UNIT I Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems: Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications, Examples of Wireless Communication Systems.

Modern Wireless

Communication Systems : Second Generation (2G) Cellular Networks, Third Generation (3G) Wireless Networks, Wireless local Loop, Wireless Local Area Networks. The Cellular Concept: Introduction, Frequency Reuse, Channel Assignment Strategies, Handoff Strategies, Interference and Systems Capacity, Trunking and Grade of Service, Improving Coverage & Capacity in Cellular Systems.

Summary
In this chapter, the fundamental concepts of handoff, frequency reuse, trunking efficiency, and frequency planning have been presented. Handoffs are required to pass mobile traffic from cell to cell, and there are various ways handoffs are implemented. The capacity of a cellular system is a function of many variables. The S/I limits the frequency reuse factor of a system, which limits the number of channels within the coverage area. The trunking efficiency limits the number of users that can access a trunked radio system. Trunking is affected by the number of available channels and how they are partitioned in a trunked cellular system. Trunking efficiency is quantified by the GOS. Finally, cell splitting, sectoring, and the zone microcell technique are all shown to improve capacity by increasing S/I in some fashion. The overriding objective in all of these methods is to increase the number of users within the system. The radio propagation characteristics influence the effectiveness of all of these methods in an actual system. Radio propagation is the subject of the following two chapters.

Concepts:
Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems The ability to communicate with people on the move has evolved remarkably since Guglielmo Marconi first demonstrated radio's ability to provide continuous contact with ships sailing the English channel. That was in 1897, and since then new wireless communications methods and services have been enthusiastically adopted by people throughout the world. Particularly during the past ten years, the mobile radio communications industry has grown by orders of magnitude,

fueled by digital and RF circuit fabrication improvements, new large-scale circuit integration, and other miniaturization technologies which make portable radio equipment smaller, cheaper, and more reliable. Digital switching techniques have facilitated the large scale deployment of affordable, easy-to-use radio communication networks. These trends will continue at an even greater pace during the next decade. Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications A brief history of the evolution of mobile communications throughout the world is useful in order to appreciate the enormous impact that cellular radio and personal communication services (PCS) will have on all of us over the next several decades. It is also useful for a newcomer to the cellular radio field to understand the tremendous impact that government regulatory agencies and service competitors wield in the evolution of new wireless systems, services, and technologies. While it is not the intent of this text to deal with the techno-political aspects of cellular radio and personal communications, techno-politics are fundamental driver in the evolution of new technology and services, since radio spectrum usage is controlled by governments, not by service providers, equipment manufacturers, entrepreneurs, or researchers. Progressive involvement in technology development is vital for a government if it hopes to keep its own country competitive in the rapidly changing field of wireless personal communications. Examples Of Wireless Communication Systems:
1. Paging systems

Paging systems are communication systems that send brief messages to a subscriber. Depending on the type of service, the message may be either a numeric message, an alphanumeric message, or a voice message. Paging systems are typically used to notify a subscriber of the need to call a particular telephone number or travel to a known location to receive further instructions. In modern paging systems, news headlines, stock quotations, and faxes may be sent. A message is sent to a paging subscriber via the paging system access number (usually a toll-free telephone number) with a telephone keypad or modem. The issued message is called a page. The paging system then transmits the page throughout the service area using base stations which broadcast the page on a radio carrier.

2. Cordless telephone systems( 2nd Generation)

Cordless telephone systems are full duplex communication systems that use radio to connect a portable handset to a dedicated base station, which is then connected to a dedicated telephone line with a specific telephone number on the public switched telephone network (PSTN). In first generation cordless telephone systems (manufactured in the 1980s), the portable unit communicates only to the dedicated base unit and only over distances of a few tens of meters. Early cordless telephones operate solely as extension telephones to a transceiver connected to a subscriber line on the PSTN and are primarily for in-home use. Second generation cordless telephones have recently been introduced which allow subscribers to use their handsets at many outdoor locations within urban centers such as London or Hong Kong. Modem cordless telephones are sometimes combined with paging receivers so that a subscriber may first be paged and then respond to the page using the cordless telephone. Cordless telephone systems provide the user with limited range and mobility, as it is usually not possible to maintain a call if the user travels outside the range of the base station. Typical second generation base stations provide coverage ranges up to a few hundred meters. Figure 1.4 illustrates a cordless telephone system.

A cellular telephone system provides a wireless connection to the PSTN for any user location within the radio range of the system. Cellular systems accommodate a large number of users over a large geographic area, within a limited frequency spectrum. Cellular radio systems provide high quality service that is often comparable to that of the landline telephone systems. High capacity is achieved by limiting the coverage of each base station transmitter to a small geographic area called a cell so that the same radio channels may be reused by another base station located some distance away. A sophisticated switching technique called a handoff enables a call to proceed uninterrupted when the user moves from one cell to another. Figure 1.5 shows a basic cellular system which consists of mobile stations, base stations and a mobile switching center (MSC). The Mobile Switching Center is sometimes called a mobile telephone switching office (MTSO), since it is responsible for connecting all mobiles to the PSTN in a cellular system. Each mobile communicates via radio with one of the base stations and may be handedoff to any number of base stations throughout the duration of a call. The mobile station contains a transceiver, an antenna, and control circuitry, and may be mounted in a vehicle or used as a portable hand-held unit, The base stations consist of several transmitters and receivers which simultaneously handle full duplex communications and generally have towers which support several transmitting and receiving antennas. The base station serves as a bridge between all mobile users in the cell and connects the simultaneous mobile calls via telephone lines or microwave links to the MSC. The MSC coordinates the activities of all of the base stations and connects the entire cellular system to the PSTN. A typical MSC handles 100,000 cellular subscribers arid 5,000 simultaneous conversations at a time, and accommodates all billing and system maintenance functions, as well. In large cities, several MSCs are used by a single carrier. Communication between the base station and the mobiles is defined by a standard common air

interface (CM) that specifies four different channels. The channels used for voice transmission from the base station to mobiles are calledforward voice channels (PVC) and the channels used for voice transmission from mobiles to the base station are called reverse voice channels (RVC). The two channels responsible for initiating mobile calls are the forward control channels (FCC) and reverse control channels (RCC). Control channels are often called setup channels because they are only involved in setting up a call and moving it to an unused voice channel. Control channels transmit and receive data messages that carry call initiation and service requests, and are monitored by mobiles when they do not have a call in progress. Forward control channels also serve as beacons which continually broadcast all of the traffic requests for all mobiles in the system.

The Cellular Concept

Introduction The cellular concept was a major breakthrough in solving the problem of spectral congestion and user capacity. It offered very high capacity in a limited spectrum allocation without any major technological changes. The cellular concept is a system level idea which calls for replacing a single, high power transmitter (large cell) with many low power transmitters (small cells), each providing coverage to only a small portion of the service area. Each base station is allocated a portion of the total number of channels available to the entire system, and nearby base stations are assigned different groups of channels so that all the available channels are assigned to a relatively small number of neighboring base stations. Neighboring base stations are assigned different groups of channels so that the interference between base stations (and the mobile users

under their control) is minimized. By systematically spacing base stations and their channel groups throughout a market, the available channels are distributed throughout the geographic region and may be reused as many times as necessary, so long as the interference between cochannel stations is kept below acceptable levels. As the demand for service increases (i.e., as more channels are needed within a particular market), the number of base stations may be increased (along with a corresponding decrease in transmitter power to avoid added interference), thereby providing additional radio capacity with no additional increase in radio spectrum. This fundamental principle is the foundation for all modem wireless communication systems, since it enables a fixed number of channels to serve an arbitrarily large number of subscribers by reusing the channels throughout the coverage region. Furthermore, the cellular concept allows every piece of subscriber equipment within a country or continent to be manufactured with the same set of channels, so that any mobile may be used anywhere within the region.

Wireless Local Area Networks

Frequency Reuse
Cellular radio systems rely on an intelligent allocation and reuse of channels throughout a coverage region .Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels to be used within a small geographic area called a cell. Base stations in adjacent cells are assigned channel groups which contain completely different channels than neighboring cells. The base station antennas are designed to achieve the desired coverage within the particular cell. By limiting the coverage area to within the boundaries of a cell, the same group of channels may be used to cover different cells that are separated from one another by distances large enough to keep interference levels within tolerable limits. The design process of selecting and allocating channel groups for all of the cellular base stations within a system is called frequency reuse or frequency planning. Figure 2.1 illustrates the concept of cellular frequency reuse, where cells labeled with the same letter use the same group of channels. The frequency reuse plan is overlaid upon a map to indicate where different frequency channels are used. The hexagonal cell shape shown in .Figure 2.1 is conceptual and is a simplistic model of the radio coverage for each base station, but it has been u.niversally adopted since the hexagon permits easy and manageable analysis of a cellular system. The actual radio coverage of a cell is known as the footprint and is determined from field measurements or propagation prediction models. Although the real footprint is amorphous in nature, a regular cell shape is needed for systematic system design and adaptation for future

growth. While it might seem natural to choose a circle to represent the coverage area of a base station, adjacent circles can not be overlaid upon a map without leaving gaps.

Figure 2.1 Illustration of the cellular frequency reuse concept. Cells with the same letter use the same set of frequencies. A cell cluster is outlined in bold and replicated over the coverage area. In this example, the cluster size, N, is equal to seven, and the frequency reuse factor is 1/7 since each cell containsone-seventh of the total number of available channels.

creating overlapping regions. Thus, when considering geometric shapes which cover an entire region without overlap and with equal area, there are three sensible choices: a square; an equilateral triangle; and a hexagon. A cell must be designed to serve the weakest mobiles within the footprint, and these are typically located at the edge of the cell. For a given distance between the center of a polygon and its farthest perimeter points, the hexagon has the largest area of the three. Thus, by using the hexagon geometric the fewest number of cells can cover a geographic region, and the hexagon closely approximates a circular radiation pattern which would occur for an omni-directional base station antenna and free space propagation. Of course, the actual cellular footprint is determined by the contour in which a given transmitter serves the mobiles successfully. When using hexagons to model coverage areas, base station transmitters are depicted as either being in the center of the cell (center-excited cells) or on three of the six cell vertices (edgeexcited cells). Normally, omni-directional antennas are used in center-excited cells and sectored directional antennas are used in corner-excited cells. Practical considerations usually do not allow base stations to be placed exactly as they appear in the hexagonal layout. Most system

designs permit a base station to be positioned up to one-fourth the cell radius away from the ideal location. To understand the frequency reuse concept, consider a cellular system which has a total of S duplex channels available for use. If each cell is allocated a group of k channels (k <S), and if the S channels are divided among N cells into unique and disjoint channel groups which each have the same number of channels, the total number of available radio channels can be expressed as

The N cells which collectively use the complete set of available frequencies is called a cluster. If a cluster is replicated M times within the system, the total number of duplex channels, C, can be used as a measure of capacity and is given
As seen from equation (2.2), the capacity of a cellular system is directly proportional to the number of times a cluster is replicated in a fixed service area. The factor N is called the cluster size and is typically equal to 4, 7, or 12. If the cluster size N is reduced while the cell size is kept constant, more clusters are required to cover a given area and hence more capacity (a larger value of C) is achieved. A large cluster size indicates that the ratio between the cell radius and the distance between co-channel cells is large. Conversely, a small cluster size indicates that cochannel cells are located much closer together. The value for N is a function of how much interference a mobile or base station can tolerate while maintaining a sufficient quality of communications. From a design viewpoint, the smallest possible value of N is desirable in order to maximize capacity over a given coverage area (i.e.. to maximize C in equation (2.2)). The frequency reuse factor of a cellular system is given by I /N, since each cell within a cluster is only assigned I/N of the total available channels in the system.

where i and j are non-negative integers. To find the nearest co-channel neighbors of a particular cell, one must do the following: (1) move i cells along any chain of hexagons and then (2) turn 60 degrees counter-clockwise and move j cells. This is illustrated in Figure 2.2 for i =3 and j = 2 (example, N = 19).

Channel Assignment Strategies For efficient utilization of the radio spectrum, a frequency reuse scheme that is consistent with the objectives of increasing capacity and minimizing interference is required. A variety of channel assignment strategies have been developed to achieve these objectives. Channel assignment strategies can be classified as either fixed or dynamic. The choice of channel assignment strategy impacts the performance of the system, particularly as to how calls are managed when a mobile user is handed off from one cell to another. In a fixed channel assignment strategy; each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice channels. Any call attempt within the cell can only be served by the unused channels in that particular cell. If all the channels in that cell are occupied, the call is blocked and the subscriber does not receive service. Several variations of the fixed assignment strategy exist. In one approach, called the borrowing strategy, a cell is allowed to borrow channels from a neighboring cell if all of its own channels are already occupied. The mobile switching center (MSC) supervises such borrowing procedures and ensures that the borrowing of a channel does not disrupt or interfere with any of the calls in progress in the donor cell. In a dynamic channel assignment strategy, voice channels are not allocated to different cells permanently. Instead, each time a call request is made, the serving base station requests a channel from the MSC. The switch then allocates a channel to the requested cell following an algorithm that takes into account the likelihood of fixture blocking within the cell, the frequency of use of the candidate channel, the reuse distance of the channel, and other cost functions. Accordingly, the MSC only allocates a given frequency if that frequency is not presently in use in the cell or any other cell which falls within the minimum restricted distance of frequency reuse to avoid co-channel interference. Dynamic channel assignment reduce the likelihood of blocking, which increases the trunking capacity of the system, since all the available channels in a market are accessible to all of the cells. Dynamic channel assignment strategies require the MSC to collect real-time data on channel occupancy, traffic distribution, arid radio signal strength indications (RSS!) of all channels on a continuous basis. This increases the storage and computational load on the system but provides the advantage of increased channel utilization and decreased probability of a blocked call.

Fig :Illustration of a handoff scenario at cell boundary.

Handoff Strategies When a mobile moves into a different cell while a conversation is in progress, the MSC automatically transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the new base station. This handoff operation not only involves a new base station, but also requires that the voice and control signals be allocated to channels associated with the new base station.

Processing handoffs is an important task in any cellular radio system. Many handoff strategies prioritize handoff requests over call initiation requests when allocating unused channels in a cell site. Handofts must be performed successfully and as infrequently as possible, and be imperceptible to the users. In order to meet these requirements, system designers must speci& an optimum signal level at which to initiate a handoff. Once a particular signal level is specified as

the minimum usable signal for acceptable voice quality at the base station receiver (normally taken as between 90 dBm and 100 dBm), In deciding when to handoff, it is important to ensure that the drop in the measured signal level is not due to momentary fading and that the mobile is actually moving away from the serving base station. In order to ensure this, the base station monitors the signal level for a certain period of time before a handoff is initiated. This running average measurement of signal strength should be optimized so that unnecessary handoffs are avoided, while ensuring that necessary handoffs are completed before a call is terminated due to poor signal level. The length of time needed to decide if a handoff is necessary depends on the speed at which the vehicle is moving. If the slope of the short-term average received signal level in a given time interval is steep, the handoff should be made quickly. Information about the vehicle speed, which can be useful in handoff decisions, can also be computed from the statistics of the received short-term fading signal at the base station.

Interference and System Capacity Interference is the major limiting factor in the performance of cellular radio systems. Sources of interference include another mobile in the same cell, a call in progress in a neighboring cell, other base stations operating in the same frequency band, or any non cellular system which inadvertently leaks energy into the cellular frequency band. Interference on voice channels causes cross talk, where the subscriber hears interference in the background due to an undesired transmission. On control channels, interference leads to missed and blocked calls due to errors in the digital signaling. Interference is more severe in urban areas, due to the greater HF noise floor and the large number of base stations and mobiles. Interference has been recognized as a major bottleneck in increasing capacity and is often responsible for dropped calls. The two major types of system- generated cellular interference are co-channel interference and adjacent channel interference. Even though interfering signals are often generated within the cellular system, they are difficult to control in practice (due to random propagation effects). Even more difficult to control is interference due to out-of-band users, which arises without warning due to front end overload of subscriber equipment or intermittent inter modulation products. In practice, the transmitters from competing cellular carriers are often a significant source of out-of-band

interference, since competitors often locate their base stations in close proximity to one another in order to provide comparable coverage to customers.

Co-channel Interference and System Capacity

Frequency reuse implies that in a given coverage area there are several cells that use the same set of frequencies. These cells are called co-channel cells, and the interference between signals from these cells is called co-channel interference. Unlike thermal noise which can be overcome by increasing the signal-to-noise ration (SNR), co-channel interference cannot be combated by simply increasing the carrier power of a transmitter This is because an increase in carrier transmit power increases the interference to neighboring co-channel cells. To reduce co-channel interference, co-channel cells must be physically separated by a minimum distance to provide sufficient isolation due to propagation. When the size of each cell is approximately the same, and the base stations transmit the same power, the co-channel interference ratio is independent of the transmitted power and becomes a function of the radius of the cell (B) and the distance between centers of the nearest co-channel cells (D). By increasing the ratio of DIR, the spatial separation between co-channel cells relative to the coverage distance of a cell is increased. Thus interference is reduced from improved isolation of HF energy from the co-channel cell. The parameter Q, called the co channel reuse ratio, is related to the cluster size. For a hexagonal geometry

Trunking and Grade of Service Cellular radio systems rely on trunking to accommodate a large number of users in a limited radio spectrum. The concept of truking allows a large number of users to share the relatively small number of channels in a cell by providing access to each user, on demand, from a pool of available channels. In a trunked radio system, each user is allocated a channel on a per call basis, and upon termination of the call, the previously occupied channel is immediately returned to the pool of available channels. Trunking exploits the statistical behavior of users so that a fixed number of channels or circuits may accommodate a large, random user community. The telephone company uses trunking theory to determine the number of telephone circuits that need to be allocated for office buildings with hundreds of telephones, and this same principle is used in designing cellular radio systems. There is a trade-off between the number of available telephone circuits and the likelihood of a particular user finding that no circuits are available during the peak calling time. As the number of phone lines decreases, it becomes more likely that all circuits will be busy for a particular user. In a trunked mobile radio system, when a particular user requests service and all of the radio channels are already in use, the user is blocked, or denied access to the system. In some systems, a queue may be used to hold the requesting users until a channel becomes available. To design trunkS radio systems that can handle a specific

capacity at a specific "grade of service", it is essential to understand trunking theory and queuing theory The fundamentals of trunking theory were developed by Erlang,a Danish mathematician who, in the late 19th century, embarked on the study of how a large population could be accommodated by a limited number of servers.Today, the measure of traffic intensity bears his name. One Erlang represents the amount of traffic intensity carried by a channel that is completely occupied (i.e. 1 call-hour per hour or 1 call-miiiute per minute). For example, a radio channel that is occupied for thirty minutes during an hour carries 0.5 Erlangs of traffic. The grade of service (GOS) is a measure of the ability of a user to access a trunked system during the busiest hour. The busy hour is based upon customer demand at the busiest hour during a week, month, or year. The busy hours for cellular radio systems typically occur during rush hours, between 4 p.m. and 6p.m. on a Thursday or Friday evening. The grade of service is a benchmark used to define the desired performance of a particular trunked system by specifying a desired likelihood of a user obtaining channel access given a specific number of channels available in the system. It is the wireless designer's job to estimate the maximum required capacity and to allocate the proper number of channels in order to meet the Gas. GOS is typically given as the likelihood that a call is blocked, or the likelihood of a call experiencing a delay greater than a certain queuing time.

Definitions: Set-up Time: The time required to allocate a trunked radio channel to a requesting user. Blocked Call: Call which cannot be completed at time of request, due to congestion. Also referred to as a lost call.

Holding Time: Average duration of a typical call. Denoted by H (in seconds). Traffic Intensity: Measure of channel time utilization, which is the average channel occupancy measured in Erlangs. This is a dimensionless quantity and may be used to measure the time utilization of single or multiple channels. Denoted by A. Load: Traffic intensity across the entire trunked radio system, measured in Erlangs. Grade of Service (005): A measure of congestion which is specified as the probability of a call being blocked (for Erlang B), or the probability of a call being delayed beyond a certain amount of time (for Erlang C). Request Rate: The average number of call requests per unit time. Denoted by A seconds1.

The second kind of trunked system is one in which a queue is provided to hold calls which are blocked. If a channel is not available immediately, the call request may be delayed until a channel becomes available. This type of trunking is called Blocked Calls Delayed, and its measure of GOS is defined as the probability that a call is blocked after waiting a specific length of time in the queue. To find the GOS, it is first necessary to

find the likely hood that a call is initially denied access to the system. The likelihood of
a call not having immediate access to a channel is determined by the Erlang C formula derived in Appendix A

Improving Capacity In Cellular Systems As the demand for wireless service increases, the number of channels assigned to a cell eventually becomes insufficient to support the required number of users. At this point, cellular design techniques are needed to provide more channels per unit coverage area. Techniques such as cell splitting, sectoring, and coverage zone approaches are used in practice to expand the capacity of cellular systems. Cell splitting allows an orderly growth of the cellular system. Sectoring uses directional antennas to further control the interference and frequency reuse of channels. The zone microcell concept distributes the coverage of a cell and extends the cell boundary to hard-to-reach places. While cell splitting increases the number of base stations in order to increase capacity, sectoring and zone microcells rely on base station antenna placements to improve capacity by reducing co-channel interference. Cell splitting and zone microcell techniques do not suffer the trunking inefficiencies experienced by sectored cells, and enable the base station to oversee all handoff chores related to the microcells, thus reducing the computational load at the MSC. These three popular capacity improvement techniques will be explained in detail.

Cell Splitting Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell into smaller cells, each with its own base station and a corresponding reduction in antenna height and transmitter power. Cell splitting increases the capacity of a cellular system since it increases the number of times that channels are reused. By defining new cells which have a smaller radius than the original cells and by installing these smaller cells (called microcells) between the existing cells, capacity increases due to the additional number of channels per unit area. Imagine if every cell in Figure 2.1 were reduced in such a way that the radius of every cell was cut in half. In order to cover the entire service area with smaller cells, approximately four times as many cells would be required. This can be easily shown by considering a circle with radius R. The area covered by such a circle is four times as large as the area covered by a circle with radius R/2. The increased number of cells would increase the number of clusters over the coverage region, which in turn would increase the number of channels, and thus capacity, in the coverage area. Cell splitting allows a system to grow by replacing large cells with smaller cells, while not upsetting the channel allocation scheme required to maintain the minimum co-channel reuse ratio Q (see equation (2.4)) between co-channel cells. An example of cell splitting is shown in Figure 2.8. In Figure 2.8, the base stations are placed at corners of the cells, and the area served by base station A is assumed to be saturated with traffic (i.e., the blocking of base station A exceeds acceptable rates). New base stations are therefore needed in the region to increase the number of channels in the area and to reduce the area served by the single base station. Note in the figure that the original base station A has been surrounded by six new microcell base stations. In the example shown in Figure 2.8, the smaller cells were added in such a way as to preserve the frequency reuse plan of the system. For example, the microcell base station labeled G was placed half way between two larger stations utilizing the same channel set G. This is also the case for the other microcells in the figure. As can be seen from Figure 2.8, cell splitting merely scales the geometry of the cluster. In this case, the radius of each new microcell is half that of the original cell.

In other words, the transmit power must be reduced by 12 dB in order to fill in the original coverage area with microcells, while maintaining the S/I requirement. In practice, not all cells are split at the same time. It is often difficult for service providers to find real estate that is perfectly situated for cell splitting. Therefore, different cell sizes will exist simultaneously. In

such situations, special care needs to be taken to keep the distance between co-channel cells at the required minimum, and hence channel assignments become more complicated.Also, handoff issues must be addressed so that high speed and lowspeed traffic can be simultaneously accommodated (the umbrella cell approach of Section 2.4 is commonly used). When there are two cell sizes in the same region as shown in Figure 2.8, equation (2.22) shows that one can not simply use the original transmit power for all new cells or the new transmit power for all the original cells. If the larger transmit power is used for all cells, some channels used by the smaller cells would not be sufficiently separated from co-channel cells. On the other hand, if the smaller transmit power is used for all the cells, there would be parts of the larger cells left unserved. For this reason, channels in the old cell must be broken down into two channel groups, one that corresponds to the smaller cell reuse requirements and the other that corresponds to the larger cell reuse requirements. The larger cell is usually dedicated to high speed traffic so that handoffs occur less frequently. The two channel group sizes depend on the stage of the splitting process. At the beginning of the cell splitting process there will be fewer channels in the small power groups. However, as demand grows, more channels will be required, and thus the smaller groups will require more channels. This splitting process continues until all the channels in an area are used in the lower power group, at which point cell splitting is complete within the region, and the entire system is rescaled to have a smaller radius per cell. Antenna downtilting, which deliberately focuses radiated energy from the base station towards the ground (rather than towards the horizon), is often used to limit the radio coverage of newly formed microcells.

UNIT-II Mobile Radio Propagation : Large- Scale Path Loss Introduction To Radio Wave Propagation, Free Space Propagation Model, Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms, Reflection ,Ground Reflection, Diffraction Scattering, Outdoor Propagation Models, Signal Penetration Into Buildings.

Concepts:
The mobile radio channel places fundamental limitations on the performance of wireless communication systems. The transmission path between the transmitter and the receiver can vary from simple line-of-sight to one that is severely obstructed by buildings, mountains, and foliage. Unlike wired channels that are stationary and predictable, radio channels are extremely random and do not offer easy analysis. Even the speed of motion impacts how rapidly the signal level fades as a mobile terminal moves in space. Modeling the radio channel has historically been one of the most difficult parts of mobile radio system design, and is typically done in a statistical fashion, based on measurements made specifically for an intended communication system or spectrum allocation.

Introduction to Radio Wave Propagation The mechanisms behind electromagnetic wave propagation are diverse, but can generally be attributed to reflection, diffraction, and scattering. Most cellular radio systems operate in urban areas where there is no direct line-of-sight path between the transmitter and the receiver, and where the presence of highrise buildings causes severe diffraction loss. Due to multiple reflections from various objects, the electromagnetic waves travel along different paths of varying lengths. The interaction between these waves causes multipath fading at a specific location, and the strengths of the waves decrease as the distance between the transmitter and receiver increases. Propagation models have traditionally focused on predicting the average received signal strength at a given distance from the transmitter, as well as the variability of the signal strength in close spatial proximity to a particular location. Propagation models that predict the mean signal strength for an arbitrary transmitter-receiver (T-R) separation distance are useful in estimating the radio coverage area of a transmitter and are called large-scale propagation models, since they characterize signal strength over large T-R separation distances (several

hundreds or thousands of meters). On the other hand, propagation models that characterize the rapid fluctuations of the received signal strength over very short travel distances (a few wavelengths) or short time durations (on the order of seconds) are called small-scale or fading models.As a mobile moves over very small distances, the instantaneous received signal strength may fluctuate rapidly giving rise to small-scale fading. The reason for this is that the received signal is a sum of many contributions coming from different directions, as described in Chapter 4. Since the phases are random, the sum of the contributions varies widely; for example, obeys a Rayleigh fading distribution. In small-scale fading, the received signal power may vary by as much as three or four orders of magnitude (30 or 40 dB) when the receiver is moved by only a fraction of a wavelength. As the mobile moves away from the transmitter over much larger distances, the local average received signal will gradually decrease, and it is this local average signal level that is predicted by large-scale propagation models. Typically, the local average received power is computed by averaging signal measurements over a measurement track of 5 to40 . For cellular and PCS frequencies in the 1 GHz to 2 GHz band, this corresponds to measuring the local average received power over movements of 1 m to 10 m. Figure 3.1 illustrates small-scale fading and the slower large-scale variations for an indoor radio communication system. Notice in the figure that the signal fades rapidly as the receiver moves, but the local average signal changes much more slowly with distance. This chapter covers large-scale propagation and presents a number of common methods used to predict received power in mobile communication systems. Chapter 4 treats small-scale fading models and describes methods to measure and model multipath in the mobile radio environment.

Free Space Propagation Model The free space propagation model is used to predict received signal strength when the transmitter and receiver have a clear, unobstructed line-of-sight path between them. Satellite communication systems and microwave line-of-sight radio links typically undergo free space propagation. As with most large-scale radio wave propagation models, the free space model predicts that received power decays as a function of the T-R separation distance raised to some power (i.e. a power law function). The free space power received by a receiver antenna which is separated from a radiating transmitter antenna by a distance d, is given by the Friis free space equation,

The Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms Reflection, diffraction, and scattering are the three basic propagation mechanisms which impact propagation in a mobile communication system. These mechanisms are briefly explained in this section, and propagation models which describe these mechanisms are discussed subsequently in this chapter. Received power (or its reciprocal, path loss) is generally the most important parameter predicted by large-scale propagation models based on the physics of reflection, scattering, and diffraction. Small-scale fading and multipath propagation (discussed in Chapter 4) nay also be described by the physics of these three basic propagation mechanisms.

1. Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave impinges upon an object which has very large dimensions when compared to the wavelength of the propagating wave. Reflections occur from the surface of the earth and from buildings and walls. 2. Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a surface that has sharp irregularities (edges). The secondary waves resulting from the obstructing surface are present throughout the space and even behind the obstacle, giving rise to a bending of waves around the obstacle, even when a line-of-sight path does not exist between transmitter and receiver. At high frequencies, diffraction, like reflection, depends on the geometry of the object, as well as the amplitude, phase, and polarization of the incident wave at the point of diffraction. 3. Scattering occurs when the medium through which the wave travels consists of objects with dimensions that are small compared to the wavelength, and where the number of obstacles per unit volume is large. Scattered waves are produced by rough surfaces, small objects, or by other irregularities in the channel. In practice, foliage, street signs, and lamp posts induce scattering in a mobile communications system. Reflection When a radio wave propagating in one medium impinges upon another medium having different electrical properties, the wave is partially reflected and partially transmitted. If the plane wave is incident on a perfect dielectric, part of the energy is transmitted into the second medium and part of the energy is reflected back into the first medium, and there is no loss of energy in absorption. If the second medium is a perfect conductor, then all incident energy is reflected back into the first medium without loss of energy. The electric field intensity of the reflected and transmitted waves may be related to the incident wave in the medium of origin through the Fresnel reflection coefficient (F). The reflection coefficient is a function of' the material properties, and generally depends on the wave polarization, angle of incidence, and the frequency of the propagating wave. In general, electromagnetic waves are polarized, meaning they have instantaneous electric field components in orthogonal directions in space. A polarized wave may be mathematically represented as the sum of two spatially orthogonal components, such as vertical and horizontal, or left-hand or right-hand circularly polarized components. For an

arbitrary polarization, superposition may be used to compute the reflected fields from a reflecting surface. Reflection from Dielectrics Electromagnetic wave incident at an angle with the plane of the boundary between two

dielectric media. As shown in the figure, part of the energy is reflected back to the first media at an angle and part of the energy is transmitted (refracted) into the second media at an angle The nature of reflection varies with the direction of polarization of the E-field. The behavior for arbitrary directions of polarization can be studied by considering the two distinct cases shown in Figure &4. The plane of incidence is defined as the plane containing the incident, reflected, and transmitted rays .In Figure 3.4a, the E-field polarization is parallel with the plane of incidence (that is, the E-field has a vertical polarization, or normal component, with respect to the reflecting surface) and in Figure 3.4b, the E-field polarization is perpendicular to the plane of incidence (that is, the incident E-field is pointing out of the page towards the reader, and is perpendicular to the page and parallel to the reflecting surface).

For the case of elliptical polarized waves, the wave may be broken down (depolarized) into its vertical and horizontal E-field components, and superposition may be applied to determine transmitted and reflected waves. In the general case of reflection or transmission, the horizontal and vertical axes of the spatial coordinates may not coincide with the perpendicular and parallel axes of the propagating waves. An angle 0 measured counter-clockwise from the horizontal axis is defined as shown in Figure 3.5 for a propagating wave out of the page (towards the reader).The vertical and horizontal field components at a dielectric boundary may be related by

Ground Reflection (2-ray) Model In a mobile radio channel, a single direct path between the base station and a mobile is seldom the only physical means for propagation, and hence the free space propagation model of equation (3.5) is in most cases inaccurate when used alone. The 2-ray ground reflection model shown in Figure 3.7 is a useful propagation model that is based on geometric optics, and considers both the direct path and a ground reflected propagation path between transmitter and receiver. This node has been found to be reasonably accurate for predicting the large-scale signal strength over distances of several kilometers for mobile radio systems that use tall towers (heights which exceed 50 m), as well as for line-of-sight microcell channels in urban environments .

Diffraction Diffraction allows radio signals to propagate around the curved surface of the earth, beyond the horizon, and to propagate behind obstructions. Although the received field strength decreases rapidly as a receiver moves deeper into the obstructed (shadowed) region, the diffraction field still exists and often has sufficient strength to produce a useful signal. The phenomenon of diffraction can be explained by Huygen's principle, which states that all points on a wavefront can be considered as point sources for the production of secondary wavelets, and that these 'wavelets combine to produce a new wavefront in the direction of propagation. Diffraction is

caused by the propagation of secondary wavelets into a shadowed region. The field strength of a diffracted wave in the shadowed region is the vector sum of the electric field components of all the secondary wavelets in the space around the obstacle.

Knife-edge Diffraction Model Estimating the signal attenuation caused by diffraction of radio waves over hills and buildings is essential in predicting the field strength in a given service area. Generally, it is impossible to make very precise estimates of the diffraction losses, and in practice prediction is a process of theoretical approximation modified by necessary empirical corrections. Though the calculation of diffraction losses over complex and irregular terrain is a mathematically difficult problem, expressions for diffraction losses for many simple cases have been derived. As a starting point, the limiting case of propagation over a knife-edge gives good insight into the order of magnitude of diffraction loss. When shadowing is caused by a single object such as a hill or mountain, the attenuation caused by diffraction can be estimated by treating the obstruction as a diffracting knife edge. This is the simplest of diffraction models, and the diffraction loss in this case can be readily estimated using the classical Fresnel solution for the field behind a knife edge (also called a half-plane). Figure 3.13 illustrates this approach. Consider a receiver at point R, located in the shadowed region

(also called the diffraction zone). The field strength at point R in Figure 3.13 is a vector sum of the fields due to all of the secondary Huygen's sources in the plane above the

Multiple Knife-edge Diffraction In many practical situations, especially in hilly terrain, the propagation path may consist of more than one obstruction, in which case the total diffraction loss due to all of the obstacles must be computed. Bullington suggested that the series of obstacles be replaced by a single equivalent obstacle so that the path loss can be obtained using single knife-edge diffraction models. This method, illustrated in Figure 3.15, oversimplifies the calculations and often provides very optimistic estimates of the received signal strength. In a more rigorous treatment, Millington et. al.,gave a wave-theory solution for the field behind two knife edges in series. This solution is very useful and can be applied easily for predicting diffraction losses due to two knife edges. However, extending this to more than two knife edges becomes a formidable mathematical prob1cm. Many models that are mathematically less complicated have been developed to estimate the diffraction losses due to multiple obstructions.

Practical Link Budget Design using Path Loss Models Most radio propagation models are derived using a combination of analytical and empirical methods. The empirical approach is based on fitting curves or analytical expressions that recreate a set of measured data. This has the advantage of implicitly taking into account all propagation factors, both known and unknown, through actual field measurements. However, the validity of an empirical model at transmission frequencies or environments other than those used to derive tile model can only be established by additional measured data in the new environment at the required transmission frequency. Over time, some classical propagation models have emerged, which are now used to predict large-scale coverage for mobile communication systems design. By using path loss models to estimate the received signal level as a function of distance, it

becomes possible to predict the SNR for a mobile communication system. Using noise analysis techniques given in Appendix B, the noise floor can be determined. For example, the 2-ray model described in section 3.6 was used to estimate capacity in a spread spectrum cellular system, before such systems were deployed Practical path loss estimation techniques are now presented.

Ouldoor Propagation Models Radio transmission in a mobile communications system often takes place over irregular terrain. The terrain profile of a particular area needs to be taken into account for estimating the path loss. The terrain profile may vary from a simple curved earth profile to a highly mountainous profile. The presence of trees, buildings, and other obstacles also must be taken into account. A number of propagation models are available to predict path loss over irregular terrain. While all these models aim to predict signal strength at a particular receiving point or in a specific local area (called a sector), the methods vary widely in their approach, complexity, and accuracy. Most of these models are based on a systematic interpretation of measurement data obtained in the service area. Some of the commonly used outdoor propagation models are now discussed. Longley-Rice Model The Longley-Rice model is applicable to point-to-point communication systems in the

frequency range from 40 MHz to 100 GHz, over different kinds of terrain. The median transmission loss is predicted using the path geometry of the terrain profile and the refractivity of the troposphere. Geometric optics techniques (primarily the 2-ray ground reflection model) are used to predict signal strengths within the radio horizon. Diffraction losses over isolated obstacles are estimated using the Fresnel-Kirchoff knife-edge models. Forward scatter theory is used to make troposcatter predictions over long distances, and far field diffraction losses in double horizon paths are predicted using a modified Van der Pol-Bremmer method. The Longley-Rice propagation prediction model is also referred to as the ITS irregular terrain model. The Longley-Rice model is also available as a computer program calculate large-scale median transmission loss relative to free space loss over irregular terrain for frequencies between 20 MHz and 10 GHz. For a given transmission path, the program takes as its input the transmission frequency, path length, polarization, antenna heights, surface refractivity, effective radius of earth, ground conductivity, ground dielectric constant, and climate. The program also operates on path-specific parameters such as horizon distance of the antennas, horizon elevation angle, angular trans-horizon distance, terrain irregularity and other specific inputs. The Longley-Rice method operates in two modes. When a detailed terrain path profile is available, the path-specific parameters can be easily determined and the prediction is called a point-to-point mode prediction. On the other hand, if the terrain path profile is not available, the Longley-Rice

method provides techniques to estimate the path-specific parameters, and such a prediction is called an area mode prediction. There have been many modifications and corrections to the Longley-Rice model since its original publication. One important modification deals with radio propagation in urban areas, and this is particularly relevant to mobile radio. This modification introduces an excess term as an allowance for the additional attenuation due to urban clutter near the receiving antenna. This extra term, called the urban factor (UF), has been derived by comparing the predictions by the original Longley-Rice model with those obtained by Okumura One shortcoming of the Longley-Rice model is that it does not provide a way of determining corrections due to environmental factors in the immediate vicinity of the mobile receiver, or consider correction factors to account for the effects of buildings and foliage. Further, multipath is not considered. Durkin's Model A Case Study A classical propagation prediction approach similar to that used by Longley-Rice is discussed by Edwards and Durkin , as well as Dadson. These papers describe a computer simulator, for predicting field strength contours over irregular terrain, that was adopted by the Joint Radio Committee (JRC) in the U.K. for the estimation of effective mobile radio coverage areas. Although this simulator only predicts large-scale phenomena (i.e.path loss), it provides an interesting perspective into the nature of propagation over irregular terrain and the losses caused by obstacles in a radio path. An explanation of the Edwards and Durkin method is presented here in order to demonstrate how all of the concepts described in this chapter are used in a single model. The execution of the Durkin path loss simulator consists of two parts. The first part accesses a topographic data base of a proposed service area and reconstructs the ground profile information along the radial joining the transmitter to the receiver. The assumption is that the receiving antenna receives all of its energy along that radial and, therefore, experiences no multipath propagation. In other words, the propagation phenomena that is modeled is simply LOS and diffraction from obstacles along the radii, and excludes reflections from other surrounding objects and local scatterers. The effect of this assumption is that the model is somewhat pessimistic in narrow valleys, although it identifies isolated weak reception areas rather well. The second part of the simulation algorithm calculates the expected path loss along that radial. After this is done, the simulated receiver location can be iteratively moved to

different locations in the service area to deduce the signal strength contour. The topographical data base can be thought of as a two-dimensional array. Each array element corresponds to a point on a service area map while the actual contents of each array element contain the elevation above sea level data as shown in Figure 3.19. These types of digital elevation models (DEM) are readily available from the United States Geological Survey (USGS). Using this quantized map of service area heights, the program reconstructs the ground profile along the radial that joins the transmitter and the receiver. Since the radial may not always pass through discrete data points, interpolation methods are used to determine the approximate heights that are observed when looking along that radial. Figure 3.20a shows the topographic grid with arbitrary transmitter and receiver locations, the radial between the transmitter and receiver, and the points with which to use diagonal linear interpolation. Figure 3.20b also shows what a typical reconstructed radial terrain profile might look like. In actuality, the values are not simply determined by one interpolation routine, but by a combination of three for increased accuracy. Therefore, each point of the reconstructed profile consists of an average of the heights obtained by diagonal, vertical (row), and horizontal (column) interpolation methods. From these interpolation routines, a matrix of distances from the receiver and corresponding heights along the radial is generated. Now the problem is reduced to a one dimensional point-to-point link calculation. These types of problems are well established and procedures for calculating path loss using knife-edge diffraction techniques described previously are used.

factors can be added or subtracted as required. All these correction factors are also available as Okumura curves . Okumura's model is wholly based on measured data and does not provide any analytical explanation. For many situations, extrapolations of the derived curves can be made to obtain values outside the measurement range, although the validity of such extrapolations depends on the circumstances and the smoothness of the curve in question. Okumura's model is considered to be among the simplest and best in terms of accuracy in path loss prediction for mature cellular and land mobile radio systems in cluttered environments. It is very practical and has become a standard for system planning in modern land mobile radio systems in Japan. The major disadvantage with the model is its slow response to rapid changes in terrain, therefore the model is fairly good in urban and suburban areas, but not as good in rural areas. Common standard deviations between predicted and measured path loss values are around 10 dB to 14 dB.

Indoor Propagation Models With the advent of Personal Communication Systems (PCS), there is a great deal of interest in characterizing radio propagation inside buildings. The indoor radio channel differs from the traditional mobile radio channel in two aspects the distances covered are much smaller, and the variability of the environment is much greater for a much smaller range of T-R separation distances. It has been observed that propagation within buildings is strongly influenced by specific features such as the layout of the building, the construction materials, and the building type. This section outlines models for path loss within buildings. Indoor radio propagation is dominated by the same mechanisms as outdoor: reflection, diffraction, and scattering. However, conditions are much more variable.

For example, signal levels vary greatly depending on whether interior doors are open or closed inside a building. Where antennas are mounted also impacts large-scale propagation. Antennas mounted at desk level in a partitioned office receive vastly different signals than those mounted on the ceiling. Also, the smaller propagation distances make it more difficult to insure far-field radiation for all receiver locations and types of antennas. The field of indoor radio propagation is relatively new, with the first wave of research occurring in the early 1980s.at Bell Laboratories and Alexander at British Telecom were the first to carefully study indoor path loss in and around a large number of homes and office buildings. Excellent literature surveys are available on the topic of indoor propagation. In general, indoor channels may be classified either as line-of-sight (LOS) or obstructed (OBS), with varying degrees of clutter . Some of the key models which have recently emerged are now presented.

Partition Losses (same floor) Buildings have a wide variety of partitions and obstacles which form the internal and external structure. Houses typically use a wood frame partition with plaster board to form internal walls and have wood or nonreinforced concrete between floors. Office buildings, on the other hand, often have large open areas (open plan) which are constructed by using moveable office partitions so that the space may be reconfigured easily, and use metal reinforced concrete between floors. Partitions that are formed as part of the building structure are called hard partitions, and partitions that may be moved and which do not span to the ceiling are called soft partitions. Partitions vary widely in their physical and electrical characteristics, making it difficult to apply general models to specific indoor installations. Nevertheless, researchers have formed extensive data bases of losses for a great number of partitions, as shown in Table 3.4.

Signal Penetration into Buildings The signal strength received inside of a building due to an external transmitter is important for wireless systems that share frequencies with neighboring buildings or with outdoor systems. As with propagation measurements between floors, it is difficult to determine exact models for penetration as only a limited number of experiments have been published, and they are sometimes difficult to compare- However, some generalizations can be made from the literature. In measurements reported to date, signal strength received inside a building increases with height. At the lower floors of a building, the urban clutter induces greater attenuation and reduces the level of penetration. At higher floors, a LOS path may exist, thus causing a stronger incident signal at the exterior wall of the building. RF penetration has been found to be a function of frequency as well as height within the building. The antenna pattern in the elevation plane also plays an important role in how much signal penetrates a building from the outside. Most measurements have considered outdoor transmitters with antenna heights far less than the maximum height of the building under test. Measurements in Liverpool showed that penetration loss decreases with increasing frequency. Specifically, penetration attenuation values of 16.4 dE,

11.6 dB, and 7.6 dB were measured on the ground floor of a building at frequencies of 441 MHz, 896.5 MHz, and 1400 MHz, respectively. Measurements by Turkmani showed penetration loss of 14.2 dB, 13.4 dB, and 12.8 dB for 900 MHz, 1800 MHz, and 2300 MHz, respectively. Measurements made in front of windows indicated 6 dB less penetration loss on average than did measurements made in parts of the buildings without windows. Walker measured radio signals into fourteen different buildings in Chicago from seven external cellular transmitters. Results showed that building penetration loss decreased at a rate of 1.9 dB per floor from the ground level up to the fifteenth floor and then began increasing above the fifteenth floor. The increase in penetration loss at higher floors was attributed to shadowing effects of adjacent buildings. Similarly, Purkmani reported penetration loss decreased at a rate of 2 dB per floor from the ground level up to the ninth floor and then increased above the ninth floor. Similar results were also reported by Durante. Measurements have shown that the percentage of windows, when compared with the building face surface area, impacts the level of RF penetration loss, as does the presence of tinted metal in the windows. Metallic tints can provide from 3 dB to 30 dB RF attenuation in a single pane of glass. The angle of incidence of the transmitted wave upon the face of the building also has a strong impact on the penetration loss, as was shown by Horikishi.

UNIT-III Modulation Techniques For Mobile Radio : Digital Modulation, Linear Modulation Techniques, Constant Envelop Modulation , Spread Spectrum Modulation Techniques.

Concepts:
Modulation is the process of encoding information from a message source in a manner suitable for transmission. It generally involves translating a baseband message signal (called the source) to a bandpass signal at frequencies that are very high when compared to the baseband frequency. The bandpass signal is called the modulated signal and the baseband message signal is called the modulating signal. Modulation may be one by varying the amplitude, phase, or frequency of a high frequency carrier in accordance with the amplitude of the message signal. Demodulation is the process of extracting the baseband message from the carrier so that it may be processed and interpreted by the intended receiver (also called the sink). This chapter describes various modulation techniques that are used in mobile communication systems. Analog modulation schemes that are employed in first generation mobile radio systems, as well as digital modulation schemes proposed for use in present and future systems, are covered. Since digital modulation offers nomerous benefits and is already being used to replace conventional analog systems, the primary emphasis of this chapter is on digital modulation schemes. However, since analog systems are in widespread use, and will continue to exist, they are treated first. Modulation is a topic that is covered in great detail in various communications textbooks. Here, the coverage focuses on modulation and demodulation as it applies to mobile radio systems. A large variety of modulation techniques have been studied for use in mobile radio communications systems, and research is ongoing. Given the hostile fading and multipath conditions in the mobile radio channel, designing a modulation scheme that is resistant to mobile channel impairments is a challenging task. Since the ultimate goal of a modulation technique is to transport the message signal through a radio channel with the best possible quality while occupying the least amount of radio spectrum, new advances in digital signal processing continue to bring about new forms of modulation and demodulation. This chapter describes many practical modulation schemes, receiver architectures, design trade-offs, and their performance under various types of channel impairments.

Frequency Modulation vs. Amplitude Modulation Frequency modulation (FM) is the most popular analog modulation technique used in mobile radio systems. In FM, the amplitude of the modulated carrier signal is kept constant while its frequency is varied by the modulating message signal. Thus, FM signals have all their information in the phase or fitquency of the carrier. As shown subsequently, this provides a nonlinear and very rapid improvement in reception quality once a certain minimum received signal level, called the FM threshold, is achieved. In amplitude modulation (AM) schemes, there is a linear relationship between the quality of the received signal and the power of the received signal since AM signals superimpose the exact relative amplitudes of the modulating signal onto the carrier. Thus, AM signals have all their information in the amplitude of the carrier. FM offers many advantages over amplitude modulation (AM), which makes it a better choice for many mobile radio applications. Frequency modulation has better noise immunity when compared to amplitude modulatiog. Since signals are represented as frequency variations rather than amplitude variations, FM signals are less susceptible to atmospheric and impulse noise, which tend to cause rapid fluctuations in the. amplitude of the received radio signal. Also, message amplitude variations do not carry information in FM, so burst noise does not affect FM system performance as much as AM systems, provided that the FM received signal is above the FM threshold. Chapter 4 illustrated how small-scale fading can cause rapid fluctuations in the received signal, thus FM offers superior qualitative performance in fading when compared to AM. Also in an FM system, it is possible to tradeoff bandwidth occupancy for improved noise performance. Unlike AM, in an FM system, the modulation index, and hence bandwidth occupancy, can be varied to obtain greater signal-to-noise performance. It can be shown that, under certain conditions, the FM signal-to-noise ratio improves 6 dB for each doubling of bandwidth occupancy. This ability of an FM system to trade bandwidth for SNR is perhaps the most important reason for its superiority over AM. However, AM signals are able to occupy less bandwidth as compared to FM signals, since the transmission system is linear. In modern AM systems, susceptibility to fading has been dramatically improved through the use of in-band pilot tones which are transmitted along with the standard AM signal. The modern AM receiver is able to monitor the pilot tone and rapidly adjust the receiver gain to compensate for the amplitude fluctuations.

An FM is a constant envelope signal, due to the fact that the envelope of the carrier does not change with changes in the modulating signal. Hence the transmitted power of an FM signal is constant regardless of the amplitude of the message signal. The constant envelope of the transmitted signal allows efficient Class C power amplifiers to be used for NP' power amplification of FM. In AM, however, it is critical to maintain linearity between the applied message and the amplitude of the transmitted signal, thus linear Class A or AB amplifiers, which are not as power efficient, must be used. The issue of amplifier efficiency is extremely important when designing portable subscriber terminals since the battery life of the portable is tied to the power amplifier efficiency. Typical efficiencies for Class C amplifiers are 70%, meaning that 70% of the applied DC power to the final amplifier circuit is converted into radiated RF power. Class A or AB amplifiers have efficiencies on the order of 30-40%. This implies that for the same battery; constant envelope FM modulation may provide twice as much talk time as AM. Frequency modulation exhibits a so-called capture effect. The capture effect is a direct result of the rapid nonlinear improvement in received quality for an increase in received power. If two signals in the same frequency band are available at an FM receiver, the one appearing at the higher received signal level is accepted and demodulated, while the weaker one is rejected. This inherent ability to pick up the strongest signal and reject the rest makes FM systems very resistant to co-channel interference and provides excellent subjective received quality. In AM systems, on the other hand, all of the interferers are received at once and must be discriminated after the demodulation process. While FM systems have many advantages over AM systems, they also have certain disadvantages. FM systems require a wider frequency band in the transmitting media (generally several times as large as that needed for AM) in order to obtain the advantages of reduced noise and capture effect. FM transmitter and receiver equipment is also more complex than that used by amplitude modulation systems. Although frequency modulation systems are tolerant to certain types of signal and circuit nonlinearities, special attention must be given to phase characteristics. Both AM and FM may be demodulated using inexpensive noncoherent detectors. AM is easily demodulated using an envelope detector whereas FM is demodulated using a discriminator or slope detector. AM may be detected coherently with a product detector, and in such cases AM can outperform FM in weak signal conditions since FM must be received above threshold.

Amplitude Modulation In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of a high frequency carrier signal is varied in accordance to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating message signal. If is the carrier

signal and m (t) is the modulating message signal, the AM signal can be represented as

Single Sideband AM Since both the sidebands of an AM signal carry the same information, it is possible to remove one of them without losing any information. Single sideband (558) AM Systems transmit only one of the sidebands (either upper or lower) about the carrier, and hence occupy only half the bandwidth of conventional AM systems. Au SSB signal can be mathematically expressed as

The two common techniques used for generating an SSB signal are the fitter method and the balanced modulator method. In the filter method, SSB signals are generated by passing a double

sideband AM signal through a bandpass filter which removes one of the sidebands. A block diagram of such a modulator is shown in Figure 5-Ba. Excellent sideband suppression can be obtained using crystal filters at an intermediate frequency (IF).

Figure 5.3b shows a block diagram of a balanced modulator which is a direct implementation of equation (5.9). The modulating signal is split into two identical signals, one which modulates the in-phase carrier and the other which is passed through a -90 phase shifter before modulating a quadrature carrer. The sign used for the quadrature component determines whether USSB or LSSB is transmitted.

Angle Modulation FM is part of a more general class of modulation known as Angle modulation varies a sinusoidal carrier signal in such a way that the

FM Modulation Methods There are basically two methods of generating an FM signal: The Direct Method And The Indirect Method.

In the direct method, the carrier frequency is directly varied in accordance with the input modulating signal. In the indirect method, a narrowband FM signal is generated using a balanced modulator, and frequency multiplication is used to increase both the frequency deviation and the carrier frequency to the required level.

Direct Method In this method, voltage-controlled oscillators (VCO) are used to vary the frequency of the carrier signal in accordance with the baseband signal amplitude variations. These oscillators use devices with reactance that can be varied by the application of a voltage, where the reactance causes the instantaneous frequency of the VCO to change proportionally. The most commonly used variable reactance device is the voltage-variable capacitor called a varactor. The voltage-variable

capacitor may be obtained, for example, by using a reverse biased p-n junction diode. The larger the reverse voltage applied to such a diode, the smaller the transition capacitance will be of the diode. By incorporating such a device into a standard Hartley or Colpitts oscillator, FM signals can be generated. Figure 5.6 shows a simple reactance modulator. While VCOs offer a simple way to generate narrowband FM signals, the stability of the center frequency (carrier) of the VCO becomes a major issue when it is used for widehand FM generation. The stability of the VCO can be improved by incorporating a phase locked loop (PLL) which locks the center frequency to a stable crystal reference frequency.

Indirect Method

The indirect method of generating FM was first proposed by its inventor, Major Edwin Armstrong, in 1936. It is based on approximating a narrowband FM signal as the sum of a carrier signal and a single sideband (SSB) signal where the sideband is 90 out of phase with the carrier. Using a Taylor series for small values of 9(t), equation (5.16) can be expressed as

FM Detection Techniques There are many ways to recover the original information from an FM signal. The objective of all FM demodulators is to produce a transfer characteristic that is the inverse of that of the frequency modulator. That is, a frequency demodulator should produce an output voltage with an instantaneous amplitude that is directly proportional to the instantaneous frequency of the input FM signal. Thus, a frequency-to-amplitude converter circuit is a frequency demodulatin-. Various techniques such as slope detection, zero-crossing detection, phase locked discrimination and quadrature detection are used to demodulate FM. Devices which perform FM demodulation are often calied frequertcy discrirninators. In practical receivers, the RF signal is received, amplified, and filtered at the carrier and then converted to an intermediate frequency (IF) which contains the same spectrum as the original received signal.

Slope Detector It can be easily shown that FM demodulation can be performed by taking the time derivative (often called slope detection) of the FM signal, followed by envelope detection. A block diagram of such an FM demodulator is shown in Figure 5.8. The FM signal is first passed through an amplitude limiter which removes any amplitude perturbations which the signal might have undergone due to fading in the channel, and produces a constant envelope signal. Using equation (5.16) the signal at the output of the limiter can be represented as

The above equation shows that the output of the envelope detector contains a dc term proportional to the carrier frequency and a time-varying term proportional to the original message signal m(t). The dc term can be filtered out using a capacitor to obtain the desired demodulated signal. Zero-crossing Detector When linearity is required over a broad range of frequencies, such as for data communications, a zero-crossing detector is used to perform frequency-to amplitude conversion by directly counting the number of zero crossings in the input FM signal. The rationale behind this technique is to use the output of the zero-crossing detector to generate a pulse train with an average value that is proportional to the frequency of the input signal. This demodulator is sometimes referred to as a pulse-averaging discriminator. A block diagram of a pulse-averaging discriminator is shown in Figure 5.9. The input FM signal is first passed through a limiter circuit which converts the input signal to a frequency modulated pulse train. This pulse train v1 (t) is then passed through a differentiator whose output is used to trigger a monostable multivibrator (also called a

"oneshot")- The output of the one-shot consists of a train of pulses with average duration proportional to the desired message signal. A low pass filter is used to perform the averaging operation by extracting the slowly varying dc component of the signal at the output of the oneshot. The output of the low pass filter is the desired demodulated signal.

Quadrature Detection Quadrature detection is one of the more popular detection techniques used in the demodulation of frequency modulated signals. This technique can be easily implemented on an integrated circuit at a very low cost. The detector consists of a network which shifts the phase of the incoming FM signal by an amount proportional to its instantaneous frequency, and uses a product detector (phase detector) to detect the phase difference between the original FM signal and the signal at the output of the phase-shift network. Since the phase shift introduced by the phase-shift network is proportional to the instantaneous frequency of the FM signal, the output voltage of the phase detector will also be proportional to the instantaneous frequency of the input FM signal. In this manner, a frequency-to-amplitude conversion is achieved, and the FM signal is demodulated. The achieve optimum performance from a quadrature detector, a very small (no more than +/- 5 degree) phase shift should be introduced across the modulated signal bandwidth. The phase-shift network should have a constant amplitude response and a linear phase response over the spectrum occupied by the FM.

Fig: Block diagram of a zero-crossing detector and associated waveforms

signal, as shown in Figure 5.11. Further, the network 8hould have a nominal 900 phase shift at the carrier frequency Figure 5.12 shows a block diagram of a quadrature detector. The following analysis shows that this circuit functions as an FM demodulator. The phase response function of the phase-shift network can be expressed as

Digital Modulationan Overview Modern mobile communication systems use digital modulation techniques. Advancements in very large-scale integration (VLSI) and digital signal processing DSP) technology have made digital modulation more cost effective than analog transmission systems. Digital modulation offers many advantages over analog modulation. Some advantages include greater noise immunity and robustness to channel impairments, easier multiplexing of various forms of information (e.g., voice, data, and video), and greater security. Furthermore, digital transmissions accommodate digital error-control codes which detect and/or correct transmission errors, and support complex signal conditioning and processing techniques such as source coding, encryption, and equalization to improve the performance of the overall communication link. New multipurpose programmable digital signal processors have made it possible to implement digital modulators and demodulators completely in software. Instead of having a particular modem design permanently frozen as hardware, embedded software implementations now allow alterations and improvements without having to redesign or replace the modem. In digital wireless communication systems, the modulating signal (e.g., the message) may be represented as a time sequence of symbols or pulses, where each symbol has in finite states. Each symbol represents n bits of information, where n = log2m bits/symbol. Many digital modulation schemes are used in modern wireless communication systems, and many more are sure to be introduced. Some of these techniques have subtle differences between one another, and each technique belongs to a family of related modulation methods. For example, phase shift keying (P5K) may be either coherently or differentially detected; and may have two, four, eight or more possible levels (e.g., n = 1, 2, 3, or more bits) per symbol, depending on the manner in which information is transmitted within a single symbol.

Factors That Influence the Choice of Digital Modulation Several factors influence the choice of a digital modulation scheme. A desirable modulation scheme provides low bit error rates at low received signal-to-noise ratios, performs well in multipath and fading conditions, occupies a minimum of bandwidth, and is easy and costeffective to implement. Existing modulation schemes do not simultaneously satisfy all of these requirements. Some modulation schemes are better in terms of the bit error rate performance, while others are better in terms of bandwidth efficiency. Depending on the demands of the particular application, trade-offs are made when selecting a digital modulation. The performance of a modulation scheme is often measured in terms of its power efficiency and bandwidth efficiency. Power efficiency describes the ability of a modulation technique to preserve the fidelity of the digital message at low power levels. In a digital communication system, in order to increase noise immunity, it is necessary to increase the signal power. However, the amount by which the signal power should be increased to obtain a certain level of fidelity (i.e., an acceptable bit error probability) depends on the particular type of modulation employed. The power efficiency, iL,, (sometimes called energy efficiency) of a digital modulation scheme is a measure of how favorably this tradeoff between fidelity and signal power is made, and is often expressed as the ratio of the signal energy per bit to noise power spectral density (E6/N0) required at the receiver input for a certain probability of error (say 10-5). Bandwidth efficiency describes the ability of a modulation scheme to accommodate data within a limited bandwidth. In general, increasing the data rate

where C is the channel capacity (in bps), B is the RF bandwidth, and S/N is the Signal-to-Noise ratio. In the design of a digital communication system, very often there is a tradeoff between bandwidth efficiency and power efficiency For example, as shown in Chapter 6, adding error control coding to a message increases the bandwidth occupancy (and this, in turn, reduces the bandwidth efficiency), but at the same time reduces the required received power for a particular bit error rate, and hence trades bandwidth efficiency for power efficiency On the other hand, higher level modulation schemes (M-ary keying) decrease bandwidth occupancy but increase the required received power, and hence trade power efficiency for bandwidth efficiency. While power and bandwidth efficiency considerations are very important, other factors also affect the choice of a digital modulation scheme. For example, for all personal communication systems which serve a large user community, the cost and complexity of the subscriber receiver must be minimized, and a modulation which is simple to detect is most attractive. The performance of the modulation scheme under various types of channel impairments such as Rayleigh and Rician fading and multipath time dispersion, given a particular demodulator implementation, is another key factor in selecting a modulation. In cellular systems where interference is a major issue, the performance of a modulation scheme in an interference environment is eitremely important.

Sensitivity to detection of timing jitter, caused by time-varying channels, is also an important consideration in choosing a particular modulation scheme. In general, the modulation, interference, and implementation of the time-varying effects of the channel as well as the performance of the specific demodulator are analyzed as a complete system using simulation to determine relative performance and ultimate selection.

Another commonly used method to specify bandwidth is to state that everywhere outside the specified band, the PSD is below a certain stated level. Typically, 45 dB to 60 dB attenuation is specified.

Line Coding Digital baseband signals often use line codes to provide particular spectral characteristics of a pulse train. The most common codes for mobile communication are return-to-zero (RZ), nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ), and Manchester codes (see Figure 5.13 and Figure 5.14). All of these may either be unipolar (with voltage levels being either 0 or V) or bipolar (with voltage levels being either -V or V). RZ implies that the pulse returns to zero within every bit period. This leads to spectral widening, but improves timing synchronization. NRZ codes, on the other hand, do not return to zero during a bit period the signal stays at constant levels throughout a bit period. NEZ codes are more spectrally efficient than RZ codes, but offer poorer synchronization capabilities. Because of the large dc component NRZ line codes are used for data that does not have to be passed through dc blocking circuits such as audio amplifiers or phone lines. The Manchester code is a special type of NEZ line code that is ideally suited for signaling that must pass through phone lines and other dc blocking circuits, as it has no dc component and offers simple synchronization. Manchester codes use two pulses to represent each binary symbol, and thereby provide easy clock recovery since zero-crossings are guaranteed in every bit period. The power spectral density of these line codes are shown in Figure 5.13 and the time waveforms are given in Figure 5.14.

Pulse Shaping Techniques When rectangular pulses are passed through a bandlimited channel, the pulses will spread in time, and the pulse for each symbol will smear into the time intervals of succeeding symbols. This causes intersymbol interference (151) and leads to an increased probability of the receiver making an error in detecting a symbol. One obvious way to minimize intersymbol interference is to increase the channel bandwidth. However, mobile communication systems operate with minimal bandwidth, and techniques that reduce the modulation bandwidth and suppress out-ofband radiation, while reducing intersymbol interference, are highly desirable. Out-of-band radiation in the adjacent channel in a mobile radio system should generally be 40 dB to 80 dB

below that in the desired passband. Since it is difficult to directly manipulate the transmitter spectrum at RF frequencies, spectral shaping is done through baseband or IF processing. There are a number of well known pulse shaping techniques which are used to simultaneously educe the intersymbol effects and the spectral width of a modulated digital signal.

Time waveforms of binary tine codes (a) Unipolar NEZ (b) Unipolar WI (c) Manchester NEZ

Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) In binary phase shift keying (BPSK), the phase of a constant amplitude carrier signal is switched between two values according to the two possible signals m1 and m2., corresponding to binary 1 and 0, respectively. Normally, the two.

Used to facilitate sampling of the interpreter output at the end of each bit period. At the end of each bit period, the switch at the output of the integrator closes to dump the output signal to the decision circuit. Depending on whether the integrator output is above or below a certain threshold, the decision circuit decides that the received signal corresponds to a binary 1 or 0. The threshold is set at an optimum level such that the probability of error is minimized. If it is equally likely that a binary 1 or 0 is transmitted, then the voltage level corresponding to the midpoint between the detector output voltage levels of binary 1 and 0 is used as the optimum threshold.

While DPSK signaling has the advantage of reduced receiver complexity, its energy efficiency is inferior to that of coherent PSK by about 3 dB. The average probability of error for DPSK in additive white Gaussian noise is given by

Figure 5.29 shows a block diagram of a coherent QPSK receiver. The front end bandpass filter removes the out-of-band noise and adjacent channel interference. The filtered output is split into two parts, and each part is coherently demodulated using the in-phase and quadrature carriers. The coherent carriers used for demodulation are recovered from the received signal using carrier recovery circuits of the type described in Figure 5.23. The outputs of the demodulators are passed through decision circuits which generate the in-phase.

Constant Envelope Modulation

Many practical mobile radio communications systems use nonlinear modulation methods, where the amplitude of the carrier is constant, regardless of the

variation in the modulating signal. The constant envelope family of modulations has the advantage of satisfying a number of conditions , some of which are:

Power efficient Class C amplifiers can be used without introducing degradation in the spectrum occupancy of the transmitted signal. Low out-of-band radiation of the order of -60 dB to -70 dB can be achieved. Limiter-discriminator detection can be used, which simplifies receiver design and provides high immunity against random FM noise and signal fluctuations due to Rayleigh fading.

While constant envelope modulations have many advantages, they occupy a

larger bandwidth than linear modulation schemes. In situations where bandoutput width efficiency is more important than power efficiency, constant envelope modulation is not wellsuited.

Since the phase discontinuities pose several problems, such as spectral spreading and spurious transmissions, this type of FSK is generally not used in highly regulated wireless systems. The more common method for generating an FSK signal is to frequency modulate a single carrier oscillator using the message waveform. This type of modulation is similar to analog FM generation, except that the modulating signal m (t) is a binary waveform. Therefore, FSK may be represented as

Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) GMSK is a simple binary modulation scheme which may be viewed as a derivative of MSK. In GMSK, the sidelobe levels of the spectrum are further reduced by passing the modulating NRZ data waveform through a premodulation Gaussian pulse-shaping filter. Baseband Gaussian pulse shaping smooths the phase trajectory of the MSK signal and hence stabilizes the instantaneous frequency variations over time. This has the effect of considerably reducing the sidelobe levels in the transmitted spectrum. Premodulation Gaussian filtering converts the full response message signal(where each baseband symbol occupies a single bit period T) into a partial response scheme where each transmitted symbol spans several bit periods. However, since pulse shaping does not cause the pattern-averaged phase trajectory todeviate from that of simple MSK, GMSK

can be coherently detected just as an MSK signal, or noncoherently detected as simple FSK. In practice, GMSK is most attractive for its excellent power efficiency (due to the constant envelope) and its excellent spectral efficiency The premodulation Gaussian filtering introduces 181 in the transmitted signal, but it can be shown that the degradation is not severe if the 3 dBbandwidth-bit duration product (BT) of the filter is greater than 0.5. GMSK sacrifices the irreducible error rate caused by partial response signaling in exchange for extremely good spectral efficiency and constant envelope properties.

GMSK Transmitter and Receiver The simplest way to generate a GMSK signal is to pass a NRZ message bit stream through a Gaussian baseband filter having an impulse response given in equation (5.108), followed by an FM modulator. This modulation technique is shown in Figure 5.42 and is currently used in a variety of analog and digital implementations for the U.S. Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) system as well as for the Global System for Mobile (OSM) system. Figure 5.42 may also be implemented digitally using a standard I/Q modulator.

GMSK signals can be detected using orthogonal coherent detectors as shown in Figure 5.43, or with simple noncoherent detectors such as standard FM discriminators. Carrier recovery is sometimes performed using a method suggested by de Buda where the sum of the two discrete frequency components contained at the output of a frequency doubler is divided by four. DeBuda's method is similar to the Costas loop and is equivalent to that of a PLL with a frequency doubler. This type of receiver can be easily implemented using digital logic as shown in Figure 5.44. The two D flip-flops act as a quadrature product demodulator and the XOR gates act as baseband multipliers. The mutually orthogonal reference carriers are generated using two D flip-flops, and the VCO center frequency is set equal to four times the carrier center frequency. A nonoptimum, but highly effective method of detecting GMSK signal is to simply sample the output of an FM demodulator.

Spread Spectrum Modulation Techniques All of the modulation and demodulation techniques described so far strive to achieve greater power and/or bandwidth efficiency in a stationary additive white Gaussian noise channel. Since bandwidth is a limited resource, one of the primary design objectives of all the modulation schemes detailed thus far is to minimize the required transmission bandwidth. Spread spectrum techniques, on the other hand, employ a transmission bandwidth that is several orders of magnitude greater than the minimum required signal bandwidth. While this system is very bandwidth inefficient for a single user, the advantage of spread spectrum is that many users can simultaneously use the same bandwidth without significantly interfering with one another. In a multiple-user, multiple access interference (MAI) environment, spread spectrum systems become very bandwidth efficient. Apart from occupying a very large bandwidth, spread spectrum signals are pseudorandom and have noise-like properties when compared with the digital information data. The spreading waveform is controlled by a pseudo-noise (PN) sequence or pseudo-noise code, which is a binary sequence that appears random but can be reproduced in a deterministic manner by intended receivers. Spread spectrum signals are demodulated at the receiver through cross correlation with a locally-generated version of the pseudorandom carrier Cross correlation with the correct PM sequence despreads the spread spectrum signal and restores the modulated

message in the same narrow band as the original data, whereas crosscorrelating the signal from an undesired user results in a very small amount of wideband noise at the receiver output. Spread spectrum modulation has many properties that make it particularly well-suited for use in the mobile radio environment. The most important advantage is its inherent interference rejection capability. Since each user is assigned a unique PN code which is approximately orthogonal to the codes of other users, the receiver can separate each user based on their codes, even though they occupy the same spectrum at all times. This implies that, up to a certain number of users, interference between spread spectrum signals using the same frequency is negligible. Not only can a particular spread spectrum signal be recovered from a number of other spread spectrum signals, it is also possible to completely recover a spread spectrum signal even when it is jammed by a narrowband interferer. Since narrowband interference effects only a small portion of the spread spectrum signal, it can easily be removed through notch filtering without much loss of information. Since all users are able to share the same spectrum, spread spectrum may eliminate frequency planning, since all cells can use the same channels. Resistance to multipath fading is another fundamental reason for considering spread spectrum systems for wireless communications. Chapter 4 showed that wideband signals are frequency selective. Since spread spectrum signals have uniform energy over a very large bandwidth, at any given time only a small portion of the spectrum will undergo fading (recall the comparison between wideband and narrowband signal responses in multipath channels in Chapter 4L Viewed in the time domain, the multipath resistance properties are due to the fact that the delayed versions of the transmitted PN signal will have poor correlation with the original PN sequence, and will thus appear as another uncorrelated user which is ignored by the receiver. Spread spectrum systems are not only resistant to multipath fading, but they can also exploit the multipath components to improve the performance of the system. This can be done using a RAKE receiver which combines the information obtained from several resolvable multipath components. A RAKE receiver consists of a bank of correlators, each of which correlate to a particular multipath component of the desired signal. The correlator outputs may be weighted according to their relative strengths and summed to obtain the final signal estimate have uniform energy over a very large bandwidth, at any given time only a small portion of the spectrum will undergo fading (recall the comparison between wideband and narrowband signal responses in multipath channels in Chapter 4L Viewed in the time domain, the multipath resistance properties are due to

the fact that the delayed versions of the transmitted PN signal will have poor correlation with the original PN sequence, and will thus appear as another uncorrelated user which is ignored by the receiver. Spread spectrum systems are not only resistant to multipath fading, but they can also exploit the multipath components to improve the performance of the system. This can be done using a RAKE receiver which combines the information obtained from several resolvable multipath components. A RAKE receiver consists of a bank of correlators, each of which correlate to a particular multipath component of the desired signal. The correlator outputs may be weighted according to their relative strengths and summed to obtain the final signal estimate.

Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FH-SS) Frequency hopping involves a periodic change of transmission frequency. A frequency hopping signal may be regarded as a sequence of modulated data bursts with time-varying, pseudorandom carrier frequencies. The set of possible carrier frequencies is called the hopset. Hopping occurs over a frequency band that includes a number of channels. Each channel is defined as a spectral region with a central frequency in the hopset and a bandwidth large enough to include most of the power in a narrowband modulation burst (usually FSK) having the corresponding carrier frequency. The bandwidth of a channel used in the hopset is called the instantaneous bandwidth. The bandwidth of the spectrum over

After frequency hopping has been removed from the received signal, the resulting signal is said to be dehopped. lithe frequency pattern produced by the receiver synthesizer in Figure 5.51(b) is synchronized with the frequency pattern of the received signal, then the mixer output is a dehopped signal at a fixed difference frequency. Before demodulation, the dehopped signal is applied to a conventional receiver. In FH, whenever an undesired signal occupies a particular hopping channel, the noise and interference in that channel are translated in frequency so that they enter the demodulator. Thus it is possible to have collisions in a FH system where an undesired user transmits in the same channel at the same time as the desired user Frequency hopping may be classified as fast or slow. Fast frequency hopping occurs if there is more than one frequency hop during each transmitted symbol. Thus, fast frequency hopping implies that the hopping rate equals or exceeds the information symbol rate. Slow frequency hopping occurs if one or more symbols are transmitted in the time interval between frequency hops. If binary frequency-shift keying (FSK) is used, the pair of possible instantaneous frequencies changes svith each hop. The frequency channel occupied by a transmitted symbol is called the transmission channel. The channel that would be occupied if the alternative symbol were transmitted is called the complementary channel. The frequency hop rate of a FH-SS system is determined by the frequency agility of receiver synthesizers, the type of information being transmitted, the amount of redundancy used to code against collisions, and the distance to the nearest potential interferer.

Modulation Performance in Fading and Multipath Channels As discussed in Chapter 3 and 4, the mobile radio channel is characterized by various impairments such as fading, multipath, and Doppler spread. In order to study the effectiveness of any modulation scheme in a mobile radio environment, it is required to evaluate the performance of the modulation scheme over such channel conditions. Although bit error rate (BER) evaluation gives a good indication of the performance of a particular modulation scheme, it does not provide information about the type of errors. For example, it does not give incidents of bursty errors. In a fading mobile radio channel, it is likely that a transmitted signal will suffer deep fades which can lead to outage or a complete loss of the signal. Evaluating the probability of outage is another means to judge the effectiveness of the signaling scheme in a mobile radio channel. An outage event is specified by a specific number of bit errors occurring in a given transmission. Bit error rates and probability of outage for various modulation schemes under various types of channel impairments can be evaluated either through analytical techniques or

through simulations. While simple analytical techniques for computing bit error rates in slow, flat fading channels exist, performance evaluation in frequency selective channels and computation of outage probabilities are often made through computer simulations. Computer simulations are based on convolving the input bit stream with a suitable channel impulse response model and counting the bit errors at the output of the receiver decision circuit. Before a study of the performance of various modulation schemes in multipath and fading channels is made, it is imperative that a thorough understanding of the channel characteristics be obtained. The channel models described in Chapter 4 may be used in the evaluation of various modulation schemes.

Significant improvement it BER can be achieved by using efficient techniques such as diversity or error control coding to totally avoid the probability of deep fades, as shown in Chapter 6.demonstrates how the analytical technique of equation (5.153) may be applied to desired signals as well as interfering signals which undergo Rayleigh, Ricean or log-normal fading.

UNIT-IV
Multiple Access Fortechniques For Wireless Communication: FDMA,TDMA Spread Spectrum Multiple Access, Space Division Multiple Access,Capacity Of Cellular Systems. Wireless Networking:Introduction, Difference Between Wireless And Fixed Telephone

Networks,Development Of Wireless Networks. Wireless Systems And Standards: Global System For Mobile(GSM),GPRS,CDMA Digital Cellular Standard.

Concepts:
Introduction In wireless communications systems, it is often desirable to allow the subscriber to send simultaneously information to the base station while receiving information from the base station. Fm example, in conventional telephone systems, it is possible to talk and listen simultaneously, and this effect, called duplexing, is generally required in wireless telephone 53 stems. Duplexing may be done using frequency or time domain techniques. Frequency division duplexing (FDD) provides two distinct bands of frequencies for every user. The forward band provides traffic from the base station to the mobile, and the reverse band provides traffic from the mobile to the base. In FDD, any duplex channel actually consists of two simplex channels, and a device called a duplexer is used inside each subscriber unit and base station to allow simultaneous radio transmission and reception on the duplex channel pair. The frequency split between the forward and reverse channel is constant throughout the system, regardless of the particular channel being used. Time division duplexing (TDD) uses time instead of frequency to provide both a forward and reverse link. If the time split between the forward and reverse time slot is small, then the transmission and reception of data appears simultaneous to the user. Figure 8.1 illustrates FDD and TDD.

There are several trade-offs between FDD and TDD approaches. FDD is geared toward radio communications systems that provide individual radio frequencies for each user. Because each transceiver simultaneously transmits and receives radio signals which vary by more than 100 dB, the frequency allocation used for the forward and reverse channels must be carefully coordinated with out-of-band users that occupy spectrum between these two bands. Furthermore, the frequency separation must be coordinated to permit the use of inexpensive RF technology. TDD enables each transceiver to operate as either a transmitter or receiver on the same frequency, and eliminates the need for separate forward and reverse frequency bands. However, there is a time latency due to the fact that communications is not full duplex in the truest sense.

Introduction to Multiple Access Frequency division multiple access (FDMA), time division multiple access (TDMA), and code division multiple access (CDMA) are the three major access techniques used to share the available bandwidth in a wireless communication system. These techniques can be grouped as narrowband and wideband systems, depending upon how the available bandwidth is allocated to the users. The duplexing technique of a multiple access system is usually described along with the particular multiple access scheme, as shown in the examples below.

Narrowband Systems The term narrowband is used to relate the bandwidth of a single channel to the expected coherence bandwidth of the channel. In a narrowband multiple access system, the available radio spectrum is divided into a large number of narrowband channels. The channels are usually operated using FDD. To minimize interference between forward and reverse links on each channel, the frequency split is made as great as possible within the frequency spectrum, while still allowing inexpensive duplexers and a common transceiver antenna to be used in each subscriber unit. In narrowband FDMA, a user is assigned a particular channel which is not shared by other users in the vicinity, and if FDD is used (that is, each channel has a forward and reverse link), then the system is called FDMAIFDD. Narrowband TDMA, on the other hand, allows users to share the same channel but allocates a unique time slot to each user in a cyclical fashion on the channel, thus separating a small number of users in time on a single channel. For narrowband TDMA, there generally are a large number of channels allocated using either FDD or TDD, and each channel is shared using TDMA. Such systems are called TDMAIFDD or TDMAJTDD access systems.

Wideband systems In wideband systems, the transmission bandwidth of a single channel is much larger than the coherence bandwidth of the channel. Thus, multipath fading does not greatly affect the received signal within a wideband channel, and frequency selective fades occur in only a small fraction of the signal bandwidth. In wideband multiple access systems, the users are allowed to transmit in a large part of the spectrum. A large number of transmitters are also allowed to transmit on the same channel. TDMA allocates time slots to the many transmitters on the same channel and allows only one transmitter to access the channel at any instant of time, whereas spread spectrum CDMA allows all of the transmitters to access the channel at the same time. TDMA and CDMA systems may use either FDD or TDD multiplexing techniques. In addition to FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA, two other multiple access schemes are used for wireless communications. These are packet radio (PR) and space division multiple access (SDMA). In this chapter, the above mentioned multiple access techniques, their performance, and their capacity in digital cellular systems are discussed. Table 8.1 shows the different multiple access techniques being used in various wireless communications systems.

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Frequency division multiple access (FDMA) assigns individual channels to individual users. It can be seen from Figure 8.2 that each user is allocated a unique frequency band or channel. These channels are assigned on demand to users who request service. During the period of the call, no other user can share the same frequency band. In FDD systems, the users are assigned a channel as a pair of frequencies; one frequency is used for the forward channel, while the other frequency is used for the reverse channel. The features of FDMA are as follows: The FDMA channel carries only one phone circuit at a time.

If an FDMA channel is not in use, then it sits idle and cannot be used by other users to increase or share capacity. It is essentially a wasted resource. After the assignment of a voice channel, the base station and the mobile transmit simultaneously and continuously. The bandwidths of FDMA channels are relatively narrow (30 kHz) as each channel supports only one circuit per carrier That is, FDMA is usually implemented in narrowband systems.

The symbol time is large as compared to the average delay spread. This implies that the amount of inter symbol interference is low and, thus, little or no equalization is required in FDMA narrowband systems.

The complexity of FDMA mobile systems is lower when compared to TDMA

systems, though this is changing as digital signal processing methods improve for TDMA. Since FDMA is a continuous transmission scheme, fewer bits are needed for overhead purposes (such as synchronization and framing bits) as compared to TDMA. FDMA systems have higher cell site system costs as compared to TDMA systems, because of the single channel per carrier design, and the need to use costly bandpass filters to eliminate spurious radiation at the base station.

The FDMA mobile unit uses duplexers since both the transmitter and receiver operate at the same time. This results in an increase in the cost of FDMA subscriber zmits and base stations.

FDMA requires tight RF filtering to minimize adjacent channel interference.

Nonlinear Effects in FDMA In a FDMA system, many channels share the same antenna at the base station. The power amplifiers or the power combiners, when operated at or near saturation for maximum power efficiency, are nonlinear. The nonlinearities cause signal spreading in the frequency domain and generate intermodulation (IM) frequencies. IM is undesired RF radiation which can interfere with other channels in the FDMA systems, Spreading of the spectrum results in adjacent-channel interference. Intermodulation is the generation of undesirable harmonics. Harmonics generated outside the mobile radio band cause interference to adjacent services, while those present inside the band cause interference to other users in the mobile system.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) Time division multiple access (TDMA) systems divide the radio spectrum into time slots, and in each slot only one user is allowed to either transmit or receive. It can be seen from Figure 8.3 that each user occupies a cyclically repeating time slot, so a channel may be thought of as particular time slot that reoccurs every frame, where N time slots comprise a frame. TDMA systems transmit data in a buffer-and-burst method, thus the transmission for any user is non continuous. This implies that, unlike in FDMA systems which accommodate analog FM, digital data and digital modulation must be used with TDMA. The transmission from various users is interlaced into a repeating frame structure as shown in Figure 8.4. It can be seen that a frame consists of a number of slots. Each frame is made up of a preamble, an information message, and tail bits. In TDMA/FDD, half of the time slots in the frame information message would be used for the forward link channels and half would be used for reverse link channels. In TDMA/FDD systems, an identical or similar frame structure would be used solely for either forward or reverse transmission, but the carrier frequencies would be different for the forward and reverse links. In general, TDMAJFDD systems intentionally induce several time slots of delay between the forward and reverse time slots of a particular user, so that duplexers are not required in the subscriber unit.

In a TDMA frame, the preamble contains the address and synchronization information that both the base station and the subscribers use to identify each other. Guard times are utilized to allow synchronization of the receivers between different slots and frames. Different TDMA wireless standards have different TDMA frame structures, and some are described in Chapter 10. The features of TDMA include the following: TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users, where each user makes use of non overlapping time slots. The number of time slots per frame depends on several factors, such as modulation technique, available bandwidth, etc. Data transmission for users of a TDMA system is not continuous, but occurs in bursts. This results in low battery consumption, since the subscriber transmitter can be turned off when not in use (which is most of the time). Because of discontinuous transmissions in TDMA, the handoff process is much simpler for a subscriber unit, since it is able to listen for other base stations during idle time slots. An enhanced link control, such as that provided by mobile assisted handoff (MAHO) can be carried out by a subscriber by listening on an idle slot in the TDMA frame.

TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception, thus duplexer are not required. Even if FDD is used, a switch rather than a duplexer inside the subscriber unit is all that is required to switch between transmitter and receiver using TDMA.

Adaptive equalization is usually necessary in TDMA systems, since the transmission rates are generally very high as compared to FDMA channels. In TDMA, the guard time should be minimized. If the transmitted signal at the edges of a time slot are suppressed sharply in order to shorten the guard time, the transmitted spectrum will expand and cause interference to adjacent channels.

High synchronization overhead is required in TDMA systems because of burst transmissions. TDMA transmissions are slotted, and this requires the receivers to be synchronized for each data burst. In addition, guard slots are necessary to separate users, and this results in the TDMA systems having larger overheads as compared to FDMA.

TDMA has an advantage in that it is possible to allocate different numbers of time slots per frame to different users. Thus bandwidth can be supplied on demand to different users by concatenating or reassigning time slots based on priority.

Efficiency of TDMA The efficiency of a TDMA system is a measure of the percentage of transmitted data that contains information as opposed to providing overhead for the access scheme. The frame efficiency nf, is the percentage of bits per frame which contain transmitted data. Note that the transmitted data may include source and channel coding bits, so the raw end-user efficiency of a system is generally less than nf. The frame efficiency can be found as follows.

The number of overhead bits per frame is

Spread Spectrum Multiple Access Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA) uses signals which have a transmission bandwidth that is several orders of magnitude greater than the minimum required RF bandwidth. A pseudo-noise (PN) sequence (discussed in Chapter 5) converts a narrowband signal to a wideband noise-like signal before transmission. SSMA also provides immunity to multipath interference and robust multiple access capability. SSMA is not very bandwidth efficient when used by a single user. However, since many users can share the same spread spectrum bandwidth without interfering with one another, spread spectrum systems become bandwidth efficient in a muthple user environment. It is exactly this situation that is of interest to wireless system designers. There are two main types of spread spectrum multiple access techniques; frequency hopped multiple access (FH) and direct sequence multiple access (DS). Direct sequence multiple access is also called code division multiple access (CDMA).

Frequency Flopped Multiple Access (FHMA) Frequency hopped multiple access (FHMA) is a digital multiple access system in which the carrier frequencies of the individual users are varied in a pseudorandom fashion within a wideband channel. The digital data is broken into uniform sized bursts which are transmitted on different carrier frequencies. The instantaneous bandwidth of any one transmission burst is much smaller than the total spread bandwidth. The pseudorandom change of the carrier frequencies of the user randomizes the occupancy of a specific channel at any given time, thereby allowing for multiple access over a wide range of frequencies. In the FR receiver, a locally generated PN code is used to synchronize the receivers instantaneous frequency with that of the transmitter. At any given point in time, a frequency hopped signal only occupies a single, relatively narrow channel since narrowband FM or FSK is used. The difference between FHMA and a traditional FDMA system is that the frequency hopped signal changes channels at rapid intervals. If the rate of change of the carrier frequency is greater than the symbol rate then the system is referred to as a fast frequency hopping system. If the channel changes at a rate less than or equal to the symbol rate, it is called slow frequency hopping, A fast frequency hopper may thus be thought of as an FDMA system which employs frequency diversity. FHMA systems often employ energy efficient constant envelope modulation. Inexpensive receivers may be built to provide noncoherent detection of FHMA. This implies that linearity is not an issue, and the power of multiple users at the receiver does not degrade FHMA performance. A frequency hopped system provides a level of security, especially when a large number of channels are used, since an unintended (or an intercepting) receiver that does not know the pseudorandom sequence of frequency slots must retune rapidly to search for the signal it wishes to intercept. In addition, the FR signal is somewhat immune to fading, since error control coding and interleaving can be used to protect the frequency hopped signal against deep fades which may occasionally occur during the hopping sequence.

Error control coding and interleaving can also be combined to guard against Erasures which can occur when two or more users transmit on the same channel at the same time.

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) In code division multiple access (CDMA) systems, the narrowband message signal is multiplied by a very large bandwidth signal called the spreading signal. The spreading signal is a pseudo-noise code sequence that has a chip rate which is orders of magnitudes greater than the data rate of the message. All users in a CDMA system, as seen from Figure 8.5, use the same carrier frequency and may transmit simultaneously. Each user has its own pseudorandom codeword which is approximately orthogonal to all other code words. The receiver performs a time correlation operation to detect only the specific desired codeword. All other code words appear as noise due to decorrelation. For detection of the message signal, the receiver needs to know the codeword used by the transmitter. Each user operates independently with rio knowledge of the other users. In CDMA, the power of multiple users at a receiver determines the noise floor after decorrelation. If the power of each user within a cell is not controlled

such that they do not appear equal at the base station receiver, then the near-far problem occurs. The near-far problem occurs when many mobile users share the same channel. In general, the strongest received mobile signal will capture the demodulator at a base station. In CDMA, stronger received signal levels raise the noise floor at the base station demodulators for the weaker signals, thereby decreasing the probability that weaker signals will be received. lb combat the near-far problem, power control is used in most CDMA implementations. Power control is provided by each base station in a cellular system and assures that each mobile within the base station coverage area provides the same signal level to the base station receiver. This solves the problem of a nearby subscriber overpowering the base station receiver and drowning out the signals of far away subscribers. Power control is implemented at the base station by rapidly sampling the radio signal strength indicator (RSSI) levels of each mobile and then sending a power change command over the forward radio link. Despite the use of power control within each cell, out-of-cell mobiles provide interference which is not under the control of the receiving base station. The features of CDMA including the following: Many users of a CDMA system share the same frequency. Either TDD or FDD may be used. Unlike TDMA or FDMA, CDMA has a soft capacity limit. Increasing the number of users in a CIJMA system raises the noise floor in a linear manner. Thus, there is no absolute limit on the number of users in CDMA. Rather, the system performance gradually degrades for all users as the number of users is increased, and improves as the number of users is decreased. Multipath fading may be substantially reduced because the signal is spread over a large spectrum. If the spread spectrum bandwidth is greater than the coherence bandwidth of the channel, the inherent frequency diversity will mitigate the effects of small-scale fading. Channel data rates are very high in CDMA systems. Consequently, the symbol(chip) duration is very short and usually much less than the channel delay spread. Since PN sequences have low autocorrelation, multipath which is delayed by more than a chip will appear as noise. A RAKE receiver can be used to improve reception by collecting time delayed versions of the required signal. Since CDMA uses co-channel cells, it can use macroscopic spatial diversity to provide soft handoff. Soft handoff is performed by the MSC, which can simultaneously monitor a particular user from two or more base stations. The MSC may chose the best version of the signal at any time without switching frequencies. Self-jamming is a problem in CDMA system. Self-jamming arises from the fact that the spreading sequences of different users are not exactly orthogonal, hence in the despreading of a particular PN code, non-zero contributions to the receiver decision statistic for a desired user arise from the transmissions of other users in the system. The near-far problem occurs at a CDMA receiver if an undesired user has a high detected power as compared to the desired user. Hybrid Spread Spectrum Techniques In addition to the frequency hopped and direct sequence, spread spectrum multiple access techniques, there are certain other hybrid combinations that provide certain advantages. These hybrid techniques are described below.

Hybrid FDMAJCDMA (FCDMA) This technique can be used as an alternative to the DSCDMA techniques discussed above. Figure 8.6 shows the spectrum of this hybrid scheme. The available wideband spectrum is divided into a number of sub spectras with smaller bandwidths. Each of these smaller sub channels becomes a narrowband CDMA system having processing gain lower than the original CDMA system. This hybrid system has an advantage in that the required bandwidth need not be contigious and different users can be allotted different subspectrum bandwidths depending on their requirements. The capacity of this FDMA/CDMA technique is calculated as the sum of the capacities of a system operating in the subspectra.

Hybrid Direct Sequence/Frequency Hopped Multiple Access (DS1 FHMA) This technique consists of a direct sequence modulated signal whose center frequency is made to hop periodically in a pseudorandom fashion. Figure 8.7 shows the frequency spectrum of such a signal [Dix94]. Direct sequence, frequency hopped systems have an advantage in that they avoid the near-far effect. However, frequency hopped CDMA systems are not adaptable to the soft handoff process since it is difficult to synchronize the frequency hopped base station receiver to the multiple hopped signals.

Time Division CDMA (TCDMA) In a TCDMA (also called TDMA/ CDMA) system, different spreading codes are assigned to different cells. Within each cell, only one user per cell is allotted a particular time slot. Thus at any time, only one CDMA user is transmitting in each cell. When a handoff takes place, the spreading code of the user is changed to that of the new cell. Using TCDMA has an advantage in that it avoids the near-far effect since only one user transmits at a time within a cell. Time Division Frequency Hopping (TDFH) This multiple access technique has an advantage in severe multipath or when severe co-channel interference occurs. The subscriber can hop to a new frequency at the start of a new TDMA frame, thus avoiding a severe fade or erasure event on a particular channel. This technique has been adopted for the GSM standard, where the hopping sequence is predefined and the subscriber is allowed to hop only on certain frequencies which are assigned to a cell. This scheme also avoids co-channel interference problems between neighboring cells if two interfering base station transmitters are made to transmit on different frequencies at different times. The use of TDFH can increase the capacity of GSM by several fold Chapter 10 describes the GSM standard in more detail.

Space Division Mu!tiple Access (SDMA) Space division multiple access (SDMA) controls the radiated energy for each user in space. It can be seen from Figure 8.8 that SDMA serves different users by using spot beam antennas. These different areas covered by the antenna beam may be served by the same frequency (in a TDMA or CDMA systern) or different frequencies (in an FDMA system). Sectorized antennas may be thought of as a primitive application of SDMA. In the future, adaptive antennas will likely be used to simultaneously steer energy in the direction of many users at once and appear to be best suited for TDMA and CDMA base station architectures.

The reverse link presents the most difficulty in cellular systems for several reasons . First, the base station has complete control over the power of all the transmitted signals on the forward link. However, because of different radio propagation paths between each user and the base station, the transmitted power from each subscriber unit must be dynamically controlled to prevent any single user from driving up the interference level for all other users. Second, transmit power is limited by battery consumption at the subscriber unit, therefore there are limits on the degree to which power may be controlled on the reverse link. If the base station antenna is made to spatially filter each desired user so that more energy is detected from each subscriber, then the reverse link for each user is improved and less power is required.

Packet Radio In packet radio (PR) access techniques, many subscribers attempt to access a single channel in an uncoordinated (or minimally coordinated) manner. Transmission is done by using bursts of data. Collisions from the simultaneous transmissions of multiple transmitters are detected at the base station receiver, in which case an ACK or NACK signal is broadcast by the base station to alert the desired user (and all other users) of received transmission. The ACK signal indicates an acknowledgment of a received burst from a particular user by the base station, and a NACK (negative acknowledgment) indicates that the previous burst was not received correctly by the base station. By using ACK and NACK signals, a PR system employs perfect feedback, even though traffic delay due to collisions may be high. Packet radio multiple access is very easy to

implement but has low spectral efficiency and may induce delays. The subscribers use a contention technique to transmit on a common channel. ALOHA protocols, developed foY early satellite systems, are the best examples of contention techniques. ALOHA allows each been successful or not. If a collision occurs, the subscriber waits a random amount of time, and then retransmits the packet. The advantage of packet contention techniques is the ability to serve a large number of subscribers with virtually no overhead. The performance of contention techniques can be evaluated by the throughput (T), which is defined as the average number of messages successfully transmitted per unit time, and the average deky (D) experienced by a typical message burst. subscriber to transmit whenever they have data to send, The transmitting subscribers listen to the acknowledgment feedback to determine if transmission has been successful or not. If a collision occurs, the subscriber waits a random amount of time, and then retransmits the packet. The advantage of packet contention techniques is the ability to serve a large number of subscribers with virtually no overhead. The performance of contention techniques can be evaluated by the throughput (T), which is defined as the average number of messages successfully transmitted per unit time, and the average delay (D) experienced by a typical message burst.

Packet A will collide with packets B and C because of overlap in transmission time.

Fig: Vulnerable period for a packet using the ALOHA protocol. To study packet radio protocols, it is assumed that all packets sent by all users have a constant packet length and fixed, channel data rate, and all other users may generate new packets at random time intervals. Furthermore, it is

UNIT V

Mobile Network Layer: Mobile IP : Goals & Requirements, Terminology, IP Packet Delivery, Agent Advertisement & Discovery, Registration, Tunneling and Encapsulation, Optimizations, Reverse Tunneling. Dynamic Host Configuration protocol. Mobile Transport Layer: Traditional TCP, Snooping TCP, Mobile TCP, Fast Retransmit/Fast Recovery, Transmission/Time-Out Freezing, Selective retransmission, Transaction

oriented TCP.

Concepts:

Mobile IP: Mobile IP is an internet protocol designed to support host mobility. Its goal is to provide the ability of an host to stay connected to the internet regardless of their location. Mobile IP is able to track a mobile host without needing to change the mobile hosts long-term IP address. Applications: 1. In many applications (e.g., VPN, VoIP), sudden changes in network connectivity and IP address can cause problems. Mobile IP was designed to support seamless and continuous Internet connectivity. 2. Mobile IP is most often found in wired and wireless environments where users need to carry their mobile devices across multiple LAN subnets. Examples of use are in roaming between overlapping wireless systems, e.g., IP over DVB, WLAN, WiMAX and BWA. 3. Mobile IP is not required within cellular systems such as 3G, to provide transparency when Internet users migrate between cellular towers, since these systems provide their own data link layer handover and roaming mechanisms. However, it is often used in 3G systems to allow seamless IP mobility between different packet data serving node (PDSN) domains.

Mobile IP Features:
Transparency Mobile end-systems keep their IP address. Continuation of communication after interruption of link possible. Point of connection to the fixed network can be changed.

Compatibility No changes to current end-systems and routers required. Mobile end-systems can communicate with fixed systems.

Security Authentication of all registration messages.

Efficiency and scalability Only little additional messages to the mobile system required (connection typically via a low bandwidth radio link). world-wide support of a large number of mobile systems in the whole Internet.

Terminology
Mobile Node (MN): A host or router that may change its point of attachment from one network or sub

network to another through the internet. This entity is reassigned a fixed home address on a home network, which other correspondent hosts will use to address their packets to regardless of its current location. Home Agent (HA): A router that maintain a list of registered mobile nodes in a visitor list. It is used to forward mobile node-address packets to the appropriate local network when the mobile nodes are away from home. After checking with the current mobility bindings for a particular mobile node. It encapsulated datagram and sends it to the mobile hosts current temporary address when the mobile node.

Foreign Agent (FA): A router that assists a locally reachable mobile node that is away from its home network. It delivers information between the mobile node and the home agent.

Correspondent Node (CN): This node sends the packets which are addressed to the communication partner. An address which identifies the mobile nodes current location. It can be viewed as the end of a tunnel directed towards a mobile node. It can be either assigned dynamically or associated with its foreign agent.

Care-of-address (COA):

IP Packet Delivery
Step 1: The CN wants to send an IP packet to the MN. But CN does not know about the current location of MNs. here, MN is not a part of HA. Step 2: A new header is put in front of the old IP header showing the COA as new destination and HA as source of the encapsulated packet. Step 3: The foreign agent now decapsulates the packet i.e. removes the additional header and forwards the original packet with CN as source and MN as destination to the MN. Step 4: The MN sends the packet as usual with its own fixed IP address as source and CNs address as destination.

Agent Discovery: One initial problem of an MN after moving is how to find a agent. How does the MN discover that its has moved? For this purpose mobile IP describes two methods: Agent Advertisement Agent Solicitation Agent Advertisement: HA and FA periodically send advertisement messages into their physical subnets. MN listens to these messages and detects, if it is in the home or a foreign network (standard case for home network). MN reads a COA from the FA advertisement messages.

Agent advertisement Packet:

type = 16 length = 6 + 4 * #COAs R: registration required B: busy, no more registrations H: home agent F: foreign agent M: minimal encapsulation G: GRE encapsulation r: =0, ignored (former Van Jacobson compression) T: FA supports reverse tunneling reserved: =0, ignored

Agent Solicitation: If no agent advertisement are present or the inter-arrival time is too high and the MN has not received a COA by other reason. So, the mobile node must send the Agent Solicitations. These solicitation messages do not flood the network but basically an MN can search for an FA endlessly sending out solicitation messages.

Registration
When the mobile node is away from home, it registers its care-of-address with its home agent so that home agent knows where to forward its packets. Depending on the network configuration the mobile node could either register directly with its home agent, or indirectly via the help of its foreign agent. In short, MN signals COA to the HA via the FA, HA acknowledges via FA to MN. These actions have to be secured by authentication.

Mobile IP registration request:

S: simultaneous bindings B: broadcast datagrams D: decapsulation by MN M mininal encapsulation G: GRE encapsulation r: =0, ignored T: reverse tunneling requested

x: =0, ignored Mobile IP registration reply:

Example codes: registration successful 0 registration accepted 1 registration accepted, but simultaneous mobility bindings unsupported registration denied by FA 65 administratively prohibited 66 insufficient resources 67 mobile node failed authentication 68 home agent failed authentication 69 requested Lifetime too long registration denied by HA 129 administratively prohibited 131 mobile node failed authentication 133 registration Identification mismatch 135 too many simultaneous mobility bindings

Tunneling:
Tunneling refers to establishing of a pipe. Pipe is a term used to specify a data stream between two connected ends. For e.g. when a mobile node is roaming in a foreign network, the home agent must be able to intercept all IP datagram packets sent to the mobile node so that these datagrams can be forwarded via tunneling.

There are two type of Tunnel: Forward Tunnel: A tunnel that shuttles packets towards the mobile node. Its starts at the home agent, and ends at the mobile nodes care-of-address.

Reverse Tunnel: A tunnel that start at the mobile nodes care-of-address and terminates at the home agent.

Fig 1: Forward Tunnelling

Fig 2: Reverse Tunnelling

Mobile IP with reverse Tunneling: Router accept often only topological correct addresses (firewall!) a packet from the MN encapsulated by the FA is now topological correct furthermore multicast and TTL (Time to Live) problems solved (TTL in the home network correct, but MN is to far away from the receiver) Reverse tunneling does not solve problems with firewalls, the reverse tunnel can be abused to circumvent security mechanisms (tunnel hijacking). Mobile IP with reverse Tunneling: Optimization of data paths, i.e. packets will be forwarded through the tunnel via the HA to a sender (double triangular routing) The standard is backwards compatible The extensions can be implemented easily and cooperate with current implementations without these extensions Agent Advertisements can carry requests for reverse tunneling.

Encapsulation:
The process of enclosing an IP datagram within another IP header which contains the care-of-address of the mobile node. The IP datagram itself remains intact and untouched throughout the enclosing process.

Decapsulation:
The process of stripping the outermost IP header of incoming packets so that the enclosed datagram can be accessed and delivered to the proper destination. Decapsulation is the reverse process of encapsulation.

Encapsulation Types:
IP in IP Encapsulation To encapsulate an IP datagram using IP in IP encapsulation, an outer IP header is inserted before the datagrams existing IP header. There is tunnel between HA to COA.

 Minimal Encapsulation Minimal encapsulation (optional) avoids repetition of identical fields. e.g. TTL-time to live, version, DS-distributed system (RFC (request for comment) 2474, old: TOS-type of services). only applicable for non fragmented packets, no space left for fragment identification.

Generic routing Encapsulation In the most general case, a system has a packet that needs to be encapsulated and delivered to some destination. We call this the payload packet. The payload is first encapsulated in a GRE packet. The resulting GRE packet can then be encapsulated in some other protocol and then forwarded. We call this outer protocol the delivery protocol. This specification is generally concerned with the structure of the GRE header.

Optimization of packet forwarding:

Problem: Triangular Routing sender sends all packets via HA to MN higher latency and network load

Solutions sender learns the current location of MN direct tunneling to this location HA informs a sender about the location of MN big security problems!

Change of FA packets on-the-fly during the change can be lost new FA informs old FA to avoid packet loss, old FA now forwards remaining packets to new FA this information also enables the old FA to release resources for the MN

Mobile IPv6: Mobile IP is the internets network-layer protocol. Mobile IP provides best-effort, connectivity packet delivery on behalf of transportlayer and higher-layer protocols. There is different version of Internet Protocol. In that IP version 6 the successor to todays IP version 4 protocol. IPv6 protocol expands the available address space for each packet and support of the internet security protocol. Problem with Mobile IP: Security authentication with FA problematic, for the FA typically belongs to another organization no protocol for key management and key distribution has been standardized in the Internet patent and export restrictions Firewalls typically mobile IP cannot be used together with firewalls, special set-ups are needed (such as reverse tunneling)

 QoS many new reservations in case of RSVP tunneling makes it hard to give a flow of packets a special treatment needed for the QoS. IP Micro-Mobility Support: Mobile IP exhibits several problems regarding the duration of handover and the scalability of the registration procedure. Assuming a large number of mobile devices changing networks quite frequently a high load on the home agents as well as on the network is generated by registration and binding update messages. IP micro-mobility protocols can complement mobile IP by offering fast and almost seamless handover control in limited geographical area. The following three approaches to the solutions of the micro-mobility problems. Cellular IP: Operation: CIP Nodes maintain routing entries for MNs Multiple entries possible Routing entries updated based on packets sent by MN Cellular IP Hawaii Hierarchical Mobile IPv6 (HMIPv6)

CIP Gateway: Mobile IP tunnel endpoint Initial registration processing

Security provisions: all CIP Nodes share network key MN key: net key, IP addr MN gets key upon registration

Advantage: Manageability: Cellular IP is mostly self-configuring and integration of Cellular IP gateway (CIPGW) into a firewall would facilitate administration of mobility-related functionality. Disadvantages: Efficiency: Additional network load is induced by forwarding packets on multiple paths. Transparency: Changes to MNs are required. Security: Routing table are changed based on messages sent by mobile node. Additionally all system in the network can easily obtain a copy of all packets destined for an MN.

DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol: Application Simplification of installation and maintenance of networked computers. Supplies systems with all necessary information, such as IP address, DNS server address, domain name, subnet mask, default router etc. Enables automatic integration of systems into an Intranet or the Internet, can be used to acquire a COA for Mobile IP.

 Client/Server-Model the client sends via a MAC broadcast a request to the DHCP server (might be via a DHCP relay).

DHCP - protocol mechanisms:

DHCP characteristics: Server Several servers can be configured for DHCP, coordination not yet standardized (i.e., manual configuration). Renewal of configurations IP addresses have to be requested periodically, simplified protocol. Options Available for routers, subnet mask, NTP (network time protocol) timeserver, SLP (service location protocol) directory, DNS (domain name system).

Mobile Ad-hoc Network: Mobility support described in earlier section so far relies on the existence of at least some infrastructure. Mobile IP requires, e.g., a home agent, tunnels and default routers. DHCP requires servers and broadcast capabilities of the medium reaching all participants or relays to servers. Cellular phone networks require base stations, infrastructure networks etc. However, there are several situations where users of a network cannot rely on an infrastructure, the infrastructure is too expensive, or there is no infrastructure at all. In these situation ad hoc networks are the only solution. Example for the use of ad hoc networks are: 1. Instant infrastructure: Unplanned meetings, spontaneous interpersonal communication etc. cannot rely on any infrastructure. Infrastructures need planning and administration. It would take too long to set up this kind of infrastructure therefore, ad hoc connectivity has to be set up. 2. Disaster relief: Infrastructures typically break down in disaster areas. Hurricanes cut phone and power lines, floods destroy base stations, fires bum servers. Thus, emergency teams can only rely on an Infrastructures they can set up themselves. No forward planning can be done and the setup must be done extremely fast and reliably. 3. Remote area: Even if Infrastructures could be planned ahead, it is some times too expensive to set up an Infrastructures in sparsely populated area. Depending on the communication pattern ad hoc networks or satellite Infrastructures can be a solution.

4. Effectiveness: Services of existing Infrastructures might be too expensive for certain application. If for example, only connection-oriented cellular networks exist, but an application sends only a small status information every other minute, a cheaper ad hoc packet-oriented network might be a better solution. Furthermore, registration procedures might take too long and communication overhead, so ad hoc network can offer a better solution.

Traditional Routing Algorithms: Distance Vector Periodic exchange of messages with all physical neighbors that contain information about who can be reached at what distance. Selection of the shortest path if several paths available. Link State Periodic notification of all routers about the current state of all physical links. Router get a complete picture of the network.

Dynamic of the topology frequent changes of connections, connection quality, participants. Limited performance of mobile systems periodic updates of routing tables need energy without contributing to the transmission of user data, sleep modes difficult to realize. limited bandwidth of the system is reduced even more due to the exchange of routing information.

links can be asymmetric, i.e., they can have a direction dependent transmission quality.

Destination Sequence Distance Vector (DSDV): Destination sequence distance vector routing is an enhancement to distance vector routing for ad hoc networks. Distance vector routing is used as RIP in wired networks. It performs extremely poorly with certain network changes due to the count-toinfinity problem. Each node exchanges its neighbor table periodically with its neighbors. The strategies to avoid this problem which are used in fixed network do not help in the case of wireless ad hoc networks, due to the rapidly changing topology. Effects might be the creation of loops or unreachable regions within the network.

Mobile Transport Layer: E.g. HTTP (used by web services) typically uses TCP TCP Steam oriented, not transaction oriented Network friendly: time-out congestion slow down transmission Well known TCP guesses quite often wrong in wireless and mobile networks Packet loss due to transmission errors Packet loss due to change of network Reliable transport between client and server required

Result Severe performance degradation.

Transport protocols typically designed for Fixed end-systems Fixed, wired networks

Research activities Performance Congestion control Efficient retransmissions

TCP congestion control packet loss in fixed networks typically due to (temporary) overload situations router have to discard packets as soon as the buffers are full TCP recognizes congestion only indirect via missing acknowledgements, retransmissions unwise, they would only contribute to the congestion and make it even worse slow-start algorithm as reaction

TCP slow-start algorithm sender calculates a congestion window for a receiver start with a congestion window size equal to one segment exponential increase of the congestion window up to the congestion threshold, then linear increase missing acknowledgement causes the reduction of the congestion threshold to one half of the current congestion window congestion window starts again with one segment

TCP fast retransmit/fast recovery TCP sends an acknowledgement only after receiving a packet if a sender receives several acknowledgements for the same packet, this is due to a gap in received packets at the receiver however, the receiver got all packets up to the gap and is actually receiving packets therefore, packet loss is not due to congestion, continue with current congestion window (do not use slow-start)

Indirect TCP I: Indirect TCP or I-TCP segments the connection no changes to the TCP protocol for hosts connected to the wired Internet, millions of computers use (variants of) this protocol optimized TCP protocol for mobile hosts splitting of the TCP connection at, e.g., the foreign agent into 2 TCP connections, no real end-to-end connection any longer.

Fig : I-TCP socket and state migration

Indirect TCP II: Advantages no changes in the fixed network necessary, no changes for the hosts (TCP protocol) necessary, all current optimizations to TCP still work transmission errors on the wireless link do not propagate into the fixed network simple to control, mobile TCP is used only for one hop between, e.g., a foreign agent and mobile host therefore, a very fast retransmission of packets is possible, the short delay on the mobile hop is known.

 Disadvantages loss of end-to-end semantics, an acknowledgement to a sender does now not any longer mean that a receiver really got a packet, foreign agents might crash higher latency possible due to buffering of data within the foreign agent and forwarding to a new foreign agent Transparent extension of TCP within the foreign agent buffering of packets sent to the mobile host lost packets on the wireless link (both directions!) will be retransmitted immediately by the mobile host or foreign agent, respectively (so called local retransmission) the foreign agent therefore snoops the packet flow and recognizes acknowledgements in both directions, it also filters ACKs changes of TCP only within the foreign agent.

Snooping TCP II: Data transfer to the mobile host FA buffers data until it receives ACK of the MH, FA detects packet loss via duplicated ACKs or time-out fast retransmission possible, transparent for the fixed network. Data transfer from the mobile host FA detects packet loss on the wireless link via sequence numbers, FA answers directly with a NACK to the MH MH can now retransmit data with only a very short delay. Integration of the MAC layer MAC layer often has similar mechanisms to those of TCP thus, the MAC layer can already detect duplicated packets due to retransmissions and discard them .

 Problems snooping TCP does not isolate the wireless link as good as I-TCP snooping might be useless depending on encryption schemes.

Transmission/time-out freezing: Mobile hosts can be disconnected for a longer time no packet exchange possible, e.g., in a tunnel, disconnection due to overloaded cells or mux. with higher priority traffic TCP disconnects after time-out completely TCP freezing MAC layer is often able to detect interruption in advance MAC can inform TCP layer of upcoming loss of connection TCP stops sending, but does now not assume a congested link MAC layer signals again if reconnected

Advantage scheme is independent of data Disadvantage TCP on mobile host has to be changed, mechanism depends on MAC layer.

Selective retransmission: TCP acknowledgements are often cumulative ACK n acknowledges correct and in-sequence receipt of packets up to n if single packets are missing quite often a whole packet sequence beginning at the gap has to be retransmitted (go-back-n), thus wasting bandwidth. Selective retransmission as one solution RFC2018 allows for acknowledgements of single packets, not only

acknowledgements of in-sequence packet streams without gaps sender can now retransmit only the missing packets Advantage much higher efficiency

 Disadvantage more complex software in a receiver, more buffer needed at the receiver.

Mobile Transport Layer: