ALEXANDRE VIEIRA

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CHILDREN OF THE CREATOR: AN ANALYSIS OF THE CREATION MOTIF IN ISAIAH 1:2-3 AND 43:1-7

EO-801 The Vision of Yahweh in Isaiah 1-39

February 06, 2013

Table of Contents

Introduction.. 1:2-3...

1 2

43:1-7.. 6 Conclusion................... 12 Bibliography..... 14

Introduction
In the Old Testament, when the title son of God is applied to Israel1 it designates Israel as Gods chosen and protected people.2 The assertion that they are children of God, together with the corresponding idea that God is their Father, reveals the nature of their unique relationship with God.3 Although it is relatively rare to find the metaphor of Yahweh as father used in the OT,4 Isaiah5 employs it several times: 1:2-4; 30:1-11; 43:1-7; 45:10-11; 49:15;6 63:8, 16; 64:8. This way of portraying the relationship between Yahweh and Israel is certainly covenantal. Nonetheless, of those seven times where Isaiah refers to Yahweh as Father or the people as His children, only two (30:1-11 and 63:8, 16) are not in a context which the prophet refers to creation. With that in mind, in this paper I will seek to understand how and why Isaiah combines covenant and creation by claiming at times that, in other words, Israel is son of the Creator. This theme of the Creator is certainly relevant to understand the book's theology for it assumes greater theological significance in Isaiah than in any other place in the Bible. 7 Some argue that even in passages where the prophet does not speak explicitly of creation,an understanding of creation is important to what Isaiah does say about a variety of things. 8 As it is well recognized, this subject is more evident in Isaiah 40-66. However, of the 11 creational verbs which appear in the second part of the book , , , , , , , ,

It is also applied in the Old Testament to angelic beings and to the king (cf. Byrne, Brendan. Sons of God. Anchor Bible Dictionary. Vol. 6. New York: Doubleday, 1992, 156). 2 Fossum, Jarl. Son of God. Anchor Bible Dictionary. Vol. 6. New York: Doubleday, 1992, 129. 3 Byrne, Sons of God, 156. 4 Wildberger, Hans. Isaiah 1-12: a commentary. Translated by Thomas H. Trapp. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991, 13. 5 The book of Isaiah will be taken as a unity. The author of the entire book of Isaiah will be assumed to be the same person. Therefore, I will not talk about faith in God as Creator as a later motif developed during or after the exile in Babylon. 6 Although the word sons, children nor Father is used in this context, I am including this verse because it compares Gods relationship to His people to that of a mother and her child. 7 Ollenburger, Ben C. 1987. "Isaiah's creation theology." Ex Auditu 3, 54. 8 Ibid.

, , and ,9 only 4 do not appear in chapters 1-39 in passages about creation , , and .
I shall analyze one passage from each part of the book: 1:2-3 from chapters 1-39 and 43:1-7 from 40-66. Due to the limitations of this project the other passages which are pertinent to our subject and equally important will not be object of study. The decision about which passages should be included here was arbitrary and at the same time theologically motivated. The first text is part of a judgment section, which describes the peoples sinful condition10 and gives a charge against Israel.11 The second text is part of a hope section, which proclaims Yahwehs action and power to deliver His people. In more Lutheran terms, the texts fit nicely in our common characterization of Law and Gospel. Another reason to pick these two texts is the fact that while both associate affiliation with creation, the first does not employ creation terminology whereas the second does in a powerful way. These passages should help us have a more comprehensive picture of Isaiahs theology regarding the children of the Creator.

1:2-3 you do not follow your Father, your Creator

Some aspects of Isaiah's understanding of the relationship between the Creator and His children, Israel, are presented in the very beginning of the book (1:2-3): 2Hear, O heavens, and give ear, O earth, for Yahweh has spoken: "Children12 I have brought up and raised, but they have rebelled against me. 3The ox knows its possessor and the donkey its

Lessing, Reed. 2010. "Yahweh versus Marduk: creation theology in Isaiah 40-55." Concordia Journal 36, no. 3, 237. 10 Young, Edward. The Book of Isaiah: the English text, with introduction, exposition, and notes . Vol. I. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972, 23. 11 Oswalt, John. The Book of Isaiah: chapters 1-39. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986, 84. 12 The text says literally sons. In Hebrew, as in some modern languages, the masculine represents both genders, but in English children suits better.

3 master's13 crib. Israel does not know! My people do not understand!" Although creational verbs are not used in this passage, Yahweh's words are an appeal to the order of creation. 14

and are called to hear what their Creator has to say.15

The two words, heaven and earth, call to mind Genesis 1:1, and point to the entire creation. Such an appeal shows the significance and importance of the message, and also shows that the LORD who speaks, namely, Yahweh, the covenant God of Israel, was no mere local, tribal deity, but the God who could command attention from all creation. He alone, the God of Israel, had the right 16 to order all creation, for He Himself had brought it into existence. (italics added)

In this passage, God is the Creator. At the same time, He calls the people of Israel which denotes the covenant. How should we understand the fact that the people are sons of the Creator? First of all, we should mention the obvious fact that the Creator and the covenant God are identical.17 However, all creatures are not identical with the covenant people. Then why is it important for Isaiah and God to refer to creation in a passage where the people involved are not called the works of my hand, f or instance, but ? Wildberger, while recognizing that Yahweh as Creator is part of the argument, relegates this as secondary in favor of a strong covenantal interpretation. According to him, the comparison between the animals (v. 3) that represent the natural order and Israel teach a lesson primarily about the peoples role as covenant people. He argues that Isaiahs basic concern is not with the Maat type of order which has been established at creation; rather, his concern is with faithfulness to the covenant which was supposed to show a correspondence with Yahwehs gracious turning to his people. 18 In this type of argument, the order of creation
13 14

The plural of majesty in Hebrew denotes the superiority of the master (cf. Wildberger, Isaiah 1-12, 9). Oswalt, Isaiah 1-39, 85. 15 Delitzsch, F. Isaiah two volumes in one. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976, 75. 16 Young, The Book of Isaiah (1972), 35. 17 Watts, John D W. 1986. "The characterization of Yahweh in the vision of Isaiah." Review & Expositor 83, no. 3, 445. 18 Wildberger, Isaiah 1-12, 15.

4 does not teach directly anything about sonship, but it is used just as an illustration for the covenant. Ultimately, Yahweh as Creator19 is not viewed as the covenant God, but the former just represents the latter in the argument. The reasoning then is this: just as the animals know the one who created and preserves them, so Israel ought to know the one who called and preserves them. Although there is nothing intrinsically wrong about Wildbergers conclusions, one can argue that there is more to be learned from the fact that they are sons of the Creator. Oswalt approaches the text from the opposite perspective. He defends that while the covenant is clearly in view here, it is in the background and remains there. Israels offense is against common decency and common sense. Even animals know better. 20 Without minimizing the importance of the covenant for Isaiah, since it [the covenant] appears to be the ground of all his [Isaiahs] thinking,21 Oswalt is able to hold that Yahwehs argument is not just about their covenantal relationship. The matter is more basic and yet deeper than that. Yahweh is contending with them because they were living in ways which are contrary to their own natures.22 The created world of nature is the starting point and the defining standard according to which life and new life are understood.23 Their sin and pride were not only contrary to the covenant which God had made with them, but they were contrary to creation as God envisioned it.24 By approaching the text in such a way, the reasoning becomes this: just as the animals know the one who created and preserves them, so Israel ought to know the one who created and preserves them, who happens to be the very same merciful God

19

Wildberger does not believe that the author of these verses is the same author of the so-called deutero-Isaiah, where the creation motif comes to the fore. Hence, it is suitable that he belittles its use by the prophet. 20 Oswalt, Isaiah 1-39, 85. 21 Ibid. 22 Ibid. 23 Lessing, Reed. Isaiah 40-55. St. Louis: Concordia, 2011, 63. 24 Oswalt, Isaiah 1-39, 85.

5 who called them as a Father. After all, God is not only Creator of heaven and earth and of those animals, He is also the Creator of His people. 25 Reading the text from the perspective of the paragraph above is striking for it allows us to see that the natural result of a people who have been created (not only called) and preserved by God would be non-rebellion. The ox and the donkey exemplify how simple it is to live in accordance to the order in which you were created they naturally look to their possessor and master s crib. It is not a matter of intelligence (ox and donkey are not known for their intellectuality); it is a matter of how one has been built. Israel has the same Creator possessor and master, as those animals, but the people rebelled went out of their way to go against the created order.26 Ones experience of the natural world ought by itself to lead to submission to the Creator.27 Everyone should be able to see the glory of the Creator which fills all the earth (6:3). But instead, people fill the earth with those things in which they trust (2:7) and do not look to the Creator of all, who made and formed everything (22:11). And to make up for the God they rebel against, they make idols with their own hands so that they can bow down before them (2:8). The verses discussed above echo Moses words in Deut. 32. 28 That chapter starts with the words: Give ear, O heavens, and I will speak, and let the earth hear the words of my mouth. Heaven and earth are called to witness about Yahwehs children, who are foolish and non-wise (Deut. 32:6). In that context (v. 6) Moses also connects the fact that they are children with the fact that God is their Maker: Is not he your father, who acquired you, who made ( )you and established ( )you? In verse 15 Moses says that they have

25 26

Young, The Book of Isaiah (1972), 37. Delitzsch, Isaiah, 77. 27 Oswalt, Isaiah 1-39, 86. 28 Young, The Book of Isaiah (1972), 34.

6 abandoned and rejected the God who made ( )them, and in 18 it is said that they have forgotten the One who fathered ( )them. More than just a redeemer who makes a covenant with them and calls Himself their Father, Yahweh is the One who gives birth to them both at creation and at His calling.

43:1-7 your Father, your Creator, will bring you back

This passage contrasts with the strong rebuke against Israel which precedes (42:25-25) it by proclaiming to Israel a magnificent Gospel.29 When the prophet wrote this, Israel was still to be taken into captivity in Babylon; they were going to be away from their land. When they finally were in exile, many came to the conclusion that their faith had been a farce, while others, still convinced that God was real enough, concluded that he had abandoned them. 30 To those people the prophet brings a message of deliverance, assuring them that they belong to someone; that they have a God who watches over them, He who created and formed them. The very fact that their name is pronounced by God means possession and establishes a personal relationship.31 He created and therefore they are His.32 And the kind of relationship between Yahweh and them is specified when the people of Israel is referred to as sons and daughters of God (v. 6). Goldingays and Paynes analysis33 of the structure of this section brings to our attention the following parallelisms:
1 Yhwh is one who creates, calls, shapes (fear not)
29 30

Lessing, Isaiah 40-55, 306. Oswalt, Isaiah 1-39, 14. 31 Schkel, L. Alonso and Diaz, J. L. Sicre. Profetas introducciones y comentario: Isaias * Jeremias. Madrid: Ediciones Cristiandad, 1980, 292. Original text: nombre pronunciado por Dis significa posesin y hace entablar una relacin personal. 32 Lessing, Isaiah 40-55, 164. 33 Goldingay, John and Payne, David. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Isaiah 40-55. Vol. I. London: T&T Clark, 2006, 271-272.

7
2 Yhwhs promise regarding a journey (I am with you) 3a Yhwh in relationship with Israel 3b Yhwh as one who gave up people for Israel 4a Yhwh as Israels lover 4b Yhwh as one who will give up people for Israel 5a Yhwh in relationship with Israel (fear not for I am with you) 5b-6 Yhwhs promise regarding a journey 7 Yhwh as one who calls, creates, shapes

The section begins and ends reminding Israel of their relationship with the Creator, who is their God and Savior (v. 3), and their Father (6). Even though verse 1 does not explicitly talk about God as a Father, it becomes clear towards the end of the section that that metaphor is part of the thought of the entire segment, and therefore we will direct our attention to both verses 1 and 7. Verse 1 reads: But now thus says Yahweh, your Creator34 (), O Jacob, your Shaper (), O Israel: "Do not fear, for I have redeemed you; I have called you by name, you are mine. It is not any god who is talking, but it is the very One who created and formed them. While the description of Yhwh as creator is no surprise, the application of the term create directly to JacobIsraels own being is new.35 What does it mean that Yahweh His people? Is this referring to the moment of creation or to the beginning of Israel as a nation? Could it be both? Westermann contends that this act of creation and forming in verse 1 referred strictly to Israel as a nation, [and therefore] the words can only mean 36 the fact that God brought them out of Egypt through the wilderness to the promised land. The creating and forming
34

Lessing translates these participles with the present continuous tense in English for he understands that participle creation verbs indicate that Yahwehs power as Creator is not just a thing of the past; he continues to wiled it now for the benefit of his people as he performs his new act of salvation. (Lessing, Isaiah 40-55, 249). I translated them with nouns for they qualify who Yahweh is (see Goldingay and Payne, Isaiah 40-55, 272). This way, the focus is not on His past or present act of creation, but on the fact that whenever Israel was, is being, or will be created, Yahweh is the One who accomplishes it. 35 Goldingay and Payne, Isaiah 40-55, 272. 36 Westermann, Claus. Isaiah 40-66: a commentary. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1977, 117.

8 would then refer to an actual historical act of God, the saving act by which he brought Israel into being.37 Immediately after these assertions Westermann says that this opening appositional clause, too, will also carry tones of the other sense: the individual Israelite here addressed is told and reminded that he is Gods creature, as, for example, in Ps. 139. 38 This reading hardly sees the use for the creational verbs in the sentence, other than just introducing (by saying the same thing) what comes right after them: I have called you by name, you are mine. It is interesting, however, to notice that when commenting on verse 2, Westermann sees the validity of talking about Yahweh as Creator on verse 1. In his own words, In v. 2, the speaker is the creator and lord of the elements, in vv. 3b-4b, the lord of history. Verse 2 promises Israel safe conduct on her journey. No force of nature, no hostile element, is to be able to do her any harm as she travels [back from exile]. 39 The point is not that Westermann denies that Yahweh is the Creator, but that he minimizes its importance in favor of an essentially covenantal interpretation. Again, as our analysis of Isaiah 1:2-3 tried to demonstrate, the fact that the people of Israel is the Creators children may signify something beyond (although including) the fact that He formed them as a nation. What does mean here? Lessing tells us that,
This verb takes only Yahweh as its subject The verb is employed to convey both the sense of originating (e.g. Gen. 1:1) and continuing (e.g. Ps 51:12 [51:10]) creation. Contexts in which occurs never mention materials to start with, hence the verb denotes creation ex nihilo: Yahweh, and he alone, can and does creates out of nothing. Isaiah employs to denote Yahwehs creation of the universe (40:26, 28) and of Israel (43:1).40

37 38

Ibid. Ibid. 39 Ibid., 118. 40 Lessing, Isaiah 40-55, 163.

9 Considering its use in Isaiah,41 one must inevitably be led to think that even here in chapter 43 Yahweh is referring to the moment of their creation as creatures as opposed to nation. The argument of the section itself, as mentioned in the paragraphs above, helps us to understand how important it was for the exiles to know that their God did not only remember them, but He could actually do something to save them, for, as Westermann reminds us, He is the Lord of the elements and the Lord of history. Knowing that the Father is the Creator not only reminds them of their covenantal relationship with Him, but it gave them confidence that He could accomplish His purposes despite the odds. By employing language similar to that of the Genesis account of creation Isaiah wants them to know that they were created and shaped by the same God who created and shaped the universe.42 The point is that,
Although the emphasis here is not on the doctrine of creation, there can be no question that that doctrine is in the background.43 The argument that Israel is a particular creation of God could have force only if the hearers understood the allusion to creation. Just as he created the heavens and shaped the earth, so he has created Israel; and do you think he will forget us?44

A few verses later (43:6b-7), when still talking about the Creators deliverance for his people, it is said: bring my sons from afar and my daughters 45 from the end of the earth, all who are called by my name, whom I created ( )for my glory;46 I formed ( )them,47 yea, I made ( )them. Israels condition as creatures from Yahwehs point of view means more than just something that exists, like an object to which one cannot relate in a personal way.
41

It appears 21 times; only one (4:5) outside of chapters 40-66. In all instances a natural reading God creating out of nothing is possible; except if one takes the creation of Israel as referring to their becoming a nation. 42 Oswalt, John. The Book of Isaiah: chapters 40-66. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998, 137. 43 Ibid. 44 Ibid. 45 According to Lessing (Isaiah 40-55, 311), This is the only place in the OT where Yahweh calls Israelite women and girls my daughters. 46 I am following the MT text, which has the atnach at this point. 47 In Hebrew these verbs have the third masculine singular suffix, for they have as referent in the verse. refers to sons and daughters in verse 6.

10 They are sons and daughters who have His name and were created for His glory. Gods act of creating Israel produces a special relationship between Creator and creature48 to which Isaiah refers several times using the metaphor of family. This relational dimension is also expressed in the selection of the 3 creational verbs employed in verse 7: They form a climax, for signifies to produce as a new thing; , to shape what has been produced; and , to make it perfect or complete, hence creavi, formavi, perfeci.49 Without getting into discussions regarding the semantics of each verb, the connection between Gods creative work and His relationship with those whom He created is evident. Again, as in the case of verse 1, Yahweh is presented as the Creator, Shaper and now Maker of His sons and daughters. Goldingay and Payne tell us that Exodus Rabbah 46.6 takes it to imply that only those who live as called in Yhwhs name and for Yhwhs honour count as having been created, shaped, and made by Yhwh. 50 We know that for Isaiah (and the Scriptures in general) that is not the case, for Yahweh created all mankind (45:12; see also 54:16). However, not all mankind is the object of the verbs here, but only His sons and daughters. Why is it important for Yahweh to say that He created, formed and made His sons and daughters? Oswalt understands that these verbs tell us something about the reason why the sons and daughters of Yahweh were qualified for the restoration foreseen. He argues that,
The qualifying factor is their particular relation to God. They are called by his name, that is, they belong to him, they are part of his family. But more than that, they were brought into existence createdshapedyes,made for one purpose: the glory of God. Because of these factors the people of God cannot be left in bondage.51

48 49

Oswalt, Isaiah 40-66, 137. Delitzsch, Isaiah, 192. 50 Goldingay and Payne, Isaiah 40-55, 279. 51 Oswalt, Isaiah 40-66, 152.

11 The question now is, when were they created, shaped and made for the glory of Yahweh was it at creation or through their covenant relationship with God? Picking only one possibility leads to theological shortcomings. If on the one hand one says that it was at creation, then one needs to explain why everybody is not called sons and daughters of God, but only JacobIsrael. If, on the other hand, one says it was through the covenant, then one needs to explain why the use of creational verbs to talk about it. In order to try to respond the question posited above, it is helpful to see the following parallelism in verses 1 and 7: A 1a he who created you, O Jacob, he who formed you, O Israel B 1b I have redeemed you; I have called you by name, you are mine B 7a everyone who is called by my name A 7b whom I created for my glory, whom I formed and made Both clauses at the top and at the bottom have straight creational terminology. The clauses in the center have covenantal terminology, since to call by name denotes choosing, singling out an individual.52 When are people created, formed and made for Yahwehs glory then? Well, God originally created the worldto bring glory for himself.53 Before any formal covenant even existed, creation reflected Gods glory and gave glory to God. At that time it was possible to call someone son of God just because of the fact that God created him or her. Adam, whom God ( Gen. 1:26), ( Gen. 1:27) and ( Gen. 2:7), was son of God (Luke 3:38) on the grounds of creation; that is the natural way before sin. All creation was supposed to be in perfect harmony with the Creator (as 1:2-3 shows) and thus bring glory for Him. However, we know, and Isaiah knew, from Genesis how the story goes. Humankind

52 53

Paul, Shalom. Isaiah 40-66 Translation and Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2012, 205. Smith, Gary. New American Commentary: Isaiah 40-66. Vol. 15b. Nashville: B&H, 2009, 196. Goldingay and Payne say that Creation for my honour sounds a plausible idea but it does not appear elsewhere in the OT (cf. Goldingay and Payne, Isaiah 40-55, 279).

12 disobeyed and was thrown out of the garden, breaking their relationship with the Father, becoming children of disobedience (cf. Eph. 2:2). The prophet Isaiah, being a very good theologian, knew that Yahweh had a plan to restore creation by creating new things (65:17-18), and so he never lost that perspective. He knows that while creation is not restored the people does not act like children of God (30:1-11), and thus the only way for them to experience Yahwehs goodness as a Father is by the promises under the covenant. But even as he recognizes the importance of their covenant relationship with God in the present, he looks forward to the day when Yahweh will make a covenant forever with them (55:3), and even those who do not belong to the people of Israel will enjoy a very personal relationship with God (56:4-8). What then is the answer to the question raised above? From the perspective of these verses: both. God created in the beginning for His glory, but now His people can only recognize that through the self-revealing covenant which God made with them. The prophet is not interested in separating systematically the different aspects of the revelation of Yahweh. 54 The point is that creation, election, and redemption come about through Yahwehs action. 55 The people should not fear because God is the One who redeemed, called and created them.

Conclusion
There are still other important texts which also teach us about the prophets theology concerning the Creator as a Father to His people that cannot be analyzed in this brief paper. However, what we were able to present gives us a good idea of what the prophet means when he combines covenant and creation frameworks to say that Israel is son of the Creator,

54 55

For instance, the natural knowledge of him is law, but i n his calling us we know his grace. Lessing, Isaiah 40-55, 163.

13 who loves and saves them. As we have briefly seen, Isaiahs creation theology should not be demoted a priori to the role of subordinate to the account of salvation56 or to the covenant, for example, nor should it be separated from those doctrines.57 In fact, creation and salvation are so closely connected that in Isaiah the creation of the cosmos was the beginning of Yahwehs work for the sake of his people, and the creations continuance and ultimate restoration is an integral part of his plan for their redemption. 58 Isaiah and the people were comforted by the fact that their God was the Creator, for through their creation faith they could know that their God was also transcendence over creation, and this provided the foundation for additional claims in Isaiah.59 As we study Isaiahs creation theology in texts related to Gods fatherhood, we gain a new appreciation for nature and mission. For nature because we see that our Father has not and will not abandon the things which He created, with the result that everything in the world should be to us a clear reminder of the Creator.60 For mission because we come to the realization that we are not the only people that He created. Other peoples, who are also works of His hands, can and will experience what a great Father Yahweh is (19:25).

56

This was Gerhard von Rads early claim (cf. Fergusson, David A. S. The Cosmos and the Creator: An Introduction to the Theology of Creation. London: SPCK, 1998, 3). 57 Lessing, Isaiah 40-55, 65. 58 Ibid., 63. 59 Ibid., 183. Lessing writes this about chapters 40-55. 60 Elliott, Mark W., ed. Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture Old Testament: Isaiah 40-66. Vol. XI. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2007, 8.

14 Bibliography

Byrne, Brendan. Sons of God. Anchor Bible Dictionary. Vol. 6. New York: Doubleday, 1992. 156-159. Clifford, Richard J. 1985. "The Hebrew scriptures and the theology of creation." Theological Studies 46, no. 3: 507-523. Delitzsch, F. Isaiah two volumes in one. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976. Elliott, Mark W., ed. Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture Old Testament: Isaiah 4066. Vol. XI. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2007. Fergusson, David A. S. The Cosmos and the Creator: An Introduction to the Theology of Creation. London: SPCK, 1998. Fossum, Jarl. Son of God. Anchor Bible Dictionary. Vol. 6. New York: Doubleday, 1992. 128137. Goldingay, John and Payne, David. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Isaiah 40-55. Vol. I. London: T&T Clark, 2006. ________. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Isaiah 40-55. Vol. II. London: T&T Clark, 2006. Harner, Philip B. 1967. "Creation faith in Deutero-Isaiah." Vetus Testamentum 17, no. 3: 298306. Houston, James M. I Believe in the Creator. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980. Lessing, Reed. Isaiah 40-55. St. Louis: Concordia, 2011. ________. 2010. "Yahweh versus Marduk: creation theology in Isaiah 40-55." Concordia Journal 36, no. 3: 234-244. McKinion, Steven A., ed. Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture Old Testament: Isaiah 1-39. Vol. X. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2004. Ollenburger, Ben C. 1987. "Isaiah's creation theology." Ex Auditu 3, 54-71. Oswalt, John. The Book of Isaiah: chapters 1-39. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986. ________. The Book of Isaiah: chapters 40-66. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998. ________. Key Themes in the Book of Isaiah: Their Relevance for Christian Theology. In The Newell Lectureships, 13-90. Vol. III. Anderson: Warner, 1996.

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