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I. RAYLEIGH FADING Figure 1: The figure shows a mobile station moving along the
positive x-axis moving at a velocity of v m/s and the nth incoming
wave at an angle of θn (t).
Small scale fading is a characteristic of radio
propagation resulting from the presence reflectors
and scatterers that cause multiple versions of the
transmitted signal to arrive at the receiver, each
distorted in amplitude, phase and angle of arrival. fD,n (t) = fm cos(θn (t)) (1)
Consider the situation shown in Fig. 1 wherein a
mobile receiver (mobile station or MS) is assumed to where fm = maximum Doppler frequency = v/λ, λ
be travelling along the positive x axis with a velocity being the wavelength of the radiowave. Waves ar-
v m/s. The figure shows one of the many waves riving from the direction of motion cause a positive
arriving at the mobile station. Let us call this the doppler shift, while those coming from the opposite
nth incoming wave. Let it be incident at an angle diection cause a negative doppler shift. We wish to
θn (t), where the dependence on t stems from the derive a mathematical framework to characterize the
fact that the receiver is not stationary. effects of small scale fading. Consider the transmit
bandpass signal:
The motion of the MS produces a Doppler shift in
the received frequency as compared to the carrier fre- s(t) = Re{u(t).ej2πfc t } (2)
quency. This doppler offset is given by:
where u(t) is the complex baseband equaivalent of
∗ Taught by Dr. Narayan Mandayam, Rutgers University. the bandpass transmit signal. If N waves arrive at
1
the MS, the received bandpass signal can be written shall see later.
as:
Further continuing our modeling of the received sig-
x(t) = Re{r(t)ej2πfc t } (3) nal, we can neglect the baseband modulating signal
for narrowband signals (i.e. signals in which the base-
with
band signal bandwidth is very small compared to the
N
X carrier frequency, which is true of most communica-
r(t) = αn (t).e−j2πφn (t) u(t − τn (t)) (4) tion systems) and consider the unmodulated carrier
n=1 alone.
where
N
X
φn (t) = (fc + fD,n (t))τn (t) − fD,n (t).t (5) r(t) = αn (t)e−jφn (t) (7)
n=1
2
τn (t) = τn (14) Ωp
= Eθ {cos(2πfm τ cos(θ))}
We also assume that x(t) is WSS. 2
3
( )
ΦrI rI (τ ).ej2πfc t + Φ∗rI rI (τ ).e−j2πfc t
=F
2
ΦrI rI (τ ).ej2πfc t + ΦrI rI (τ ).e−j2πfc t
Sxx (f ) = F
2
(31)
1
Sxx (f ) = {SrI rI (f − fc ) + SrI rI (−f − fc )} (32)
Figure 2: Bessel function of the zeroth order and the first type. 2
This is the shape of the autocorrelation function ΦrI rI (τ ) of the
in-phase component of the complex baseband equivalent of the Now we shall make use of the knowledge that that
received signal.
r(t) = rI (t) + j.rQ (t) is a complex Gaussian process
q large N . Therefore the envelope z(t) = |r(t)| =
for
2
rI2 (t) + rQ
2 (t) has a Rayleigh distribution
4
simple AWGN model with no fading. The avegrage
power is given by E[z 2 ] = Ωp = s2 + 2σ 2 . Also:
Kωp Ωp
s2 = , 2σ 2 = (37)
K +1 K +1
5
Figure 4: The power delay profile gives the the power received as Figure 5: Since received power can only be measured on a dis-
a function of time when an impulse is transmitted over the wireless crete time scale, we can only have a discrete power delay profile,
channel. which indicates the power received at discrete instants of time
when an impulse is transmitted on the wireless channel.
Definition: The power delay profile or multipath in- As against the power delay profile shown above, in
tensity profile is defined as: reality we can only have a discrete power delay pro-
file. Corresponding to this discrete delay profile, we
1
Φc (τ ) = E[c(t, τ )c∗ (t, τ )] (41) have the following definitions:
2
P
It gives the average power at the channel output as P (τk )τk
τ = Pk (44)
a function of time delay. k P (τk )
q
Definition: Average delay is defined as: στ = τ¯2 − (τ̄ )2 (45)
R∞
τ φc (τ )dτ where
µτ = R0 ∞ (42)
0
φc (τ )dτ P
¯ P (τk )τk2
Definition: RMS Delay spread is defined as: τ = Pk
2 (46)
k P (τk )
sR ∞
2
0 (τR − µT ) φc (τ )dτ
στ = ∞ (43)
0
φc (τ )dτ
6
V. CHARACTERIZATION OF FADING CHANNELS defined as a measure of spectral broadening caused
by the time-rate of change of the channel (related to
Fading radio channels have been classified in two the doppler frequency). 6 . The coherence time is a
ways. 5 The first type of classification discusses statistical measure of the time duration over which
whether the fading is flat (frequency non-selective) two received signals have a strong potential for am-
or frequency selective, while the second classification plitude correlation. Thus if the inverse bandwidth
is based on the rate at which the wireless channel of the basebad signal is greater than the coherence
is changing (or in other words, the rate of change time of the channel then the channel changes during
of the impulse response of channel), i.e. whether transmission of he baseband message. This will cause
the fading is fast or slow. In connection with these a distortion at the receiver. It is shown that:
characterizations of fading channels, it is useful to
1
note the following quantities: Tc ≈ (48)
BD
Coherence bandwidth: Coherence bandwidth is a
If the coherence time is defined as the duration of
statistical measure of the range of frequencies over
time over which the time correlation function is > 0.5,
which the channel can be considered ”flat” (i.e. fre-
then:
quency non-selective, or in other words a channel s
which passes all spectral components with equal gain 9
Tc ≈ 2
(49)
and phase). It may also be defined as the range of fre- 16πfm
quencies over which any two frequency components
have a strong potential for amplitude correlation. It where fm is the maximum doppler frequency = v/λ.
has been shown that:
1 Example - Consider a vehicle travelling at 60 mi.
Bc ∝ (47) per hour and communicating with a stationary base
στ
station using a carrier frquency fc = 900 Mhz. This
where στ is the RMS delay spread. Also, if we define would give a channel coherence time of Tc ≈ 6.77
the coherence bandwidth as that bandwidth over msec. Therefore if the symbol rate of transmission
which the frequency correlationfunction is above is greater than 150 samples per second then the
0.5 (i.e. the normalized cross-correlation coefficient fading nature of the channel doesn’t really affect the
> 0.5 for all frquencies) then Bc ≈ 5σ1τ . Note that transmitted signal being received by the receiver in a
if the signal bandwidth is > BC , then the different harmful way. For a smaller symbol rate, the symbol
frequency components in the signal will not be faded width is so large that the channel changes (symbol
the same way. The channel then appears to be duration > Tc ) within a single symbol.
’frequency-selective’ to the transmitted signal.
Flat fading : If a channel has a constant response
Doppler spread and Coherence time: While στ for a bandwidth > the transmitted signal bandwidth,
and Bc describe the time dispersive nature of the then the channel is said to be a flat fading channel.
channel in an area local to the receiver, they do not The conditions for a flat fading channel are:
offer any information about the time-variations of the
channel due to relative motion between the trans- Bs Bc (50)
mitter and the receiver. The doppler spread BD ,
5 An excellent treatment of the characterization of fading Ts Tc (51)
channels is found in an article in the Sept. 1997 issue of the
IEEE communications magazine: ’Rayleigh Fading Channels 6 If the baseband signal frequency is much greater than the
in Mobile Digital Communication Systems: Part I: Caharac- doppler spread BD then the effects of doppler spread are neg-
terization’, by Bernard Sklar. ligible
7
where Bs and Ts are the signal bandwidth and the Slow fading : In a slow fading channel, the chan-
symbol duration respectively. nel impulse response changes at a rate much slower
than the transmitted baseband signal S(t). In the fre-
Frequency selective fading : A channel is said quency domain, this implies that the Doppler spread
to be frequency selective if the signal bandwidth is of the channel is much less than the bandwidth of the
greater than the coherence bandwidth of the chan- baseband signal. There fore, a signal undergoes slow
nel. In such a case, different frequency components fading if:
of the transmit signal undergo fading to different ex-
tents. For a frequency-selective fading situation: Ts Tc (57)
Fast fading : In a fast fading channel, the chan- It must be noted that the wireless channel is func-
nel impulse response changes rapidly within the sym- tion of what is transmitted over it. In order to
bol duration, i.e. the coherence time of the channel determine whether fading will affect communication
is smaller that the symbol period of the transmit- on a wireless channel, we must compare the symbol
ted signal. Viewed in the frequency domain, signal duration of data transmission with the coherence
distortion due to fast fading increases with increas- time and the bandwidth of the baseband signal (fast
ing Doppler spread relative to the bandwidth of the / slow fading) with the coherence bandwidth of the
transmitted signal. Therefore, a signal undergoes fast channel (flat / frequency selective nature).
fading if:
It should also be clear that when a channel is specified
Ts > Tc (55) as a fast or slow fading channel, it does not specify
Bs < BD (56) whether the channel is flat fading or frequency selec-
tive in nature. These are two independent classifica-
where BD is the Doppler spread of the channel and tions. Fast and slow fading deal with the time rate of
Tc is its coherence time. change of the channel with reference to the transmit-
ted signal, whicle flat and frequency-selective fading
8
deal with weather the relationship between the signal
bandwidth and the range of frequencies over which
the fading behaviour of the channel is uniform.
References
[1] Wireless communication technologies, lecture notes,
Spring 2005, Dr. Narayan Mandayam, Rutgers Univer-
sity