch increments with a
minimum shaft diameter of 18 inches. The diameter of
shafts with rock sockets should be sized a minimum of 6
inches larger than the diameter of the socket. The diame-
ter of columns supported by shafts shall be less than or
equal to B.
4.6.6.2 Reinforcement
Where the potential for lateral loading is insignicant,
drilled shafts need to be reinforced for axial loads only.
Those portions of drilled shafts that are not supported
laterally shall be designed as reinforced concrete
columns in accordance with Articles 8.15.4 and 8.16.4,
and the reinforcing steel shall extend a minimum of 10
feet below the plane where the soil provides adequate
lateral restraint.
Where permanent steel casing is used and the shell
is smooth pipe and more than 0.12 inch in thickness, it
may be considered as load carrying in the absence of
corrosion.
The design of longitudinal and spiral reinforcement
shall be in conformance with the requirements of Articles
8.18.1 and 8.18.2.2, respectively. Development of de-
formed reinforcement shall be in conformance with the
requirements of Articles 8.24, 8.26, and 8.27.
4.6.6.2.1 Longitudinal Bar Spacing
The minimum clear distance between longitudinal
reinforcement shall not be less than 3 times the bar diam-
eter nor 3 times the maximum aggregate size. If bars are
bundled in forming the reinforcing cage, the minimum
clear distance between longitudinal reinforcement shall
not be less than 3 times the diameter of the bundled bars.
Where heavy reinforcement is required, consideration
may be given to an inner and outer reinforcing cage.
4.6.6.2.2 Splices
Splices shall develop the full capacity of the bar in ten-
sion and compression. The location of splices shall be
staggered around the perimeter of the reinforcing cage so
as not to occur at the same horizontal plane. Splices may
be developed by lapping, welding, and special approved
connectors. Splices shall be in conformance with the re-
quirements of Article 8.32.
4.6.6.2.3 Transverse Reinforcement
Transverse reinforcement shall be designed to resist
stresses caused by fresh concrete owing from inside the
cage to the side of the excavated hole. Transverse rein-
forcement may be constructed of hoops or spiral steel.
4.6.6.2.4 Handling Stresses
Reinforcement cages shall be designed to resist han-
dling and placement stresses.
4.6.6.2.5 Reinforcement Cover
The reinforcement shall be placed a clear distance of
not less than 2 inches from the permanently cased or 3
inches from the uncased sides. When shafts are con-
structed in corrosive or marine environments, or when
concrete is placed by the water or slurry displacement
methods, the clear distance shall not be less than 4 inches
for uncased shafts and shafts with permanent casings not
sufficiently corrosion resistant.
The reinforcement cage shall be centered in the hole
using centering devices. All steel centering devices shall
be epoxy coated.
4.6.6.2.6 Reinforcement into Superstructure
Sufficient reinforcement shall be provided at the
junction of the shaft with the superstructure to make a
suitable connection. The embedment of the reinforcement
into the cap shall be in conformance with Articles 8.24
and 8.25.
4.6.6.3 Enlarged Bases
Enlarged bases shall be designed to insure that plain
concrete is not overstressed. The enlarged base shall slope
at a side angle not less than 30 degrees from the vertical
and have a bottom diameter not greater than 3 times the
diameter of the shaft. The thickness of the bottom edge of
the enlarged base shall not be less than 6 inches.
4.6.6.4 Center-to-Center Shaft Spacing
The center-to-center spacing of drilled shafts should be
3B or greater to avoid interference between adjacent
shafts during construction. If closer spacing is required,
the sequence of construction shall be specied and the in-
teraction effects between adjacent shafts shall be evalu-
ated by the designer.
4.6.7 Load Testing
4.6.7.1 General
Where necessary, a full scale load test (or tests) should
be conducted on a drilled shaft foundation(s) to conrm
response to load. Load tests shall be conducted using a test
shaft(s) constructed in a manner and of dimensions and
materials identical to those planned for the production
shafts into the materials planned for support. Load testing
should be conducted whenever special site conditions or
combinations of load are encountered, or when structures
of special design or sensitivity (e.g., large bridges) are to
be supported on drilled shaft foundations.
4.6.7.2 Load Testing Procedures
Load tests shall be conducted following prescribed
written procedures which have been developed from ac-
cepted standards (e.g., ASTM, 1989; Crowther, 1988) and
modied, as appropriate, for the conditions at the site.
Standard pile load testing procedures developed by
ASTM which may be modied for testing drilled shafts
include:
ASTM D 1143, Standard Method of Testing Piles
Under Static Axial Compressive Load;
ASTM D 3689, Standard Method of Testing Indi-
vidual Piles Under Static Axial Tensile Load; and
ASTM D 3966, Standard Method for Testing Piles
Under Lateral Loads.
A simplied procedure for testing drilled shafts per-
mitting determination of the relative contribution of side
resistance and tip resistance to overall shaft capacity is
also available (Osterberg, 1984).
As a minimum, the written test procedures should in-
clude the following:
Apparatus for applying loads including reaction sys-
tem and loading system.
Apparatus for measuring movements.
Apparatus for measuring loads.
Procedures for loading including rates of load appli-
cation, load cycling and maximum load.
Procedures for measuring movements.
Safety requirements.
Data presentation requirements and methods of data
analysis.
Drawings showing the procedures and materials to
be used to construct the load test apparatus.
As a minimum, the results of the load test(s) shall pro-
vide the load-deformation response at the butt of the shaft.
When appropriate, information concerning ultimate load
capacity, load transfer, lateral load-displacement with
depth, the effects of shaft group interaction, the degree of
xity provided by caps and footings, and other data perti-
nent to the anticipated loading conditions on the produc-
tion shafts shall be obtained.
4.6.7.3 Load Test Method Selection
Selection of an appropriate load test method shall be
based on an evaluation of the anticipated types and dura-
tion of loads during service, and shall include considera-
tion of the following:
The immediate goals of the load test (i.e., to proof
load the foundation and verify design capacity).
The loads expected to act on the production founda-
tion (compressive and/or uplift, dead and/or live),
and the soil conditions predominant in the region of
concern.
The local practice or traditional method used in sim-
ilar soil/rock deposits.
Time and budget constraints.
Part C
STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
Note to User: Article Number 4.7 has been omitted in-
tentionally.
4.8 SCOPE
Provisions of this section shall apply for the design
of spread footings, driven piles, and drilled shaft
foundations.
4.9 DEFINITIONS
Batter PileA pile driven at an angle inclined to the
vertical to provide higher resistance to lateral loads.
Combination End-Bearing and Friction PilePile that
derives its capacity from the contributions of both end
bearing developed at the pile tip and resistance mobilized
along the embedded shaft.
Deep FoundationA foundation which derives its
support by transferring loads to soil or rock at some depth
below the structure by end bearing, by adhesion or fric-
tion or both.
Design LoadAll applicable loads and forces or their
related internal moments and forces used to proportion a
foundation. In load factor design, design load refers to
nominal loads multiplied by appropriate load factors.
Design StrengthThe maximum load-carrying capac-
ity of the foundation, as dened by a particular limit state.
In load factor design, design strength is computed as the
product of the nominal resistance and the appropriate per-
formance factor.
Drilled ShaftA deep foundation unit, wholly or
partly embedded in the ground, constructed by placing
fresh concrete in a drilled hole with or without steel rein-
forcement. Drilled shafts derive their capacities from the
surrounding soil and/or from the soil or rock strata below
their tips. Drilled shafts are also commonly referred to as
caissons, drilled caissons, bored piles or drilled piers.
End-Bearing PileA pile whose support capacity is
derived principally from the resistance of the foundation
material on which the pile tip rests.
Factored LoadLoad, multiplied by appropriate load
factors, used to proportion a foundation in load factor
design.
Friction PileA pile whose support capacity is de-
rived principally from soil resistance mobilized along the
side of the embedded pile.
Limit StateA limiting condition in which the foun-
dation and/or the structure it supports are deemed to be
unsafe (i.e., strength limit state), or to be no longer fully
useful for their intended function (i.e., serviceability limit
state).
Load EffectThe force in a foundation system (e.g.,
axial force, sliding force, bending moment, etc.) due to the
applied loads.
Load FactorAfactor used to modify a nominal load
effect, which accounts for the uncertainties associated
with the determination and variability of the load effect.
Load Factor DesignAdesign method in which safety
provisions are incorporated by separately accounting for
uncertainties relative to load and resistance.
Nominal LoadA typical value or a code-specied
value for a load.
Nominal ResistanceThe analytically estimated load-
carrying capacity of a foundation calculated using nomi-
nal dimensions and material properties, and established
soil mechanics principles.
Performance FactorAfactor used to modify a nom-
inal resistance, which accounts for the uncertainties asso-
ciated with the determination of the nominal resistance
and the variability of the actual capacity.
PileA relatively slender deep foundation unit,
wholly or partly embedded in the ground, installed by driv-
ing, drilling, augering, jetting, or otherwise, and which de-
rives its capacity from the surrounding soil and/or from
the soil or rock strata below its tip.
PipingProgressive erosion of soil by seeping water,
producing an open pipe through the soil, through which
water ows in an uncontrolled and dangerous manner.
Shallow FoundationA foundation which derives its
support by transferring load directly to the soil or rock at
shallow depth. If a single slab covers the supporting stra-
tum beneath the entire area of the superstructure, the foun-
dation is known as a combined footing. If various parts of
the structure are supported individually, the individual
supports are known as spread footings, and the foundation
is called a footing foundation.
4.10 LIMIT STATES, LOAD FACTORS, AND
RESISTANCE FACTORS
4.10.1 General
All relevant limit states shall be considered in the de-
sign to ensure an adequate degree of safety and service-
ability.
4.10.2 Serviceability Limit States
Service limit states for foundation design shall include:
settlements, and
lateral displacements.
The limit state for settlement shall be based upon ride-
ability and economy. The cost of limiting foundation
movements shall be compared to the cost of designing the
superstructure so that it can tolerate larger movements, or
of correcting the consequences of movements through
maintenance, to determine minimum lifetime cost. More
stringent criteria may be established by the owner.
4.10.3 Strength Limit States
Strength limit states for foundation design shall
include:
bearing resistance failure,
excessive loss of contact,
sliding at the base of footing,
loss of overall stability, and
structural capacity.
Foundations shall be proportioned such that the fac-
tored resistance is not less than the effects of factored
loads specied in Section 3.
4.10.4 Strength Requirement
Foundations shall be proportioned by the methods
specied in Articles 4.11 through 4.13 so that their design
strengths are at least equal to the required strengths.
The required strength is the combined effect of the fac-
tored loads for each applicable load combination stipu-
lated in Article 3.22. The design strength is calculated for
each applicable limit state as the nominal resistance, R
n
,
multiplied by an appropriate performance (or resistance)
factor, . Methods for calculating nominal resistance are
provided in Articles 4.11 through 4.13, and values of per-
formance factors are given in Article 4.10.6.
4.10.5 Load Combinations and Load Factors
Foundations shall be proportioned to withstand safely
all load combinations stipulated in Article 3.22 which are
applicable to the particular site or foundation type. With
the exception of the portions of concrete or steel piles that
are above the ground line and are rigidly connected to the
superstructure as in rigid frame or continuous structures,
impact forces shall not be considered in foundation design.
(See Article 3.8.1.)
Values of and coefficients for load factor design, as
given in Table 3.22.1A, shall apply to strength limit state
considerations; while those for service load design (also
given in Table 3.22.1A) shall apply to serviceability con-
siderations.
4.10.6 Performance Factors
Values of performance factors for different types of
foundation systems at strength limit states shall be as
specied in Tables 4.10.6-1, 4.10.6-2, and 4.10.6-3, unless
regionally specic values are available.
If methods other than those given in Tables 4.10.6-1,
4.10.6-2, and 4.10.6-3 are used to estimate the soil capac-
ity, the performance factors chosen shall provide the same
reliability as those given in these tables.
4.11 SPREAD FOOTINGS
4.11.1 General Considerations
4.11.1.1 General
Provisions of this article shall apply to design of iso-
lated footings, and where applicable, to combined foot-
ings. Special attention shall be given to footings on ll.
Footings shall be designed to keep the soil pressure
as nearly uniform as practicable. The distribution of soil
pressure shall be consistent with properties of the soil
and the structure, and with established principles of soil
mechanics.
4.11.1.2 Depth
The depth of footings shall be determined with respect
to the character of the foundation materials and the possi-
bility of undermining. Footings at stream crossings shall
be founded at depth below the maximum anticipated
depth of scour as specied in Article 4.11.1.3.
Footings not exposed to the action of stream current
shall be founded on a rm foundation and below frost
level.
Consideration shall be given to the use of either a
geotextile or graded granular lter layer to reduce sus-
ceptibility to piping in rip rap or abutment backll.
4.11.1.3 Scour Protection
Footings supported on soil or degradable rock strata
shall be embedded below the maximum computed scour
depth or protected with a scour counter-measure. Footings
supported on massive, competent rock formations which
are highly resistant to scour shall be placed directly on the
cleaned rock surface. Where required, additional lateral
resistance shall be provided by drilling and grouting steel
dowels into the rock surface rather than blasting to embed
the footing below the rock surface.
4.11.1.4 Frost Action
In regions where freezing of the ground occurs during
the winter months, footings shall be founded below the
maximum depth of frost penetration in order to prevent
damage from frost heave.
4.11.1.5 Anchorage
Footings which are founded on inclined smooth solid
rock surfaces and which are not restrained by an overbur-
den of resistant material shall be effectively anchored by
TABLE 4.10.6-1 Performance Factors for Strength Limit States for Shallow Foundations
means of rock anchors, rock bolts, dowels, keys or other
suitable means. Shallow keying of large footing areas
shall be avoided where blasting is required for rock
removal.
4.11.1.6 Groundwater
Footings shall be designed for the highest anticipated
position of the groundwater table.
The inuence of the groundwater table on bearing
capacity of soils or rocks, and settlements of the struc-
ture shall be considered. In cases where seepage
forces are present, they should also be included in the
analyses.
4.11.1.7 Uplift
Where foundations may be subjected to uplift forces,
they shall be investigated both for resistance to pullout
and for their structural strength.
4.11.1.8 Deterioration
Deterioration of the concrete in a foundation by
sulfate, chloride, and acid attack should be investi-
gated. Laboratory testing of soil and groundwater
samples for sulfates, chloride and pH should be suffi-
cient to assess deterioration potential. When chemical
wastes are suspected, a more thorough chemical anal-
ysis of soil and groundwater samples should be con-
sidered.
4.11.1.9 Nearby Structures
In cases where foundations are placed adjacent to ex-
isting structures, the inuence of the existing structures on
the behavior of the foundation, and the effect of the foun-
dation on the existing structures, shall be investigated.
4.11.2 Notations
B footing width (in length units)
B reduced effective footing width (see
Article 4.11.4.1.5) (in length units)
c soil cohesion (in units of force/length
2
)
C
w1
, C
w2
correction factors for groundwater effect
(dimensionless)
D
f
depth to footing base (in length units)
D
w
depth to groundwater table (in length
units)
E
m
elastic modulus of rock masses (in units
of force/length
2
)
i type of load
L reduced effective length (see Article
4.11.4.1.5) (in length units)
L
i
load type i
N average value of standard penetration
test blow count (dimensionless)
N
m
, N
cm
, N
qm
modied bearing capacity factors used in
analytic theory (dimensionless)
q
c
cone resistance (in units of force/length
2
)
q
ult
ultimate bearing capacity (in units of
force/length
2
)
R
I
reduction factor due to the effect of load
inclination (dimensionless)
R
n
nominal resistance
RQD rock quality designation
s span length (in length units)
s
u
undrained shear strength of soil (in units
of force/length
2
)
i
load factor coefficient for load type i (see
Article 4.10.4)
load factor (see Article 4.10.4)
total (moist) unit weight of soil (see Arti-
cle 4.11.4.1.1)
TABLE 4.10.6-2 Performance Factors for Geotechnical Strength Limit States in Axially Loaded Piles
TABLE 4.10.6-3 Performance Factors for Geotechnical Strength Limit States
in Axially Loaded Drilled Shafts
differential settlement between adjacent
footings
performance factor
f
friction angle of soil
4.11.3 Movement Under Serviceability
Limit States
4.11.3.1 General
Movement of foundations in both vertical settlement
and lateral displacement directions shall be investigated at
service limit states.
Lateral displacement of a structure shall be evaluated
when:
horizontal or inclined loads are present,
the foundation is placed on an embankment slope,
possibility of loss of foundation support through
erosion or scour exists, or
bearing strata are signicantly inclined.
4.11.3.2 Loads
Immediate settlement shall be determined using the
service load combinations given in Table 3.22.1A. Time-
dependent settlement shall be determined using only the
permanent loads.
Settlement and horizontal movements caused by em-
bankment loadings behind bridge abutments should be in-
vestigated.
In seismically active areas, consideration shall be
given to the potential settlement of footings on sand re-
sulting from ground motions induced by earthquake load-
ings. For guidance in design, refer to Division I-Aof these
Specications.
4.11.3.3 Movement Criteria
Vertical and horizontal movement criteria for footings
shall be developed consistent with the function and type
of structure, anticipated service life, and consequences of
unacceptable movements on structure performance. The
tolerable movement criteria shall be established by em-
pirical procedures or structural analyses.
The maximum angular distortion (/s) between
adjacent foundations shall be limited to 0.008 for sim-
ple span bridges and 0.004 for continuous span bridges.
These /s limits shall not be applicable to rigid frame
structures. Rigid frames shall be designed for anticipated
differential settlements based on the results of special
analyses.
4.11.3.4 Settlement Analyses
Foundation settlements shall be estimated using de-
formation analyses based on the results of laboratory or
in situ testing. The soil parameters used in the analyses
shall be chosen to reflect the loading history of the
ground, the construction sequence and the effect of soil
layering.
Both total and differential settlements, including time
effects, shall be considered.
4.11.3.4.1 Settlement of Footings on
Cohesionless Soils
Estimates of settlement of cohesionless soils shall
make allowance for the fact that settlements in these soils
can be highly erratic.
No method should be considered capable of predicting
settlements of footings on sand with precision.
Settlements of footings on cohesionless soils may be
estimated using empirical procedures or elastic theory.
4.11.3.4.2 Settlement of Footings on Cohesive Soils
For foundations on cohesive soils, both immediate and
consolidation settlements shall be investigated. If the
footing width is small relative to the thickness of a com-
pressible soil, the effect of three-dimensional loading
shall be considered. In highly plastic and organic clay,
secondary settlements are signicant and shall be in-
cluded in the analysis.
4.11.3.4.3 Settlements of Footings on Rock
The magnitude of consolidation and secondary settle-
ments in rock masses containing soft seams shall be esti-
mated by applying procedures discussed in Article
4.11.3.4.2.
4.11.4 Safety Against Soil Failure
4.11.4.1 Bearing Capacity of Foundation Soils
Several methods may be used to calculate ultimate
bearing capacity of foundation soils. The calculated value
of ultimate bearing capacity shall be multiplied by an ap-
propriate performance factor, as given in Article 4.10.6, to
determine the factored bearing capacity.
Footings are considered to be adequate against soil
failure if the factored bearing capacity exceeds the effect
of design loads.
4.11.4.1.1 Theoretical Estimation
The bearing capacity should be estimated using ac-
cepted soil mechanics theories based on measured soil pa-
rameters. The soil parameter used in the analysis shall be
representative of the soil shear strength under the consid-
ered loading and subsurface conditions.
4.11.4.1.2 Semi-empirical Procedures
The bearing capacity of foundation soils may be esti-
mated from the results of in situ tests or by observing
foundations on similar soils. The use of a particular in situ
test and the interpretation of the results shall take local ex-
perience into consideration. The following in situ tests
may be used:
Standard penetration test (SPT),
Cone penetration test (CPT), and
Pressuremeter test.
4.11.4.1.3 Plate Loading Test
Bearing capacity may be determined by load tests pro-
viding that adequate subsurface explorations have been
made to determine the soil prole below the foundation.
The bearing capacity determined from a load test may
be extrapolated to adjacent footings where the subsurface
prole is similar.
Plate load test shall be performed in accordance with
the procedures specied in ASTM Standard D 1194-87 or
AASHTO Standard T 235.
4.11.4.1.4 Presumptive Values
Presumptive values for allowable bearing pressures on
soil and rock, given in Table 4.11.4.1.4-1, shall be used
only for guidance, preliminary design or design of tem-
porary structures. The use of presumptive values shall be
based on the results of subsurface exploration to identify
soil and rock conditions. All values used for design shall
be conrmed by eld and/or laboratory testing.
The values given in Table 4.11.4.1.4-1 are applicable
directly for working stress procedures. When these values
are used for preliminary design, all load factors shall be
taken as unity.
4.11.4.1.5 Effect of Load Eccentricity
For loads eccentric to the centroid of the footing, a re-
duced effective footing area (B L) shall be used in de-
sign. The reduced effective area is always concentrically
loaded, so that the design bearing pressure on the reduced
effective area is always uniform.
Footings under eccentric loads shall be designed to en-
sure that: (1) the product of the bearing capacity and an
appropriate performance factor exceeds the effect of ver-
tical design loads, and (2) eccentricity of loading, evalu-
ated based on factored loads, is less than
1
4 of the footing
dimension in any direction for footings on soils.
For structural design of an eccentrically loaded foun-
dation, a triangular or trapezoidal contact pressure distri-
bution based on factored loads shall be used.
4.11.4.1.6 Effect of Groundwater Table
Ultimate bearing capacity shall be determined based
on the highest anticipated position of groundwater level
at the footing location. In cases where the groundwater
table is at a depth less than 1.5 times the footing width
below the bottom of the footing, reduction of bearing
capacity, as a result of submergence effects, shall be
considered.
4.11.4.2 Bearing Capacity of
Foundations on Rock
The bearing capacity of footings on rock shall consider
the presence, orientation and condition of discontinuities,
weathering proles and other similar proles as they
apply at a particular site, and the degree to which they
shall be incorporated in the design.
For footings on competent rock, reliance on simple and
direct analyses based on uniaxial compressive rock
strengths and RQD may be applicable. Competent
rock shall be dened as a rock mass with discontinuities
that are tight or open not wider than
1
8 inch. For footings
on less competent rock, more detailed investigations and
analyses shall be performed to account for the effects
of weathering, and the presence and condition of discon-
tinuities.
Footings on rocks are considered to be adequate
against bearing capacity failure if the product of the ulti-
mate bearing capacity determined using procedures de-
scribed in Articles 4.11.4.2.1 through 4.11.4.2.3 and
an appropriate performance factor exceeds the effect of
design loads.
4.11.4.2.1 Semi-empirical Procedures
Bearing capacity of foundations on rock may be deter-
mined using empirical correlation with RQD, or other sys-
tems for evaluating rock mass quality, such as the Geo-
mechanic Rock Mass Rating (RMR) system, or
Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI) Rock Mass
Classication System. The use of these semi-empirical
procedures shall take local experience into consideration.
TABLE 4.11.4.1.4-1 Presumptive Allowable Bearing Pressures for Spread Footing Foundations
Modied after U.S. Department of the Navy, 1982
4.11.4.2.2 Analytic Method
The ultimate bearing capacity of foundations on rock
shall be determined using established rock mechanics
principles based on the rock mass strength parameters.
The inuence of discontinuities on the failure mode shall
also be considered.
4.11.4.2.3 Load Test
Where appropriate, load tests may be performed to de-
termine the bearing capacity of foundations on rock.
4.11.4.2.4 Presumptive Bearing Values
For simple structures on good quality rock masses, val-
ues of presumptive bearing pressure given in Table
4.11.4.2.4-1 may be used for preliminary design. The use
of presumptive values shall be based on the results of sub-
surface exploration to identify rock conditions. All values
used in design shall be conrmed by eld and/or labora-
tory testing. The values given in Table 4.11.4.2.4-1 are di-
rectly applicable to working stress procedure, i.e., all the
load factors shall be taken as unity.
4.11.4.2.5 Effect of Load Eccentricity
If the eccentricity of loading on a footing is less than
1
6 of the footing width, a trapezoidal bearing pressure
shall be used in evaluating the bearing capacity. If the ec-
centricity is between
1
6 and
1
4 of the footing width, a
triangular bearing pressure shall be used. The maximum
bearing pressure shall not exceed the product of the ulti-
mate bearing capacity multiplied by a suitable perfor-
mance factor. The eccentricity of loading evaluated using
factored loads shall not exceed
3
8 (37.5%) of the footing
dimensions in any direction.
4.11.4.3 Failure by Sliding
Failure by sliding shall be investigated for footings that
support inclined loads and/or are founded on slopes.
For foundations on clay soils, possible presence of a
shrinkage gap between the soil and the foundation shall be
considered. If passive resistance is included as part of the
shear resistance required for resisting sliding, considera-
tion shall also be given to possible future removal of the
soil in front of the foundation.
4.11.4.4 Loss of Overall Stability
The overall stability of footings, slopes and foundation
soil or rock, shall be evaluated for footings located on or
near a slope using applicable factored load combinations
in Article 3.22 and a performance factor of 0.75.
4.11.5 Structural Capacity
The structural design of footings shall comply to the
provisions given in Articles 4.4.11 and 8.16.
4.11.6 Construction Considerations for
Shallow Foundations
4.11.6.1 General
The ground conditions should be monitored closely
during construction to determine whether or not the
ground conditions are as foreseen and to enable prompt
intervention, if necessary. The control investigation
should be performed and interpreted by experienced and
qualied engineers. Records of the control investigations
should be kept as part of the nal project data, among
other things, to permit a later assessment of the founda-
tion in connection with rehabilitation, change of neigh-
boring structures, etc.
4.11.6.2 Excavation Monitoring
Prior to concreting footings or placing backll, an ex-
cavation shall be free of debris and excessive water.
Monitoring by an experienced and trained person
should always include a thorough examination of the sides
and bottom of the excavation, with the possible addition
of pits or borings to evaluate the geological conditions.
The assumptions made during the design of the foun-
dations regarding strength, density, and groundwater con-
ditions should be veried during construction, by visual
inspection.
4.11.6.3 Compaction Monitoring
Compaction shall be carried out in a manner so that the
ll material within the section under inspection is as close
as practicable to uniform. The layering and compaction of
the ll material should be systematic everywhere, with the
same thickness of layer and number of passes with the
compaction equipment used as for the inspected ll. The
control measurements should be undertaken in the form
of random samples.
4.12 DRIVEN PILES
4.12.1 General
The provisions of the specications in Articles 4.5.1
through 4.5.21 with the exception of Article 4.5.6, shall
apply to strength design (load factor design) of driven
piles. Article 4.5.6 covers the allowable stress design of
piles and shall be replaced by the articles in this section
for load factor design of driven piles, unless otherwise
stated.
4.12.2 Notations
a
s
pile perimeter
A
p
area of pile tip
A
s
surface area of shaft of pile
CPT cone penetration test
d dimensionless depth factor for estimating tip ca-
pacity of piles in rock
D pile width or diameter
D effective depth of pile group
D
b
depth of embedment of pile into a bearing stratum
D
s
diameter of socket
e
x
eccentricity of load in the x-direction
e
y
eccentricity of load in the y-direction
E
p
Youngs modulus of a pile
E
s
soil modulus
f
s
sleeve friction measured from a CPTat point con-
sidered
H distance between pile tip and a weaker underly-
ing soil layer
H
s
depth of embedment of pile socketed into rock
I inuence factor for the effective group embed-
ment
I
p
moment of inertia of a pile
K coefficient of lateral earth pressure
K
c
correction factor for sleeve friction in clay
K
s
correction factor for sleeve friction in sand
K
sp
dimensionless bearing capacity coefficient
L
f
depth to point considered when measuring sleeve
friction
n
h
rate of increase of soil modulus with depth
N Standard Penetration Test (SPT) blow count
N average uncorrected SPT blow count along pile
shaft
TABLE 4.11.4.2.4-1 Presumptive Bearing Pressures (tsf) for Foundations on Rock (After Putnam, 1981)
N
corr
average SPT-N value corrected for effect of
overburden
N
pile
number of piles in a pile group
OCRoverconsolidation ratio
P
D
unfactored dead load
P
g
factored total axial load acting on a pile group
P
x,y
factored axial load acting on a pile in a pile group;
the pile has coordinates (X,Y) with respect to the
centroidal origin in the pile group
PI plasticity index
q net foundation pressure
q
c
static cone resistance
q
l
limiting tip resistance
q
o
limiting tip resistance in lower stratum
q
p
ultimate unit tip resistance
q
s
ultimate unit side resistance
q
u
average uniaxial compressive strength of rock
cores
q
ult
ultimate bearing capacity
Q
p
ultimate load carried by tip of pile
Q
s
ultimate load carried by shaft of pile
Q
ug
ultimate uplift resistance of a pile group or a
group of drilled shafts
Q
ult
R characteristic length of soil-pile system in cohe-
sive soils
s
d
spacing of discontinuities
S average spacing of piles
S
u
undrained shear strength
SPT Standard Penetration Test
Su
average undrained shear strength along pile shaft
t
d
width of discontinuities
T characteristic length of soil-pile system in cohe-
sionless soils
W
g
weight of block of soil, piles and pile cap
x distance of the centroid of the pile from the cen-
troid of the pile cap in the x-direction
X width of smallest dimension of pile group
y distance of the centroid of the pile from the cen-
troid of the pile cap in the y-direction
Y length of pile group or group of drilled shafts
Z total embedded pile length
adhesion factor applied to S
u
coefficient relating the vertical effective stress
and the unit skin friction of a pile or drilled shaft
effective unit weight of soil
angle of shearing resistance between soil and pile
empirical coefficient relating the passive lateral
earth pressure and the unit skin friction of a pile
pile group efficiency factor
settlement
tol
tolerable settlement
h
horizontal effective stress
v
vertical effective stress
av
average shear stress along side of pile
performance factor
g
performance factor for the bearing capacity of a
pile group failing as a unit consisting of the piles
and the block of soil contained within the piles
q
performance factor for the total ultimate bearing
capacity of a pile
qs
performance factor for the ultimate shaft capacity
of a pile
qp
performance factor for the ultimate tip capacity of
a pile
u
Performance factor for the uplift capacity of a sin-
gle pile
ug
performance factor for the uplift capacity of pile
groups
4.12.3 Selection of Design Pile Capacity
Piles shall be designed to have adequate bearing and
structural capacity, under tolerable settlements and toler-
able lateral displacements.
The supporting capacity of piles shall be determined by
static analysis methods based on soil-structure interaction.
Capacity may be veried with pile load test results, use of
wave equation analysis, use of the dynamic pile analyzer
or, less preferably, use of dynamic formulas.
4.12.3.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity
See Article 4.5.6.1.1. The following sub-articles shall
supplement Article 4.5.6.1.1.
4.12.3.1.1 Pile Penetration
Piling used to penetrate a soft or loose upper stratum
overlying a hard or rm stratum, shall penetrate the hard
or rm stratum by a sufficient distance to limit lateral and
vertical movement of the piles, as well as to attain suffi-
cient vertical bearing capacity.
4.12.3.1.2 Groundwater Table and Buoyancy
Ultimate bearing capacity shall be determined using
the groundwater level consistent with that used to calcu-
late load effects. For drained loading, the effect of hydro-
static pressure shall be considered in the design.
4.12.3.1.3 Effect Of Settling Ground and
Downdrag Forces
Possible development of downdrag loads on piles shall
be considered where sites are underlain by compressible
clays, silts or peats, especially where ll has recently been
placed on the earlier surface, or where the groundwater is
substantially lowered. Downdrag loads shall be consid-
ered as a load when the bearing capacity and settlement of
pile foundations are investigated. Downdrag loads shall
not be combined with transient loads.
The downdrag loads may be calculated, as specied in
Article 4.12.3.3.2 with the direction of the skin friction
forces reversed. The factored downdrag loads shall be
added to the factored vertical dead load applied to the
deep foundation in the assessment of bearing capacity.
The effect of reduced overburden pressure caused by the
downdrag shall be considered in calculating the bearing
capacity of the foundation.
The downdrag loads shall be added to the vertical dead
load applied to the deep foundation in the assessment of
settlement at service limit states.
4.12.3.1.4 Uplift
Pile foundations designed to resist uplift forces should
be checked both for resistance to pullout and for structural
capacity to carry tensile stresses. Uplift forces can be
caused by lateral loads, buoyancy effects, and expansive
soils.
4.12.3.2 Movement Under Serviceability
Limit State
4.12.3.2.1 General
For purposes of calculating the settlements of pile
groups, loads shall be assumed to act on an equivalent
footing located at two-thirds of the depth of embedment
of the piles into the layer which provide support as shown
in Figure 4.12.3.2.1-1.
Service loads for evaluating foundation settlement
shall include both the unfactored dead and live loads for
piles in cohesionless soils and only the unfactored dead
load for piles in cohesive soils.
Service loads for evaluating lateral displacement of
foundations shall include all lateral loads in each of the
load combinations as given in Article 3.22.
Tolerable axial and lateral movements for driven pile
foundations shall be developed consistent with the func-
tion and type of structure, xity of bearings, anticipated
service life and consequences of unacceptable displace-
ments on performance of the structure.
Tolerable settlement criteria for foundations shall be
developed considering the maximum angular distortion
according to Article 4.11.3.3.
Tolerable horizontal displacement criteria shall be de-
veloped considering the potential effects of combined ver-
tical and horizontal movement. Where combined hori-
zontal and vertical displacements are possible, horizontal
movement shall be limited to 1.0 inch or less. Where ver-
tical displacements are small, horizontal displacements
shall be limited to 2.0 inches or less (Moulton et al.,
1985). If estimated or actual movements exceed these lev-
els, special analysis and/or measures shall be considered.
4.12.3.2.3 Settlement
The settlement of a pile foundation shall not exceed the
tolerable settlement, as selected according to Article
4.12.3.2.2.
4.12.3.2.3a Cohesive Soil
Procedures used for shallow foundations shall be used
to estimate the settlement of a pile group, using the equiv-
alent footing location shown in Figure 4.12.3.2.1-1.
4.12.3.2.3b Cohesionless Soil
The settlement of pile groups in cohesionless soils can
be estimated using results of in situ tests, and the equiva-
lent footing location shown in Figure 4.12.3.2.1-1.
4.12.3.2.4 Lateral Displacement
The lateral displacement of a pile foundation shall not
exceed the tolerable lateral displacement, as selected ac-
cording to Article 4.12.3.2.2.
The lateral displacement of pile groups shall be esti-
mated using procedures that consider soil-structure inter-
action.
4.12.3.3 Resistance at Strength Limit States
The strength limit states that shall be considered in-
clude:
bearing capacity of piles,
uplift capacity of piles,
punching of piles in strong soil into a weaker layer,
and
structural capacity of the piles.
4.12.3.3.1 Axial Loading of Piles
Preference shall be given to a design process based
upon static analyses in combination with either eld mon-
itoring during driving or load tests. Load test results may
be extrapolated to adjacent substructures with similar sub-
surface conditions. The ultimate bearing capacity of piles
may be estimated using analytic methods or in situ test
methods.
4.12.3.3.2 Analytic Estimates of Pile Capacity
Analytic methods may be used to estimate the ultimate
bearing capacity of piles in cohesive and cohesionless
soils. Both total and effective stress methods may be used
provided the appropriate soil strength parameters are eval-
uated. The performance factors for skin friction and tip re-
sistance, estimated using three analytic methods, shall be
as provided in Table 4.10.6-2. If another analytic method
is used, application of performance factors presented in
Table 4.10.6-2 may not be appropriate.
4.12.3.3.3 Pile of Capacity Estimates Based
on In Situ Tests
In situ test methods may be used to estimate the ulti-
mate axial capacity of piles. The performance factors for
the ultimate skin friction and ultimate tip resistance, esti-
mated using in situ methods, shall be as provided in Table
4.10.6-2.
4.12.3.3.4 Piles Bearing on Rock
For piles driven to weak rock such as shales and mud-
stones or poor quality weathered rock, the ultimate tip
capacity shall be estimated using semi-empirical meth-
ods. The performance factor for the ultimate tip resistance
of piles bearing on rock shall be as provided in Table
4.10.6-2.
4.12.3.3.5 Pile Load Test
The load test method specied in ASTM D 1143-81
may be used to verify the pile capacity. Tensile load test-
ing of piles shall be done in accordance with ASTM D
3689-83 Lateral load testing of piles shall be done in ac-
cordance with ASTM D 3966-81. The performance factor
for the axial compressive capacity, axial uplift capacity
and lateral capacity obtained from pile load tests shall be
as provided in Table 4.10.6-2.
4.12.3.3.6 Presumptive End Bearing Capacities
Presumptive values for allowable bearing pressures
given in Table 4.11.4.1.4-1 on soil and rock shall be used
only for guidance, preliminary design or design of tem-
porary structures. The use of presumptive values shall be
based on the results of subsurface exploration to identify
soil and rock conditions. All values used for design shall
be conrmed by eld and/or laboratory testing.
4.12.3.3.7 Uplift
Uplift shall be considered when the force effects cal-
culated based on the appropriate strength limit state load
combinations are tensile.
When piles are subjected to uplift, they should be in-
vestigated for both resistance to pullout and structural
ability to resist tension.
4.12.3.3.7a Single Pile Uplift Capacity
The ultimate uplift capacity of a single pile shall be es-
timated in a manner similar to that for estimating the skin
friction resistance of piles in compression in Article
4.12.3.3.2 for piles in cohesive soils and Article 4.12.3.3.3
for piles in cohesionless soils. Performance factors for
the uplift capacity of single piles shall be as provided in
Table 4.10.6-2.
4.12.3.3.7b Pile Group Uplift Capacity
The ultimate uplift capacity of a pile group shall be es-
timated as the lesser of the sum of the individual pile up-
lift capacities, or the uplift capacity of the pile group con-
sidered as a block. The block mechanism for cohesionless
soil shall be taken as provided in Figure C4.12.3.7.2-1 and
for cohesive soils as given in Figure C4.12.3.7.2-2. Buoy-
ant unit weights shall be used for soil below the ground-
water level.
The performance factor for the group uplift capacity
calculated as the sum of the individual pile capacities shall
be the same as those for the uplift capacity of single piles
as given in Table 4.10.6-2. The performance factor for the
uplift capacity of the pile group considered as a block
shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-2 for pile groups in
clay and in sand.
4.12.3.3.8 Lateral Load
For piles subjected to lateral loads, the pile heads shall
be xed into the pile cap. Any disturbed soil or voids cre-
ated from the driving of the piles shall be replaced with
compacted granular material.
The effects of soil-structure or rock-structure interac-
tion between the piles and ground, including the number
and spacing of the piles in the group, shall be accounted
for in the design of laterally loaded piles.
4.12.3.3.9 Batter Pile
The bearing capacity of a pile group containing batter
piles may be estimated by treating the batter piles as ver-
tical piles.
4.12.3.3.10 Group Capacity
If the cap is not in rm contact with the ground, and if
the soil at the surface is soft, the individual capacity of
4.12.3.3.10a DIVISION IDESIGN 104.1
FIGURE C4.12.3.2.1-1 Location of Equivalent
Footing (After Duncan and Buchignani, 1976)
FIGURE C4.12.3.3.4-1 Bearing capacity coefficient, K
sp
(After Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual, 1985)
As referenced in Section 4.12.3.3.7b and 4.13.2, the
following figures have been reprinted from the 1993
Commentary of the 1993 Interims to the Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges.
104.2 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 4.12.3.3.10a
FIGURE C4.12.3.7.2-1 Uplift of group of
closely-spaced piles in cohesionless soils
FIGURE C4.12.3.7.2-2 Uplift of group of piles in
cohesive soils (After Tomlinson, 1987)
FIGURE C4.13.3.3.4-1 Elastic Settlement
Inuence Factor as a Function of
Embedment Ratio and Modulus Ratio
(After Donald, Sloan and Chiu, 1980,
as presented by Reese and ONeill, 1988)
FIGURE C4.13.3.3.4-4 Bearing Capacity Coefficient, K
sp
(After Canadian Geotechnical Society, 1985)
each pile shall be multiplied by an efficiency factor ,
where 0.7 for a center-to-center spacing of three di-
ameters and 1.0 for a center-to-center spacing of six
diameters. For intermediate spacings, the value of may
be determined by linear interpolation.
If the cap is not in rm contact with the ground and
if the soil is stiff, then no reduction in efficiency shall be
required.
If the cap is in rm contact with the ground, then no re-
duction in efficiency shall be required.
The group capacity shall be the lesser of:
the sum of the modied individual capacities of each
pile in the group, or
the capacity of an equivalent pier consisting of the
piles and a block of soil within the area bounded by
the piles.
For the equivalent pier, the full shear strength of soil
shall be used to determine the skin friction resistance, the
total base area of the equivalent pier shall be used to de-
termine the end bearing resistance, and the additional ca-
pacity of the cap shall be ignored.
The performance factor for the capacity of an equiva-
lent pier or block failure shall be as provided in Table
4.10.6-2. The performance factors for the group capacity
calculated using the sum of the individual pile capacities,
are the same as those for the single pile capacity as given
in Table 4.10.6-2.
The ultimate bearing capacity of pile groups in cohe-
sionless soil shall be the sum of the capacities of all the
piles in the group. The efficiency factor, , shall be 1.0
where the pile cap is, or is not, in contact with the ground.
The performance factor is the same as those for single pile
capacities as given in Table 4.10.6-2.
4.12.3.3.10c Pile Group in Strong Soil
Overlying a Weak or
Compressible Soil
If a pile group is embedded in a strong soil deposit over-
lying a weaker deposit, consideration shall be given to the
potential for a punching failure of the pile tips into the
weaker soil stratum. If the underlying soil stratum consists
of a weaker compressible soil, consideration shall be given
to the potential for large settlements in that weaker layer.
4.12.3.3.11 Dynamic/Seismic Design
Refer to Division I-Aof these Specications and Lam
and Martin (1986a, 1986b) for guidance regarding the de-
sign of driven piles subjected to dynamic and seismic
loads.
The structural design of driven piles shall be in accor-
dance with the provisions of Articles 4.5.7, which was de-
veloped for allowable stress design procedures. To use
load factor design procedures for the structural design of
driven piles, the load factor design procedures for rein-
forced concrete, prestressed concrete and steel in Sections
8, 9, and 10, respectively, shall be used in place of the al-
lowable stress design procedures.
4.12.4.1 Buckling of Piles
Stability of piles shall be considered when the piles ex-
tend through water or air for a portion of their lengths.
4.12.5 Construction Considerations
Foundation design shall not be uncoupled from con-
struction considerations. Factors such as pile driving, pile
splicing, and pile inspection shall be done in accordance
with the provisions of this specication and Division II.
4.13 DRILLED SHAFTS
4.13.1 General
The provisions of the specications in Articles 4.6.1
through 4.6.7, with the exception of Article 4.6.5, shall
apply to the strength design (load factor design) of drilled
shafts. Article 4.6.5 covers the allowable stress design of
drilled shafts, and shall be replaced by the articles in this
section for load factor design of drilled shafts, unless oth-
erwise stated.
The provisions of Article 4.13 shall apply to the design
of drilled shafts, but not drilled piles installed with con-
tinuous ight augers that are concreted as the auger is
being extracted.
4.13.2 Notations
a parameter used for calculating F
r
A
p
area of base of drilled shaft
A
s
surface area of a drilled pier
A
soc
cross-sectional area of socket
A
u
annular space between bell and shaft
b perimeter used for calculating F
r
CPT cone penetration test
d dimensionless depth factor for estimating tip
capacity of drilled shafts in rock
4.12.3.3.10A DIVISION IDESIGN 105
D diameter of drilled shaft
D
b
embedment of drilled shaft in layer that pro-
vides support
D
p
diameter of base of a drilled shaft
D
s
diameter of a drilled shaft socket in rock
E
c
Youngs modulus of concrete
E
i
intact rock modulus
E
p
Youngs modulus of a drilled shaft
E
r
modulus of the in situ rock mass
E
s
soil modulus
F
r
reduction factor for tip resistance of large
diameter drilled shaft
H
s
depth of embedment of drilled shaft socketed
into rock
I
p
moment of inertia of a drilled shaft
I
inuence coefficient (see Figure

C4.13.3.3.4-1)
I
inuence coefficient for settlement of drilled

shafts socketed in rock
k factor that reduces the tip capacity for shafts
with a base diameter larger than 20 inches so
as to limit the shaft settlement to 1 inch
K coefficient of lateral earth pressure or load
transfer factor
K
b
dimensionless bearing capacity coefficient for
drilled shafts socketed in rock using pres-
suremeter results
K
E
modulus modication ratio
K
sp
dimensionless bearing capacity coefficient
(see Figure C4.13.3.3.4-4)
LL liquid limit of soil
N uncorrected Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
blow count
N
c
bearing capacity factor
N
corr
corrected SPT-N value
N
u
uplift bearing capacity factor
p1 limit pressure determined from pressuremeter
tests within 2D above and below base of shaft
P
o
at rest horizontal stress measured at the base
of drilled shaft
P
D
unfactored dead load
PL plastic limit of soil
q
p
ultimate unit tip resistance
q
pr
reduced ultimate unit tip resistance of drilled
shafts
q
s
ultimate unit side resistance
q
s
bell unit uplift capacity of a belled drilled shaft
q
u
uniaxial compressive strength of rock core
q
ult
Q
p
ultimate load carried by tip of drilled shaft
Q
s
ultimate load carried by side of drilled shaft
Q
SR
ultimate side resistance of drilled shafts sock-
eted in rock
Q
ult
total ultimate bearing capacity
R characteristic length of soil-drilled shaft sys-
tem in cohesive soils
RQD Rock Quality Designation
s
d
spacing of discontinuities
SPT Standard Penetration Test
S
u
undrained shear strength
t
d
width of discontinuities
T characteristic length of soil-drilled shaft sys-
tem in cohesionless soils
z depth below ground surface
Z total embedded length of drilled shaft
Greek
adhesion factor applied to S
u
coefficient relating the vertical effective stress
and the unit skin friction of a drilled shaft
effective unit weight of soil
angle of shearing resistance between soil and
drilled shaft
drilled shaft group efficiency factor
base
settlement of the base of the drilled shaft
e
elastic shortening of drilled shaft
tol
tolerable settlement
v
vertical effective stress
v
total vertical stress
P
i
working load at top of socket
performance factor
or
f
angle of internal friction of soil
q
performance factor for the total ultimate bear-
ing capacity of a drilled shaft
qs
performance factor for the ultimate shaft ca-
pacity of a drilled shaft
qp
performance factor for the ultimate tip capac-
ity of a drilled shaft
4.13.3 Geotechnical Design
Drilled shafts shall be designed to have adequate bear-
ing and structural capacities under tolerable settlements
and tolerable lateral movements.
The supporting capacity of drilled shafts shall be esti-
mated by static analysis methods (analytical methods
based on soil-structure interaction). Capacity may be ver-
ied with load test results.
The method of construction may affect the drilled shaft
capacity and shall be considered as part of the design
process. Drilled shafts may be constructed using the dry,
casing or wet method of construction, or a combination of
methods. In every case, hole excavation, concrete place-
ment, and all other aspects shall be performed in con-
formance with the provisions of this specication and
Division II.
4.13.3.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity
See Article 4.6.5.2 for drilled shafts in soil and Arti-
cle 4.6.5.3.3 for drilled shafts in rock. The follow-
ing sub-articles shall supplement Articles 4.6.5.2 and
4.6.5.3.3.
4.13.3.1.1 Downdrag Loads
Downdrag loads shall be evaluated, where appropriate,
as indicated in Article 4.12.3.1.3.
4.13.3.1.2 Uplift
The provisions of Article 4.12.3.1.4 shall apply as ap-
plicable.
Shafts designed for and constructed in expansive soil
shall extend for a sufficient depth into moisture-stable
soils to provide adequate anchorage to resist uplift. Suffi-
cient clearance shall be provided between the ground sur-
face and underside of caps or beams connecting shafts to
preclude the application of uplift loads at the shaft/cap
connection due to swelling ground conditions. Uplift ca-
pacity of straight-sided drilled shafts shall rely only on
side resistance in conformance with Article 4.13.3.3.2 for
drilled shafts in cohesive soils, and Article 4.13.3.3.3 for
drilled shafts in cohesionless soils. If the shaft has an en-
larged base, Q
s
shall be determined in conformance with
Article 4.13.3.3.6.
4.13.3.2 Movement Under Serviceability
Limit State
4.13.3.2.1 General
The provisions of Article 4.12.3.2.1 shall apply as
applicable.
In estimating settlements of drilled shafts in clay, only
unfactored permanent loads shall be considered. However
unfactored live loads must be added to the permanent
loads when estimating settlement of shafts in granular
soil.
applicable.
4.13.3.2.3 Settlement
The settlement of a drilled shaft foundation involving
either single drilled shafts or groups of drilled shafts shall
not exceed the tolerable settlement as selected according
to Article 4.13.3.2.2
4.13.3.2.3a Settlement of Single Drilled Shafts
The settlement of single drilled shafts shall be esti-
mated considering short-term settlement, consolidation
settlement (if constructed in cohesive soils), and axial
compression of the drilled shaft.
4.13.3.2.3b Group Settlement
The settlement of groups of drilled shafts shall be esti-
mated using the same procedures as described for pile
groups, Article 4.12.3.2.3.
Cohesive Soil, See Article 4.12.3.2.3a
Cohesionless Soil, See Article 4.12.3.2.3b
4.13.3.2.4 Lateral Displacement
applicable.
4.13.3.3 Resistance at Strength Limit States
The strength limit states that must be considered in-
clude: (1) bearing capacity of drilled shafts, (2) uplift ca-
pacity of drilled shafts, and (3) punching of drilled shafts
bearing in strong soil into a weaker layer below.
4.13.3.3.1 Axial Loading of Drilled Shafts
applicable.
4.13.3.3.2 Analytic Estimates of Drilled Shaft
Capacity in Cohesive Soils
Analytic (rational) methods may be used to estimate
the ultimate bearing capacity of drilled shafts in cohesive
soils. The performance factors for side resistance and tip
resistance for three analytic methods shall be as provided
in Table 4.10.6-3. If another analytic method is used, ap-
plication of the performance factors in Table 4.10.6-3 may
not be appropriate.
4.13.3.3.3 Estimation of Drilled-Shaft Capacity in
Cohesionless Soils
The ultimate bearing capacity of drilled shafts in co-
hesionless soils shall be estimated using applicable meth-
ods, and the factored capacity selected using judgment,
and any available experience with similar conditions.
4.13.3.3.4 Axial Capacity in Rock
In determining the axial capacity of drilled shafts with
rock sockets, the side resistance from overlying soil de-
posits shall be ignored.
If the rock is degradable, consideration of special con-
struction procedures, larger socket dimensions, or re-
duced socket capacities shall be considered.
The performance factors for drilled shafts socketed in
rock shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-3.
4.13.3.3.5 Load Test
Where necessary, a full scale load test or tests shall be
conducted on a drilled shaft or shafts to conrm response
to load. Load tests shall be conducted using shafts con-
structed in a manner and of dimensions and materials
identical to those planned for the production shafts.
Load tests shall be conducted following prescribed
written procedures which have been developed from ac-
cepted standards and modied, as appropriate, for the
conditions at the site. Standard pile load testing proce-
dures developed by ASTM as specied in Article
4.12.3.3.5 may be modied for testing drilled shafts.
The performance factor for axial compressive capac-
ity, axial uplift capacity, and lateral capacity obtained
from load tests shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-3.
4.13.3.3.6 Uplift Capacity
Uplift shall be considered when (i) upward loads act on
the drilled shafts and (ii) swelling or expansive soils act
on the drilled shafts. Drilled shafts subjected to uplift
forces shall be investigated, both for resistance to pullout
and for their structural strength.
4.13.3.3.6a Uplift Capacity of a Single
Drilled Shaft
The uplift capacity of a single straight-sided drilled
shaft shall be estimated in a manner similar to that for
estimating the ultimate side resistance for drilled shafts
in compression (Articles 4.13.3.3.2, 4.13.3.3.3, and
4.13.3.3.4).
The uplift capacity of a belled shaft shall be estimated
neglecting the side resistance above the bell, and assum-
ing that the bell behaves as an anchor.
The performance factor for the uplift capacity of
drilled shafts shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-3.
4.13.3.3.6b Group Uplift Capacity
See Article 4.12.3.3.7b. The performance factors for
uplift capacity of groups of drilled shafts shall be the same
as those for pile groups as given in Table 4.10.6-3.
4.13.3.3.7 Lateral Load
The design of laterally loaded drilled shafts is usually
governed by lateral movement criteria (Article 4.13.3.2)
or structural failure of the drilled shaft. The design of lat-
erally loaded drilled shafts shall account for the effects of
interaction between the shaft and ground, including the
number of piers in the group.
4.13.3.3.8 Group Capacity
Possible reduction in capacity from group effects shall
be considered.
The provisions of Article 4.12.3.3.10a shall apply. The
performance factor for the group capacity of an equivalent
pier or block failure shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-
2 for both cases of the cap being in contact, and not in con-
tact with the ground. The performance factors for the
group capacity calculated using the sum of the individual
drilled shaft capacities are the same as those for the single
drilled shaft capacities.
Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesionless
soil shall consider the spacing between adjacent shafts.
Regardless of cap contact with the ground, the individual
capacity of each shaft shall be reduced by a factor for
an isolated shaft, where 0.67 for a center-to-center
(CTC) spacing of three diameters and 1.0 for a cen-
ter-to-center spacing of eight diameters. For intermediate
spacings, the value of may be determined by linear
interpolation.
See Article 4.13.3.3.3 for a discussion on the selection
of performance factors for drilled shaft capacities in co-
hesionless soils.
4.13.3.3.8c Group in Strong Soil Overlying
Weaker Compressible Soil
The provisions of Article 4.12.3.3.10c shall apply as
applicable.
4.13.3.3.9 Dynamic/Seismic Design
Refer to Division I-Afor guidance regarding the design
of drilled shafts subjected to dynamic and seismic loads.
The structural design of drilled shafts shall be in
accordance with the provisions of Article 4.6.6,
which was developed for allowable stress design proce-
dures. In order to use load factor design procedures for
the structural design of drilled shafts, the load factor
design procedures in Section 8 for reinforced concrete
shall be used in place of the allowable stress design
procedures.
4.13.4.1 Buckling of Drilled Shafts
Stability of drilled shafts shall be considered when the
shafts extend through water or air for a portion of their
length.
Section 5
RETAINING WALLS
Part A
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS
5.1 GENERAL
Retaining walls shall be designed to withstand lateral
earth and water pressures, including any live and dead
load surcharge, the self weight of the wall, temperature
and shrinkage effects, and earthquake loads in accordance
with the general principles specied in this section.
Retaining walls shall be designed for a service life
based on consideration of the potential long-term effects
of material deterioration, seepage, stray currents and other
potentially deleterious environmental factors on each of
the material components comprising the wall. For most
applications, permanent retaining walls should be de-
signed for a minimum service life of 75 years. Retaining
walls for temporary applications are typically designed
for a service life of 36 months or less.
Agreater level of safety and/or longer service life (i.e.,
100 years) may be appropriate for walls which support
bridge abutments, buildings, critical utilities, or other fa-
cilities for which the consequences of poor performance
or failure would be severe.
The quality of in-service performance is an important
consideration in the design of permanent retaining walls.
Permanent walls shall be designed to retain an aestheti-
cally pleasing appearance, and be essentially maintenance
free throughout their design service life.
5.2 WALL TYPE AND BEHAVIOR
Retaining walls are generally classied as gravity, semi-
gravity, non-gravity cantilever, and anchored. Examples
of various types of walls are provided in Figures 5.2A,
5.2B, and 5.2C. Gravity walls derive their capacity to re-
sist lateral loads through a combination of dead weight and
lateral resistance. Gravity walls can be further subdivided
by type into rigid gravity walls, mechanically stabilized
earth (MSE) walls, and prefabricated modular gravity
walls. Semi-gravity walls are similar to gravity walls, ex-
cept they rely more on structural resistance through can-
tilevering action, with this cantilevering action providing
the means to mobilize dead weight for resistance. Non-
gravity cantilever walls rely strictly on the structural resis-
tance of the wall and the passive resistance of the soil/rock,
in which vertical wall elements are partially embedded in
the soil/rock to provide xity. Anchored walls derive their
capacity through cantilevering action of the vertical wall
elements (similar to a non-gravity cantilever wall) and ten-
sile capacity of anchors embedded in stable soil or rock
below or behind potential soil/rock failure surfaces.
5.2.1 Selection of Wall Type
Selection of wall type is based on an assessment of
the magnitude and direction of loading, depth to suitable
foundation support, potential for earthquake loading,
presence of deleterious environmental factors, proximity
of physical constraints, wall site cross-sectional geometry,
tolerable and differential settlement, facing appearance,
and ease and cost of construction.
5.2.1.1 Rigid Gravity and Semi-Gravity Walls
Rigid gravity walls use the dead weight of the structure
itself and may be constructed of stone masonry, unrein-
forced concrete, or reinforced concrete. Semi-gravity can-
tilever, counterfort, and buttress walls are constructed of
reinforced concrete. Rigid gravity and semi-gravity retain-
ing walls may be used for bridge substructures or grade
separation. Rigid gravity and semi-gravity walls are gen-
erally used for permanent wall applications. These types of
walls can be effective for both cut and ll wall applications
due to their relatively narrow base widths which allows ex-
cavation laterally to be kept to a minimum.
Gravity and semi-gravity walls may be used without
deep foundation support only where the bearing soil/rock
is not prone to excessive or differential settlement. Due to
their rigidity, excessive differential settlement can cause
111
cracking, excessive bending or shear stresses in the wall,
or rotation of the overall wall structure.
5.2.1.2 Nongravity Cantilevered Walls
Nongravity cantilevered walls derive lateral resistance
through embedment of vertical wall elements and support
retained soil with facing elements. Vertical wall elements
may consist of discrete vertical elements (e.g., soldier or
sheet piles, caissons, or drilled shafts) spanned by a struc-
tural facing (e.g., wood or reinforced concrete lagging,
precast or cast-in-place concrete panels, wire or ber re-
inforced shotcrete, or metal elements such as sheet piles).
The discrete vertical elements typically extend deeper into
the ground than the facing to provide vertical and lateral
support. Alternately, the vertical wall elements and facing
are continuous and, therefore, also form the structural fac-
ing. Typical continuous vertical wall elements include
piles, precast or cast-in-place concrete diaphragm wall
panels, tangent piles, and tangent caissons.
Permanent nongravity cantilevered walls may be con-
structed of reinforced concrete, timber, and/or metals.
Temporary nongravity cantilevered walls may be con-
structed of reinforced concrete, metal and/or timber. Suit-
able metals generally include steel for components such as
piles, brackets and plates, lagging and concrete reinforce-
ment. Nongravity cantilevered walls may be used for the
same applications as rigid gravity and semi-gravity walls,
as well as temporary or permanent support of earth slopes,
excavations, or unstable soil and rock masses. This type of
wall requires little excavation behind the wall and is most
effective in cut applications. They are also effective where
deep foundation embedment is required for stability.
Nongravity cantilevered walls are generally limited to
a maximum height of approximately 5 meters (15 feet),
unless they are provided with additional support by means
of anchors. They generally cannot be used effectively
where deep soft soils are present, as these walls depend on
the passive resistance of the soil in front of the wall.
FIGURE 5.2A Typical Mechanically Stabilized Earth Gravity Walls
5.2.1.3 Anchored Walls
Anchored walls are typically composed of the same el-
ements as nongravity cantilevered walls (Article 5.2.1.2),
but derive additional lateral resistance from one or more
tiers of anchors. Anchors may be prestressed or deadman
type elements composed of strand tendons or bars (with
corrosion protection as necessary) extending from the
wall face to a ground zone or mechanical anchorage lo-
cated beyond the zone of soil applying load to the wall.
Bearing elements on the vertical support elements or fac-
ing of the wall transfer wall loads to the anchors. In some
cases, a spread footing is used at the base of the anchored
wall facing in lieu of vertical element embedment to pro-
vide vertical support. Due to their exibility and method
of support, the distribution of lateral pressure on anchored
walls is inuenced by the method and sequence of wall
construction and anchor prestressing.
Anchored walls are applicable for temporary and per-
manent support of stable and unstable soil and rock masses.
Anchors are usually required for support of both temporary
and permanent nongravity cantilevered walls higher than
about 5 meters (15 feet), depending on soil conditions.
Anchored walls are typically constructed in cut situa-
tions, in which construction occurs from the top down to
the base of the wall. Anchored walls have been success-
fully used to support lls; however, certain difficulties
arising in ll wall applications require special considera-
tion during design and construction. In particular, there is
a potential for anchor damage due to settlement of back-
ll and underlying soils or due to improperly controlled
backlling procedures. Also, there is a potential for unde-
sirable wall deection if anchors are too highly stressed
when the backll is only partially complete and provides
limited passive resistance.
The base of the vertical wall elements should be lo-
cated below any soft soils which are prone to settlement,
as settlement of the vertical wall elements can cause de-
stressing of the anchors. Also, anchors should not be lo-
cated within soft clays and silts, as it is difficult to obtain
FIGURE 5.2B Typical Prefabricated Modular Gravity Walls
adequate long-term capacity in such materials due to
creep.
5.2.1.4 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls
MSE systems, whose elements may be proprietary,
employ either metallic (strip or grid type) or geosynthetic
(geotextile, strip, or geogrid) tensile reinforcements in the
soil mass, and a facing element which is vertical or near
vertical. MSE walls behave as a gravity wall, deriving
their lateral resistance through the dead weight of the re-
inforced soil mass behind the facing. For relatively thick
facings, such as segmental concrete block facings, the
dead weight of the facing may also provide a signicant
contribution to the capacity of the wall system.
MSE walls are typically used where conventional
gravity, cantilever, or counterforted concrete retaining
walls are considered, and are particularly well suited
where substantial total and differential settlements are an-
ticipated. The allowable settlement of MSE walls is lim-
ited by the longitudinal deformability of the facing and the
performance requirements of the structure. MSE walls
FIGURE 5.2C Typical Rigid Gravity, Semi-Gravity Cantilever, Nongravity Cantilever, and Anchored Walls
have been successfully used in both ll and cut wall ap-
plications. However, they are most effective in ll wall
applications. MSE walls shall not be used under the fol-
lowing conditions.
When utilities other than highway drainage must be
constructed within the reinforced zone if future
access to the utilities would require that the rein-
forcement layers be cut, or if there is potential for
material which can cause degradation of the soil re-
inforcement to leak out of the utilities into the wall
backll.
With soil reinforcements exposed to surface or
ground water contaminated by acid mine drainage,
other industrial pollutants, or other environmental
conditions which are dened as aggressive as de-
scribed in Division II, Article 7.3.6.3, unless envi-
ronment specic long-term corrosion or degradation
studies are conducted.
When oodplain erosion may undermine the rein-
forced ll zone or facing column, or where the depth
of scour cannot be reliably determined.
MSE walls may be considered for use under the fol-
lowing special conditions:
When two intersecting walls form an enclosed angle
of 70 or less, the affected portion of the wall is de-
signed as an internally tied bin structure with at-rest
earth pressure coefficients.
Where metallic reinforcements are used in areas
of anticipated stray currents within 60 meters (200
feet) of the structure, a corrosion expert should eval-
uate the potential need for corrosion control require-
ments.
5.2.1.5 Prefabricated Modular Walls
Prefabricated modular wall systems, whose elements
may be proprietary, generally employ interlocking soil-
lled reinforced concrete or steel modules or bins, rock
lled gabion baskets, precast concrete units, or dry cast
segmental masonry concrete units (without soil reinforce-
ment) which resist earth pressures by acting as gravity re-
taining walls. Prefabricated modular walls may also use
their structural elements to mobilize the dead weight of a
portion of the wall backll through soil arching to provide
resistance to lateral loads. Prefabricated modular systems
may be used where conventional gravity, cantilever or
counterfort concrete retaining walls are considered.
Steel modular systems shall not be used where the steel
will be exposed to surface or subsurface water which is
contaminated by acid mine drainage, other industrial pol-
lutants, other environmental conditions which are dened
as aggressive as described in Division II, Article 7.3.6.3,
or where deicing spray is anticipated.
5.2.2 Wall Capacity
Retaining walls shall be designed to provide adequate
structural capacity with acceptable movements, adequate
foundation bearing capacity with acceptable settlements,
and acceptable overall stability of slopes adjacent to
walls. The tolerable level of wall lateral and vertical de-
formations is controlled by the type and location of the
wall structure and surrounding facilities.
The bearing capacity of wall foundation support sys-
tems shall be estimated using procedures described in Ar-
ticles 4.4, 4.5, or 4.6, or other generally accepted theories.
Such theories are based on soil and rock parameters mea-
sured by in situ and/or laboratory tests.
5.2.2.2 Settlement
The settlement of wall foundation support systems
shall be estimated using procedures described in Articles
4.4, 4.5, or 4.6, or other generally accepted methods. Such
methods are based on soil and rock parameters measured
directly or inferred from the results of in situ and/or labo-
ratory test.
5.2.2.3 Overall Stability
The overall stability of slopes in the vicinity of walls
shall be considered as part of the design of retaining walls.
The overall stability of the retaining wall, retained slope,
and foundation soil or rock shall be evaluated for all walls
using limiting equilibrium methods of analysis such as the
Modied Bishop, simplied Janbu or Spencer methods of
analysis. Aminimum factor of safety of 1.3 shall be used
for walls designed for static loads, except the factor of
safety shall be 1.5 for walls that support abutments, build-
ings, critical utilities, or for other installations with a low
tolerance for failure. A minimum factor of safety of 1.1
shall be used when designing walls for seismic loads. In
all cases, the subsurface conditions and soil/rock proper-
ties of the wall site shall be adequately characterized
through in-situ exploration and testing and/or laboratory
testing as described in Article 5.3.
Seismic forces applied to the mass of the slope shall be
based on a horizontal seismic coefficient k
h
equal to one-
half the ground acceleration coefficient A, with the verti-
cal seismic coefficient k
v
equal to zero.
It must be noted that, even if overall stability is satis-
factory, special exploration, testing and analyses may be
required for bridge abutments or retaining walls con-
structed over soft subsoils where consolidation and/or lat-
eral ow of the soft soil could result in unacceptable long-
term settlements or horizontal movements.
Stability of temporary construction slopes needed to
construct the wall shall also be evaluated.
5.2.2.4 Tolerable Deformations
Tolerable vertical and lateral deformation criteria for re-
taining walls shall be developed based on the function and
type of wall, unanticipated service life, and consequences of
unacceptable movements (i.e., both structural and aesthetic).
Allowable total and differential vertical deformations
for a particular retaining wall are dependent on the ability
of the wall to deect without causing damage to the wall
elements or exhibiting unsightly deformations. The total
and differential vertical deformation of a retaining wall
should be small for rigid gravity and semi-gravity retain-
ing walls, and for soldier pile walls with a cast-in-place
facing. For walls with anchors, any downward movement
can cause signicant destressing of the anchors.
MSE walls can tolerate larger total and differential ver-
tical deections than rigid walls. The amount of total and
differential vertical deection that can be tolerated de-
pends on the wall facing material, conguration, and tim-
ing of facing construction. A cast-in-place facing has the
same vertical deformation limitations as the more rigid re-
taining wall systems. However, an MSE wall with a cast-
in-place facing can be specied with a waiting period be-
fore the cast-in-place facing is constructed so that vertical
(as well as horizontal) deformations have time to occur.
An MSE wall with welded wire or geosynthetic facing can
tolerate the most deformation. An MSE wall with multi-
ple precast concrete panels cannot tolerate as much verti-
cal deformation as exible welded wire or geosynthetic
facings because of potential damage to the precast panels
and unsightly panel separation.
Horizontal movements resulting from outward rotation
of the wall or resulting from the development of internal
equilibrium between the loads applied to the wall and the
internal structure of the wall must be limited to prevent
overstress of the structural wall facing and to prevent the
wall face batter from becoming negative. In general, if
vertical deformations are properly controlled, horizontal
deformations will likely be within acceptable limits. For
MSE walls with extensible reinforcements, reinforcement
serviceability criteria, the wall face batter, and the facing
type selected (i.e., the exibility of the facing) will inu-
ence the horizontal deformation criteria required.
Vertical wall movements shall be estimated using con-
ventional settlement computational methods (see Articles
4.4, 4.5, and 4.6. For gravity and semi-gravity walls, lat-
eral movement results from a combination of differential
vertical settlement between the heel and the toe of the wall
and the rotation necessary to develop active earth pressure
conditions (see Table 5.5.2A). If the wall is designed for
at-rest earth pressure conditions, the deections in Table
5.5.2Ado not need to be considered. For anchored walls,
deections shall be estimated in accordance with Article
5.7.2. For MSE walls, deections may be estimated in ac-
cordance with Article 5.8.10.
Where a wall is used to support a structure, tolerable
movement criteria shall be established in accordance with
Articles 4.4.7.2.5, 4.5 and 4.6. Where a wall supports soil
on which an adjacent structure is founded, the effects of
wall movements and associated backll settlement on the
adjacent structure shall be evaluated.
For seismic design, seismic loads may be reduced, as
result of lateral wall movement due to sliding, for what is
calculated based on Division 1A using the Mononobe-
Okabe method if both of the following conditions are met:
the wall system and any structures supported by the
wall can tolerate lateral movement resulting from
sliding of the structure,
the wall base is unrestrained regarding its ability to
slide, other than soil friction along its base and min-
imal soil passive resistance.
Procedures for accomplishing this reduction in seismic
load are provided in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
Specications, 2nd Edition. In general, this only applies to
gravity and semi-gravity walls. Though the specications
in Division 1A regarding this issue are directed at struc-
tural gravity and semi-gravity walls, these specications
may also be applicable to other types of gravity walls re-
garding this issue provided the two conditions listed above
are met.
5.2.3 Soil, Rock, and Other Problem Conditions
Geologic and environmental conditions can inuence
the performance of retaining walls and their foundations,
and may require special consideration during design. To
the extent possible, the presence and inuence of such
conditions shall be evaluated as part of the subsurface ex-
ploration program. A representative, but not exclusive,
listing of problem conditions requiring special considera-
tion is presented in Table 4.2.3Afor general guidance.
5.3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND
TESTING PROGRAMS
The elements of the subsurface exploration and testing
programs shall be the responsibility of the Designer, based
on the specic requirements of the project and his or her
experience with local geological conditions.
5.3.1 General Requirements
As a minimum, the subsurface exploration and testing
programs shall dene the following, where applicable:
Soil strata:
Depth, thickness, and variability
Relevant engineering properties (i.e., natural
moisture content, Atterberg limits, shear strength,
compressibility, stiffness, permeability, expan-
sion or collapse potential, and frost susceptibility)
Relevant soil chemistry, including pH, resistivity,
and sulde content
Rock strata:
Depth to rock
Quality (i.e., soundness, hardness, jointing and
presence of joint lling, resistance to weathering,
if exposed, and solutioning)
Compressive strength (e.g., uniaxial compres-
sion, point load index)
Expansion potential
Ground water elevation, including seasonal varia-
tions, chemical composition, and pH (especially im-
portant for anchored, non-gravity cantilevered, mod-
ular, and MSE walls) where corrosion potential is an
important consideration
Ground surface topography
Local conditions requiring special consideration
(e.g., presence of stray electrical currents).
Exploration logs shall include soil and rock strata de-
scriptions, penetration resistance for soils (e.g., SPT or
q
c
), and sample recovery and RQD for rock strata. The
drilling equipment and method, use of drilling mud, type
of SPT hammer (i.e., safety, donut, hydraulic) or cone
penetrometer (i.e., mechanical or electrical), and any un-
usual subsurface conditions such as artesian pressures,
boulders or other obstructions, or voids shall also be noted
on the exploration logs.
5.3.2 Minimum Depth
Regardless of the wall foundation type, borings shall ex-
tend into a bearing layer adequate to support the anticipated
foundation loads, dened as dense or hard soils, or bedrock.
In general, for walls which do not utilize deep foundation
support, subsurface explorations shall extend below the an-
ticipated bearing level a minimum of twice the total wall
height. Greater depths may be required where warranted by
local conditions. Where the wall is supported on deep foun-
dations and for all non-gravity walls, the depth of the sub-
surface explorations shall extend a minimum of 6 meters
(20 feet) below the anticipated pile, shaft, or slurry wall tip
elevation. For piles or shafts end bearing on rock. or shafts
extending into rock, a minimum of 3 meters (10 feet) of
rock core, or a length of rock core equal to at least three
times the shaft diameter, which ever is greater, shall be ob-
tained to insure that the exploration has not been terminated
on a boulder and to determine the physical characteristics of
the rock within the zone of foundation inuence for design.
5.3.3 Minimum Coverage
A minimum of one soil boring shall be made for each
retaining wall. For retaining walls over 30 meters (100
feet) in length, the spacing between borings should be 30
meters (100 feet). The number and spacing of the bore
holes may be increased or decreased from 30 meters
(100 feet), depending upon the anticipated geological con-
ditions within the project area. In planning the exploration
program, consideration should be given to placing borings
inboard and outboard of the wall line to dene conditions
in the scour zone at the toe of the wall and in the zone be-
hind the wall to estimate lateral loads and anchorage or re-
inforcement capacities.
5.3.4 Laboratory Testing
Laboratory testing shall be performed as necessary to de-
termine engineering characteristics including unit weight,
natural moisture content, Atterberg limits, gradation, shear
strength, compressive strength and compressibility. In the
absence of laboratory testing, engineering characteristics
may be estimated based on eld tests and/or published prop-
erty correlations. Local experience should be applied when
establishing project design values based on laboratory and
eld tests.
5.3.5 Scour
subsurface exploration and hydraulic studies. Refer to Ar-
ticle 1.3.2 and FHWA (1991) for general guidance re-
garding hydraulic studies and design.
5.4 NOTATIONS
The following notations apply for design of retaining
walls:
A Acceleration coefficient (dim); (See Article
5.8.9.1)
A
c
Reinforcement area corrected for corrosion
losses (mm
2
); (See Article 5.8.6)
A
m
Maximum wall acceleration coefficient at the
centroid (dim); (See Article 5.8.9.1)
b Width of discrete wall backll element (m); (See
Article 5.8.6)
b
f
Width of vertical or horizontal concentrated dead
load (m); (See Article 5.8.12.1)
B Total base width of wall, including facing ele-
ments (m); (See Article 5.5.5)
B Effective base width of retaining wall foundation
(m); (See Article 5.8.3)
C Overall reinforcement surface area geometry fac-
tor (dim); (See Article 5.8.5.2)
C
f
Distance from back of wall facing to front edge
of footing or other concentrated surcharge load
(m); (See Article 5.8.12.1)
CR
s
A reduction factor to account for reduced con-
nection strength resulting from pullout of the
connection (dim); (See Article 5.8.7.2)
CR
u
A reduction factor to account for reduced ulti-
mate strength resulting from rupture of the con-
nection (dim); (See Article 5.8.7.2)
C
u
Soil coefficient of uniformity (dim); (See Article
5.8.5.2)
d Distance from back of wall face to center of con-
centrated dead load (m); (See Article 5.8.12.1);
also, the effective depth relative to stem of con-
crete semi-gravity walls for locating critical sec-
tion for shear (m); (See Article 5.5.6.1)
D
i
Effective width of applied load at depth within or
behind wall due to surcharge (m); (See Article
5.8.12.1)
D* Reinforcement bar diameter corrected for corro-
sion losses (mm); (See Article 5.8.6)
e, e Eccentricity of forces contributing to bearing
pressure (m); (See Articles 5.8.3 and 5.8.12.1)
E
c
Thickness of metal reinforcement at end of ser-
vice life (mm); (See Article 5.8.6)
E
n
Nominal thickness of steel reinforcement at con-
struction (mm); (See Article 5.8.6.1.1)
E
R
Equivalent sacriced thickness of metal expected
to be lost by uniform corrosion to produce ex-
pected loss of tensile strength during service life
of structure (mm); (See Article 5.8.6.1.1)
f Friction factor (dim); (See Article 5.5.2)
F* Pullout resistance factor (dim); (See Article 5.8.5.2)
F
p
Lateral force resulting from K
af
v
(kN/m); (See
Article 5.8.12.1)
F
y
Yield strength of the steel (kN/mm
2
); (See Article
5.8.6.1.1)
F
1
Active lateral earth pressure force for level back-
ll conditions (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.2)
F
2
Lateral earth pressure force due to traffic or other
continuous surcharge (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.2)
F
H
Horizontal component of active lateral earth
pressure force (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.2)
F
T
Resultant active lateral earth pressure force
(kN/m); (See Article 5.8.2)
FS Factor of safety (dim); (See Article 5.5.5)
FS
OT
Factor of safety against overturning (dim); (See
Article 5.8.2)
FS
PO
Safety factor against pullout (dim); (See Article
5.8.5.2)
FS
SL
Factor of safety against sliding (dim); (See Arti-
cle 5.8.2)
F
V
Vertical component of active lateral earth pres-
sure force (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.2)
G
u
Distance to center of gravity of a modular block
facing unit, including aggregate ll, measured from
the front of the unit (m); (See Article 5.8.7.2)
h Equivalent height of soil representing surcharge
pressure or effective total height of soil at back of
reinforced soil mass (m); (See Article 5.8.2)
h
p
Vertical distance F
p
is located from bottom of
wall (m); (See Article 5.8.12.1)
H Design wall height (m); (See Article 5.8.1)
H
1
Equivalent wall height (m); (See Article 5.8.5.1)
H
2
Effective wall height (m); (See Article 5.8.9.1)
H
h
Hinge height for block facings (m); (See Article
5.8.7.2)
H
s
Surcharge height (m of soil); (See Article 5.5.2)
H
u
Facing unit height (m); (See Article 5.8.7.2)
H
w
Height of water in backll above base of wall (m)
I Average slope of broken back soil surcharge
above wall (deg); (See Article 5.8.2)
i
b
Inclination of wall base from horizontal (deg);
(See Article 5.8.7.2)
k
h
Horizontal seismic coefficient (dim); (See Article
5.8.9.1)
k
v
Vertical seismic coefficient (dim); (See Article
5.8.9.1)
K Earth pressure coefficient (dim); (See Article 5.5.2)
K
ae
Total Mononobe-Okabe seismic lateral earth
pressure coefficient (dim); (See Article 5.8.9.1)
K
ae
Dynamic increment of the Mononobe-Okabe
seismic lateral earth pressure coefficient (dim);
K
af
Active earth pressure coefficient for the soil be-
hind the MSE wall reinforcements (dim); (See
Article 5.8.2)
K
r
Lateral earth pressure coefficient for the soil
within the MSE wall reinforced soil zone (dim);
K
a
Active earth pressure coefficient (dim); (See Ar-
ticle 5.5.2)
K
o
At-rest earth pressure coefficient (dim); (See Ar-
ticle 5.5.2)
K
p
Passive earth pressure coefficient for curved fail-
ure surface (dim); (See Article 5.5.2)
K
p
Passive earth pressure coefficient for planar fail-
ure surface (dim); (See Article 5.5.2)
l
1
, l
2
Depth from concentrated horizontal dead load lo-
cation that force is distributed (m); (See Article
5.8.12.1)
L Length of soil reinforcing elements (m); (See Ar-
ticle 5.8.2); length of structural footings (m); (See
Article 5.8.12.1)
L
a
Length of reinforcement in the active zone (m);
L
e
Length of reinforcement in the resistant zone (m);
L
ei
Effective reinforcement length for layer i (m);
m Relative horizontal distance of point load from
back of wall face (dim); (See Article 5.5.2)
M
A
The moment about point z at base of segmental
concrete facing blocks due to force W
A
(m-
kN/m); (See Article 5.8.7.2)
M
B
The moment about point z at base of segmental
concrete facing blocks due to force W
B
(m-
kN/m); (See Article 5.8.7.2)
n Relative depth below top of wall when calculat-
ing lateral pressure due to point load above wall
(dim); (See Article 5.5.2)
N Number of reinforcement layers vertically within
MSE wall (dim); (See Article 5.8.9.2)
P
a
Active earth pressure force (kN/m); (See Article
5.5.2)
P
ir
Inertial force caused by seismic acceleration of the
reinforced soil mass (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.9.1)
P
is
Inertial force caused by seismic acceleration of
the sloping soil surcharge above the reinforced
soil mass (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.9.1)
P
o
At-rest earth pressure force (kN/m); (See Article
5.5.2)
P
s
Earth pressure force resulting from uniform sur-
charge behind wall (kN/m); (See Article 5.5.2)
P
AE
Dynamic horizontal thrust due to seismic loading
(kN/m); (See Article 5.8.9.1)
P
H
Concentrated horizontal dead load force (kN/m);
(See Articles 5.5.2 and 5.8.12.1)
P
I
Inertial force of mass within active zone due to
seismic loading (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.9.2)
P
IR
Reinforced wall mass inertial force due to seis-
mic loading (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.9.1)
P
N
Resultant horizontal load on wall due to point
load (kN/m), (See Article 5.5.2)
P
V
Concentrated vertical dead load force for strip
load (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.12.1)
P
V
Concentrated vertical dead load force for isolated
footing or point load (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.12.1)
P
w
Force due to hydrostatic water pressure behind
wall (kN/m); (See Article 5.5.3)
q Traffic live load pressure (kN/m
2
); (See Article
5.8.2)
q
c
Cone end bearing resistance (kN/m
2
), (See Arti-
cle 5.3.1)
Q
L
Line load force (kN/m); (See Article 5.5.2)
Q
P
Point load force (kN); (See Article 5.5.2)
R Resultant of foundation bearing pressure (kN or
kN/m); (See Article 5.8.3)
R Distance above wall base to resultant of lateral
pressure due to surcharge (m); (See Article 5.5.2)
R
c
Soil reinforcement coverage ratio (dim); (See Ar-
ticle 5.8.6)
RF Reduction factor applied to the ultimate tensile
strength to account for short and long-term degra-
dation factors such as installation damage, creep,
and chemical aging (dim); (See Article 5.8.6.1.2)
RF
c
Reduction factor applied to the ultimate tensile re-
inforcement-facing connection strength to account
for long-term degradation factors such as creep
and chemical aging (dim); (See Article 5.8.7.2)
RF
ID
Reinforcement strength reduction factor to ac-
count for installation damage (dim); (See Article
5.8.6.1.2)
RF
CR
count for creep rupture (dim); (See Article
5.8.6.1.2)
RF
D
count for rupture due to chemical/biological
degradation (dim); (See Article 5.8.6.1.2)
S Equivalent soil surcharge height above wall (m);
S
h
Horizontal reinforcement spacing of discrete re-
inforcements (mm); (See Article 5.8.6)
S
rs
The reinforcement strength needed to resist the
static component of load (kN/m); (See Article
5.8.9.2)
S
rt
The reinforcement strength needed to resist the
dynamic or transient component of load (kN/m);
S
t
Transverse grid element spacing (mm); (See Ar-
ticle 5.8.5.2)
S
v
Vertical spacing of soil reinforcement (mm); (See
Article 5.8.4.1)
t Transverse grid or bar mat element thickness
(mm); (See Article 5.8.5.2)
T Total load applied to structural frame around ob-
struction (kN); (See Article 5.8.12.4)
T
a
The allowable load which can be applied to each
soil reinforcement layer per unit width of rein-
forcement (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.6)
T
ac
The allowable load which can be applied to each
soil reinforcement layer per unit width of rein-
forcement at the connection with the wall face
T
max
Maximum load applied to each soil reinforce-
ment layer per unit width of wall (kN/m); (See
Article 5.8.4.1)
T
al
Allowable long-term reinforcement tension per
unit reinforcement width for ultimate limit state
(kN/m); (See Article 5.8.6.1.2)
T
lot
= The ultimate wide width tensile strength for the
reinforcement material lot used for connection
strength testing (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.7.2)
T
md
Incremental dynamic inertia force at level i
(kN/m of structure); (See Article 5.8.9.2)
T
0
Applied reinforcement load per unit width of wall
at the connection with the facing (kN/m); (See
Article 5.8.4.2)
T
sc
= The peak load per unit reinforcement width in the
connection test at a specied conning pressure
where reinforcement pullout is known to be the
mode of failure (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.7.2)
T
total
The total static plus seismic load applied to each
reinforcement layer per unit width of wall
(KN/m); (See Article 5.8.9.2)
T
ult
Ultimate tensile strength of geosynthetic rein-
forcement per unit reinforcement width (kN/m);
(See Article 5.8.6.1.2.)
T
ultc
= The peak load per unit reinforcement width in the
connection test at a specied conning pressure
where reinforcement rupture is known to be the
mode of failure (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.7.2)
V
1
Weight of reinforced soil mass (kN/m); (See Ar-
ticle 5.8.2)
V
2
Weight of sloping soil surcharge on top of rein-
forced soil mass (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.2)
W Weight of reinforced wall mass (kN/m); (See Ar-
ticle 5.8.9.1)
W
A
Weight of facing blocks outside the heel of the
base unit (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.7.2)
W
B
Weight of facing blocks inside the heel of the base
unit within hinge height (kN/m); (See Article
5.8.7.2)
W
W
Weight of facing blocks over the base unit
W
u
Width of wall facing or facing blocks (mm); (See
Article 5.8.7.2)
X
1
Horizontal distance of concentrated dead load
from Point 0 toe of wall (m); (See Article 5.8.12.1)
Z Depth below effective top of wall or to reinforce-
ment (m); (See Article 5.8.4.1 or 5.8.12.1)
Z
p
Depth to reinforcement at beginning of resistant
zone for pullout computations (m); (See Article
5.8.4.1)
Z
2
Depth where effective surcharge width D
i
inter-
sects back of wall face (m); (See Article 5.8.12.1)
Scale effect correction factor (dim); (See Article
5.8.5.2)
Inclination of ground slope behind wall measured
counterclockwise from horizontal plane (deg);
(See Article 5.5.2)
Friction angle between two dissimilar materials
(deg); (See Article 5.5.2)
max
Maximum lateral wall displacement occurring
during wall construction (mm); (See Article 5.8.10)
R
Relative lateral wall displacement coefficient
(dim); (See Article 5.8.10)
Lateral Rotation at top of wall (mm); (See Article
5.5.2)
h
Horizontal stress at the soil reinforcement loca-
tion resulting from a concentrated horizontal load
(kN/m
2
); (See Article 5.8.12.1)
v1
Vertical stress at the soil reinforcement location
resulting from a concentrated vertical load (kN/m
2
);
Soil unit weight (kN/m
3
)
f
Soil unit weight for random backll behind and
above reinforced backll (kN/m
3
); (See Article
5.8.1)
r
Soil unit weight for reinforced wall backll
(kN/m
3
Effective unit weight of soil or rock (kN/m
3
)
w
Unit weight of water (kN/m
3
)
Friction angle of the soil (deg); (See Article
5.5.2)
Effective stress angle of internal friction (deg);
(See Article 5.5.2)
f
Friction angle of the soil behind the MSE wall re-
inforcements (deg); (See Article 5.8.1 or 5.8.4.1)
r
Friction angle of the soil within the MSE wall re-
inforcement zone (deg); (See Article 5.8.1 or
5.8.4.1)
Inclination of back of wall measured clock-wise
from horizontal plane (deg); (See Article 5.5.2)
Soil/reinforcement interface friction angle (deg);
(See Article 5.8.2)
2
Vertical stress due to equivalent horizontal soil
surcharge above wall when sloping ground pre-
sent (kN/m
2
a
Active pressure on the back of a wall (kN/m
2
);
(See Article 5.5.2)
h
Horizontal soil stress at the soil reinforcement
(kN/m
2
v
Vertical stress on the soil reinforcement (kN/m
2
);
(See Articles 5.8.4.1 and 5.8.5.2)
H
Horizontal stress due to point load above wall
(kN/m
2
); (See Article 5.5.2)
Wall face batter due to setback per course (deg);
Inclination of internal failure surface from hori-
zontal (deg); (See Article 5.8.5.1)
ing: deg degree; dim dimensionless; m meter;
mm millimeter; kN kilonewton; and kg kilo-
gram. The dimensional units provided with each nota-
tion are presented for illustration only to demonstrate a
dimensionally correct combination of units for the wall
design procedures presented herein. If other units are
used, the dimensional correctness of the equations
should be confirmed.
Part B
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD
5.5 RIGID GRAVITY AND SEMI-GRAVITY
WALL DESIGN
sign of rigid gravity and semi-gravity retaining walls.
5.5.2 Earth Pressure and Surcharge Loadings
Earth pressure loading on rigid gravity and semi-gravity
walls is a function of the type and condition of soil backll,
the slope of the ground surface behind the wall, the friction
between the wall and soil, and the ability of the wall to trans-
late or rotate about their base. Restrained walls are xed or
partially restrained against translation and/or rotation.
For yielding walls, lateral earth pressures shall be com-
puted assuming active stress conditions and wedge theory
using a planar surface of sliding dened by Coulomb The-
ory. Development of an active state of stress in the soil be-
hind a rigid wall requires an outward rotation of the wall
about its toe. The magnitude of rotation required to develop
active pressure is a function of the soil type and conditions
behind the wall, as dened in Table 5.5.2A. Refer to Figure
5.5.2A for procedures to determine the magnitude and lo-
cation of the earth pressure resultant for gravity and semi-
gravity retaining walls subjected to active earth pressures.
For restrained or yielding walls for which the tilting or
deection required to develop active earth pressure is not
tolerable (i.e., yielding walls located adjacent to structures
sensitive to settlement), lateral earth pressures shall be com-
puted assuming at-rest conditions using the relationships
P
o
(H
2
/2)(K
o
) (5.5.2-1)
FIGURE 5.5.1A Terms Used in Design of Rigid Gravity and Semi-Gravity Retaining Walls
K
o
1 sin (5.5.2-2)
When traffic loads are applied within a horizontal dis-
tance from the top of the wall equal to one-half the wall
height, the lateral earth pressure for design shall be in-
creased by a minimum surcharge acting on the backslope
equivalent to that applied by 0.6 meters (2 feet) of soil as
described in Article 3.20.3. The surcharge will result in
the application of an additional uniform pressure on the
back of the wall having a resultant magnitude
P
s
(H
s
)KH (5.5.2-3)
acting at the mid-height of the wall where K is equal to K
a
or K
o
depending on wall restraint. If the surcharge is
greater than that applied by 0.6 meters (2 feet) of soil, the
design earth pressures shall be increased by the actual
amount of the surcharge. Unless actual data regarding the
magnitude of the anticipated surcharge loads is available,
assume a minimum soil unit weight of 19.6 kN/m
3
(0.125
kcf) in determining the surcharge load.
The effects of permanent point or line surcharge loads
(other than normal traffic live loads) on backslopes shall
also be considered in developing the design earth pres-
sures. See Figure 5.5.2B to estimate the effects of perma-
nent point and line surcharge loads.
The effect of compacting backll in conned areas be-
hind retaining walls may result in development of earth
pressures greater than those represented by active or at-
rest conditions. Where use of heavy static or vibratory
compaction equipment within a distance of about 0.5H
behind the wall is anticipated, the effects of backll com-
TABLE 5.5.2A Relationship Between Soil Backll Type
and Wall Rotation to Mobilize Active and Passive Earth
Pressures Behind Rigid Retaining Walls
FIGURE 5.5.2A Computational Procedures for Active Earth Pressures (Coulomb Analysis)
paction shall be considered in estimating the lateral earth
pressure distribution used for design.
In addition to the earth, surcharge and water pressures,
the backwalls of abutments shall be designed to resist loads
due to design live and impact loads. For design purposes,
it shall be assumed that wheel loads are positioned to gen-
erate the maximum tensile stresses at the back of the back-
wall when combined with stresses caused by the backll.
The resistance due to passive earth pressure in front of
the wall shall be neglected unless the wall extends well
below the depth of frost penetration, scour or other types
of disturbance (e.g., a utility trench excavation in front of
the wall). Where passive earth pressure in front of a wall
can be considered, refer to Figures 5.5.2C and 5.5.2D for
procedures to determine the magnitude and location of
the passive earth pressure resultant for gravity and semi-
gravity walls. Development of passive earth pressure in
the soil in front of a rigid wall requires an outward rota-
tion of the wall about its toe or other movement of the wall
into the soil. The magnitude of movement required to mo-
bilize passive pressure is a function of the soil type and
condition in front of the wall as dened in Table 5.5.2A.
FIGURE 5.5.2B Procedure to Determine Lateral Pressure Due to Point and Line Loads, Modied after Terzaghi (1954)
FIGURE 5.5.2C Computational Procedures for Passive Earth Pressures for Sloping Wall
with Horizontal Backll (Caquot and Kerisel Analysis), Modied After U.S. Department of Navy (1982)
FIGURE 5.5.2D Computational Procedures for Passive Earth Pressures for Vertical Wall
with Sloping Backll (Caquot and Kerisel Analysis), Modied After U.S. Department of Navy (1982)
5.5.3 Water Pressure and Drainage
Walls shall be designed to resist the maximum antici-
pated water pressure. For a horizontal, static ground water
table, the total hydrostatic water pressure should be deter-
mined using the following relationship:
P
w

w
H
w
2
/2 (5.5.3-1)
If the ground water levels differ on opposite sides of a
wall, the effects of seepage forces on wall stability or pip-
ing potential shall be considered. Seepage forces may be
determined by ow net procedures or various analytical
methods. Hydrostatic pressures and seepage shall be con-
trolled by providing free-draining granular backll and a
positive drainage collection system. The positive drainage
system shall be located at the lowest elevation that will
permit gravity drainage. Portions of the walls below the
level of the drainage system shall be designed for full hy-
drostatic pressure unless a deeper drainage system is pro-
vided behind and at the base of the wall.
5.5.4 Seismic Pressure
Refer to Section 6 of Division I-Afor guidance regard-
ing the lateral earth pressure on gravity and semi-gravity
retaining walls subjected to seismic loading. In general,
the pseudo-static approach developed by Mononobe-
Okabe may be used to estimate equivalent static forces for
seismic loads. The estimation of seismic design forces
shall account for wall inertia forces in addition to the
equivalent static forces. Where a wall supports a bridge
structure, the seismic design forces shall also include
seismic forces transferred from the bridge through bear-
ing supports which do not slide freely (e.g., elastomeric
bearings).
5.5.5 Structure Dimensions and External Stability
Gravity and semi-gravity walls shall be dimensioned to
ensure stability against possible failure modes by satisfy-
ing the following factor of safety (FS) criteria:
Sliding - FS 1.5
Overturning -
FS 2.0 for footings on soil
FS 1.5 for footings on rock
Bearing Capacity for Static Loading -
See Article 4.4.7 for footings on soil
See Article 4.4.8 for footings on rock
The factors of safety against sliding and overturning
failure under seismic loading may be reduced to
75% of the factors of safety listed above.
Bearing capacity for Seismic Loading -
FS 1.5 for footings on soil and rock
Refer to Figure 5.5.5Afor computational procedures to
determine the factors of safety for sliding and overturning
failure modes using the Coulomb analysis.
Unfactored dead and live loads shall be used to deter-
mine the FS against sliding and overturning. In determin-
ing the FS, the effect of passive soil pressure resistance in
front of a wall shall only be considered when competent
soil or rock exists which will not be removed or eroded
during the structure life. Table 5.5.2B may be used for gen-
eral guidance in selecting coefficients of sliding friction
between the wall base and foundation soil or rock.
For static loading, the location of the bearing pressure
resultant (R) on the base of the wall foundation shall be
within B/6 of the center of the foundation for foundations
on soil and within B/4 of the center of the foundation for
foundations on rock where B is the width of the wall base
or footing.
For seismic loading, the location of R shall be within
B/3 of the center of the foundation for foundations on soil
and rock.
See Article 4.4.5 for procedures to determine the re-
quired embedment depth of wall foundations; Articles
4.4.7 and 4.4.8, respectively, for procedures to design
spread footings on soil and rock; and Articles 4.5 and 4.6,
respectively, for procedures to design pile and drilled
shaft foundations.
5.5.6 Structure Design
Structural design of individual wall elements shall be
by service load or load factor design methods in confor-
mance with Article 3.22.
5.5.6.1 Base or Footing Slabs
The rear projection or heel of base slabs shall be de-
signed to support the entire weight of the superimposed
materials, unless a more exact method is used. The base
slabs of cantilever walls shall be designed as cantilevers
supported by the wall. The base slabs of counterforted and
buttressed walls shall be designed as xed or continuous
beams of spans equal to the distance between counterforts
or buttresses.
The critical sections for bending moments in footings
shall be taken at the face and back of the stem. The criti-
cal sections for shear in the footings shall be taken at a
distance d (d effective depth) from the face of the stem
for the toe section and at the back of the stem for the heel
section.
5.5.6.2 Wall Stems
The upright stems of cantilever walls shall be designed
as cantilevers supported at the base. The upright stems or
FIGURE 5.5.5A Design Criteria for Rigid Retaining Walls, (Coulomb Analysis)
face walls of counterfort and buttress walls shall be de-
signed as xed or continuous beams. The face walls (or
stems) shall be securely anchored to the supporting coun-
terforts or buttresses by means of adequate reinforcement.
Wall stems shall be designed for combined axial load
(including the weight of the stem and friction due to back-
ll acting on the stem) and bending due to eccentric ver-
tical loads, surcharge loads and earth pressure.
5.5.6.3 Counterforts and Buttresses
Counterforts shall be designed as rectangular beams.
In connection with the main tension reinforcement of
counterforts, there should be a system of horizontal and
vertical bars or stirrups to anchor the face walls and base
slab to the counterfort. These stirrups should be anchored
as near to the outside faces of the face walls, and as near
to the bottom of the base slab as practicable.
Except in gravity walls, not less than 81 mm
2
(
1
8
square inch) of horizontal reinforcement per 0.3 meter (1
foot) of height shall be provided near exposed surfaces not
otherwise reinforced to resist the formation of tempera-
ture and shrinkage cracks.
The reinforcement in each construction panel (i.e., be-
tween vertical construction joints) of wall with height
varying uniformly from one end to another, shall be de-
signed for the loading condition acting at one-third of the
panel length from the high end of the panel. If practical,
the thickness of the footings shall be maintained constant
in each panel or in each group of panels. The width of the
footings, however, may vary according to the height of the
wall as required by design.
Tension reinforcement at the bottom of the heel shall
be provided if required during the construction stage prior
to wall backll. The adequacy of the reinforcement shall
be checked due to the dead load of the stem and any other
vertical loads applied to the stem prior to backlling.
Reinforcement in wall and abutment stems shall be ex-
tended a minimum distance equal to the effective depth of
the section or 15 bar diameters, whichever is greater, but
not less than 0.3 meter (1 foot) beyond the point at which
computations indicate reinforcement is no longer needed
to resist stress.
TABLE 5.5.2B Ultimate Friction Factors and Friction Angles for Dissimilar Materials,
After U.S. Department of the Navy (1982)
Friction Factor
f tan Friction Angle,
Interface Materials (dim) (degrees)
Mass concrete or masonry on the following foundation materials:
Clean sound rock 0.70 35
Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixtures, coarse sand 0.55 to 0.60 29 to 31
Clean ne to medium sand, silty medium to coarse sand, silty or clayey gravel 0.45 to 0.55 24 to 29
Clean ne sand, silty or clayey ne to medium sand 0.35 to 0.45 19 to 24
Fine sandy silt, nonplastic silt 0.30 to 0.35 17 to 19
Very stiff and hard residual or preconsolidated clay 0.40 to 0.50 22 to 26
Medium stiff and stiff clay and silty clay 0.30 to 0.35 17 to 19
Steel sheet piles against the following soils:
Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixtures, well-graded rock ll with spalls 0.40 22
Clean sand, silty sand-gravel mixtures, single size hard rock ll 0.30 17
Silty sand, gravel or sand mixed with silt or clay 0.25 14
Fine sandy silt, nonplastic silt 0.20 11
Formed concrete or concrete sheet piling against the following soils:
Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixtures, well-graded rock ll with spalls 0.40 to 0.50 22 to 26
Clean sand, silty sand-gravel mixtures, single size hard rock ll 0.30 to 0.40 17 to 22
Silty sand, gravel or sand mixed with silt or clay 0.30 17
Fine sandy silt, nonplastic silt 0.25 14
Various structural materials:
Masonry on masonry, igneous, and metamorphic rocks
Dressed soft rock on dressed soft rock 0.70 35
Dressed hard rock on dressed soft rock 0.65 33
Dressed hard rock on dressed hard rock 0.55 29
Masonry on wood (cross grain) 0.50 26
Steel on steel at sheet pile interlocks 0.30 17
5.5.6.5 Expansion and Contraction Joints
Contraction joints shall be provided at intervals
not exceeding 9 meters (30 feet) and expansion joints at
intervals not exceeding 27 meters (90 feet) for gravity or
reinforced concrete walls. All joints shall be filled with
approved filling material to ensure the function of the
joint. Joints in abutments shall be located approximately
midway between the longitudinal members bearing on
the abutments.
5.5.7 Backll
The backll material behind all retaining walls shall be
free draining, nonexpansive, noncorrosive material and
shall be drained by weep holes with french drains or other
positive drainage systems, placed at suitable intervals and
elevations. In counterfort walls, there shall be at least one
drain for each pocket formed by the counterforts. Silts and
clays shall not be used for backll unless suitable design
procedures are followed and construction control mea-
sures are incorporated in the construction documents to
account for their presence.
Refer to Article 5.2.2.3.
5.6 NONGRAVITY CANTILEVERED
WALL DESIGN
A nongravity cantilevered wall includes an exposed
design height (H) over which soil is retained by the verti-
cal and facing elements, and a vertical element embed-
ment depth (D) which provides lateral support to the ver-
tical wall elements.
Lateral earth pressures shall be estimated assuming
wedge theory using a planar surface of sliding dened by
Coulomb theory.
For determining lateral earth pressures on permanent
walls, effective stress methods of analysis and drained
shear strength parameters for soil shall be used.
For permanent walls and for temporary walls in granu-
lar soils, the simplied earth pressure distributions shown in
Figures 5.6.2Aand 5.6.2B, or other suitable earth pressure
distributions, may be used. If walls will support or are sup-
ported by cohesive soils for temporary applications, walls
may be designed based on total stress methods of analysis
and undrained shear strength parameters. For this latter
case, the simplied earth pressure distributions shown in
FIGURE 5.6.2A Simplied Earth Pressure Distributions for Permanent Flexible Cantilevered Walls
With Discrete Vertical Wall Elements
FIGURE 5.6.2B Simplied Earth Pressure Distributions and Design Procedures for Permanent Flexible
Cantilevered Walls with Continuous Vertical Wall Elements Modied after Teng (1962)
FIGURE 5.6.2C Simplied Earth Pressure Distributions for Temporary Flexible Cantilevered Walls
with Discrete Vertical Wall Elements
FIGURE 5.6.2D Simplied Earth Pressure Distributions for Temporary Flexible Cantilevered Walls
with Continuous Vertical Wall Elements
Modied after Teng (1962)
TABLE 5.6.2A General Notes and Legend Simplied Earth Pressure Distributions for Permanent and
Temporary Flexible Cantilevered Walls with Discrete Vertical Wall Elements
Figures 5.6.2C and 5.6.2D, or other suitable earth pressure
distributions, may be used with the following restrictions:
The ratio of overburden pressure to undrained shear
strength (i.e., stability number N H/c) must be
3.
The active earth pressure shall not be less than 0.25
times the effective overburden pressure at any depth.
Where discrete vertical wall elements are used for sup-
port, the width of each vertical element shall be assumed
to equal the width of the ange or diameter of the element
for driven sections and the diameter of the concrete-lled
hole for sections encased in concrete.
The magnitude and location of resultant loads and re-
sisting forces for permanent walls with discrete vertical
elements embedded in soil and rock for lateral support
may be determined using the earth pressure distributions
presented in Figures 5.6.2A and 5.6.2C, or other earth
pressure distributions developed for use in the design of
such walls. The procedure for determining the resultant
passive resistance of a vertical element embedded in soil
assumes that net passive resistance is mobilized across
a maximum of three times the element width or dia-
meter (reduced, if necessary, to account for soft clay or
discontinuities in the embedded depth of soil or rock) and
that some portion of the embedded depth below nished
grade (usually 2 to 3 feet for an element in soil, and 1 foot
for an element in rock) is ineffective in providing passive
lateral support.
In developing the design lateral pressure, the lateral
pressure due to traffic, permanent point and line surcharge
loads, backll compaction, or other types of surcharge
loads shall be added to the lateral earth pressure in accor-
dance with Articles 3.20.3 and 5.5.2.
Flexible cantilevered walls shall be designed to resist
the maximum anticipated water pressure. For a horizontal
static ground water table, the total hydrostatic water pres-
sure shall be determined using Equation 5.5.3-1. For dif-
fering ground water levels on opposite sides of the wall,
the water pressure and seepage forces shall be determined
by ow net procedures or other appropriate methods of
analysis, where necessary. Seepage shall be controlled by
installation of a drainage medium (e.g., preformed
drainage panels, sand or gravel drains or wick drains) be-
hind the facing with outlets at or near the base of the wall.
Drainage panels shall maintain their drainage characteris-
tics under the design earth pressures and surcharge load-
ings, and shall extend from the base of the wall to a level
1 foot below the top of the wall.
Where thin drainage panels are used behind walls, sat-
urated or moist soil behind the panels may be subject to
freezing and expansion. In such cases, insulation shall be
provided on the walls to prevent freezing of the soil, or
consideration should be given during wall design to
the pressures which may be exerted on the wall by
frozen soil.
Refer to Section 6 of Division I-A for guidance re-
garding the design of exible cantilevered walls subjected
to dynamic and seismic loads. In general, the pseudo-
static approach developed by Mononobe-Okabe may be
used to estimate the equivalent static forces. Forces
resulting from wall inertia effects may be ignored in esti-
mating the seismic lateral earth pressure.
Flexible cantilevered walls shall be dimensioned to en-
sure stability against passive failure of embedded vertical
elements such that FS 1.5. Unfactored dead and live
loads shall be used to evaluate the factor of safety against
passive failure of embedded vertical elements.
Vertical elements shall be designed to support the full
design earth, surcharge and water pressures between the
elements. In determining the depth of embedment to mo-
bilize passive resistance, consideration shall be given to
planes of weakness (e.g., slickensides, bedding planes,
and joint sets) that could reduce the strength of the soil or
rock determined by eld or laboratory tests. Embedment
in intact rock, including massive to appreciably jointed
rock which should not fail through a joint surface, should
be based on an allowable shear strength of 0.10C
o
to
0.15C
o
of the intact rock.
Structural design of individual wall elements may be
performed by service load or load factor design methods
in conformance with Article 3.22.
The maximum spacing between vertical supporting el-
ements depends on the relative stiffness of the vertical el-
ements and facing, and the type and condition of soil to be
supported. M
max
in a 1-foot height of wall facing at any
level may be determined by the following, or other ac-
ceptable design procedures:
Simple span (no soil arching)
M
max
p
a
2
/8 (5.6.6-1)
Simple span (soil arching)
M
max
p
a
2
/12 (5.6.6-2)
Continuous (no soil arching)
M
max
p
a
2
/10 (5.6.6-3)
Continuous (soil arching)
M
max
p
a
2
/12 (5.6.6-4)
Equation 5.6.6-1 is applicable for simply supported fac-
ing behind which the soil will not arch between vertical
supports (e.g., in soft cohesive soils or for rigid concrete
facing placed tightly against the in-place soil). Equation
5.6.6-2 is applicable for simply supported facing behind
which the soil will arch between vertical supports (e.g., in
granular or stiff cohesive soils with exible facing or rigid
facing behind which there is sufficient space to permit the
in-place soil to arch). Equations 5.6.6-3 and 5.6.6-4 are ap-
plicable for facing which is continuous over several verti-
cal supports (e.g., reinforced shotcrete or concrete).
Timber facings should be constructed of stress-grade
lumber in conformance with Article 13.2.1. If timber is
used where conditions are favorable for the growth of
decay-producing organisms, wood should be pressure
treated with a wood preservative unless the heartwood of
a naturally decay-resistant species is available and is con-
sidered adequate with respect to the decay hazard and ex-
pected service life of the structure.
5.6.8 Corrosion Protection
Refer to Article 5.7.8.
5.7 ANCHORED WALL DESIGN
Refer to Figure 5.7.1Afor terminology used for the de-
sign of anchored retaining walls.
The development of lateral earth pressures for design
shall consider the method and sequence of construction,
the rigidity of the wall/anchor system, the physical char-
acteristics and stability of the ground mass to be sup-
FIGURE 5.7.1A Typical Terms Used in Flexible Anchored Wall Design
ported, allowable wall deflections, the space between
anchors, anchor prestress, and the potential for anchor
yield.
For stable ground masses, the nal distribution and
magnitude of lateral earth pressure on a completed an-
chored wall with two or more levels of anchors con-
structed from the top down may be computed using the
apparent earth pressure distributions shown in Figure
5.7.2Aor any other applicable earth pressure distribution
developed for this purpose. For unstable or marginally
stable ground masses, the design earth pressure may ex-
ceed those shown in Figure 5.7.2Aand loads should be es-
timated using methods of slope stability analysis which
incorporate the effects of anchors or which consider in-
terslice equilibrium and provide information on interslice
forces. In developing the design earth pressure for a par-
ticular wall section, consideration shall be given to wall
displacements that may affect adjacent structures or un-
derground utilities. Very approximate estimates of settle-
ments adjacent to braced or anchored exible walls can be
made using Figure 5.7.2B. If wall deections estimated
using Figure 5.7.2B are excessive for a particular appli-
cation, a more detailed analysis using beam on elastic
foundation, nite element or other methods of analysis
which consider the soil-structure interaction effects of an-
chored walls may be warranted.
FIGURE 5.7.2A Guidelines for Estimating Earth Pressure on Walls with Two or More Levels of Anchors
Constructed from the Top Down Modied after Terzaghi and Peck (1967)
Anchored walls with one level of anchors may be de-
signed using a triangular earth pressure distribution in ac-
cordance with Article 5.6.2 or using another suitable earth
pressure distribution consistent with the expected wall de-
ection. For the case where excavation has advanced
down to the rst anchor level but the rst row of anchors
has not yet been installed, the wall shall be treated as a
nongravity cantilevered wall and the earth pressure distri-
bution loading on the wall shall be assumed as triangular
in accordance with Article 5.6.2. Overstressing of the an-
chors should be avoided as excessive anchor loads rela-
tive to the capacity of the retained ground mass to support
the anchor loads can result in undesirable deections, or
passive failure of the wall into the retained soil.
In developing the design lateral pressure for walls con-
structed from the top down, the lateral pressure due to
traffic or other surcharge loading, shall be added to the lat-
eral earth pressure in accordance with Articles 3.23.3 and
5.5.2, using an earth pressure coefficient consistent with
the estimated magnitude of wall deection.
For the conditions where there is no or one anchor
level, the magnitude and distribution of lateral resisting
forces for embedded vertical elements in soil or rock shall
be determined following procedures described in Article
5.6.2. When two or more levels of anchors have been in-
stalled, the magnitude of lateral resistance provided by
embedded vertical elements will depend on the element
stiffness and deection under load.
The earth pressures on anchored walls constructed in
ll situations from the bottom up are affected by the
method and sequence of construction. Therefore, the
method and sequence of construction must be considered
when selecting appropriate lateral earth pressures for an-
chored walls in ll situations. As a general guide, the fol-
lowing may be considered:
For walls with a single anchor levelA triangular
distribution dened by K
a
per unit length of wall
height plus surcharge loads.
FIGURE 5.7.2B Settlement Proles Behind Braced or Anchored Walls
Modied after Clough and ORourke (1990)
For walls with multiple anchor levelsArectangu-
lar pressure distribution derived by increasing the
total force from the triangular pressure distribution
described above by one-third and applying the force
as a uniform pressure distribution.
Refer to Article 5.6.3.
Refer to Section 6 of Division I-A for guidance re-
garding the design of anchored retaining walls subjected
to dynamic and seismic loads. In general, the pseudo-sta-
tic approach developed by Mononobe-Okabe may be used
to estimate the equivalent static forces provided the max-
imum lateral earth pressure be computed using a seismic
coefficient k
h
1.5A. Forces resulting from wall inertia
effects may be ignored in estimating the seismic lateral
earth pressure.
The design of anchored walls includes determination
of the following:
Size, spacing, and depth of embedment of vertical
wall elements and facing;
Type, capacity, spacing, depth, inclination and cor-
rosion protection of anchors; and
Structural capacity and stability of the wall, wall
foundation, and surrounding soil mass for all inter-
mediate and nal stages of construction.
The bearing capacity and settlement of vertical wall el-
ements under the vertical component of the anchor forces
and other vertical loads shall be determined in accordance
with Articles 4.4, 4.5, or 4.6.
For walls supported in or through soft clays with S
u
0.3H, continuous vertical elements extending well

below the exposed base of the wall may be required to pre-
vent heave in front of the wall. Otherwise, the vertical el-
ements are embedded several feet as required for stability
or end bearing. (Where signicant embedment of the wall
is required to prevent bottom heave, the lowest section of
wall below the lowest row of anchors must be designed to
resist the moment induced by the pressure acting between
the lowest row of anchors and the base of the exposed wall,
and the force Pb 0.7(HB
e
1.4cH pcB
e
) acting at
the midheight of the embedded depth of the wall.)
The required embedment depth (D or D
o
) may be de-
termined in accordance with Article 5.6.2.
Refer to Article 5.7.2 for general guidance regarding
wall deections.
Depending on the characteristics of the wall, the wall
components shall be designed by service load or load fac-
tor methods in conformance with Article 3.22.
5.7.6.1 General
The procedure for anchored wall design depends on
the number of anchor rows and the construction sequence.
For a typical wall with two or more rows of anchors
constructed from the top down, the procedure requires
design for the nal structure with multiple rows of an-
chors and checking the design for the various stages of
wall construction.
The required horizontal component of each anchor
force shall be computed using the apparent earth pressure
distributions in Figure 5.7.2A, or other applicable earth
pressure distributions, and any other horizontal water
pressure, surcharge or seismic forces acting on the wall.
The total anchor force shall be determined based on the
anchor inclination. The horizontal anchor spacing and an-
chor capacity shall be selected to provide the required
total anchor force.
The vertical wall elements shall be designed to resist
all horizontal earth pressure, surcharge, water pressure,
anchor and seismic loadings as well as the vertical com-
ponent of the anchor loads and any other vertical loads.
Supports may be assumed at each anchor location and at
the bottom of the wall if the vertical element is extended
below the bottom of the wall.
The stresses in and the design of the wall facing shall
be computed in accordance with the requirements of Ar-
ticle 5.6.6.
All components of the anchored wall system shall be
checked for the various earth pressure distributions and
other loading conditions which will exist during the
course of construction.
5.7.6.2 Anchor Design
Anchor design shall include an evaluation of the feasi-
bility of using anchors, selection of an anchor system, es-
timates of anchor capacity, determination of unbonded
length, and determination of corrosion protection require-
ments. In determining the feasibility of employing an-
chors at a particular location, consideration shall be given
to the availability or ability to obtain underground ease-
ments, proximity of buried facilities to anchor locations,
and the suitability of subsurface soil and rock conditions
within the anchor stressing zone.
The required anchor forces shall be determined in ac-
cordance with Article 5.7.6.1. The ultimate anchor capac-
ity per unit length may be preliminarily estimated using
the guidelines presented in Tables 5.7.6.2A and 5.7.6.2B
for soil and rock, respectively. These guidelines are for
preliminary design of straight shaft anchors installed in
small diameter holes using a low grout pressure. Other an-
chor types and installation procedures could provide other
estimated ultimate anchor capacities. Final determination
of the anchor capacity and required bond length shall be
the responsibility of the anchored wall specialty contrac-
tor. The allowable anchor capacity for small diameter an-
chors may be estimated by multiplying the ultimate
anchor capacity per unit length times the bonded (or
stressing) length and dividing by a FS of 2.5 for anchors
in soil and 3.0 for anchors in rock. Bearing elements for
anchors shall be designed to maintain shear stresses in the
vertical wall elements and facing within allowable values.
The capacity of each anchor shall be veried as part of a
stressing and testing program. (See Division II.)
Determination of the unbonded anchor length shall con-
sider the location of the critical failure surface farthest from
the wall, the minimum length required to insure minimal
loss of anchor prestress due to long-term ground move-
ments, and the depth to adequate anchoring strata. As shown
in Figure 5.7.1A, the unbonded (or free) anchor length
should not be less than 15 feet and should extend beyond
the critical failure surface in the soil mass being retained by
the wall. For granular soils or drained cohesive soils, the
critical failure surface is typically assumed to be the active
failure wedge which is dened by a plane extending upward
from the base of the wall at an angle of 45 /2 from the
horizontal. Longer free lengths may be required for anchors
in plastic soils or where critical failure surfaces are dened
by planes or discontinuities with other orientations.
Selection of an anchor inclination shall consider the lo-
cation of suitable soil or rock strata, the presence of buried
utilities or other geometric constraints, and constructabil-
ity of the anchor drill holes. The component of vertical
load resulting from anchor inclination shall be included in
evaluating the end bearing and settlement of vertical wall
elements.
The minimum horizontal spacing of anchors should be
either three times the diameter of the bonded zone or 4
feet, whichever is larger. If smaller spacings are required,
TABLE 5.7.6.2B Presumptive Ultimate Values of Load
Transfer for Preliminary Design of Anchors in Rock
Modied after Cheney (1982)
TABLE 5.7.6.2A Presumptive Ultimate Values of Load Transfer for Preliminary Design of Anchors
in Soil Modied after Cheney (1982)
consideration can be given to differing anchor inclinations
between alternating anchors.
5.7.8 Corrosion Protection
Prestressed anchors and anchor heads shall be pro-
tected against corrosion consistent with the ground and
ground water conditions at the site. The level and extent
of corrosion protection shall be a function of the ground
environment and the potential consequences of an anchor
failure. Corrosion protection shall be applied in accor-
dance with Section 6 of Division IIGround Anchors.
5.7.9 Anchor Load Testing and Stressing
All anchors shall be tested in accordance with Section
6 of Division IIGround Anchors, Article 6.5.5, Testing
and Stressing.
5.8 MECHANICALLY STABILIZED
EARTH (MSE) WALL DESIGN
MSE walls shall be designed for external stability of
the wall system as well as internal stability of the rein-
forced soil mass behind the facing. Internal design of
MSE wall systems requires knowledge of short and long-
term properties of the materials used as soil reinforce-
ments as well as the soil mechanics which govern MSE
wall behavior. Structural design of the wall facing may
also be required.
The specications provided herein for MSE walls do
not apply to geometrically complex MSE wall systems
such as tiered walls (walls stacked on top of one another),
back-to-back walls, or walls which have trapezoidal sec-
tions. Design guidelines for these cases are provided in
FHWApublication No. FHWASA-96-071 Mechanically
Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design
and Construction Guidelines. Compound stability should
also be evaluated for these complex MSE wall systems
(see Article 5.8.2).
5.8.1 Structure Dimensions
An illustration of the MSE wall element dimensions
needed for design is provided in Figure 5.8.1A.
MSE walls shall be dimensioned to ensure that the
minimum factors of safety required by Article 5.5.5 for
sliding and overturning stability are satised. In addition,
the minimum factors of safety provided in Article 5.8 for
foundation bearing capacity (5.8.3) and pullout resistance
(5.8.5.2) shall also be satised, as well as overall stability
requirements as provided in Article 5.2.2.3.
The soil reinforcement length shall be calculated based
on external and internal stability considerations in accor-
dance with Articles 5.2.2.3 and 5.5.5, and all relevant por-
tions of Article 5.8. Soil reinforcement length shall be as a
minimum approximately 70% of the wall height (as mea-
sured from the leveling pad) and not less than 2.4 meters (8
feet). The wall height is dened as the difference in eleva-
tion between the top of the wall at the wall face (i.e., where
the nished grade intersects the back of the wall face) and
the top of the leveling pad. The reinforcement length shall
be uniform throughout the entire height of the wall, unless
substantiating evidence is presented to indicate that varia-
tion in length is satisfactory. External loads such as sur-
charges will increase the minimum reinforcement length.
Greater reinforcement lengths may also be required for very
soft soil sites and to satisfy global stability requirements.
The minimum embedment depth of the bottom of the
reinforced soil mass, which is the same as the top of the
leveling pad, shall be based on bearing capacity, settle-
ment, and stability requirements determined in accordance
with Articles 5.2.2.1, 5.2.2.2 and 5.2.2.3, and pertinent
portions of Article 5.8, including the effects of frost heave,
scour, proximity to slopes, erosion, and the potential fu-
ture excavation in front of the wall. The lowest backll re-
inforcement layer shall not be located above the long-term
ground surface in front of the wall. As an alternative to
being below the depth of frost penetration, the soil below
the wall but above the depth of frost penetration can be
removed and replaced with nonfrost susceptible clean
granular soil. In addition to general bearing capacity, set-
tlement, and stability considerations, the minimum em-
bedment required shall consider the potential for local
bearing capacity failure under the leveling pad or footing
due to higher vertical stresses transmitted by the facing.
Aminimum horizontal bench 1.2 meters (4 feet) wide
shall be provided in front of walls founded on slopes.
For walls constructed along rivers and streams, embed-
ment depths shall be established at a minimum of 0.6 me-
ters (2 feet) below potential scour depth as determined in
accordance with Article 5.3.5.
5.8.2 External Stability
Stability computations shall be made by assuming the
reinforced soil mass and facing to be a rigid body. The co-
efficient of active earth pressure, K
af
used to compute the
horizontal force resulting from the retained backll be-
hind the reinforced zone and other loads shall be com-
puted on the basis of the friction angle of the retained
backll. In the absence of specic data, a maximum fric-
tion angle of 30 should be used. The limitation also ap-
plies when determining the coefficient of sliding friction
at the wall base. Passive pressures shall be neglected in
stability computations.
The active earth pressure coefficients for retained
backll (i.e., ll behind the reinforced soil mass) for ex-
ternal stability calculations only is computed as shown in
Figure 5.5.2A, with .
Figures 5.8.2A, 5.8.2B, and 5.8.2C illustrate external
stability equations for MSE walls with horizontal back-
slope, inclined backslope, and a broken backslope, re-
spectively. Dead load surcharges, if present, shall be
taken into account in accordance with Figures 5.8.12.1A,
5.8.12.1.B, and 5.8.12.1C.
If a break in the slope behind the wall facing is located
horizontally within two times the height of the wall (2H),
a broken backslope design (A.R.E.A. method) shall be
used, as illustrated in Figure 5.8.2.C. Alternatively, a bro-
ken back slope design can be performed for the actual
slope geometry by using a graphical Coulomb procedure
such as the Culmann method.
For sliding stability, the coefficient of sliding used to
calculate frictional resistance at the base of the wall shall
be the minimum of the following determinations:
Tan at the base of the wall, where is the friction
angle of the backll or the foundation soil, which-
ever is lowest.
Tan if continuous or near continuous reinforcement
layers are used, where is the soil/reinforcement
interface angle for the bottom of the lowest rein-
forcement layer.
FIGURE 5.8.1A MSE Wall Element Dimensions Needed for Design
FIGURE 5.8.2A External Stability for Wall with Horizontal Backslope and Traffic Surcharge
FIGURE 5.8.2B External Stability for Wall with Sloping Backslope
FIGURE 5.8.2C External Stability for Wall with Broken Backslope
See Appendix Aof FHWAPublication No. FHWASA-
96-071 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Rein-
forced Soil Slopes Design and Construction Guidelines
for how to determine Tan from pullout or direct shear
tests. If site specic data for tan is not available, use
0.67Tan for the coefficient of sliding for continuous or
near continuous reinforcement layers.
For calculations of external stability, the continuous
traffic surcharge loads shall be considered to act beyond the
end of the reinforced zone as shown in Figure 5.8.2.A.
Overall stability analyses shall be performed in accordance
with Article 5.2.2.3. Additionally for MSE walls with com-
plex geometrics, or where walls support steep, innite,
sloping surcharges (i.e., a slope greater than 2H in length as
shown in Figure 5.8.2C and a slope of 2H1V or steeper),
compound failure surfaces which pass through a portion of
the reinforced soil mass as illustrated in Figure 5.8.2D shall
be analyzed, especially where the wall is located on slop-
ing or soft ground where overall stability is marginal. Fac-
tors of safety and methods of analysis provided in Article
5.2.2.3 are still applicable. The long-term strength of each
backll surface should be considered as restoring forces in
the limit equilibrium slope stability analysis.
5.8.3 Bearing Capacity and Foundation Stability
Allowable bearing capacities for MSE walls shall be
computed using a minimum factor of safety of 2.5 for
Group 1 loading applied to the calculated ultimate bear-
ing capacity. Alesser FS, of 2.0, could be used if justied
FIGURE 5.8.2D Overall and Compound Stability of Complex MSE Wall Systems
by a geotechnical analysis. The width of the footing for ul-
timate bearing capacity calculations shall be considered to
be the length of the reinforcement calculated at the foun-
dation level. The location of the resultant center of pres-
sure shall be as stated in Article 5.5.5. Provided the resul-
tant location meets this criteria, an overturning stability
analysis is not necessary. Bearing pressures shall be com-
puted using the Meyerhof distribution, which considers a
uniform base pressure distribution over an effective base
width of B L 2e, as shown in Figures 5.8.3A and
5.8.3B. It is acceptable to use B in lieu of L, espe-
cially for walls with relatively thick facing units.
Where soft soils are present or if on sloping ground, the
difference in bearing stress calculated for the wall rein-
forced soil zone relative to the local bearing stress beneath
the facing elements shall be considered when evaluating
bearing capacity. This is especially important where con-
crete wall facings are used due to their weight. Further-
more, differential settlements between the facing ele-
ments and the reinforced soil zone of the wall due to con-
centrated bearing stresses from the facing weight on soft
soil could create concentrated stresses at the connection
between the facing elements and the wall backll rein-
forcement. In both cases, the leveling pad shall be em-
bedded adequately to meet bearing capacity and settle-
ment requirements or dimensioned and designed to keep
bearing stresses beneath the leveling pad and the remain-
der of the wall as uniform as possible.
5.8.4 Calculation of Loads for Internal Stability
Design
Reinforcement loads calculated for internal stability
design are dependent on the soil reinforcement extensi-
FIGURE 5.8.3A Calculation of Vertical Stress for Bearing Capacity Calculations (for Horizontal Backslope Condition)
FIGURE 5.8.3B Calculation of Vertical Stress for Bearing Capacity Calculations (for Sloping Backslope Condition)
bility and material type. In general, inextensible rein-
forcements consist of metallic strips, bar mats, or welded
wire mats, whereas extensible reinforcements consist of
geotextiles or geogrids. Inextensible reinforcements reach
their peak strength at strains lower than the strain required
for the soil to reach its peak strength. Extensible rein-
forcements reach their peak strength at strains greater than
the strain required for soil to reach its peak strength. In-
ternal stability failure modes include soil reinforcement
rupture (ultimate limit state), soil reinforcement pullout
(ultimate limit state), and excessive reinforcement elon-
gation under the design load (serviceability limit state).
The serviceability limit state is not evaluated in current
practice for internal stability design. Internal stability is
determined by equating the tensile load applied to the re-
inforcement to the allowable tension for the reinforce-
ment, the allowable tension being governed by reinforce-
ment rupture and pullout.
The load in the reinforcement is determined at two crit-
ical locations, i.e., at the zone of maximum stress and at
the connection with the wall face, to assess the internal
stability of the wall system. Potential for reinforcement
rupture and pullout are evaluated at the zone of maximum
stress. The zone of maximum stress is assumed to be lo-
cated at the boundary between the active zone and the
resistant zone. Potential for reinforcement rupture and
pullout are also evaluated at the connection of the rein-
forcement to the wall facing.
The maximum friction angle used for the computation
of horizontal force within the reinforced soil mass shall be
assumed to be 34, unless the specic project select back-
ll is tested for frictional strength by triaxial or direct
shear testing methods, AASHTO T 234 and T 236,
respectively.
5.8.4.1 Calculation of Maximum Reinforcement
Loads
Maximum reinforcement loads shall be calculated
using a Simplied Coherent Gravity approach. For this ap-
proach, the load in the reinforcements is obtained by mul-
tiplying a lateral earth pressure coefficient by the vertical
pressure at the reinforcement, and applying the resulting
lateral pressure to the tributary area for the reinforcement.
Other widely accepted and published design methods for
calculation of reinforcement loads may be used at the dis-
cretion of the wall owner or the approving agency.
The vertical stress,
v
, is the result of gravity forces
from soil self weight within and immediately above the re-
inforced wall backll, and any surcharge loads present.
Vertical stress for maximum reinforcement load calcula-
tions shall be determined as shown in Figures 5.8.4.1Aand
5.8.4.1B. Note that sloping soil surcharges are taken into
account through an equivalent uniform surcharge and as-
suming a level backslope condition. For these calculations,
the depth Z is referenced from the top of the wall at the
wall face, excluding any copings and appurtenances.
The lateral earth pressure coefficient K
r
is determined
by applying a multiplier to the active earth pressure coef-
cient. The active earth pressure coefficient shall be deter-
mined using the Coulomb method as shown in Figure
5.5.2A, but assuming no wall friction (i.e., set ). Note
that since it is assumed that , and is assumed to al-
ways be zero for internal stability, for a vertical wall, the
Coulomb equation simplies mathematically to the sim-
plest form of the Rankine equation:
K
a
Tan
2
(45 /2) (5.8.4.1-1)
If the wall face is battered, the following simplied
form of the Coulomb equation can be used:
(5.8.4.1-2)
with variables as dened in Figure 5.5.2A.
The multiplier to K
a
shall be determined as shown in
Figure 5.8.4.1C. Based on this gure, the multiplier to K
a
is
a function of the reinforcement type and the depth of the re-
inforcement below the wall top. These multipliers are suffi-
ciently accurate for the reinforcement types covered in Fig-
ure 5.8.4.1C. Multipliers for other reinforcement types can
be developed as needed through analysis of measurements
of reinforcement load and strain in full scale structures.
The applied load to the reinforcements, T
max
, shall be
calculated on a load per unit of wall width basis. There-
fore, the reinforcement load, accounting for the tributary
area of the lateral stress, is determined as follows:
v
K
r

h
(5.8.4.1-3)
T
max
h
S
v
(5.8.4.1-4)
where,
h
is the horizontal soil stress at the reinforcement,
S
v
is the vertical spacing of the reinforcement, K
r
is the lat-
eral earth pressure coefficient for a given reinforcement
type and location,
v
is the vertical earth pressure at the
reinforcement, and
h
is the horizontal stress at the rein-
forcement location resulting from a concentrated hori-
zontal surcharge load. (See Article 5.8.12.1.)
The design specications provided herein assume that
the wall facing combined with the reinforced backll acts
as a coherent unit to form a gravity retaining structure.
The effect of relatively large vertical spacing of rein-
forcement on this assumption is not well known, and a
vertical spacing greater than 0.8 meters (31 inches) shall
K
Sin
Sin
Sin
Sin
a

+ ( )
+

1
]
1
2
3
1

not be used without full scale wall data (e.g., reinforce-
ment loads and strains, and overall deections) which
supports the acceptability of larger vertical spacings.
These MSE wall specications also assume that inex-
tensible reinforcements are not mixed with extensible
reinforcements within the same wall. MSE walls which
contain a mixture of inextensible and extensible rein-
forcements are not recommended.
5.8.4.2 Determination of Reinforcement Tensile
Load at the Connection to the Wall Face
The tensile load applied to the soil reinforcement con-
nection at the wall face, T
0
, shall be equal to T
max
for all
wall systems regardless of facing and reinforcement type.
5.8.5 Determination of Reinforcement Length
Required for Internal Stability
5.8.5.1 Location of Zone of Maximum Stress
The location of the zone of maximum stress for inex-
tensible and extensible wall systems, which forms the
boundary between the active and resistant zones, is de-
termined as shown in Figure 5.8.5.1A. For all wall sys-
tems, the zone of maximum stress shall be assumed
to begin at the back of the facing elements at the toe of
the wall.
For extensible wall systems with a face batter of
less than 10 from the vertical, the zone of maximum
stress should be determined using the Rankine method.
FIGURE 5.8.4.1A Calculation of Vertical Stress for Horizontal Backslope Condition, Including Live Load and Dead Load
Surcharges for Internal Stability Design
Since the Rankine method cannot account for wall face
batter or the effect of concentrated surcharge loads
above the reinforced backfill zone, the Coulomb
method shall be used for walls with extensible rein-
forcement in cases of significant batter (defined as 10
from vertical or more) and concentrated surcharge loads
to determine the location of the zone of maximum
stress.
5.8.5.2 Soil Reinforcement Pullout Design
The reinforcement pullout resistance shall be checked
at each level against pullout failure for internal stability.
Only the effective pullout length which extends beyond the
theoretical failure surfaces shall be used in this computa-
tion. Note that traffic loads are neglected in pullout calcu-
lations (see Figure 5.8.4.1.A).
FIGURE 5.8.4.1B Calculation of Vertical Stress for Sloping Backslope Condition for Internal Stability Design
The effective pullout length required shall be deter-
mined using the following equation:
(5.8.5.2-1)
where L
e
is the length of reinforcement in the resisting
zone, FS
PO
is the safety factor against pullout (minimum
of 1.5), F* is the pullout resistance factor, is a scale ef-
fect correction factor,
v
is the vertical stress at the rein-
forcement in the resistant zone, C is an overall reinforce-
ment surface area geometry factor based on the gross
perimeter of the reinforcement and is equal to 2 for strip,
grid, and sheet type reinforcements (i.e., two sides), R
c
is
the reinforcement coverage ratio (see Article 5.8.6), and
other variables are as dened previously. F*
v
CL
e
is the
pullout resistance P
r
per unit of reinforcement width.
F* and shall be determined from product specic pull-
out tests in the project backll material or equivalent soil, or
they can be estimated empirically/theoretically. Pullout test-
ing and interpretation procedures (and direct shear testing
for some parameters), as well as typical empirical data, are
provided in Appendix Aof FHWAPublication No. FHWA
SA-96-071 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Rein-
forced Soil Slopes Design and Construction Guidelines.
For standard backll materials (see Article 7.3.6.3 in Divi-
sion II), with the exception of uniform sands (i.e., coefficient
of uniformity C
u
4), it is acceptable to use conservative
default values for F* and as shown in Figure 5.8.5.2Aand
Table 5.8.5.2A. For ribbed steel strips, if the specic C
u
for
the wall backll is unknown at the time of design, a C
u
of
4.0 should be assumed for design to determine F*.
Aminimum length, L
e
, in the resistant zone of 0.9 me-
ters (3 feet) shall be used. The total length of reinforce-
ment required for pullout is equal to L
a
L
e
as shown in
Figure 5.8.5.1A.
For grids, the spacing between transverse grid ele-
ments, S
t
shall be uniform throughout the length of the re-
inforcement rather than having transverse grid members
concentrated only in the resistant zone.
These pullout calculations assume that the long-term
strength of the reinforcement (see Article 5.8.6.1) in the
resistant zone is greater than T
max
.
5.8.6 Reinforcement Strength Design
The strength of the reinforcement needed, for internal
stability, to resist the load applied throughout the design
L
FS T
F CR
e
PO
v c
max

FIGURE 5.8.4.1C Variation of the Coefficient of Lateral Stress Ratio K
r
/K
a
with Depth in a Mechanically
Stabilized Earth Wall
FIGURE 5.8.5.1A Location of Potential Failure Surface for Internal Stability Design of MSE Walls
FIGURE 5.8.5.2A Default Values for the Pullout Friction Factor, F*
TABLE 5.8.5.2A Default Values for the Scale Effect Correction Factor, .
Reinforcement Type Default Value for
All Steel Reinforcements 1.0
Geogrids 0.8
Geotextiles 0.6
life of the wall shall be determined where the reinforcement
load is maximum (i.e., at the boundary between the active
and resistant zones) and at the connection of the reinforce-
ment to the wall face. The reinforcement strength required
shall be checked at every level within the wall for ultimate
limit state. The serviceability limit state is not specically
evaluated in current practice to design backll reinforce-
ment for internal stability. A rst order estimate of lateral
deformation of the entire wall structure, however, can be
accomplished as shown in Article 5.8.10.
Therefore, where the load is maximum,
T
max
T
a
R
c
(5.8.6-1)
T
a
shall be determined in accordance with Article
5.8.6.2.1 for steel reinforcement and Article 5.8.6.2.2 for
geosynthetic reinforcement.
At the connection with the wall face,
T
0
T
ac
R
c
(5.8.6-2)
T
ac
shall be determined at the wall face connection in
accordance with Article 5.8.7.1 for steel reinforcement
and Article 5.8.7.2 for geosynthetic reinforcement. Fur-
thermore, the difference in the environment occurring im-
mediately behind the wall face relative to the environment
within the reinforced backll zone and its effect on the
long-term durability of the reinforcement/connection shall
be considered when determining T
ac
.
T
a
shall be determined on a long-term strength per unit
of reinforcement width basis and multiplied by the rein-
forcement coverage ratio R
c
so that it can be directly com-
pared to T
max
which is determined on a load per unit of
wall width basis (this also applies to T
ac
and T
0
). For dis-
crete (i.e., not continuous) reinforcements, such as steel
strips or bar mats, the strength of the reinforcement is con-
verted to a strength per unit of wall width basis by taking
the long-term strength per reinforcement, dividing it by
the discrete reinforcement width, b, and multiplying it by
the reinforcement coverage ratio, R
c
, as shown in Figures
5.8.6A and 5.8.6B. For continuous reinforcement layers,
b
5
1 and R 1.
5.8.6.1 Design Life Requirements
Reinforcement elements in MSE walls shall be de-
signed to have a corrosion resistance/durability to ensure
a minimum design life of 75 years for permanent struc-
tures. For retaining structure applications designated as
having severe consequences should poor performance or
failure occur, a 100-year service life shall be considered.
The allowable reinforcement tension shall be based on
maintaining allowable material stresses to the end of the
75 or 100 year service life.
Temporary MSE walls are typically designed for a ser-
vice life of 36 months or less.
5.8.6.1.1 Steel Reinforcement
For steel reinforcements, the required sacricial thick-
ness shall be provided in addition to the required struc-
tural reinforcement thickness to compensate for the ef-
fects of corrosion.
The structural design of galvanized steel soil rein-
forcements and connections shall be made on the basis of
F
y
, the yield strength of the steel, and the cross-sectional
area of the steel determined using the steel thickness after
corrosion losses, E
c
, dened as follows:
E
c
E
n
E
R
(5.8.6.1.1-1)
where E
R
is the total loss in thickness due to corrosion to
produce the expected loss in tensile strength during the re-
quired design life. See Figure 5.8.6Afor an illustration of
how to calculate the long-term strength of the reinforce-
ment based on these parameters. The sacricial thickness
(i.e., corrosion loss) is computed for each exposed surface
as follows, assuming that the soil backll used is non-
aggressive:
Galvanization loss 15 m/year (0.60 mils/year) for
rst 2 years
4 m/year (0.16 mils/year) for
subsequent years
Carbon steel loss 12 m/year (0.47 mils/year)
after zinc depletion
These sacricial thicknesses account for potential pitting
mechanisms and much of the uncertainty due to data scat-
ter, and are considered to be maximum anticipated losses for
soils which are dened as nonaggressive. Soils shall be con-
sidered nonaggressive if they meet the following criteria:
pH of 5 to 10
Resistivity of not less than 3,000 ohm-cm
Chlorides not greater than 100 ppm
Sulfates not greater than 200 ppm
If the resistivity is greater than or equal to 5,000 ohm-
cm, the chlorides and sulfates requirements may be
waived. Recommended test methods for soil chemical
property determination include AASHTO T 289 for pH,
AASHTO T 288 for resistivity, AASHTO T 291 for chlo-
rides, and AASHTO T 290 for sulfates.
These sacricial thickness requirements are not applic-
able for soils which do not meet one or more of the nonag-
FIGURE 5.8.6A Parameters for Metal Reinforcement Strength Calculations
FIGURE 5.8.6B Parameters for Geosynthetic Reinforcement Strength Calculations
gressive soil criteria. Additionally, these sacricial thick-
ness requirements are not applicable in applications where:
the MSE wall will be exposed to a marine or other
chloride rich environment;
the MSE wall will be exposed to stray currents such
as from nearby underground power lines or adjacent
electric railways;
the backll material is aggressive; or
the galvanizing thickness is less than specied in
these guidelines.
Each of these situations creates a special set of condi-
tions which should be specically analyzed by a corrosion
specialist. Alternatively, noncorrosive reinforcing ele-
ments can be considered. Furthermore, these corrosion
rates do not apply to other metals. The use of alloys such
as aluminum and stainless steel is not recommended.
Corrosion-resistant coatings should consist of galva-
nization. Galvanized coatings shall be a minimum of 0.61
kg/m
2
(2 oz/ft
2
), or 86 m in thickness, applied in confor-
mance to AASHTO M 111 (ASTM A 123) for strip type
reinforcements or ASTM A 641 for bar mat or grid type
steel reinforcement.
There is insufficient evidence at this time regarding the
long-term performance of epoxy coatings for these coat-
ings to be considered equivalent to galvanizing. If epoxy
type coatings are used, they should meet the requirements
of ASTM A 884 for bar mat and grid reinforcements, or
AASHTO M 284 (ASTM D 3963) for strip reinforcements,
and have a minimum thickness of 0.41 mm (16 mils).
5.8.6.1.2 Geosynthetic Reinforcement
The durability of geosynthetic reinforcements is inu-
enced by environmental factors such as time, temperature,
mechanical damage, stress levels, and chemical exposure
(e.g., oxygen, water, and pH, which are the most common
chemical factors). Microbiological attack may also affect
certain polymers, though in general most of polymers used
for carrying load in soil reinforcement applications are not
affected by this. The effects of these factors on product dura-
bility are dependent on the polymer type used (i.e., resin
type, grade, additives, and manufacturing process) and the
macrostructure of the reinforcement. Not all of these factors
will have a signicant effect on all geosynthetic products.
Therefore, the response of geosynthetic reinforcements to
these long-term environmental factors is product specic.
However, within specic limits of wall application,
soil conditions, and polymer type, strength degradation
due to these factors can be anticipated to be minimal and
relatively consistent from product to product, and the im-
pact of any degradation which does occur will be mini-
mal. Even with product specic test results, RF
ID
and RF
D
shall be no less than 1.1 each.
For conditions which are outside these dened limits
(i.e., applications in which the consequences of poor per-
formance or failure are severe, aggressive soil conditions,
or polymers which are beyond the specic limits set), or
if it is desired to use an overall reduction factor which is
less than the default reduction factor recommended
herein, then product specic durability studies shall be
carried out prior to use. These product specic studies
shall be used to estimate the short-term and long-term ef-
fects of these environmental factors on the strength and
deformational characteristics of the geosynthetic rein-
forcement throughout the reinforcement design life.
Wall application limits, soil aggressiveness, polymer
requirements, and the calculation of long-term reinforce-
ment strength are specically described as follows:
1) Structure Application Issues: Identication of ap-
plications for which the consequences of poor perfor-
mance or failure are severe shall be as described in Arti-
cle 5.1. In such applications, a single default reduction
factor shall not be used for nal design.
2) Determination of Soil Aggressiveness: Soil ag-
gressiveness for geosynthetics is assessed based on the
soil pH, gradation, plasticity, organic content, and in-
ground temperature. Soil shall be dened as nonaggres-
sive if the following criteria are met:
The pH, as determined by AASHTO T 289, is 4.5 to
9 for permanent applications and 3 to 10 for tempo-
rary applications,
The maximum soil particle size is less than 20 mm
(0.75 inches), unless full scale installation damage
tests are conducted in accordance with ASTM D
5818,
The soil organic content, as determined by
AASHTO T 267 for material ner than the 2 mm
(No. 10) sieve, is 1% or less, and
the design temperature at the wall site, as dened
below, is less than 30 C (85 F) for permanent appli-
cations and 35 C (95 F) for temporary applications.
The effective design temperature is dened as the tem-
perature which is halfway between the average yearly air
temperature and the normal daily air temperature for the
highest month at the wall site. Note that for walls which
face the sun, it is possible that the temperature immedi-
ately behind the facing could be higher than the air tem-
perature. This shall be considered when assessing the de-
sign temperature, especially for wall sites located in
warm, sunny climates.
Soil backll not meeting the particle size, electro-
chemical, and in-ground temperature requirements pro-
vided herein shall be considered to be aggressive.
A single default reduction factor shall not be used in
aggressive soil conditions. The environment at the face, in
addition to within the wall backll, shall be evaluated, es-
pecially if the stability of the facing is dependent on the
strength of the geosynthetic at the face, i.e., the geosyn-
thetic reinforcement forms the primary connection be-
tween the body of the wall and the facing.
The chemical properties of the native soil surrounding
the mechanically stabilized soil backll shall also be con-
sidered if there is potential for seepage of ground water
from the native surrounding soils to the mechanically sta-
bilized backll. If this is the case, the surrounding soils
shall also meet the chemical criteria required for the back-
ll material if the environment is to be considered non-
aggressive, or adequate long-term drainage around the
geosynthetic reinforced mass shall be provided to ensure
that chemically aggressive liquid does not enter into the
reinforced backll.
3) Polymer Requirements: Polymers which are likely
to have good resistance to long-term chemical degrada-
tion shall be used if a single default reduction factor is to
be used, to minimize the risk of the occurrence of signi-
cant long-term degradation. The polymer material re-
quirements provided in Table 5.8.6.1.2Ashall therefore be
met if detailed product specic data as described in FHWA
Publication No. FHWA SA-96-071 Mechanically Stabi-
lized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design and
Construction GuidelinesAppendix B, and in FHWA
Publication No. FHWA SA-96-072 Corrosion/Degrada-
tion of Soil Reinforcements for Mechanically Stabilized
Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes is not obtained. Of
course, polymer materials not meeting the requirements in
Table 5.8.6.1.2Acould be used if this detailed product spe-
cic data extrapolated to the design life intended for the
structure is obtained.
4) Calculation of Long-Term Reinforcement
Strength: For ultimate limit state conditions,
(5.8.6.1.2-1)
where,
RF RF
ID
RF
CR
RF
D
(5.8.6.1.2-2)
T
al
is the long-term tensile strength required to prevent
rupture calculated on a load per unit of reinforcement
width basis, T
ult
is the ultimate tensile strength of the re-
inforcement determined from wide width tensile tests
(ASTM D 4595) for geotextiles and geogrids, or rib ten-
sile test for geogrids (GRI:GG1, but at a strain rate of
10%/minute), RF is a combined reduction factor to ac-
count for potential long-term degradation due to installa-
tion damage, creep, and chemical aging, RF
ID
is a strength
reduction factor to account for installation damage to the
reinforcement, RF
CR
is a strength reduction factor to pre-
vent long-term creep rupture of the reinforcement, and
RF
D
is a strength reduction factor to prevent rupture of the
reinforcement due to chemical and biological degrada-
tion. The value selected for T
ult
shall be the minimum av-
erage roll value (MARV) for the product to account for
statistical variance in the material strength.
T
T
RF
al
ult

TABLE 5.8.6.1.2A Minimum Requirements for Geosynthetic Products to Allow Use of Default Reduction Factor
for Long-Term Degradation
Polymer Type Property Test Method Criteria to Allow Use of Default RF*
Polypropylene UV Oxidation Resistance ASTM D 4355 Min. 70% strength retained after 500 hrs in
weatherometer
Polyethylene UV Oxidation Resistance ASTM D 4355 Min. 70% strength retained after 500 hrs in
weatherometer
Polyester Hydrolysis Resistance Inherent Viscosity Method Min. Number Average Molecular Weight
(ASTM D 4603 and GRI Test Method of 25,000
GG8**) or Determine Directly Using
Gel Permeation Chromatography
Polyester Hydrolysis Resistance GRI Test Method GG7 Max. of Carboxyl End Group Content of 30
All Polymers Survivability Weight per Unit Area (ASTM D 5261) Min. 270 g/m
2
All Polymers % Post-Consumer Recycled Certication of Materials Used Maximum of 0%
Material by Weight
*Polymers not meeting these requirements may be used if product specic test results obtained and analyzed in accordance with FHWAPublication No.
FHWASA-96-071 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design and Construction GuidelinesAppendix B, and in FHWA
Publication No. FHWASA-96-072 Corrosion/Degradation of Soil Reinforcements for Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes
are provided.
**These test procedures are in draft form. Contact the Geosynthetic Research Institute, Drexel University in Philadelphia, PA.
Values for RF
ID
, RF
CR
, and RF
D
shall be determined
from product specic test results. Even with product spe-
cic test results, RF
ID
and RF
D
shall be no less than 1.1
each. Guidelines for how to determine RF
ID
, RF
CR
, and
RF
D
from product specic data are provided in FHWA
Publication No. FHWASA-96-071 Mechanically Stabi-
lized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design and
Construction GuidelinesAppendix B, and in FHWA
Publication No. FHWA SA-96-072 Corrosion/Degrada-
tion of Soil Reinforcements for Mechanically Stabilized
Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes. For wall appli-
cations which are dened as not having severe conse-
quences should poor performance or failure occur, having
nonaggressive soil conditions, and if the geosynthetic
product meets the minimum requirements listed in Table
5.8.6.1.2A, the long-term tensile strength of the rein-
forcement may be determined using a default reduction
factor for RF as provided in Table 5.8.6.1.2B in lieu of
product specic test results.
5.8.6.2 Allowable Stresses
5.8.6.2.1 Steel Reinforcements
The allowable tensile stress for steel reinforcements and
connections for permanent structures (i.e., design lives of
75 to 100 years) shall be in accordance with Article 10.32,
in particular Table 10.32.1A. These requirements result in
an allowable tensile stress for steel strip reinforcement, in
the wall backll away from the wall face connections, of
0.55F
y
. For grid reinforcing members connected to a rigid
facing element (e.g., a concrete panel or block), the allow-
able tensile stress shall be reduced to 0.48F
y
. Transverse
and longitudinal grid members shall be sized in accordance
with AASHTO M 55 (ASTM A185). For temporary struc-
tures (i.e., design lives of 3 years or less), the allowable ten-
sile stress may be increased by 40 %. The global safety fac-
tor of 0.55 applied to F
y
for permanent structures accounts
for uncertainties in structure geometry, ll properties, ex-
ternally applied loads, the potential for local overstress due
to load nonuniformities, and uncertainties in long-term re-
inforcement strength. Safety factors less than 0.55, such as
the 0.48 factor applied to grid members, account for the
greater potential for local overstress due to load nonuni-
formities for steel grids than for steel strips or bars.
The allowable reinforcement tension is determined by
multiplying the allowable stress by the cross-sectional
area of the steel reinforcement after corrosion losses. (See
Figure 5.8.6A.) The loss in steel cross-sectional area due
to corrosion shall be determined in accordance with Arti-
cle 5.8.6.1.1. Therefore,
(5.8.6.2.1-1)
where, all variables are as dened in Figure 5.8.6A.
5.8.6.2.2 Geosynthetic Reinforcements
The allowable tensile load per unit of reinforcement
width for geosynthetic reinforcements for permanent
structures (i.e., design lives of 75 to 100 years) is deter-
mined as follows: (See Figure 5.8.6B.)
(5.8.6.2.2-1)
where, FS is a global safety factor which accounts for un-
certainties in structure geometry, ll properties, externally
applied loads, the potential for local overstress due to load
nonuniformities, and uncertainties in long-term reinforce-
ment strength. For ultimate limit state conditions for per-
T
T
FS RF
a
ult
=
T FS
A F
b
a
c y
=
TABLE 5.8.6.1.2B Default and Minimum Values for the Total Geosynthetic Ultimate Limit State
Strength Reduction Factor, RF
Application Total Reduction Factor, RF
All applications, but with product specic data obtained and analyzed in
accordance with FHWAPublication No. FHWASA-96-071
Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design
and Construction GuidelinesAppendix B, and FHWAPublication No.
FHWASA-96-072 Corrosion/Degradation of Soil Reinforcements for
Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes
Permanent applications not having severe consequences should poor
performance or failure occur, nonaggressive soils, and polymers meeting
the requirements listed in Table 5.8.6.1.2A, provided product specic data
is not available
Temporary applications not having severe consequences should poor
is not available
All reduction factors shall be based on product
specific data. RF
ID
and RF
D
shall not be less
than 1.1.
7.0
3.5
manent walls, a FS of 1.5 shall be used. Note that the un-
certainty of determining long-term reinforcement strength
is taken into account through an additional factor of safety,
which is typically about 1.2, depending on the amount of
creep data available, through the creep extrapolation pro-
tocol provided in Appendix B of the FHWA-SA-96-071,
Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil
Slopes Design and Construction Guidelines.
5.8.7 Soil Reinforcement/Facing Connection
Strength Design
5.8.7.1 Connection Strength for Steel Soil
Reinforcements
Connections shall be designed to resist stresses result-
ing from active forces (T
0
, as described in Article 5.8.4.2)
as well as from differential movements between the rein-
forced backll and the wall facing elements.
Elements of the connection which are embedded in the
facing element shall be designed with adequate bond
length and bearing area in the concrete to resist the con-
nection forces. The capacity of the embedded connector
shall be checked by tests as required in Article 8.31. Con-
nections between steel reinforcement and the wall facing
units (e.g., welds, bolts, pins, etc.) shall be designed in ac-
cordance with Article 10.32.
Connection materials shall be designed to accommo-
date losses due to corrosion in accordance with Article
5.8.6.1.1. Potential differences between the environment
at the face relative to the environment within the rein-
forced soil mass shall be considered when assessing po-
tential corrosion losses.
5.8.7.2 Connection Strength for Geosynthetic
Reinforcements
To evaluate the long-term geosynthetic strength at the
connection with the wall facing, reduce T
ult
using the
connection/seam strength determined in accordance with
ASTM D 4884 for structural (i.e., not partial or full fric-
tion) connections. ASTM D 4884 will produce a short-
term connection strength equal to T
ult
CR
u
. (See Equa-
tion 5.8.7.2-1.) Note that ASTM D 4884 will need to be
modied to accommodate geogrid joints such as a Bodkin
joint. The portion of the connection embedded in the con-
crete facing shall be designed in accordance with Article
8.31.
For reinforcements connected to the facing through
embedment between facing elements using a partial or
full friction connection (e.g., segmental concrete block
faced walls), the capacity of the connection shall be re-
duced from T
ult
for the backll reinforcement using the
connection strength determined from laboratory tests.
(See Equation 5.8.7.2-1.) This connection strength is
based on the lessor of the pullout capacity of the connec-
tion, the long-term rupture strength of the connection and
T
al
as determined in Article 5.8.6.1.2. An appropriate lab-
oratory testing and interpretation procedure, which is a
modication of NCMATest Method SRWU-1 (Simac, et.
al., 1993), is discussed in Appendix Aof FHWAPublica-
tion No. FHWA SA-96-071 Mechanically Stabilized
TABLE 5.8.7.2A Default and Minimum Values for the Total Geosynthetic Ultimate Limit State
Strength Reduction Factor at the Facing Connection, RF
c
Application Total Reduction Factor, RF
c
All applications, but with product specic data obtained and analyzed in
accordance with FHWAPublication No. FHWASA-96-071
Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design
and Construction GuidelinesAppendix B, and FHWAPublication No.
FHWASA-96-072 Corrosion/Degradation of Soil Reinforcements for
Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes.
Permanent applications not having severe consequences should poor
is not available. If using polyester reinforcement, the pH regime at the
connection must be investigated and determined to be within the pH
requirements for a nonaggressive environment. (See Division II, Article
7.3.6.3.)
Temporary applications not having severe consequences should poor
is not available.
All reduction factors shall be based on product
specic data. RF
ID
and RF
D
shall not be less
than 1.1.
4.0
2.5
Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design and Con-
struction Guidelines.
From this test, a peak connection strength load as a func-
tion of vertical conning stress, T
ultc
or T
sc
, are obtained,
which can be used to determine CR
u
and CR
s
as follows:
(5.8.7.2-1)
(5.8.7.2-2)
where, T
ultc
is the peak load per unit reinforcement width
in the connection test at a specied conning pressure
where rupture of the reinforcement is known to be the
mode of failure, T
sc
is the peak load per unit of reinforce-
ment width in the connection test at a specied conning
pressure where pullout is known to be the mode of failure,
T
lot
is the ultimate wide width tensile strength (ASTM
D 4595) for the reinforcement material lot used for the
connection strength testing, CR
u
is a reduction factor to
account for reduced ultimate strength resulting from the
connection where rupture is the mode of failure, and CR
s
is a reduction factor to account for reduced strength due
to connection pullout.
Therefore, determine the long-term geosynthetic con-
nection strength T
ac
on a load per unit reinforcement width
basis as follows:
If the failure mode for the connection is rupture,
CR
T
T
s
sc
lot
CR
T
T
u
ultc
lot

FIGURE 5.8.7.2A Determination of Hinge Height for Segmental Concrete Block Faced MSE Walls
(5.8.7.2-3)
and,
RF
c
RF
CR
RF
D
(5.8.7.2-4)
If the failure mode for the connection is pullout,
(5.8.7.2-5)
where, FS is as dened previously and is equal to 1.5 for
permanent structures, RF
c
is a reduction factor to account
for potential long-term degradation of the reinforcement
at the wall face connection due to the environmental fac-
tors mentioned previously, and other variables are as de-
fined previously. Note that the environment at the wall
face connection may be different than the environment
away from the wall face in the wall backll. This shall be
considered when determining RF
CR
and RF
D
.
Values for RF
CR
and RF
D
shall in general be determined
from product specic test results. Guidelines for how to de-
termine RF
CR
and RF
D
from product specic data are pro-
vided in FHWA Publication No. FHWA SA-96-071 Me-
chanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil
Slopes Design and Construction GuidelinesAppendix
B, and in FHWA Publication No. FHWA SA-96-072
Corrosion/Degradation of Soil Reinforcements for Me-
chanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil
Slopes. For wall applications which are dened as not hav-
ing severe consequences should poor performance or fail-
ure occur, having nonaggressive soil conditions, and if the
geosynthetic product meets the minimum requirements
listed in Table 5.8.6.1.2A, the long-term connection
strength may be determined using a default reduction factor
for RF
c
as provided in Table 5.8.7.2Afor the ultimate limit
state in lieu of product specic test results. Note that it is
possible use of default reduction factors may be acceptable
where the reinforcement load is maximum (i.e., in the mid-
dle of the wall backll) and still not be acceptable at the fac-
ing connection if the facing environment is dened as ag-
gressive.
CR
u
and CR
s
shall be determined at the anticipated ver-
tical conning pressure at the wall face between the fac-
ing blocks. The vertical conning pressure shall be calcu-
lated using the Hinge Height Method as shown in Figure
5.8.7.2A. Note that T
ac
should not be greater than T
a
.
Geosynthetic walls are sometimes designed using a
exible reinforcement sheet as the facing using only an
overlap with the main backll reinforcement. The overlaps
shall be designed using a pullout methodology. Equation
5.8.5.2-1, but replacing T
max
with T
0
, can be used to deter-
mine the minimum overlap length required, but in no case
shall the overlap length be less than 1.0 meter (3.3 feet). If
Tan is determined experimentally based on soil to rein-
forcement contact, Tan shall be reduced by 30 % where
reinforcement to reinforcement contact is anticipated.
5.8.8 Design of Facing Elements
Facing elements shall be designed to resist the hori-
zontal forces calculated according to Articles 5.8.4.2 and
5.8.9.3. In addition to these horizontal forces, the facing
elements shall also be designed to resist potential com-
paction stresses occurring near the wall face during erec-
tion of the wall. The facing elements shall be stabilized
such that they do not deect laterally or bulge beyond the
established tolerances.
5.8.8.1 Design of Stiff or Rigid Concrete, Steel,
and Timber Facings
Facing elements shall be structurally designed in ac-
cordance with Sections 8, 10, and 13 for concrete, steel,
and timber facings, respectively.
Reinforcement for concrete panels shall be provided to
resist the average loading conditions for each panel. As a
minimum, temperature and shrinkage steel shall be pro-
vided. Epoxy coating for corrosion protection of panel re-
inforcement where salt spray is anticipated is recom-
mended.
5.8.8.2 Design of Flexible Wall Facings
If welded wire, expanded metal, or similar facing pan-
els are used, they shall be designed in a manner which pre-
vents the occurrence of excessive bulging as backll be-
hind the facing elements compresses due to compaction
stresses or self weight of the backll. This may be ac-
complished by limiting the size of individual panels ver-
tically and the vertical spacing of the soil reinforcement
layers, and by requiring the facing panels to have an ade-
quate amount of vertical slip between adjacent panels.
Furthermore, the top of the exible facing panel at the top
of the wall shall be attached to a soil reinforcement layer
to provide stability to the top facing panel.
For segmental concrete facing blocks, facing stability
calculations shall include an evaluation of the maximum
vertical spacing between reinforcement layers, the maxi-
mum allowable facing height above the uppermost rein-
forcement layer, inter-unit shear capacity, and resistance
of the facing to bulging. The maximum vertical spacing
between reinforcement layers shall be limited to twice the
width, W
u
(see Figure 5.8.7.2A), of the proposed seg-
mental concrete facing unit or 0.8 meter (31 inches),
T
T CR
FS
ac
ult s

T
T CR
FS RF
ac
ult u
c

whichever is less, and the maximum facing height above
the uppermost reinforcement layer and the maximum
depth of facing below the bottom reinforcement layer
should be limited to the width, W
u
(see Figure 5.8.7.2A),
of the proposed segmental concrete facing unit.
Geosynthetic facing elements shall not, in general, be
left exposed to sunlight (specifically ultraviolet radia-
tion) for permanent walls. If geosynthetic facing ele-
ments must be left exposed permanently to sunlight, the
geosynthetic shall be stabilized to be resistant to ultravi-
olet radiation. Furthermore, product specific test data
shall be provided which can be extrapolated to the in-
tended design life and which proves that the product will
be capable of performing as intended in an exposed
environment.
5.8.8.3 Corrosion Issues for MSE Facing Design
Steel to steel contact between the soil reinforcement
connections and the concrete facing steel reinforcement
shall be prevented so that contact between dissimilar met-
als (e.g., bare facing reinforcement steel and galvanized
soil reinforcement steel) does not occur. Steel to steel con-
tact in this case can be prevented through the placement of
a nonconductive material between the soil reinforcement
face connection and the facing concrete reinforcing steel.
5.8.9 Seismic Design
The seismic design procedures provided herein do not
directly account for the lateral deformation which may
occur during large earthquake seismic loading. It is there-
fore recommended that if the anticipated ground acceler-
ation is greater than 0.29 g, a detailed lateral deformation
analysis of the structure during seismic loading should be
performed.
5.8.9.1 External Stability
Stability computations (i.e., sliding, overturning, and
bearing capacity) shall be made by including, in addition
to static forces, the horizontal inertial force (P
IR
) acting si-
multaneously with 50% of the dynamic horizontal thrust
(P
AE
) to determine the total force applied to the wall. The
dynamic horizontal thrust P
AE
is evaluated using the
pseudo-static Mononobe-Okabe method and is applied to
the back surface of the reinforced ll at a height of 0.6H
from the base for level backll conditions. The horizontal
inertial force P
IR
is determined by multiplying the weight
of the reinforced wall mass, with dimensions of H (wall
height) and 0.5H, assuming horizontal backll conditions,
by the acceleration A
m
. P
IR
is located at the centroid of the
structure mass. These forces are illustrated in Figure
5.8.9.1A. Values of P
AE
and P
IR
for structures with hori-
zontal backll shall be determined using the following
equations:
A
m
(1.45 A)A (5.8.9.1-1)
P
AE
0.375A
m
f
H
2
(5.8.9.1-2)
P
IR
0.5A
m
f
H
2
(5.8.9.1-3)
A is defined as the ground acceleration coefficient
as determined in Division I-A, Article 3.2, in particular
Figure 3. A
m
is defined as the maximum wall accelera-
tion coefficient at the centroid of the wall mass. For
ground accelerations greater than 0.45 g, A
m
would be
calculated to be less than A. Therefore, if A> 0.45 g, set
A
m
A. The equation for P
AE
was developed assuming
a friction angle of 30. P
AE
may be adjusted for other soil
friction angles using the Mononobe-Okabe method, with
the horizontal acceleration k
h
equal to A
m
and k
v
equal
to zero.
For structures with sloping backlls, the inertial force
(P
IR
) and the dynamic horizontal thrust (P
AE
) are based
on a height H
2
near the back of the wall determined as
follows:
(5.8.9.1-4)
P
AE
shall be adjusted for sloping backlls using the
Mononobe-Okabe method, with the horizontal accelera-
tion k
h
equal to A
m
and k
v
equal to zero. A height of H
2
shall be used to calculate P
AE
in this case. P
IR
for sloping
backlls shall be calculated as follows:
P
IR
P
ir
P
is
(5.8.9.1-5)
P
ir
0.5A
m
f
H
2
H (5.8.9.1-6)
P
is
0.125A
m
f
(H
2
)
2
Tan (5.8.9.1-7)
where, P
ir
is the inertial force caused by acceleration of the
reinforced backll and P
is
is the inertial force caused by
acceleration of the sloping soil surcharge above the rein-
forced backll, with the width of mass contributing to P
IR
equal to 0.5H
2
. P
IR
acts at the combined centroid of P
ir
and
P
is
. This is illustrated in Figure 5.8.9.1A.
Factors of safety against sliding, overturning, and bear-
ing capacity failure under seismic loading may be reduced
to 75% of the factors of safety dened in Articles 5.8.2
and 5.8.3. The factor of safety for overall stability may be
reduced to 1.1. (See Article 5.2.2.3.)
H H
Tan H
Tan
2
0 5
1 0 5
+

( )
.
.
FIGURE 5.8.9.1A Seismic External Stability of a MSE Wall
5.8.9.2 Internal Stability
Reinforcements shall be designed to withstand hori-
zontal forces generated by the internal inertial force (P
1
)
in addition to the static forces. The total inertial force P
1
per unit width of structure shall be considered equal to
the weight of the active zone times the maximum wall
acceleration coefficient A
m
. This inertial force is distrib-
uted to the reinforcements proportionally to their resis-
tant areas on a load per unit of wall width basis as
follows:
(5.8.9.2-1)
As shown in Figure 5.8.9.2A, the total load applied to
the reinforcement on a load per unit of wall width basis is
as follows:
T
total
T
max
T
md
(5.8.9.2-2)
where, T
max
is determined using Equation 5.8.4.1-3.
T P
L
L
md i
ei
ei
i
N
( )
1
FIGURE 5.8.9.2A Seismic Internal Stability of a MSE Wall
For seismic loading conditions, the value of F*, the
pullout resistance factor, shall be reduced to 80% of the
values used for static design. Factors of safety under com-
bined static and seismic loads for pullout and breakage of
reinforcement may be reduced to 75% of the factors of
safety used for static loading.
For geosynthetic reinforcement rupture, the reinforce-
ment must be designed to resist the static and dynamic
components of the load as follows:
For the static component,
(5.8.9.2-3)
For the dynamic component,
(5.8.9.2-4)
Therefore, the ultimate strength of the geosynthetic re-
inforcement required is,
T
ult
S
rs
S
rt
(5.8.9.2-5)
For reinforcement pullout,
(5.8.9.2-6)
where, all variables are as dened in Article 5.8.5.2.
5.8.9.3 Facing/Soil Reinforcement Connection
Design for Seismic Loads
Facing elements shall be designed to resist the seismic
loads determined in accordance with Article 5.8.9.2 (i.e.,
T
total
).
Allowable stresses used for the design of the wall fac-
ing are permitted to increase by 50% for steel, 33% for
concrete, and 50% for timber components of the facing.
Facing elements shall be designed in accordance with Di-
vision I-A.
For segmental concrete block facing walls, the blocks
located above the uppermost backll reinforcement layer
shall be designed to resist toppling failure during seismic
loading.
For geosynthetic connections, the long-term connection
strength must be greater than T
max
T
md
. Where the long-
term connection strength is partially or fully dependent on
friction between the facing blocks and the reinforcement,
and connection pullout is the controlling failure mode, the
long-term connection strength to resist seismic loads shall
be reduced to 80% of its static value.
If the seismic performance category is C or higher
(see Section 3, Division I-A), facing connections in seg-
mental block faced walls shall not be fully dependent on
frictional resistance between the backll reinforcement
and facing blocks. Shear resisting devices between the
facing blocks and backll reinforcement such as shear
keys, pins, etc. shall be used.
For steel reinforcement connections, safety factors for
combined static and seismic loads may be reduced to 75%
of the safety factors used for static loading. Based on these
safety factors, the available connection strength must be
greater than T
total
.
For the static component,
(5.8.9.3-1)
For the dynamic component,
(5.8.9.3-2)
The reinforcement strength required for the static com-
ponent, S
rs
, must be added to the reinforcement strength
required for the dynamic component, S
rt
, to determine the
total ultimate strength required for the reinforcement, T
ult
.
5.8.10 Determination of Lateral Wall
Displacements
Lateral wall displacements are a function of overall
structure stiffness, compaction intensity, soil type, rein-
forcement length, slack in reinforcement-to-facing con-
nections, and deformability of the facing system. A rst
order estimate of lateral wall displacements occurring
during wall construction for simple MSE walls on rm
foundations can be determined from Figure 5.8.10A. If
signicant vertical settlement is anticipated or heavy sur-
charges are present, lateral displacements could be con-
siderably greater. Appropriate uses of this gure are as a
guide to establish an appropriate wall face batter to obtain
a near vertical wall or to determine minimum clearances
between the wall face and adjacent objects or structures.
5.8.11 Drainage
MSE walls in cut areas and side-hill lls with estab-
lished ground water levels should be constructed with
drainage blankets in back of and beneath the reinforced
zone. Internal drainage measures should be considered for
all structures to prevent saturation of the reinforced back-
ll or to intercept any surface ows containing aggressive
elements such as deicing chemicals.
T
S CR
FS RF
S CR
FS
md
rt u
D
rt
_
,
0 8
1
.
T
S CR
FS RF
S CR
FS
rs u
c
rs
max
.

_
,
0 8
1
L
FS T
F C R
e
PO total
v c

0 8 . *
T
S R
FS RF RF
md
rt c
ID D

T
S R
FS RF
rs c
max


For MSE walls utilizing metallic backll reinforce-
ments supporting roadways which are chemically deiced
in the winter, an impervious membrane should be placed
below the pavement and just above the rst row of rein-
forcements to intercept any ows containing deicing
chemicals. The membrane should be sloped to drain away
from the facing to an intercepting longitudinal drain out-
letted beyond the reinforced zone. Typically, a minimum
membrane thickness of 0.8 mm (30 mils) should be used.
All seams in the membrane shall be welded to prevent
leakage.
5.8.12 Special Loading Conditions
5.8.12.1 Concentrated Dead Loads
Concentrated dead loads shall be incorporated into
the internal and external stability design by using a sim-
plified uniform vertical distribution of 2 vertical to 1
horizontal to determine the vertical component of stress
with depth within the reinforced soil mass as shown in
Figure 5.8.12.1A. Figure 5.8.12.1B shows how concen-
trated horizontal dead loads are distributed within and
FIGURE 5.8.10A Empirical Curve for Estimating Anticipated Lateral Displacement During Construction for MSE Walls
FIGURE 5.8.12.1A Distribution of Stress from Concentrated Vertical Load P
v
for Internal
and External Stability Calculations
behind the reinforced soil mass. Concentrated horizon-
tal loads at the top of the wall shall also be distributed
within the reinforced soil mass as shown in this figure.
Figure 5.8.12.1C shows how these loads can be com-
bined using superposition principles to evaluate external
and internal wall stability. Depending on the size and lo-
cation of the concentrated dead load, the location of the
boundary between the active and resistant zones may
need to be adjusted. Figure 5.8.12.1D illustrates how this
adjustment should be made. When dead load surcharges
above or within the reinforced soil zone are present, the
reinforcement connections to the wall face shall be de-
signed for 100% of T
max
(or T
total
for seismic loads)
throughout the height of the wall.
If concentrated dead loads are located behind the rein-
forced soil mass, they shall be distributed in the same way
as would be done within the reinforced soil mass. The ver-
tical stress distributed behind the reinforced zone in this
way shall be multiplied by K
af
to determine the effect this
surcharge load has on external stability. The concentrated
FIGURE 5.8.12.1B Distribution of Stress from Concentrated Horizontal Loads
FIGURE 5.8.12.1C Superposition of Concentrated Dead Loads for External Stability Evaluation
horizontal stress distributed behind the wall can be taken
into account directly.
5.8.12.2 Traffic Loads and Barriers
Traffic loads shall be treated as uniform surcharge loads
in accordance with the criteria outlined in Article 3.20.3.
The live load surcharge pressure shall be equal to not less
than 0.6 meter (2 feet) of earth. Parapets and traffic barri-
ers, constructed over or in line with the front face of the wall
shall be designed to resist overturning moments by their
own mass. Base slabs shall not have any transverse joints
except construction joints, and adjacent slabs shall be
joined by shear dowels. The upper row(s) of soil reinforce-
ment shall have sufficient tensile capacity to resist a con-
centrated horizontal load of 45 kN (10 kips) distributed
over a barrier length of 1.5 meters (5 feet). This force dis-
tribution accommodates the local peaking of force in the
soil reinforcements in the vicinity of the concentrated load.
This distributed force would be equal to P
H1
in Figure
5.8.12.1B, and would be distributed to the reinforcements
assuming b
f
equal to the width of the base slab. Adequate
room shall be provided laterally between the back of the
facing panels and the traffic barrier/slab to allow the traffic
barrier and slab to resist the impact load in sliding and over-
turning without directly transmitting load to the top facing
units.
For checking pullout safety of the reinforcements, the
lateral traffic impact load shall be distributed to the upper
soil reinforcement and facing units using Figure
5.8.12.1B, assuming b
f
equal to the width of the base
slab. The full length of reinforcements shall be consid-
ered effective in resisting pullout due to impact load. The
upper row(s) of soil reinforcement shall have sufficient
pullout capacity to resist a horizontal load of 45 kN (10
kips) distributed over the full 6 meters (20 feet) base slab
length. The force distribution for pullout computations is
different than what is used for tensile capacity computa-
tions because the entire base slab must move laterally to
initiate a pullout failure due to the relatively large defor-
mation required, This distributed force would be equal to
P
H1
in Figure 5.8.12.1B.
Due to the transient nature of traffic barrier impact
loads, when designing for reinforcement rupture, the
geosynthetic reinforcement must be designed to resist the
static and transient (impact) components of the load as
follows:
For the static component, see equation 5.8.9.2-3.
FIGURE 5.8.12.1D Location of Maximum Tensile Force Line in Case of Large Surcharge Slabs
(Inextensible Reinforcements)
For the transient component,
(5.8.12.2-1)
where
h
is the traffic barrier impact stress applied
over the reinforcement tributary area as determined in
Article 5.8.12.1.
The reinforcement strength required for the static
component, S
rs
, must be added to the reinforcement
strength required for the transient component, S
rt
, to de-
termine the total ultimate strength required for the re-
inforcement, T
ult
.
Parapet reinforcement shall be in accordance with Ar-
ticle 2.7. The anchoring slab shall be strong enough to re-
sist the ultimate strength of the standard parapet.
Flexible post and beam barriers, when used, shall be
placed at a minimum distance of 1.0 meter (3.3 feet) from
the wall face, driven 1.5 meters (5 feet) below grade, and
spaced to miss the reinforcements where possible. If the
reinforcements cannot be missed, the wall shall be de-
signed accounting for the presence of an obstruction as
described in Article 5.8.12.4. The upper two rows of rein-
forcement shall be designed for an additional horizontal
load of 4,400 N per linear meter of wall (300 pounds per
linear foot of wall).
5.8.12.3 Hydrostatic Pressures
For structures along rivers and canals, a minimum dif-
ferential hydrostatic pressure equal to 1.0 meter (3.3 feet)
of water shall be considered for design. This load shall be
applied at the high-water level. Effective unit weights
shall be used in the calculations for internal and external
stability beginning at levels just below the equivalent sur-
face of the pressure head line.
Situations where the wall is inuenced by tide or river
uctuations may require that the wall be designed for
rapid drawdown conditions, which could result in differ-
ential hydrostatic pressure considerably greater than 1.0
meter (3.3 feet), or alternatively rapidly draining backll
material such as shot rock or open graded coarse gravel be
used as backll. Backll material meeting the gradation
h v
rt c
ID D
S
S R
FS RF RF

FIGURE 5.8.12.4A Structural Connection of Soil Reinforcement Around Backll Obstructions
requirements in Article 7.3.6.3 of Division II is not con-
sidered to be rapid draining.
5.8.12.4 Design for Presence of Obstructions in
the Reinforced Soil Zone
If the placement of an obstruction in the wall soil rein-
forcement zone such as a catch basin, grate inlet, signal or
sign foundation, guardrail post, or culvert cannot be
avoided, the design of the wall near the obstruction shall
be modied using one of the following alternatives:
(1) Assuming reinforcement layers must be partially
or fully severed in the location of the obstruction, de-
sign the surrounding reinforcement layers to carry the
additional load which would have been carried by the
severed reinforcements.
(2) Place a structural frame around the obstruction
which is capable of carrying the load from the rein-
forcements in front of the obstruction to reinforce-
ments connected to the structural frame behind the ob-
struction. This is conceptually illustrated in Figure
5.8.12.4A.
(3) If the soil reinforcements consist of discrete strips
or bar mats rather than continuous sheets, depending on
the size and location of the obstruction, it may be pos-
sible to splay the reinforcements around the obstruction.
For the rst alternative, the portion of the wall facing
in front of the obstruction shall be made stable against a
toppling (overturning) or sliding failure. If this cannot be
accomplished, the soil reinforcements between the ob-
struction and the wall face can be structurally connected
to the obstruction such that the wall face does not topple,
or the facing elements can be structurally connected to ad-
jacent facing elements to prevent this type of failure.
For the second alternative, the frame and connections
shall be designed in accordance with Article 10.32 for steel
frames. Note that it may be feasible to connect the soil re-
inforcement directly to the obstruction depending on the
reinforcement type and the nature of the obstruction.
For the third alternative, the splay angle, measured
from a line perpendicular to the wall face, shall be small
enough that the splaying does not generate moment in the
reinforcement or the connection of the reinforcement to
the wall face. The tensile capacity of the splayed re-
inforcement shall be reduced by the cosine of the splay
angle.
If the obstruction must penetrate through the face of
the wall, the wall facing elements shall be designed to
fit around the obstruction such that the facing elements
are stable (i.e., point loads should be avoided) and such
that wall backfill soil cannot spill through the wall
face where it joins the obstruction. To this end, a collar
next to the wall face around the obstruction may be
needed.
If driven piles must be placed through the reinforced
zone, the recommendations provided in Section 7 of
Division I shall be followed.
5.9 PREFABRICATED MODULAR
WALL DESIGN
5.9.1 Structure Dimensions
Prefabricated modular walls shall be dimensioned
to ensure that the applicable factors of safety outlined in
Article 5.5.5 are satised.
Minimum embedment and scour protection shall sat-
isfy the requirements of Article 5.8.1.
5.9.2 External Stability
Stability computations shall be made by assuming that
the system acts as a rigid body.
Lateral pressures shall be computed by wedge theory
using a plane surface of sliding (Coulomb theory). Where
the rear of the prefabricated modular systems forms an ir-
regular surface (stepped modules), pressures shall be
computed on an average plane surface drawn from the
lower back heel of the lowest module to the upper rear
heel of the top module, as shown in Figures 5.9.2A and
5.9.2B.
The following wall friction angles, , shall be used un-
less more exact coefficients are demonstrated:
Computations for stability shall be made at every mod-
ule level. At each level, the required factors of safety with
respect to overturning shall be provided. The value of
K
a
used to compute the lateral thrust resulting from the
random backll and other loads shall be computed on
the basis of the friction angle of the backll behind the
modules.
If sufficient amounts of structural backll are used be-
hind the prefabricated modules, a value of 34 may be
used for . In the absence of specic data, a maximum
friction angle of 30 shall be used. The coefficient of slid-
ing friction at the wall base shall be the lesser of the coef-
cients of the backll or the foundation soil. Passive pres-
sures shall be neglected in stability computations.
Computations for overturning stability shall consider
that only 80% of the soil-ll unit weight inside the mod-
ules is effective in resisting overturning moments. In the
absence of specic data, a total unit weight of 110 pounds
per cubic foot shall be assumed.
Computations for sliding stability may consider that
100% of the soil-fill weight inside the modules is
effective in resisting sliding motion. The value of
of the foundation soils shall be used in these computa-
tions.
For structures loaded with sloping surcharges, refer to
Article 5.2.2.3 regarding overall stability analysis of
slopes.
FIGURE 5.9.2A Lateral Earth Pressures for Prefabricated Modular Walls
Case IContinuous Pressure Surfaces
5.9.3 Bearing Capacity and Foundation Stability
Allowable bearing capacities for concrete modular
systems shall be computed using a minimum factor of
safety of 3 for Group I loading applied to the ultimate
bearing capacity or to a bearing capacity obtained in ac-
cordance with Articles 4.4.7 and 4.4.8.
Footing loads shall be computed by assuming that dead
loads and earth pressure loads are resisted by point sup-
ports per unit length, at the rear and front of the modules
or at the location of the bottom legs.
For modules supported on integrally cast legs, the re-
actions shall be similarly calculated.
For this computation, a minimum of 80% of the soil
weight inside the modules shall be considered effective. If
foundation conditions require a footing under the total
area of the module, 100% of the soil weight inside the
modules shall be considered.
FIGURE 5.9.2B Lateral Earth Pressures for Prefabricated Modular Walls
Case IIIrregular Pressure Surfaces
The overall slope stability condition, of which the re-
taining wall may only be part, shall be evaluated in ac-
cordance with Article 5.2.2.3.
5.9.4 Allowable Stresses
Prefabricated modular units shall be designed for de-
veloped earth pressures behind the wall and from pres-
sures developed inside the modules. Rear face surfaces
shall be designed for the difference of these pressures. Al-
lowable stresses and reinforcement requirements for con-
crete modules shall be in accordance with Section 8.
Inside pressures (bin) shall be the same for each mod-
ule and shall not be less than as follows:
P
i
b (5.9.4-1)
Concrete modules shall be designed for bending in
both vertical and horizontal directions between their sup-
ports. Steel reinforcing shall be symmetrical on both faces
unless positive identication of each face can be ensured
to preclude reversal of units. Corners shall be adequately
reinforced.
Allowable stresses for steel module members shall
be in accordance with Article 10.32. The net section used
for design shall be reduced in accordance with Article
5.8.6.1.
5.9.5 Drainage
Prefabricated modular units in cut and side-hill ll
areas shall be designed with a continuous subsurface drain
placed at, or near, the footing grade and out-letted as re-
quired. In cut and side-hill ll areas with established or
potential ground water levels above the footing grade, a
continuous drainage blanket shall be provided and con-
nected to the longitudinal drain system.
For systems with open front faces, a surface drainage
system shall be provided as needed above the top of the
wall to collect and divert surface runoff and prevent ero-
sion of the front face.
Part C
STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
5.10 SCOPE
The provisions of this Part shall apply for the design of
rigid gravity and semi-rigid gravity walls, and nongravity
cantilevered walls.
The probabilistic LFD basis of these specications
which produces an inter-related combination of load, load
factor, and statistical reliability shall be considered when
selecting procedures for calculating resistance. The pro-
cedures used in developing values of performance factors
contained in this Part are summarized in Appendix A of
the Final Report for NCHRP Project 24-4 (Barker, et al.,
1991). Other methods may be used if the statistical nature
of the factors given above are considered, and are ap-
proved by the owner.
5.11 DEFINITIONS
Only terms relating to retaining walls are provided in
this Section. Denitions for terms relating to foundation
types and LFD design are given in Article 4.8.
Cantilever WallsWalls that resist the forces exerted
on them by exural strength. These walls consist of a con-
crete wall stem, a concrete slab, and possibly a shear key.
Gravity WallsMassive stone or concrete masonry
walls which depend primarily on their weights to maintain
stability. Only a nominal amount of steel is placed near the
exposed faces of these walls to prevent surface cracking
due to temperature changes.
Retaining WallsStructures that provide lateral sup-
port for a mass of soil and that owe their stability primar-
ily to their own weights and to the weights of any soils lo-
cated directly above their base.
Semi-gravity WallsThese walls are somewhat more
slender than gravity walls and require reinforcement con-
sisting of vertical bars along the inner face and dowels
continuing into the footing.
5.12 NOTATIONS
F
r
sliding resistance
H height of retaining wall
H
f
factored horizontal load
K coefficient of earth pressure
K
o
coefficient of earth pressure at rest
N factored bearing pressure resultant
P lateral earth pressure
P
a
active earth load
P
h
lateral earth load
P
v
vertical earth load
q
f
factored bearing capacity
q
max
maximum bearing pressure calculated using fac-
tored loads
q
s
surcharge loading
q
ult
R
I
reduction factor due to load inclination effect
R
n
nominal resistance
V
f
factored vertical load
y distance to the point of action for lateral earth
pressure
Greek
load factor coefficient (see Article 5.13.4)
E
load factor coefficient for earth pressure
load factor (See Article 5.13.4)
eq equivalent uid pressure
angle of shearing resistance between wall and soil
wall displacement
performance factor
5.13 LIMIT STATES, LOAD FACTORS AND
RESISTANCE FACTORS
All relevant limit states shall be considered in the design
to ensure an adequate degree of safety and serviceability.
5.13.1 Serviceability Limit States
Design of rigid gravity and semi-gravity walls, and
nongravity cantilever walls shall consider the following
serviceability limit states:
excessive movements of retaining walls and their
foundations,
excessive vibrations caused by dynamic loadings, and
deterioration of element(s) of retaining structures.
The limit state for settlement shall be based upon ride-
ability and economy. The cost of limiting foundation
movements shall be compared to the cost of designing the
superstructure so that it can tolerate larger movements, or
of correcting the consequences of movements through
maintenance, to determine minimum lifetime cost. More
stringent criteria may be established by the owner.
5.13.2 Strength Limit States
Design of rigid gravity and semi-gravity walls, and
nongravity cantilever walls shall be checked against the
strength limit states of:
bearing capacity failure,
lateral sliding,
excessive loss of base contact,
overall instability, and
structural failure.
The limit state which governs the design depends on:
type and function of retaining structure,
earth pressures exerted on the wall by the retained
backll,
geometry of the ground and the structure,
strength of the ground,
ground deformability,
groundwater, and
swelling pressure in clay backlls.
5.13.3 Strength Requirement
Retaining walls and their foundations shall be propor-
tioned by the methods specied in Article 5.14 so that
their design strength exceeds the required strength.
The required strength is the combined effect of fac-
tored loads for each applicable load combination stipu-
lated in Article 3.22. The design strength is calculated for
each applicable limit state as the nominal resistance, R
n
,
multiplied by an appropriate performance (or resistance)
factor, . Procedures for calculating nominal resistance
are provided in Article 5.1, and values of performance fac-
tors are given in Article 5.13.5.
5.13.4 Load Combinations and Load Factors
Retaining structures and their foundations shall be pro-
portioned to withstand safely all load combinations stipu-
lated in Article 3.22 which are applicable to the particular
site or wall/foundation type. Impact forces shall not be in-
cluded in retaining wall design. (Refer to Article 3.8.)
Values of and coefficients for load factor design, as
given in Table 3.22.1A, shall apply to strength limit state
considerations; while those for service load design (also
given in Table 3.22.1A) shall apply to serviceability con-
siderations.
5.13.5 Performance Factors
Values of performance factors for geotechnical design
of foundations are given in Tables 4.10.6-1 through
4.10.6-3, while those for structural design are provided in
Article 8.16.1.2.2.
If methods other than those given in Tables 4.10.6-1
through 4.10.6-3 are used to estimate the soil capacity, the
performance factors chosen shall provide the same relia-
bility as those given in Tables 4.10.6-1 through 4.10.6-3.
5.14 GRAVITY AND SEMI-GRAVITY WALL
DESIGN, AND CANTILEVER
WALL DESIGN
5.14.1 Earth Pressure Due to Backll
The provisions of Articles 5.5.2 and 5.6.2 shall also
apply to the load factor design of rigid gravity and semi-
gravity walls, and nongravity cantilevered walls respec-
tively; with the exception that the loads shall be factored
according to the bottom half of Table 3.22.1A when
checking wall stability against bearing capacity, sliding
and overturning. Vertical earth pressure due to the dead
load of the backll shall have an overall load factor,
E
,
of 1.0.
Lateral earth pressures on walls backlled with cohe-
sionless soils shall be designed using effective stresses.
Walls backlled with cohesive soils shall be designed
using equivalent uid pressures. The backll, whether co-
hesionless or cohesive, shall be well drained, so that no
water pressures act on the wall, and no signicant pore
pressures act in the backll. The load factor for lateral
earth pressures calculated using equivalent uid pressures
shall be the same as those calculated using effective
stresses (
E
1.3).
The and
E
coefficients specied for earth pressure
in Table 3.22.1Aare applicable directly to active or at rest
earth pressures. The resistance due to passive earth pres-
sure in front of the wall shall be neglected unless the wall
extends well below the depth of frost penetration, scour or
other types of disturbance. Where passive pressure is as-
sumed to provide resistance, the performance factor ()
shall be taken as 0.6.
5.14.2 Earth Pressure Due to Surcharge
In the design of retaining walls and abutments where
traffic can come within a horizontal distance from the top
of the wall equal to one-half the wall height, the lateral
earth pressure shall be increased by a live load surcharge
pressure equal to not less than 2 feet of earth (Article
3.20.3). Impact loads shall not be included in the design
of abutments (Article 3.8.1). Vertical earth pressure in-
duced by live load surcharge and dead load surcharge
shall have overall load factors of 1.67 and 1.3, respec-
tively. Lateral earth pressure induced by live load
and dead load surcharge shall have an overall load factor
of 1.3.
Where heavy static and dynamic compaction equip-
ment is used within a distance of one-half the wall height
behind the wall, the effect of additional earth pressure that
may be induced by compaction shall be taken into ac-
count. The load factor for compaction-induced earth pres-
sures shall be the same as for lateral earth pressures
(
E
1.3).
The provisions of Articles 5.5.3 and 5.6.3 shall
also apply to the load factor design of rigid gravity and
semi-gravity walls, and nongravity cantilevered walls,
respectively.
The backll, whether cohesive or cohesionless, shall
be well drained so that no water pressures act on the wall
and no signicant pore pressures act in the backll. If a
thorough drainage system is not provided to dewater the
failure wedge, or if its adequate performance cannot be
guaranteed, walls shall be designed to resist the maximum
anticipated water pressure. For walls backlled with co-
hesionless soils, the lateral earth pressure shall be calcu-
lated using buoyant unit weights below the groundwater
level and multiplied by the load factor for lateral earth
pressure. The wall shall be designed for these factored lat-
eral earth pressures (
E
) plus factored hydrostatic water
pressure (1.0).
In the case of an undrained analysis of cohesive back-
lls, the lateral earth pressure shall be calculated using
equivalent uid pressure, which inherently includes water
pressure effects. The calculated lateral earth pressure shall
then be multiplied by 1.3.
If the groundwater levels differ on opposite sides of the
wall, the effects of seepage on wall stability and the po-
tential for piping shall be considered. Pore pressures be-
hind the wall can be determined by ow net procedures or
various analytical methods, and shall be added to the ef-
fective horizontal stresses when calculating total lateral
earth pressures on the wall. The effective lateral earth
pressure shall be multiplied by
E
(obtained from Table
3.22.1A) and the hydrostatic pressure shall be factored by
1.0, when designing the wall.
The provisions of Article 5.6.4 shall apply to the load
factor design of walls when considering earthquakes
loads.
5.14.5 Movement Under Serviceability Limit States
The movement of wall foundation support systems
shall be estimated using procedures described in Article
4.11.3, 4.12.3.2.2, or 4.13.3.2.2, for walls supported on
spread footings, driven piles, or drilled shafts, respec-
tively. Such methods are based on soil and rock parame-
ters measured directly or inferred from the results of in
situ and/or laboratory tests.
Tolerable movement criteria for retaining walls shall
be developed based on the function and type of wall, an-
ticipated service life, and consequence of unacceptable
movements. Tolerable movement criteria shall be estab-
lished in accordance with Articles 4.11.3.5, 4.12.3.2.3,
and 4.13.3.2.3.
5.14.6 Safety Against Soil Failure
Gravity and semi-gravity walls, and cantilever walls
shall be dimensioned to ensure stability against bearing ca-
pacity failure, overturning, and sliding. Where a wall is
supported by clayey foundation, safety against deep-seated
foundation failure shall also be investigated. Stability cri-
teria for walls with respect to various modes of failure shall
be as shown in Figures 5.14.6-1 through 5.14.6-3.
5.14.6.1 Bearing Capacity Failure
The safety against bearing capacity failure shall be
investigated: (1) by using factored soil pressures which
are uniformly distributed over the effective base area, if
the wall is supported by a soil foundation (see Figures
5.14.6-1 and 5.14.6-2); or (2) by using factored soil
pressures which vary linearly over the effective base area,
if the wall is supported by a rock foundation (see Figure
5.14.6-3).
Retaining walls and their foundations are considered to
be adequate against bearing capacity failure if the factored
bearing capacity (taking into consideration the effect of
load inclination) exceeds the maximum soil pressure
(q
max
) determined using factored loads. Methods for
calculating factored bearing capacity are provided in Ar-
ticle 4.11.4 for walls founded on spread footings, and in
Articles 4.12.3.3 and 4.13.3.3 for walls supported on dri-
ven piles or drilled shafts, respectively.
5.14.6.2 Sliding
Where the retaining wall is founded on a spread foot-
ing, safety against sliding shall be investigated using the
procedures specied in Article 4.11.4.3.
5.14.6.3 Overturning
The safety against overturning shall be ensured by lim-
iting the location of the factored bearing pressure resultant
(N) on the wall base. For walls supported by soil founda-
tions, location of the factored bearing pressure resultant
on the base of the wall foundation shall be within the mid-
dle half of the base. For walls supported by rock founda-
tions, location of the factored bearing pressure resultant
on the base of the wall foundation shall be within the mid-
dle three-quarters of the base.
5.14.6.4 Overall Stability (Revised Article
5.2.2.3)
The overall stability of slopes in the vicinity of walls
shall be considered.
The overall stability of the retaining wall, retained
slope, and foundation soil or rock shall be evaluated for
FIGURE 5.14.6-1 Earth Loads and Stability Criteria for Walls with Clayey Soils
in the Backll or Foundation (After Duncan et al., 1990)
FIGURE 5.14.6-3 Earth Loads and Stability Criteria for Walls with Granular Backlls
and Foundations on Rock (After Duncan et al., 1990)
FIGURE 5.14.6-2 Earth Loads and Stability Criteria for Walls with Granular Backlls
and Foundations on Sand or Gravel (After Duncan et al., 1990)
all walls using limiting equilibrium methods of analysis.
The Modied Bishop, simplied Janbu or Spence meth-
ods of analysis may be used. Special exploration, testing
and analyses may be required for bridge abutments or re-
taining walls constructed over soft deposits where con-
solidation and/or lateral ow of the soft soil could result
in unacceptable long-term settlements or horizontal
movements.
5.14.7 Safety Against Structural Failure
The structural design of individual wall elements and
wall foundations shall comply to the requirements given
in Section 8.
In the structural design of a footing on soil and rock at
ultimate limit states, a linear contact pressure distribution
determined using factored loads, as shown in Figure
5.14.7-1, shall be considered. The maximum pressure for
structural design may be greater than the factored bearing
capacity.
5.14.7.1 Base of Footing Slabs
See Article 5.5.6.1.
5.14.7.2 Wall Stems
5.14.7.3 Counterforts and Buttresses
5.14.7.5 Expansion and Contraction Joints
5.14.8 Backll
Where possible, the backll material behind all
retaining walls shall be free draining, nonexpansive,
noncorrosive and shall be drained by weep-holes and
french drains placed at suitable intervals and eleva-
tions. In counterfort walls, there shall be at least one
drain for each pocket formed by the counterforts.
Silts and clays shall, if possible, be avoided for use as
backll.
FIGURE 5.14.7-1 Contact Pressure Distribution
for Structural Design of Footings on Soil and Rock
at Strength Limit States

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Standard Specications

for Highway Bridges

Coefficient of secondary compression de-

Inuence coefficient to account for rigidity

Reduction factor (dim); (See Article

) in the B direction, the maxi-

1 0.4 (B/L) (4.4.7.1.1.2-3)

[1 P/(Q BLc cot)]

[(2 B/L)/(1 B/L)]sin

4.4.11.1.1 DIVISION IDESIGN 67

applied over the cross-sectional area of the steel

inuence coefficient (see Figure

inuence coefficient for settlement of drilled

0.3H, continuous vertical elements extending well

5.8.5.2 DIVISION IDESIGN 149

156 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 5.8.6.1.2

5.8.7.2 DIVISION IDESIGN 159

160 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 5.8.7.2

164 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 5.8.9.2

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